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 Volcanic Islands and Hot Spots 269

P A R T VI EXERCISE 30A. Movement of the Volcanoes in the

Hawaiian Ridge over the Hawaiian Hot Spot 270
EXERCISE 30B. Islands in French Polynesia of the South
Pacific Ocean 272
PPlate
l t Tectonics
T and Related
Geologic Phenomena 249 Appendix A 275
Introduction 249 Appendix B 277
The Major Components of the Earth 250 Glossary 281
EXERCISE 27A. Plate Boundaries 257 Credits 289
EXERCISE 27B. The Nazca Plate 259 Index 291
Seafloor Spreading in the South Atlantic
and Eastern Pacific Oceans 262
Introduction 262
The Earth’s Magnetic Field 262
EXERCISE 28. Spreading Rates on the East Pacific
Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge 265
EXERCISE 29. Restoration of the South Atlantic Coastline
50 Million Years Before the Present 268

C O N T E N T S vii
 NOTES TO USERS OF THIS MANUAL
In previous editions this section has been titled “Materi-
als Needed by Students Using This Manual.” Reviewers of
the manual have suggested that we use this page to offer
some advice and help as you begin your geology laboratory
experience.
In the course of the laboratory exercises, you will be
using a number of items that require some care. They are not
“dangerous,” but you should handle them with some caution
until you are comfortable with their use. Some of the labora-
tory experiments included in this text may be hazardous if
materials are handled improperly or if procedures are con-
ducted incorrectly. Safety precautions are necessary when
you are working with chemicals, glass test tubes, hot water
baths, sharp instruments, and the like, or for any procedures
that generally require caution. Your school may have set reg-
ulations regarding safety procedures that your instructor will
explain to you. Should you have any problems with materials
or procedures, please ask your instructor for help.
In the study of minerals, your laboratory instructor will
provide you with a small bottle of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Although this is a very weak acid, you should take care to
keep it away from your eyes and from making contact with
your clothes. In the event that you do spill, wash the af-
fected area in water immediately and advise your instructor
of the problem.
You also will be provided with a glass plate for hardness
testing and a piece of unglazed porcelain to use as a streak
plate. When using the glass plate and the porcelain streak
plate, hold them flat on the table top, not in your hand.
Following is a list of materials that will be useful for
completing the exercises in this manual. For example, the
hand lens should be available for the identification of the
minerals in rocks. Other materials will be required to com-
plete the exercises dealing with maps or photos. Since the
authors do not know which of the exercises you will be as-
signed, we urge you to ask your instructor about the exact
materials that you will need during the semester.
1. 10x hand lens
2. Scale (“ruler”) in metric and English units
3. Colored pencils (red, blue, and assorted other colors)
4. Felt-tip pens (1∕8" 3 ¼" tip, three assorted colors).
5. Several medium to medium-soft pencils (2H or No. 2)
6. Small magnifying glass (optional) for map reading
7. 8 ½" 3 11" tracing paper
8. Eraser (art gum or equivalent)
9. Inexpensive pencil sharpener
10. Inexpensive compass, for drawing circles
11. Dividers (optional), for measuring distances on maps
Finally, a word about units of measure. While the
United States has “officially” adopted the metric system,
the truth is that we continue to use both metric and English
(US) units of measure in this country. Therefore, we have
made a conscious decision to use both in this manual in
the hope that you will become more comfortable with the
conversion of feet and miles into meters and kilometers and
the reverse. Most of the maps used in the United States are
in English units. On the inside front cover you will find a
conversion table for reference as you make the conversions
required in the various exercises.
ix
 PREFACE

T
he geologic sciences continue to undergo remarkable
changes. Those changes that have endured over time
have been incorporated into each edition of this man-
ual since the first edition was published in 1951. Although
the subject matter has changed and expanded in scope, the
number of laboratory sessions in a given academic quarter
or semester has not increased. Because the time available in
a quarter or semester cannot be expanded without disrupt-
ing the class schedule for the entire college or university,
the problem of too much material for too little time poses a
dilemma for authors, instructors, and students.
Approach
On the assumption that the subject matter to be covered in
any course is the prerogative of the instructor and not the au-
thors, we have written a manual that contains more material
than can be covered in a single laboratory course, thereby
leaving the selection of individual exercises to the instructor.
While we believe the overall scope of this manual is in keep-
ing with the general subject material covered in a beginning
laboratory course, we think the instructors should determine
the specific exercises that are in keeping with their own ideas
of how to organize and present subject material.
We are aware that some instructors will wish to introduce
plate tectonics early in the course. Part VI, Plate Tectonics
and Related Geologic Phenomena, is written so that it stands
alone and can be used at any time. At The University of Texas
at Dallas the physical geology lecture and laboratory courses
are taught by two professors, one who opens the course with
plate tectonics, the other who closes with it. In Parts IV and
V the majority of the exercises also are self-contained so that
instructors may use them in the order they prefer.
In addition to the variety of laboratory exercises offered,
we also provide you with background material for each exer-
cise. By allowing you to review the important concepts and
geologic terms you will encounter in the laboratory, we hope
to enhance your chance for a successful completion of the
exercises. According to reviewers and users of past editions,
the supplemental material provided is particularly useful in
those instances when you do not routinely bring your text-
books to class or when you are not concurrently enrolled in
the lecture class. To supplement this background material,
we include a Glossary (pp. 281–288) as an integral part of
the manual.
The sixteenth edition follows the same overall organiza-
tion of past editions. You will note that we provide answer
sheets for all of the exercises. At the request of many users,
we have provided tearout worksheets for mineral and rock
identification.
New to This Edition
This edition of Zumberge’s Laboratory Manual for Physi-
cal Geology reflects the continued effort by the authors and
publisher to improve the quality of the figures and tables.
Consistent colors and symbols for the various rock types
are used, the sharpness and detail of the photos have been
increased, and efforts have been made to make this edition
more user-friendly.
This manual has also been updated in other ways,
including:
Part I:
• Revision of exercise format, revision of some tables,
deletion of others for clarity
• Addition of illustration
Part II:
• Considerable rewrite of text and addition of text
materials
• Refinement of line drawings
• Additional materials in section on correlation and fossils
• Complete rewrite of Exercise 7 dealing with radiometric
dating and geologic ages
• Updated exercises—Exercise 7 now in two parts.
7a and 7b.
Part III:
• Minor changes to both text and illustrations for clarity
and consistency
• Updated exercises
Part IV:
• New and revised figures
• Updated information and photo of South Cascade
Glacier
• Updated information on Lake Michigan water levels

