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 | Contents | vii

Formulating an HRD Strategy 49 Further Reading 80

Developing a Learning Strategy to Useful Websites 80
Support HRD 52 Bibliography 80
– Why does learning matter in the context of
organizations and individuals? 52 Chapter 5 Organizational Learning 84
What Types of Learning Activities are Prioritized? 53
How does Learning take place in Organizations? 53 Learning Outcomes 84
– Where does responsibility for learning reside? 54 Introduction 85
– Who delivers the learning strategy? 54 Organizational Learning Definitions and Theories 85
– How can the HRD function measure the – The learning organization 88
impact of HRD activities? 55 ● Spotlight on Skills 89
– Coordinating the HRD function 55 – Differences between organizational learning
● Spotlight on Skills 56 and the learning organization 89
Budgeting for HRD Activities 56 Group Learning 90
● HRD in the News 57 Knowledge Management and Organizational
Managing Processes and Services 58 Learning 90
Managing People 58 ● HRD in the News 91
The Difference in Approaches between – Sharing knowledge in organizations 92
SMEs and Large Organizations 59 – Tacit knowledge acquisition and transfer
● Active Case Study: Benefit or Cost? 60 methods 93
Summary 61 Developing a Culture that Supports Learning 96
Chapter Review Questions 61 – Organizational learning in SMEs 97
Further Reading 61 ● Active Case Study: After-Action Reviews
Useful Websites 61 in the US Army 98
Bibliography 62 Summary 99
Chapter Review Questions 99
Chapter 4 Individual-Level Learning 63 Further Reading 99
Useful Websites 100
Learning Outcomes 63 Bibliography 100
Introduction 64
Learning: What is it and How Does it Occur? 64 Chapter 6 Organization Development 103
Types of Learning: Formal and Informal 65
Human and Dispositional Factors Influencing Learning Outcomes 103
Learning 66 Introduction 104
Barriers to Learning 66 What is OD? 104
Learning Theories 67 – OD values and principles 105
Experiential Learning and the Learning Cycle 71 What is the Value of OD and what are its Goals? 106
Emotions and Learning 72 The Process of Carrying out an OD Intervention:
Learning Styles 72 The OD Cycle 107
– VARK sensory learning styles 73 ● Spotlight on Skills 109
– Honey and Mumford’s learning styles 73 OD and HRD: The Same, Different or Subsets
– Felder–Silverman’s learning style model 74 of Each Other? 109
● Spotlight on Skills 75 ● Active Case Study: Organization Development
● Active Case Study: Improving Individual in Netflix 110
Learning at The Courtyard Hotel in Tokyo 76 OD Strategy 111
E-learning and Individual Learning 76 OD and Organizational Change Management 111
● HRD in the News 78 ● HRD in the News: The World’s Greatest
Summary 79 OD Challenge? 112
Chapter Review Questions 80 Summary 113
viii | Contents |

Chapter Review Questions 113 Seeking Feedback 138

Further Reading 114 Setting Learning Outcomes: Begin with the
Useful Websites 114 End in Mind 139
Bibliography 114 – Writing learning outcomes 139
Selecting the Content for HRD Programmes
and Activities 140
Process of HRD 117 – Guide to using mind maps to develop
Chapter 7 Identifying Learning Needs 119 content for HRD programmes or activities 141
Selecting an Appropriate Strategy in Designing
Learning Outcomes 119 HRD Programmes and Activities 141
Introduction 120 – General theory learning strategy 142
● Spotlight on Skills 120 – Declarative knowledge learning strategy 142
What is Learning Needs Assessment? 120 – A concept learning strategy 142
– LNA and the needs of the business 123 – A rule learning strategy 143
● HRD in the News: The Impact of Downsizing – A problem-solving learning strategy 143
on Learning Needs 124 – A skill-based learning strategy 143
Fundamental ‘Windows’ through which to Choosing the Facilitator(s) 143
Identify Learning Needs 125 – Guide to choosing a facilitator 143
– Human resource planning 125 Structuring and Sequencing HRD Programmes
– Succession planning 125 and Activities 144
– Critical incidents 126 – Guide to structuring and sequencing
– Management information systems 127 HRD programmes and activities 144
– Performance appraisal 128 Selecting the Location, Venue and Time for
Specifying Precise Learning Needs 128 HRD Programmes and Activities 145
– Survey questionnaires 129 ● Active Case Study: Designing an Induction
– 360-degree surveys 129 Programme at McBurger’n’Fries 145
– Attitude surveys 129 E-learning, Coaching and Mentoring:
– Knowledge pre-tests 129 Contemporary Perspectives on Designing
– Skills matrices 129 HRD Programmes and Activities 147
– Competency profiles/job descriptions 129 – E-learning 147
– Structured interviews 130 – Advantages 148
– Observation 130 – Disadvantages 148
– Focus groups and interviews 130 ● Spotlight on Skills 148
SMEs: A Different Approach? 130 ● HRD in the News: E-learning Revolutionizing
● Active Case Study: The ‘Free Hand’ Approach Education in Africa: The First Massive Open Online
to LNA 131 Course (MOOC) Designed by Africans for Africans 149
Summary 132 – Coaching and mentoring 149
Chapter Review Questions 132 Resource Implications of HRD Programme Design 150
Further Reading 132 Summary 151
Useful Websites 132 Chapter Review Questions 151
Bibliography 133 Further Reading 151
Useful Websites 151
Chapter 8 Designing HRD Programmes 134 Bibliography 152