xi
 Part V:
• Revision of illustrations and text for clarity and consistency
• Addition of text dealing with earthquake sizes including
a new figure on the comparison of Richter and Mercalli
scales
Part VI:
• Revision of illustrations and text for clarity and
consistency
• New materials on recent earthquake in Japan
• Revised figure on earthquake magnitude and energy
(box 6.1, fig. 3)
• Updated exercises
The cover of this edition is a photo of a most interesting star
dune in the Empty Quarter, Saudi Arabia. A description of
star dune is provided on the outside back cover.
Website
www.mhhe.com/zumberge16e
This text-specific site gives you the opportunity to further ex-
plore topics presented in the book using the Internet. Students
will find flashcards, animations, additional photos, and all of the
weblinks listed in the lab manual. Included in the password-
protected Instructor’s Edition is an Instructor’s Manual and a
list of slides that accompany the sixteenth edition.
Personalize Your Lab
Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With
McGraw-Hill Create, www.mcgrawhillcreate.com, you can
easily rearrange chapters, combine material from other content
sources, and quickly upload content you have written like your
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complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via email in
about one hour. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today and
register. Experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you
to teach your students your way.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge with special thanks the contributions of the
graduate teaching assistants who have assisted during the re-
visions of this manual. The advice and counsel of our faculty
and staff colleagues at The University of Texas at Dallas are
also greatly appreciated.
To those who reviewed this and past editions, we express
our thanks and appreciation for their critical comments and
suggestions for improvement. These include:
John R. Anderson, Georgia Perimeter College
Anne Argast, Indiana University–Purdue University
Fort Wayne
xii P R E F A C E
Jamal M. Assad, California State University, Bakersfield
Abbed Babaei, Cleveland State
Lynne Beatty, Johnson County Community College
Polly A. Bouker, Georgia Perimeter College
Phyllis Camilleri, Austin Peay State University
Professor Roseann J. Carlson, Tidewater Community College
Beth A. Christensen, Georgia State University
James N. Connelly, University of Texas—Austin
John Dassinger, Chandler-Gilbert Community College
Linda Davis, Northern Illinois University
Rene A. De Hon, University of Louisiana at Monroe
Jack Deibert, Austin Peay State University
Janice J. Dependahl, Santa Barbara City College
Chris Dewey, Mississippi State University
Paul K. Doss, University of Southern Indiana
David Gaylord, Washington State University
Cathy A. Grace, University of Mississippi
Nathan L. Green, University of Alabama
Jeff Grover, Cuesta College
Daniel Habib, Queens College
Professor Vicki Harder, Texas A & M University
Bruce Harrison, New Mexico Tech
Timothy H. Heaton, University of South Dakota
Dr. Thomas E. Hendrix, Grand Valley State University
Stephen C. Hildreth, Jr., University of South Dakota
Megan H. Jones, North Hennepin Community College
Robert B. Jorstad, Eastern Illinois University
Steve Kadel, Glendale Community College
Dr. Phillip R. Kemmerly, Austin Peay State University
Professor Ray Kenny, Arizona State University
Dr. Rudi H. Kiefer, University of North Carolina,
Wilmington
David T. King, Jr., Auburn University
Gary L. Kinsland, University of Louisiana—Lafayette
M. John Kocurko, Midwestern State University
Mark Kulp, University of New Orleans
Ming-Kuo Lee, Auburn University
Kari Lavalli, Boston University
Neil Lundberg, Florida State University—Emeritus
Jerry F. Magloughlin, Colorado State University
Nasser M. Mansoor, State University of New Jersey, Rutgers
Glenn M. Mason, Indiana State University
Ryan Mathur, Juniata College
Rebecca McKean, St. Norbert College
Joseph Meert, University of Florida
Linda D. Morse, College of William and Mary
John E. Mylroie, Mississippi State University
Jacob A. Napieralski, University of Michigan—Dearborn
Terry Naumann, University of Alaska, Anchorage
Max Neams, Olivet Nazarene University
Professor Anne Pasch, University of Alaska, Anchorage
Robert W. Pinker, Johnson County Community College
Dr. Mary Jo Richardson, Texas A & M University
Jennifer Smith, Washington University
David Steffy, Jacksonville State University
Professor Howard Stowell, University of Alabama
Lorraine W. Wolf, Auburn University
Aaron Yoshinobu, Texas Tech University
 We especially acknowledge the contributions of Judy
Taylor, John Craddock, and John Holbrook. Judy’s assis-
tance with a number of the figures was greatly appreciated.
John Craddock has been a useful critic and contributor for
several years. John Holbrook, professor of geology at Texas
Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas, contributed to the
revision of Part II and provided valuable input to editing
throughout the manual.
As authors we accept the full responsibility for any inad-
vertent errors that have crept into these pages, and we wel-
come comments from users if they discover such errors. We
also hope that users will make suggestions to us that will assist
in the continued improvement of this manual in the future.
Finally, we extend our gratitude to the professional men
and women of McGraw-Hill for their design of the format
and expert help in transforming our manuscript into a final
product.
About the Authors
Robert H. Rutford
Bob Rutford, Excellence in Education Foundation Chaired
Professor in Geosciences Emeritus and President Emeritus
of The University of Texas at Dallas, was born and raised in
Minnesota, where he attended the University of Minnesota,
graduating with a BA in geography in 1954.
Bob was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the US
Army and spent a year in Greenland. He returned to the
University of Minnesota as a graduate student in geography,
completing his MA in 1963.
In 1959 he made the first of numerous trips to Antarc-
tica. He changed his major to geology and received his PhD
in 1969. His dissertation dealt with the glacial geology and
geomorphology of the Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica.
Bob’s academic career began at the University of South
Dakota, then at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln and fol-
lowing a period at NSF in Washington, DC as Director of
the Office of Polar programs, he returned to Nebraska to
serve as vice chancellor. In 1982 he became the president
of The University of Texas at Dallas, a position he held for
12 years. In 1994 he returned to the faculty, where he was
an active teacher with classes in physical geology, global en-
vironments, glaciers, and deserts until 2007. He served as
the US Delegate to the International Scientific Committee
on Antarctic Research and served as president of that orga-
nization from 1998 to 2002. For several years Bob lectured
on cruise ships in Antarctic water. After 2002, in recogni-
tion of his contributions to science and science policy in
the Antarctic he has been honored by having two features
named for him, Rutford Ice Stream and Mount Rutford, both
in the vicinity of the Ellsworth Mountains, West Antarctica.
Bob became a co-author of this manual in 1979, and as
the senior author since 1992, has attempted to continue Jim
Zumberge’s record of excellence.
James L. Carter
James Carter, who became a co-author of this manual in 1995,
spent his early years in southern Texas, where he developed his
love for the outdoors. He received his BS in geological/mining
engineering at Texas Western (now University of Texas at El
Paso) in 1961 and a PhD from Rice University in geochemistry
in 1965. His dissertation dealt with the chemistry and minera-
lology of the earth’s upper mantle as revealed by mantle xeno-
liths in basalts. His research and teaching interests are broad
and include lunar studies and extraterrestrial resources, ore de-
posit genesis, geochemical explorations, environmental issues,
and Late Cretaceous dinosaurs. He has studied ore deposits in
Central America, China, India, Mexico, Chile and Peru, as well
as in the United States. James was a principal investigator on the
characterization of lunar regolith samples returned to earth from
the six Apollo missions and the Russian LUNA 20 unmanned mis-
sion. He also made the lunar regolith simulants JSC-1, JSC-1A,
JSC-1A-C, JSC-1A-F, JSC-1A-VF, and JSC-1A-VFR.
Carter taught a wide range of graduate and undergraduate
courses at The University of Texas at Dallas from its incep-
tion in 1969 until 2007 when he retired. In 2003 he was the
recipient of the AAPG (American Association of Petroleum
Geologists) Distinguished Educator Award in the Southwest
Section. He is a member of the American Association of
Professional Geologists.
P R E F A C E xiii

Earth Materials
Int ro duc t ion
The materials that make up the crust of the earth fall into two
broad categories: minerals and rocks. Minerals are elements or
chemical compounds formed by a number of natural processes.
Rocks are aggregates of minerals or organic substances that
occur in many different architectural forms over the face of
the earth, and they contain a significant part of the geologic
history of the region where they occur. To identify them and
understand their history, you must be able to identify the
minerals that make up the rocks.
The aim of Part I is to introduce students of geology to
the identification of minerals and rocks through the use of
simplified identification methods and classification schemes.
P A R T I
Students will be provided with samples of minerals and rocks
in the laboratory. These samples are called hand specimens.
Ordinarily their study does not require a microscope or any
means of magnification because the naked or corrected eye
is sufficient to perceive their diagnostic characteristics.
A feature of a mineral or rock that can be distinguished with-
out the aid of magnification is said to be macroscopic (also
megascopic) in size. Conversely, a feature that can be identi-
fied only with the aid of magnifiers is said to be microscopic
in size. The exercises that deal with the identification and
classification of minerals and rocks in Part I are based only on
macroscopic features.
 Minerals

common features as luster, color, hardness, cleavage, streak,

Definition and specific gravity. Special properties are those that are
A mineral is a naturally occurring, crystalline, inorganic, found in only a few minerals. These include magnetism,
homogeneous solid with a chemical composition that is either double refraction, taste, odor, feel, and chemical reaction
fixed or varies within certain fixed limits, and a characteristic with acid. In your work in the laboratory, use the mineral
internal structure manifested in its exterior form and physical hand specimens sparingly when applying tests for the vari-
properties. ous properties.
Minerals are divided into classes based on their chemi-
cal composition (see table 1.4). The classes are based on the General Physical Properties
presence (or lack) of similar anions such as oxygen in the
Oxide class. The Silicate class is the most important as it con- Luster
tains many of the rock forming. This class is often subdivided The appearance of a fresh mineral surface in reflected light
into mineral groups based on similar structure and chemistry. is its luster. A mineral that looks like a metal is said to have a
metallic luster. Minerals that are nonmetallic are described
by one of the following adjectives: vitreous (having the luster
Mineral Identification of glass), resinous (having the luster of resin), pearly, silky,
dull or earthy (not bright or shiny).
Common minerals are identified or recognized by testing
them for general or specific physical properties. For exam- Color
ple, the common substance table salt is actually a mineral
The color of a mineral is determined by examining a fresh
composed of sodium chloride (NaCl) and bears the min-
surface in reflected light. Color and luster are not the same.
eral name halite. The salty taste of halite is distinctive and
Some minerals are clear and transparent; others are opaque.
is sufficient for identifying and distinguishing it from other
The variations in color of a mineral are called varieties of
substances such as sugar (not a mineral) that have a similar
the mineral (fig. 1.1).
appearance. Chemical composition alone is not sufficient to
identify minerals. The mineral graphite and the mineral dia-
mond are both composed of a single element, carbon (C), but
their physical properties are very different.
The taste test applied to halite is restrictive because it is
the only mineral with the taste of common table salt. Other
minerals may have a specific taste different from that of
halite. Other common minerals can be tested by visual inspec-
tion for the physical properties of crystal form, cleavage,
or color, or by using simple tools such as a knife blade or
glass plate to test for the physical property of hardness.
The first step in learning how to identify common
minerals is to become acquainted with the various physical
properties that individually or collectively characterize a
mineral specimen.

Properties of Minerals Figure 1.1

The specimens in this photograph are all varieties of quartz. The
The physical properties of minerals are those that can be difference in colors is due to various impurities. Clockwise from
observed generally in all minerals. They include such left: smoky quartz, rock crystal, rose quartz, citrine, amethyst.

2 P A R T I
 Color is not a diagnostic property for the majority of non- 8,000
metallic minerals. Some nonmetallic minerals, however, have
a constant color, which can be used as a diagnostic property.
Examples are malachite, which is green, and azurite, which is 7,000 Diamond
blue. Most minerals with a metallic luster vary little in color,
and color of a freshly broken surface is a diagnostic property.

Hardness 6,000

The hardness of a mineral is its resistance to abrasion

(scratching). Hardness can be determined either by trying to
scratch a mineral of unknown hardness with a substance of 5,000

Vickers (kg/mm2)
known hardness or by using the unknown mineral to scratch
a substance of known hardness. Hardness is determined on
a relative scale (linear scale) called the Mohs scale of hard- 4,000
ness, which consists of 10 common minerals arranged in or-
der of their increasing hardness (table 1.1). In the laboratory
convenient materials other than these 10 specific minerals
may be used for determining hardness. 3,000 Steel file
Streak plate
In contrast to the Mohs scale, the Vickers scale is an ex-
ample of a nonlinear scale that points out the great difference Glass plate
in hardness between the various minerals (fig. 1.2). Nonlin- Corundum
2,000
ear hardness scales are used to test the hardness of materials, Copper coin
for example, by measuring the volume of an indentation left
Fingernail Knife blade Topaz
in the surface of the material under a known pressure.
1,000 Ap
In this manual, a mineral that scratches glass will be con- at Quartz
G Fl ite
sidered “hard,” and one that does not scratch glass will be yp Ca uo
Ta su lci rit Feldspar
considered “soft.” In making hardness tests on a glass plate, l m t e e
c
do not hold the glass in your hand; keep it firmly on the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
table top. If you think that you made a scratch on the glass,
Mohs
try to rub the scratch off. What appears to be a scratch may
only be some of the mineral that has rubbed off on the glass. Figure 1.2
Mohs hardness scale plotted against Vickers indentation values
(kg/mm2).
Mineral Hardness According
Table 1.1 to the Mohs Scale (A) and
Some Common Materials (B) Cleavage
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along definite
Hardness A B planes of weakness that exist in the internal (atomic) struc-
ture of the mineral. Cleavage planes are related to the crystal
1 Talc system of the mineral and are always parallel to crystal faces
2 Gypsum or possible crystal faces. Cleavage may be conspicuous and
2.5 Fingernail is a characteristic physical property that is useful in mineral
3 Calcite identification. It is almost impossible to break some miner-
als in such a way that cleavage planes do not develop. An
3.5 Copper coin
example is calcite, with its rhombohedral cleavage.
4 Fluorite Perfect cleavage describes cleavage planes with surfaces
5 Apatite that are very smooth and flat and that reflect light much like
5–5.5 Knife blade a mirror. Other descriptors such as good, fair, and poor are
5.5 Glass plate used to describe cleavage surfaces that are less well defined.
6 Feldspar Some minerals exhibit excellent crystal faces but have no
cleavage; quartz is such a mineral.
6.5 Steel file, Streak plate
The cleavage surfaces of some minerals such as calcite,
7 Quartz muscovite (fig. 1.3), halite, and fluorite are so well devel-
8 Topaz oped that they are easily detected. In others, the cleavage
9 Corundum surfaces may be so discontinuous as to escape detection
10 Diamond by casual inspection. Before deciding that a mineral has
no cleavage, turn it around in a strong light and observe

Earth Materials 3
 Number of Remarks Examples
Cleavage
Planes

1 Usually called basal

cleavage.
Examples: muscovite
and biotite.

2 Two at 90 degrees.
Examples: feldspar and
pyroxene (augite) have
cleavage surfaces that
intersect at close to 90
degrees.

2 Two not at 90
degrees.
Figure 1.3 Example: amphibole
Muscovite is a mineral with one direction of cleavage (hornblende) has
(basal cleavage). cleavage surfaces that
intersect at angles of
about 60 and 120
degrees.
whether there is some position in which the surface of the
specimen reflects the light as if it were the reflecting surface 3 Three at 90 degrees.
of a dull mirror. If so, the mineral has cleavage, but the cleav- Minerals with three
age surface consists of several discontinuous parallel planes planes of cleavage
that intersect at 90
minutely separated, and rather than perfect cleavage, it has degrees are said to
good, fair, or poor cleavage. As will be noted in the discus- have cubic cleavage.
sion of crystal form, it is important to differentiate between Examples: halite and
galena.
cleavage surfaces and crystal faces (the actual breaking of a
mineral crystal may be useful in making this differentiation). 3 Three not at 90
In assigning the number of cleavage planes to a specimen, degrees. A mineral
do not make the mistake of calling two parallel planes bound- that breaks into a six-
sided prism, with
ing the opposite sides of a specimen two cleavage planes. In each side having the
this case the specimen has two cleavage surfaces but only one shape of a
plane of cleavage, that is, one direction of cleavage (fig. 1.3 parallellogram, has
rhombic cleavage.
and fig. 1.4 example 1). Halite has cubic cleavage, thus six Example: calcite.
sides, but only three planes of cleavage because the six sides
are made up of three parallel pairs of cleavage surfaces.
4 Four sets of cleavage
The angle at which two cleavage planes intersect is diag- surfaces in the form
nostic. This angle can be determined by inspection. In most of an octahedron
cases, you will need to know whether the angle is 90 degrees, produce octahedral
cleavage.
almost 90 degrees, or more or less than 90 degrees. The cleav- Example: fluorite.
age relationships that you will encounter during the course of
your study of common minerals are tabulated for convenience 6 Complex geometric
in figure 1.4. forms.
Example: sphalerite.
Parting
Minerals may exhibit the characteristic of parting, sometimes
called false cleavage. Parting occurs along planes of weakness
in the mineral, but usually the planes are more widely sepa-
rated and often are due to twinning deformation or inclusions. Figure 1.4
Parting is not present in all specimens of a given mineral. Descriptive notes on cleavage planes.

Fracture
Some minerals have no cleavage but show fracture that
forms a surface with no relationship to the internal struc-
ture of the mineral; that is, the break occurs in a direction
other than a cleavage plane. The broken surface may exhibit
conchoidal fracture, where the fractured surface is curved
and smooth with fine, concentric ridges (see fig. 1.9). The
mineral asbestos (crysotile) is characterized by fibrous
fracture. Other descriptive terms often used to describe frac-
ture types include hackly, uneven (rough), even (smooth),
and earthy (dull but smooth fracture surfaces common in
soft mineral aggregates such as kaolinite).