Learning Outcomes 134 Chapter 9 Delivering HRD Programmes 153

Introduction 135
Designing HRD Programmes in Organizations: Learning Outcomes 153
MNCs vs. SMEs 136 Introduction 154
Key Stages in the Design of HRD Programmes ● Spotlight on Skills 154
and Activities 137 Implementing Learning Outcomes 154
Gathering Data 138 HRD Delivery Methods 155
 | Contents | ix

Styles of Delivery 158 ● Active Case Study: Applying HRD Principles to the
– The instructor 158 Cosmetics Industry: Case Study from Oriflame’s
– The facilitator 159 Research and Development Subsidiary 189
Motivation to Learn 160 Summary 191
What makes an HRD Intervention Effective? 161 Chapter Review Questions 191
● HRD in the News: Is the Lecture Dead? 162 Further Reading 191
– Managing participants’ engagement 162 Useful Websites 191
– Communication skills 163 Bibliography 192
– Questioning 164
– Feedback 164
– Icebreakers 165 Contemporary Challenges 195
– Rapport 165 Chapter 11 Managing Talented Employees 197
– HRD activity environment and room layout 165
– Environmental factors 167 Learning Outcomes 197
– Managing time and content 167 Introduction 198
– Managing expectations 167 Who are Talented Employees? 198
– Presentation skills 167 Why is it Important for an Organization’s
Delivery Costs 168 Performance and Success to Focus on Talented
Characteristics of Effective Trainers 168 Employees? 199
● Active Case Study: Training the Taxman! 168 Preparing a Talent Management Strategy 200
Summary 169 Methods for Identifying Talented Employees 200
Chapter Review Questions 169 Preparing a Talent Management Strategy 202
Further Reading 169 Developing Talent: What are the Options? 203
Useful Websites 170 Motivating Talented Employees 203
Bibliography 170 Choosing a Common or Differentiated Approach
to Talent Management 204
Chapter 10 Evaluating HRD Programmes 171 – Talent management in SMEs 204
Managing Talent in a Recessionary Environment 205
Learning Outcomes 171 ● HRD in the News: Husain Makes History
Introduction 172 on Radio 4 Flagship 205
Explaining the Concept of Evaluation How do we know whether Talent Management
(Where, What and Why) 172 has Succeeded? 206
● Spotlight on Skills 173 – Return on stakeholder expectations 207
– Purpose of evaluation 173 ● Spotlight on Skills 207
Establishing the Output of Evaluation What is the Role for HRD? 207
(When and Who) 174 – Making the business case 208
– Information: Type and timing 174 ● Active Case Study: O’Brien’s Homeware 208
– People: Interest and importance 175 Summary 210
Exploring the Models of Evaluation (How) 176 Chapter Review Questions 210
– Hierarchical models 176 Further Reading 210
– Contextual models 178 Useful Websites 210
Examining Measures of Evaluation (How) 179 Bibliography 211
– Measures for hierarchical models 180
● HRD in the News: Bringing Evaluation into Chapter 12 Leadership Development 212
Play in the Field of Football 184
– Measures for contextual models 185 Learning Outcomes 212
Enabling a Culture of Effective Evaluation (How) 186 Introduction 213
– Appreciate the existence of organizational – What is leader and leadership development? 213
blockages 187 Leadership Development and HRD 215
– Develop transfer of learning among key Leadership Competencies 215
stakeholders 187 ● Spotlight on Skills 218
x | Contents |