4 P A R T I
Streak
The color of a mineral’s powder is its streak. The streak
is determined by rubbing the hand specimen on a piece of
unglazed porcelain (streak plate). Some minerals have a
streak that is the same as the color of the hand specimen;
others have a streak that differs in color from the hand
specimen. The streak of minerals with a metallic luster is
especially diagnostic.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (G) of a mineral is a number that repre-
sents the ratio of the mineral’s weight to the weight of an equal
volume of water. In contrast to density, defined as mass per
unit volume, specific gravity is a dimensionless number. The
higher the specific gravity, the greater the density of a mineral.
For purposes of estimating the specific gravity of the
minerals in the laboratory, it is sufficient to utilize a simple
heft test; that is, to compare the relative specific gravity of
one sample by lifting the sample in question in one hand
while lifting a sample of a known specific gravity of similar
size in the other hand. For example, compare a sample of
graphite (G 5 2.2) in one hand with a sample of galena
(G 5 7.6) in the other hand. Take care to compare samples of
similar size. This allows you to determine the relative specific
gravity of minerals. When hefted, minerals such as graphite
(G 5 2.2) and gypsum (G 5 2.3) are relatively “light,” quartz
(G 5 2.65) and calcite (G 5 2.7) are “average,” whereas
corundum (G 5 4.0), magnetite (G 5 5.2), and galena
(G 5 7.6) are “heavy.”
Diaphaneity
The ability of a mineral to transmit light is its diaphaneity. If a
mineral transmits light freely so that an object viewed through
it is clearly outlined, the mineral is said to be transparent. If
light passes through the mineral but the object viewed is not
clearly outlined, the mineral is translucent. Some minerals
are transparent in thin slices and translucent in thicker sections.
If a mineral allows no light to pass through it, even in the
thinnest slices, it is said to be opaque.
Tenacity
Tenacity is an index of a mineral’s resistance to being bro-
ken or bent. It is not to be confused with hardness. Some of
the terms used to describe tenacity are:
Brittle—The mineral shatters when struck with a hammer
or dropped on a hard surface.
Elastic—The mineral bends without breaking and returns
to the original shape when stress is released.
Flexible—The mineral bends without breaking but does not
return to its original shape when the stress is released.
Crystal Form
A crystal is a solid bounded by surfaces (crystal faces) that
reflect the internal (atomic) structure of the mineral. Crystal
form refers to the assemblage of crystal faces that constitute
the exterior surface of the crystal. Crystal symmetry is the
geometric relationship between the faces.
Symmetry in a crystal is determined by completing a few
geometric operations. For example, a cube has six faces,
each at right angles to the adjacent faces. A planar surface
that divides the cube into portions such that the faces on one
side of the plane are mirror images of the faces on the other
side of the plane is called a plane of symmetry. A cube has
nine such planes of symmetry. In the same way, imagine a
line (axis) connecting the center of one face on a cube with
the center of the face opposite it (see cubic model at the top
left of fig. 1.5). Rotation of the cube about this axis will
show that during a complete rotation a crystal face identical
with the first face observed will appear in the same position
four times. This is a fourfold axis of symmetry. Rotation
of the cube around an axis connecting opposite corners will
show that three times during a complete rotation an identical
face appears, thus a threefold axis of symmetry.
The same mineral always shows the same angular
relations between crystal faces, a relationship known as
the law of constancy of interfacial angles. The symmetric
relationship of crystal faces, related to the constancy of
interfacial angles, is the basis for the recognition of the
six crystal systems by crystallographers, and all crystalline
substances crystallize in one of the six crystal systems
(fig. 1.5). Some common substances, such as glass, are often
described as crystalline, but in reality they are amorphous—
they have solidified with no fixed or regular internal atomic
structure.
The six crystal systems can be recognized by the symme-
try they display. Figure 1.5 summarizes the basic elements
of symmetry for each system and shows some examples of
the crystal habit (the crystal form commonly taken by a
given mineral) of minerals you may see in the laboratory or
a museum.
Perfect crystals usually form under special conditions
in which there is open space for them to grow unrestricted
during crystallization. In nature, they are the exception rather
than the rule. Crystals are more commonly distorted, and
their external form (crystal habit) is not perfectly developed.
Regardless of the external form, the internal arrangement of
the atoms within the crystals is fixed.
Many of the hand specimens you see in the laboratory
will be made up of many minute crystals, so few crystal
faces, or none, can be seen, and the specimen will appear
granular. Other hand specimens may be fragments of larger
crystals, so only one or two imperfect crystal faces can be
recognized. Although perfect crystals are rare, most student
laboratory collections contain some reasonably good crystals
of quartz, calcite, gypsum, fluorite, and pyrite.
A word of caution: Cleavage fragments of minerals such as
halite, calcite, and galena are often mistaken for crystals. This
is because their cleavage fragments have the same geometric
form as the crystal.
Two or more crystals of some minerals may be grown
together in such a way that the individual parts are related
through their internal structures. The external form that
Earth Materials 5
 CRYSTAL SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES*

a3
Three mutually perpendicular
axes, all of the same length
(a 1 = a 2 = a 3). Fourfold axis of
a1 a2 symmetry around a 1, a 2, and Halite (cube) Pyrite
a 3. Fluorite Magnetite Pyrite Fluorite
CUBIC (ISOMETRIC) (octahedron) (twinned)
Galena
c Three mutually perpendicular
axes, two of the same length
(a 1 = a 2) and a third (c) of a
a1 a2 length not equal to the other
two. Fourfold axis of symmetry
around c. Zircon
TETRAGONAL Zircon

c
a3
a2
a1 Three horizontal axes of the
same length (a 1 = a 2 = a 3) and
intersecting at 120 degrees. Apatite Apatite Quartz Corundum
c The fourth axis (c) is
a3 perpendicular to the other
a2 three. Sixfold or threefold
a1 Calcite
axis of symmetry around c.
(flat rhomb)
Calcite
(steep rhomb) Calcite Calcite
HEXAGONAL (scalenohedron) (twinned)

Three mutually perpendicular

axes of different length. (a ≠
c
b ≠ c). Twofold axis of
b
a symmetry around a, b, and c.

ORTHORHOMBIC Topaz Staurolite**

(twinned)

c Two mutually perpendicular

axes (b and c) of any length.
β A third axis (a) at an oblique
a b angle (β) to the plane of the
other two. Twofold axis of Orthoclase
symmetry around b. Orthoclase Gypsum
MONOCLINIC
(carlsbad twin) Gypsum (twinned)
c Three axes at oblique angles
β α (α, β, and γ), all of unequal
a γ b length. No rotational symmetry.

TRICLINIC Plagioclase

Figure 1.5
Characteristics of the six crystal systems and some examples.
Colors have been added to the original and are not accurate. They are shown for illustrative purposes only.
*Most laboratory collections of minerals for individual student use do not include crystals of these minerals. The collection may, however, contain incomplete single crystals,
fragments of single crystals, or aggregates of crystals of one or more minerals. The best examples of these and other crystals may be seen on display in most mineralogical museums.
**Staurolite is actually monoclinic but is also classified as pseudo-orthorhombic. Pseudo-orthorhombic means that staurolite appears to be orthorhombic because the angle β in the
monoclinic system (see left-hand column under monoclinic) is so close to 90 degrees that in hand specimens it is not possible to discern that the angle β for staurolite is actually
89 degrees, 57 minutes.

6 P A R T I
results is manifested in a twinned crystal. Some twins
appear to have grown side by side (plagioclase), some are
reversed or are mirror images (calcite), and others appear to
have penetrated one another (fluorite, orthoclase, staurolite).
Recognition of twinned crystals may be useful in mineral
identification.
Special Properties
Magnetism
The test for magnetism, the permanent magnetic effect of
naturally magnetic rocks, requires the use of a common
magnet or magnetized knife blade. Usually, magnetite is the
only mineral in your collection that will be attracted by a
magnet.
Double Refraction (Birefringence)
If an object appears to be double when viewed through
a transparent mineral, the mineral is said to have double
refraction. Calcite is the best common example (see fig. 1.14).
Taste
The distinctive saline taste of halite is an easy means of
identifying the mineral. Few minerals are soluble enough to
possess this property. (For obvious sanitary reasons, do not
use the taste test on your laboratory hand specimens.)
Odor
Some common minerals have a characteristic odor (smell)
associated with them. Exhaling your breath on a kaolinite
specimen will dampen the surface, causing the mineral to
exude a musty or damp earthy odor. The streak of sphalerite
will give off a rotten egg odor.
Feel
The feel of a mineral is the impression gained by handling or
rubbing it. Terms used to describe feel are common descrip-
tive adjectives such as soapy, greasy, smooth, or rough.
Chemical Reaction
Calcite will effervesce (bubble) when treated with cold
dilute (1N) hydrochloric acid (CaCO3 1 2HCl 4 CaCl2 1
CO2 c 1 H2O). This chemical reaction is one example of
many that occur in nature. NOTE: Your laboratory instructor
will provide the proper dilute acid if you are to use this test.
Take care to keep acid off of your skin and clothing. In the
event of a spill, wash in water quickly and notify your lab
instructor.
Earth Materials 7
 Name
E X E R C I S E 1 Section
Identification of Common Minerals
Your instructor will provide you with a variety of minerals
to be identified and may also discuss with you a meth-
odology to be used in the identification process. In the
event that no such methodology is provided, we suggest
the following as a useful identification scheme. Take time
to examine the minerals and review the various physical
properties described in the previous pages. Select several
samples and examine them for luster, color, hardness, and
streak, and compare their specific gravity (G) using the
heft test.
Study table 1.2, which is divided into three groups:
Group I, Nonmetallic luster, light-colored
Group II, Nonmetallic luster, dark-colored
Group III, Metallic luster
Identification of the minerals listed in table 1.2
follows an indentification scheme based on the sequential
identification of luster, color, hardness, and cleavage.
Some minerals have physical properties that make their
identification relatively easy. For example, graphite is
soft, feels greasy, and marks both your hands and paper.
Galena is “heavy,” shiny, and has perfect cubic cleavage.
Calcite has perfect rhombohedral cleavage, is easily
scratched by a knife, reacts with cold dilute HCl, and in
transparent specimens shows double refraction.
When you feel that you have an understanding of the
various physical properties and the tests that you must
apply to determine these properties, select a specimen at
random from the group of minerals provided to you in the
laboratory. Refer to figures 1.6 through 1.21 as an aid to
identification. Be aware that your laboratory collection
may contain some minerals that are not shown in the fig-
ures. Due to the normal variations within a single mineral
species, some of the specimens may appear different from
the same minerals shown in the figures in this manual.
Remember the warning about color variations dis-
cussed on page 3 and the exhibit of color variations shown
in Figure 1.1.
8 P A R T I
Date
Using the worksheets for minerals provided, record
your observations following the steps outlined below.
1. Carefully examine a single mineral specimen
selected at random from the group of minerals
provided to you in the laboratory. Assign it a number
and record in the Worksheet for Minerals.
2. Determine whether the sample has a metallic or a
nonmetallic luster.
3. Then determine whether it is light- or dark-colored.
(The terms dark and light are subjective. A mineral
that is “dark” to one observer may be “light” to
another. This possibility is anticipated in table 1.2,
where mineral specimens that could fall into either
the “light” or “dark” category are listed in both
groups. The same is true for minerals that may
exhibit either metallic or nonmetallic luster.)
4a. If the mineral falls into either Group I or II, proceed
to test it first for hardness and then for cleavage.
This will place the mineral with a small group of
other minerals in table 1.2. Identification can be
completed by noting other diagnostic general or
specific physical properties.
4b. If the mineral falls into Group III (table 1.2), test it
for hardness, cleavage, and streak and note general
and special properties such as color until the mineral
fits the description of one of those given in table 1.2
under Group III.
5. To assist you in confirming your identification, refer
to the expanded mineral descriptions in table 1.3.
6. Your laboratory instructor will advise you as to the
procedure to use to verify your identification.
7. Refer to table 1.3 to learn about occurrence,
economic value, and uses of each mineral. The
chemical groupings and composition of some of the
common minerals are presented in table 1.4.
 Name

Worksheet for Minerals

Color Cleavage Special Mineral Chemical

Sample # Luster Light/Dark Hardness Angles Streak Properties Name Composition
Section
Date

Earth Materials
9
10
Name

Worksheet for Minerals

Color Cleavage Special Mineral Chemical

P A R T
Sample # Luster Light/Dark Hardness Angles Streak Properties Name Composition

I
Section
Date
Another random document with
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"Slow!" she exclaimed. "When you planned the whole Skylark of
Valeron and nobody knows what else, in five hours?"
"Yes, dear, slow. Remember when we first met our dear departed
friend Eight, back in the original Skylark? You saw him materialize
exact duplicates of each of our bodies, clear down to the molecular
structures of our chemistry, in less than one second, from a cold,
standing start. Compared to that job, the one I have just done is
elementary. It took me over five hours—he could have done it in
nothing flat.
"However, don't let it bother you too much. I'll never be able to equal
their speed, since I'll not live enough millions of years to get the
required practice, but our being material gave us big advantages in
other respects that Mart isn't mentioning because, as usual, he is
primarily concerned with our weaknesses—yes? No?"
"Yes; I will concede that being material does yield advantages which
may perhaps make up for our slower rate of thinking," Crane at last
conceded.
"Hear that? If he admits that much, you know that we're as good as
in, right now," Seaton declared. "Well, while our new brain is finishing
itself up, we might as well go back to the hall and chase the
Chlorans back where they belong—the Brain worked out the
equations for me this morning."

From the ancient records of Valeron, Radnor and the Bardyle had
secured complete observational data of the cataclysm, which had
made the task of finding the present whereabouts of the Chlorans'
original sun a simple task. The calculations and computations
involved in the application of forces of precisely the required
quantities to insure the correct final orbit were complex in the
extreme; but, as Seaton had foretold, they had presented no
insurmountable difficulties to the vast resources of the Brain.
Therefore, everything in readiness, the two Terrestrial scientists
surrounded the inimical planet with a zone of force, so that it would
lose none of its heat during the long journey; and with a stasis of
time, so that its people would not know of anything that was
happening to them. They then erected force-control stations around
it, adjusted with such delicacy and precision that they would direct
the planet into the exact orbit it had formerly occupied around its
parent sun. Then, at the instant of correct velocity and position, the
control stations would go out of existence and the forces would
disappear.
As the immense ball of dazzlingly opaque mirror which now hid the
unwanted world swung away with ever-increasing velocity, the
Bardyle, who had watched the proceedings in incredulous wonder,
heaved a profound sigh of relaxation.
"What a relief—what a relief!" he exclaimed.
"How long will it take?" asked Dorothy curiously.
"Quite a while—something over four hundred years of our time. But
don't let it gnaw on you—they won't know a thing about it. When the
forces let go they'll simply go right on, from exactly where they left
off, without realizing that any time at all has lapsed—in fact, for them,
no time at all shall have lapsed. All of a sudden they will find
themselves circling around a different sun, that's all.
"If their old records are clear enough they may be able to recognize
it as their original sun and they'll probably do a lot of wondering as to
how they got back there. One instant they were in a certain orbit
around this sun here, the next instant they will be in another orbit
around an entirely different sun! They'll know, of course, that we did
it, but they'll have a sweet job figuring out how and what we did—
some of it is really deep stuff. Also, they will be a few hundred years
off in their time, but since nobody in the world will know it, it won't
make any difference."
"How perfectly weird!" Dorothy exclaimed. "Just think of losing a
four-hundred-year chunk right out of the middle of your life and not
even knowing it!"
"I would rather think of the arrest of development," meditated Crane.
"Of the opportunity of comparing the evolution of the planets already
there with that of the returned wanderer."
"Yeah, it would be interesting—'sa shame we won't be alive then,"
Seaton responded, "but in the meantime we've got a lot of work to do
for ourselves. Now that we've got this mess straightened out I think
we had better tell these folks good-by, get into Two, and hop out to
where Dot's Skylark of Valeron is going to materialize."
The farewell to the people of Valeron was brief, but sincere.
"This is in no sense good-by," Crane concluded. "By the aid of these
newly discovered forces of the sixth order there shall soon be
worked out a system of communication by means of which all the
inhabited planets of the Galaxies shall be linked as closely as are
now the cities of any one world."
Skylark Two shot upward and outward, to settle into an orbit well
outside that of Valeron. Seaton then sent his projection back to the
capital city, fitted over his imaged head the controller of the inner
brain, and turned to Crane with a grin.
"That's timing it, old son—she finished herself up less than an hour
ago. Better cluster around and watch this, folks, it's going to be
good."

At Seaton's signal the structure which was to be the nucleus of the

new space traveler lifted effortlessly into the air its millions of tons of
dead weight and soared, as lightly as little Two had done, out into
the airless void. Taking up a position a few hundred miles away from
the Terrestrial cruiser, it shot out a spherical screen of force to clear
the ether of chance bits of débris. Then inside that screen there
came into being a structure of gleaming inoson, so vast in size that
to the startled onlookers it appeared almost of planetary dimensions.
"Good heavens—it's stupendous!" Dorothy exclaimed. "What did you
boys make it so big for—just to show us you could, or what?"
"Hardly! She's just as small as she can be and still do the work. You
see, to find our own Galaxy we will have to project a beam to a
distance greater than any heretofore assigned diameter of the
universe, and to control it really accurately its working base and the
diameter of its hour and declination-circles would each have to be
something like four light-years long. Since a ship of that size is of
course impracticable, Mart and I did some figuring and decided that
with circles one thousand kilometers in diameter we could chart
Galaxies accurately enough to find the one we're looking for—if you
think of it, you'll realize that there are a lot of hundredth-millimeter
marks around the circumference of circles of that size—and that they
would probably be big enough to hold a broadcasting projection
somewhere near a volume of space as large as that occupied by the
Green System. Therefore we built the Skylark of Valeron just large
enough to contain those thousand-kilometer circles."
As Skylark Two approached the looming planetoid the doors of vast
airlocks opened. Fifty of those massive gates swung aside before
her and closed behind her before she swam free in the cool, sweet
air and bright artificial sunlight of the interior. She then floated along
above an immense, grassy park toward two well-remembered and
beloved buildings.
 As the tiny ship approached, the doors of vast airlocks opened.

"Oh, Dick!" Dorothy squealed. "There's our house—and Cranes! It's

funny though to see them side by side. Are they the same inside, too
—and what's that funny little low building between them?"
"They duplicate the originals exactly, except for some items of
equipment which would be useless here. The building between them
is the control room, in which are the master headsets of the Brain
and its lookouts. The Brain itself is what you would think of as
underground—inside the shell of the planetoid."
The small vessel came lightly to a landing and the wanderers
disembarked upon the close-clipped, springy turf of a perfect lawn.
Dorothy flexed her knees in surprise.
"How come we aren't weightless, Dick?" she demanded. "This
gravity isn't—can't be—natural. I'll bet you did that, too!"
"Mart and I together did, sure. We learned a lot from the intellectuals
and a lot more in hyperspace, but we could neither derive the
fundamental equations nor apply what knowledge we already had
until we finished this sixth-order outfit. Now, though, we can give you
all the gravity you want—or as little—whenever and wherever you
want it."
"Oh, marvelous—this is glorious, boys!" Dorothy breathed. "I have
always just simply despised weightlessness. Now, with these houses
and everything, we can have a perfectly wonderful time!"
"Here's the dining room," Seaton said briskly. "And here's the
headset you put on to order dinner or whatever is appropriate to the
culinary department. You will observe that the kitchen of this house is
purely ornamental—never to be used unless you want to."
"Just a minute, Dick," Dorothy's voice was tensely serious. "I have
been really scared ever since you told me about the power of that
Brain, and the more you tell me of it the worse scared I get. Think of
the awful damage a wild, chance thought would do—and the more
an ordinary mortal tries to avoid any thought the surer he is to think
it, you know that. Really, I'm not ready for that yet, dear—I'd much
rather not go near that headset."
"I know, sweetheart," his arm tightened around her. "But you didn't
let me finish. These sets around the house control forces which are
capable of nothing except duties pertaining to the part of the house
in which they are. This dining-room outfit, for instance, is exactly the
same as the Norlaminian one you used so much, except that it is
much simpler.
"Instead of using a lot of keyboards and force-tubes, you simply think
into that helmet what you want for dinner and it appears. Think that
you want the table cleared and it is cleared—dishes and all simply
vanish. Think of anything else you want done around this room and
it's done—that's all there is to it.
"To relieve your mind I'll explain some more. Mart and I both realized
that that Brain could very easily become the most terrible, the most
frightfully destructive thing that the universe has ever seen.
Therefore, with two exceptions, every controller on this planetoid is
of a strictly limited type. Of the two master controls, which are
unlimited and very highly reactive, one responds only to Crane's
thoughts, the other only to mine. As soon as we get some loose time
we are going to build a couple of auxiliaries, with automatic stops
against stray thoughts, to break you girls in on—we know as well as
you do, Red-Top, that you haven't had enough practice yet to take
an unlimited control."
"I'll say I haven't!" she agreed feelingly. "I feel lots better now—I'm
sure I can handle the rest of these things very nicely."
"Sure you can. Well, let's call the Cranes and go into the control
room," Seaton suggested. "The quicker we get started the quicker
we'll get done."

Accustomed as she was to the banks and tiers of keyboards,

switches, dials, meters, and other operating paraphernalia of the
control rooms of the previous Skylark, Dorothy was taken aback
when she passed through the thick, heavily insulated door into that
of the Skylark of Valeron. For there were four gray walls, a gray
ceiling, and a rugged gray floor. There were low, broad double chairs
and headsets. There was nothing else.
"This is your seat, Dottie, here beside me, and this is your headset—
it's just a visiset, so you can see what is going on, not a controller,"
he hastened to reassure her. "You have a better illusion of seeing if
your eyes are open, that's why everything is neutral in color. But
better still for you girls, we'll turn off the lights."
The illumination, which had seemed to pervade the entire room
instead of emanating from any definite sources, faded out; but in
spite of the fact that the room was in absolute darkness Dorothy saw
with a clarity and a depth of vision impossible to any Earthly eyes.
She saw at one and the same time, with infinite precision of detail,
the houses and their contents; the whole immense sphere of the
planetoid, inside and out; Valeron and her sister planets encircling
their sun; and the stupendous full sphere of the vaulted heavens.
She knew that her husband was motionless at her side, yet she saw
him materialize in the control room of Skylark Two. There he seized
the cabinet which contained the space chart of the Fenachrone—that
library of films portraying all the Galaxies visible to the wonderfully
powerful telescopes and projectors of that horrible race.
That cabinet became instantly a manifold scanner, all its reels
flashing through as one. Simultaneously there appeared in the air
above the machine a three-dimensional model of all the Galaxies
there listed. A model upon such a scale that the First Galaxy was but
a tiny lenticular pellet, although it was still disproportionately large;
upon such a scale that the whole vast sphere of space covered by
the hundreds of Fenachrone scrolls was compressed into a volume
but little larger than a basketball. And yet each tiny Galactic pellet
bore its own peculiarly individual identifying marks.
Then Dorothy felt as though she herself had been hurled out into the
unthinkable reaches of space. In a fleeting instant of time she
passed through thousands of star clusters, and not only knew the
declination, right ascension, and distance of each Galaxy, but saw it
duplicated in miniature in its exact place in an immense, three-
dimensional model in the hollow interior of the space-flyer in which
she actually was.
The mapping went on. To human brains and hands the task would
have been one of countless years. Now, however, it was to prove
only a matter of hours, for this was no human brain. Not only was it
reactive and effective at distances to be expressed in light-years or
parsecs: because of the immeasurable sixth-order velocity of its
carrier wave it was equally effective at distances of thousands upon
thousands of light—millionia—reaches of space so incomprehensibly
vast that the rays of visible light emitted at the birth of a sun so far
away would reach the point of observation only after that sun had
lived through its entire cycle of life and had disappeared.
"Well, that's about enough of that for you, for a while," Seaton
remarked in a matter-of-fact voice. "A little of that stuff goes a long
ways at first—you have to get used to it."
"I'll say you do! Why—I—it—" Dorothy paused, even her ready
tongue at a loss for words.
"You can't describe it in words—don't try," Seaton advised. "Let's go
outdoors and watch the model grow."
To the awe, if not to the amazement of the observers, the model had
already begun to assume a lenticular pattern. Galaxies, then, really
were arranged in general as were the stars composing them; there
really were universes, and they really were lenticular—the vague
speculations of the hardiest and most exploratory cosmic thinkers
were being confirmed.
For hour after hour the model continued to grow and Seaton's face
began to take on a look of grave concern. At last, however, when the
chart was three fourths done or more, a deep-toned bell clanged out
the signal for which he had been waiting—the news that there was
now being plotted a configuration of Galaxies identical with that
portrayed by the space chart of the Fenachrone.
"Gosh!" Seaton sighed hugely. "I was beginning to be afraid that we
had escaped clear out of our own universe, and that would have
been bad—very, very bad, believe me! The rest of the mapping can
wait—let's go!"
Followed by the others he dashed into the control room, threw on his
helmet, and hurled a projection into the now easily recognizable First
Galaxy. He found the Green System without difficulty, but he could
not hold it. So far away it was that even the highest amplification and
the greatest power of which the gigantic sixth-order installation was
capable could not keep the viewpoint from leaping erratically, in
fantastic bounds of hundreds of millions of miles, all through and
around its objective.
But Seaton had half expected this development and was prepared
for it. He had already sent out a broadcasting projection; and now,
upon a band of frequencies wide enough to affect every receiving
instrument in use throughout the Green System and using power
sufficient to overwhelm any transmitter, however strong, that might
be in operation, he sent out in a mighty voice his urgent message to
the scientists of Norlamin.
 XXII.
In the throne room of Kondal, with its gorgeously resplendent
jeweled ceiling and jeweled metallic-tapestry walls, there were
seated in earnest consultation the three most powerful men of the
planet Osnome—Roban and Karfedix [1], Dunark the Kofedix [2], and
Tarnan the Karbix [3]. Their "clothing" was the ordinary Osnomian
regalia of straps, chains, and metallic bands, all thickly bestudded
with blazing gems and for the most part supporting the full
assortment of devastatingly powerful hand weapons without which
any man of that race would have felt stark naked. Their fierce green
faces were keenly hawklike; the hard, clean lines of their bare green
bodies bespoke the rigid physical training that every Osnomian
undergoes from birth until death.
"Father, Tarnan may be right," Dunark was saying soberly. "We are
too savage, too inherently bloodthirsty, too deeply interested in
killing, not as a means to some really worth-while end, but as an end
in itself. Seaton the overlord thinks so, the Norlaminians think so,
and I am beginning to think so myself. All really enlightened races
look upon us as little better than barbarians, and in part I agree with
them. I believe, however, that if we were really to devote ourselves to
study and to productive effort we could soon equal or surpass any
race in the System, except of course the Norlaminians."
"There may be something in what you say," the emperor admitted
dubiously, "but it is against all our racial teachings. What, then, of an
outlet for the energies of all manhood?"
"Constructive effort instead of destructive," argued the Karbix. "Let
them build—study—learn—advance. It is all too true that we are far
behind other races of the System in all really important things."
"But what of Urvan and his people?" Roban brought up his last and
strongest argument. "They are as savage as we are, if not more so.
As you say, the necessity for continuous warfare ceased with the
destruction of Mardonale, but are we to leave our whole planet
defenseless against an interplanetary attack from Urvania?"
"They dare not attack us," declared Tarnan, "any more than we dare
attack them. Seaton the overlord decreed that the people of us two
first to attack the other dies root and branch, and we all know that
the word of the overlord is no idle, passing breath."
"But he has not been seen for long. He may be far away and the
Urvanians may decide at any time to launch their fleets against us.
However, before we decide this momentous question I suggest that
you two pay a visit of state to the court of Urvan. Talk to Urvan and
his Karbix as you have talked to me, of coöperation and of mutual
advancement. If they will coöperate, we will."
During the long voyage to Urvania, the third planet of the fourteenth
sun, however, their new ardor cooled perceptibly—particularly that of
the younger man—and in Urvan's palace it became clear that the
love of peaceful culture inculcated upon those fierce minds by
contact with more humane peoples could not supplant immediately
the spirit of strife bred into bone and fiber during thousands of
generations of incessant warfare.
For when the two Osnomians sat down with the two Urvanians the
very air seemed charged with animosity. Like strange dogs meeting
with bared fangs and bristling manes, Osnomian and Urvanian alike
fairly radiated hostility. Therefore Tarnan's suggestions as to
coöperation and understanding were decidedly unconvincing, and
were received with open scorn.
"Your race may well wish to coöperate with ours," sneered the
Emperor of Urvania, "since, but for the threats of that self-styled
overlord, you would have ceased to exist long since. And how do we
know where that one is, what he is doing, whether he is paying any
attention to us? Probably you have learned that he has left this
System entirely and have already planned an attack upon us. In self-
defense we shall probably have to wipe out your race to keep you
from destroying ours. At any rate your plea is very evidently some
underhanded trick of your weak and cowardly race—"
"Weak! Cowardly! Us? You conceited, bloated toad!" stormed
Dunark, who had kept himself in check thus far only by sheer power
of will. He sprang to his feet, his stool flying backward. "Here and
now I demand a meeting of honor, if you know the meaning of the
word honor."

The four enraged men, all drawing weapons, were suddenly swept
apart, then clutched and held immovably as a figure of force
materialized among them—the form of an aged, white-bearded
Norlaminian.

The four enraged men, all drawing weapons, were suddenly swept
apart.
"Peace, children, and silence!" the image commanded sternly. "Rest
assured that there shall be no more warfare in this System and that
the decrees of the overlord shall be enforced to the letter. Calm
yourselves and listen. I know well, mind you, that none of you really
meant what has just been said. You of Osnome were so impressed
by the benefits of mutual helpfulness that you made this journey to
further its cause; you of Urvania are at heart also strongly in favor of
it, but neither of you has strength enough or courage enough to
admit it.
"For know, vain and self-willed children, that it is weakness, not
strength, which you have been displaying. It may well be, however,
that your physical bravery and your love of strife can now be
employed for the general good of all humanity. Would you join
hands, to fight side by side in such a cause?"
"We would," chorused the four, as one.
Each was heartily ashamed of what had just happened, and was
glad indeed of the opportunity to drop it without losing face.
"Very well! We of Norlamin fear greatly that we have inadvertently
given to one of the greatest foes of universal civilization weapons
equal in power to the overlord's own, and that he is even now
working to undo all that had been done. Will you of Osnome and you
of Urvania help in conducting an expedition against that foe?"
"We will!" they exclaimed.
Dunark added: "Who is that enemy, and where is he to be found?"
"He is Dr. Marc C. DuQuesne, of Earth."
"DuQuesne!" barked Dunark. "Why, I thought the Fenachrone killed
him! But we shall attend to it at once—when I kill any one he stays
killed!"
"Just a moment, son," the image cautioned. "He has surrounded
Earth with defenses against which your every arm would be entirely
impotent. Come you to Norlamin, bringing each of you one hundred
of his best men. We shall have prepared for you certain equipment
which, although it may not enable you to emerge victorious from the
engagement, will at least insure your safe return. It might be well
also to stop at Dasor, which is not now far from your course of flight,
and bring along Sacner Carfon, who will be of great assistance,
being a man both of action and of learning."
"But DuQuesne!" raved Dunark, who realized immediately what must
have happened. "Why didn't you ray him on sight? Didn't you know
what a liar and a thief he is, by instinct and training?"
"We had no suspicion then who he was, thinking, as did you, that
DuQuesne had passed. He came under another name, as Seaton's
friend. He came as one possessing knowledge, with fair and
plausible words. But of that we shall inform you later. Come at once
—we shall place upon your controls forces which shall pilot you
accurately and with speed."
Upon the aqueous world of Dasor they found its amphibious
humanity reveling in an activity which, although dreamed of for
centuries, had been impossible of realization until the Skylark had
brought to them a supply of Rovolon, the metal of power. Now cities
of metal were arising here and there above her waves, airplanes and
helicopters sped through and hovered in her atmosphere, barges
and pleasure craft sailed the almost unbroken expanse of ocean
which was her surface, immense submarine freighters bored their
serenely stolid ways through her watery depths.
Sacner Carfon, the porpoiselike, hairless, naked Dasorian councilor,
heaved his six and a half feet of height and his five hundredweight of
mass into Dunark's vessel and greeted the Osnomian prince with a
grave and friendly courtesy.
"Yes, friend, everything is wonderfully well with Dasor," he answered
Dunark's query. "Now that our one lack, that of power, has been
supplied, our lives can at last be lived to the full, unhampered by the
limitations which we have hitherto been compelled to set upon them.
But this from Norlamin is terrible news indeed. What know you of it?"
During the trip to Norlamin the three leaders not only discussed and
planned among themselves, but also had many conferences with the
Advisory Five of the planet toward which they were speeding, so that
they arrived upon that ancient world with a complete knowledge of
what they were to attempt. There Rovol and Drasnik instructed them
in the use of fifth-order forces, each according to his personality and
ability.
To Sacner Carfon was given high command, and he was instructed
minutely in every detail of the power, equipment, and performance of
the vessel which was to carry the hope of civilization. To Tarnan, the
best balanced of his race, was given a more limited knowledge.
Dunark and Urvan, however, were informed only as to the actual
operation of the armament, with no underlying knowledge of its
nature or construction.
"I trust that you will not resent this necessary caution," Drasnik said
carefully. "Your natures are as yet essentially savage and
bloodthirsty; your reason is all too easily clouded by passion. You
are, however, striving truly, and that is a great good. With a few
mental operations, which we shall be glad to give you at a later time,
you shall both be able to take your places as leaders in the march of
your peoples toward civilization."

Fodan, majestic chief of the Five, escorted the company of warriors

to their battleship of space, and what a ship she was! Fully twice the
size of Skylark Three in every dimension she lay there, surcharged
with power and might, awaiting only her commander's touch to hurl
herself away toward distant and now inimical Earth.
But the vengeful expedition was too late by far. DuQuesne had long
since consolidated his position. His chain of interlinked power
stations encircled the globe. Governments were in name only. World
Steel now ruled the entire Earth and DuQuesne's power was
absolute. Nor was that rule as yet unduly onerous. The threat of war
was gone, the tyranny of gangsterism was done, everybody was
working for high wages—what was there to kick about? Some men
of vision of course perceived the truth and were telling it, but they
were being howled down by the very people they were trying to
warn.
It was thus against an impregnably fortified world that Dunark and
Urvan directed every force with which their flying superdreadnought
was armed. Nor was she feeble, this monster of the skyways, but
DuQuesne had known well what form the attack would take and,
having the resources of the world upon which to draw, he had
prepared to withstand the amassed assault of a hundred such
vessels—or a thousand.
Therefore the attack not only failed; it was repulsed crushingly. For
from his massed generators DuQuesne hurled out upon the
Norlaminian space ship a solid beam of such incredible intensity that
in neutralizing its terrific ardor her store of power-uranium dwindled
visibly, second by second. So rapidly did the metal disappear that
Sacner Carfon, after waging the unequal struggle for some twenty
hours, put on high acceleration and drove back toward the Central
System, despite the raging protests of Dunark and of his equally
tempestuous fellow lieutenant.
And in his private office, which was also a complete control room,
DuQuesne smiled at Brookings—a hard, thin smile. "Now you see,"
he said coldly. "Suppose I hadn't spent all this time and money on
my defenses?"
"Well, why don't you go out and chase 'em? Give 'em a scare,
anyway?"
"Because it would be useless," DuQuesne stated flatly. "That ship
carries more stuff than anything we have ready to take off at present.
Also, Dunark does not scare. You might kill him, but you can't scare
him—it isn't in the breed."
"Well, what is the answer, then? You have tried to take Norlamin with
everything you've got—bombs, automatic ships, and projectors—and
you haven't got to first base. You can't even get through their outside
screens. What are you going to do—let it go on as a stalemate?"
"Hardly!" DuQuesne smiled thinly. "While I do not make a practice of
divulging my plans, I am going to tell you a few things now, so that
you can go ahead with more understanding and hence with greater
confidence. Seaton is out of the picture, or he would have been back
here before this. The Fenachrone are all gone. Dunark and his
people are unimportant. Norlamin is the only known obstacle
between me and the mastery of the Galaxy, therefore Norlamin must
either be conquered or destroyed. Since the first alternative seems
unduly difficult, I shall destroy her."
"Destroy Norlamin—how?" The thought of wiping out that world, with
all its ancient culture, did not appall—did not even affect—Brookings'
callous mind. He was merely curious concerning the means to be
employed.
"This whole job so far has been merely a preliminary toward that
destruction," DuQuesne informed him levelly. "I am now ready to go
ahead with the second step. The planet Pluto is, as you may or may
not know, very rich in uranium. The ships which we are now building
are to carry a few million tons of that metal to a large and practically
uninhabited planet not too far from Norlamin. I shall install driving
machinery upon that planet and, using it as a projectile which all their
forces cannot stop, I shall throw Norlamin into her own sun."

Raging but impotent, Dunark was borne back to Norlamin; and, more
subdued now but still bitterly humiliated, he accompanied Urvan,
Sacner Carfon, and the various Firsts to a consultation with the Five.
As they strolled along through the grounds, past fountains of flaming
color, past fantastically geometric hedges intricately and ornately
wrought of noble metal, past walls composed of self-luminous gems
so moving as to form fleeting, blending pictures of exquisite line and
color, Sacner Carfon eyed Drasnik in unobtrusive signal and the two
dropped gradually behind.
"I trust that you were successful in whatever it was you had in mind
to do while we set up the late diversion?" Carfon asked quietly, when
they were out of earshot.
Dunark and Urvan, his fierce and fiery aids, had taken everything
that had happened at its face value, but not so had the leader. Unlike
his lieutenants, the massive Dasorian had known at first blast that
his expedition against DuQuesne was hopeless. More, it had been
clear to him that the Norlaminians had known from the first that their
vessel, enormous as she was and superbly powerful, could not crush
the defenses of Earth.
"We knew, of course, that you would perceive the truth," the First of
Psychology replied as quietly. "We also knew that you would
appreciate our reasons for not taking you fully into our confidence in
advance. Tarnan of Osnome also had an inkling of it, and I have
already explained matters to him. Yes; we succeeded. While
DuQuesne's whole attention was taken up in resisting your forces
and in returning them in kind, we were able to learn much that we
could not have learned otherwise. Also, our young friends Dunark
and Urvan, through being chastened, have learned a very helpful
lesson. They have seen themselves in true perspective for the first
time; and, having fought side by side in a common and so far as they
knew a losing cause, they have become friends instead of enemies.
Thus it will now be possible to inaugurate upon those two backward
planets a program leading toward true civilization."
In the Hall of the Five the Norlaminian spokesman voiced thanks and
appreciation for the effort just made, concluding:
"While as a feat of arms the expedition may not have been a
success, in certain other respects it was far from being a failure. By
its help we were enabled to learn much, and I can assure you now
that the foe shall not be allowed to prevail—it is graven upon the
sphere that civilization is to go on."
"May I ask a question, sir?" Urvan was for the first time in his
bellicose career speaking diffidently. "Is there no way of landing a
real storming force upon Earth? Must we leave DuQuesne in
possession indefinitely?"
"We must wait, son, and work," the chief answered, with the fatalistic
calm of his race. "At present we can do nothing more, but in time—"
He was interrupted by a deafening blast of sound—the voice of
Richard Seaton, tremendously amplified.
"This is the Skylark calling Rovol of Norlamin—Skylark calling Rovol
of Norlamin—" it repeated over and over, rising to a roar and
diminishing to a whisper as Seaton's broadcaster oscillated violently
through space.
Rovol laid a beam to the nearest transmitter and spoke: "I am here,
son. What is it?"
"Fine! I'm away out here in—"
"Hold on a minute, Dick!" Dunark shouted. He had been humble and
sober enough since his return to Norlamin, realizing as he never had
before his own ignorance in comparison with the gigantic minds
about him, the powerlessness of his entire race in comparison with
the energies he had so recently seen in action. But now, as Seaton's
voice came roaring in and Rovol and his brain-brother were about to
indulge so naïvely and so publicly in a conversation which certainly
should not reach DuQuesne's ears, his spirits rose. Here was
something he could do to help.
"DuQuesne is alive, has Earth completely fortified, and is holding it
against everything we can give him," Dunark went on rapidly. "He's
got everything we have, maybe more, and he's undoubtedly listening
to every word we're saying. Talk Mardonalian—I know for a fact that
DuQuesne can't understand that. They've got an educator here and
I'll give it to Rovol right now—all right, go ahead."
"I'm clear out of the Galaxy," Seaton's voice went on, now speaking
the language of the Osnomian race which had so recently been
destroyed. "So many Galaxies away that none of you except Orlon
could understand the distance. The speed of transmission is due to
the fact that we have perfected and I am using a sixth-order
projector, not a fifth. Have you a ship fit for really long-distance flight
—as big as Three was, or bigger?"
"Yes; we have a vessel twice her size."