A Strategic Approach to Leadership Development 218 Graduate Employment in Small and Medium
Portfolio of Leadership Development Practices 222 Enterprises (SMEs) 246
● Active Case Study: Fosco Data Handling: The Summary 246
Leadership Challenges 223 Chapter Review Questions 247
Challenges for Leadership Development 224 Further Reading 247
● HRD in the News: Fashion Factories: Time for HRD Useful Websites 247
Education to Take a Stance 225 Bibliography 247
Evaluating Leadership Development Efforts 226
Leadership Development in SMEs 227 Chapter 14 Ethics, Corporate Social
Summary 228 Responsibility, Sustainability and HRD 250
Chapter Review Questions 228
Further Reading 228 Learning Outcomes 250
Useful Websites 228 Introduction 251
Bibliography 229 Guiding Principles of Ethics and CSR 251
HRD, Ethics and CSR 252
Chapter 13 Graduate Employability 231 The Drivers for Organizational Ethics and CSR 253
● Spotlight on Skills 254
Learning Outcomes 231 ● HRD in the News 255
Introduction 232 SMEs, Ethics and Corporate Social
New Forms of Organization, Labour Markets Responsibility 256
and Technology 232 The Role of CSR and Ethics Training
● Spotlight on Skills 233 Programmes 257
Graduate Identity and Graduate Employability 234 The Role of HRD in Shaping Organizational
– Graduate employability: What graduates want 236 Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility 258
Graduate Skills: Transferable, Soft and Hard Skills 236 – Organizational culture development 259
– Soft skills and hard skills 237 – Embedding organizational ethics 259
Global HRD and Graduate Employability 238 – Policy and practice development 260
● HRD in the News: €300 Million Investment ● Active Case Study: The Ethical HR
in Seven World-Class Research Centres 241 Value Chain 262
Graduate Work Experience, Placements, Summary 264
Internships and Extra-Curricular Activities 242 Chapter Review Questions 264
Graduate Recruitment and Selection 243 Further Reading 264
– Psychometric testing 244 Useful Websites 264
– Assessment centres 244 Bibliography 265
● Active Case Study: Enterprise Rent-a-Car Graduate
Training and Development Programme 245 Index 268
 List of figures

1.1 Trend analysis of term usage in books: 7.1 Process of HRD cycle 121
1950–2008 4 7.2 Sample organizational chart 126
1.2 Trend analysis of web searches: 2005–2013 5 7.3 Organizational chart with ages and
1.3 Organizational chart 14 years to retirement 126
1.4 Process of HRD cycle 20 8.1 Process of HRD cycle 135
1.5 Layout of book 21 8.2 Stages of the HRD design process 138
3.1 Dimensions of learning strategy 53 8.3 HRD Program Design Cost 150
3.2 Managing and resourcing HRD 9.1 Process of HRD cycle 154
in organizations 54 9.2 The learning cube 155
4.1 Social learning theory processes 67 9.3 Linking training style to learning retention 159
4.2 Expectancy theory of motivation 70 9.4 Lecture-style room layout 166
4.3 Kolb’s learning cycle 71 9.5 Bistro-style room layout 166
4.4 Kort’s learning spiral model 72 9.6 U-shaped room layout 166
4.5 VARK sensory learning styles 73 10.1 Process of HRD cycle 172
4.6 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles 74 10.2 Example of a reactions level
4.7 Kolb’s learning cycle and Honey and post-programme questionnaire 181
Mumford’s learning styles 74 10.3 Aligning strategic objectives and HRD
5.1 Types of organizational learning 88 activities among collaborative constituents 189
6.1 The process of an OD intervention 108 12.1 Optimal leadership development matrix 222

xi
 List of Tables

1.1 Definitions of HRD 3 8.3 Types of learning content 141

1.2 Differences between training, development 9.1 Learning and development delivery
and education 6 methods 156
1.3 Main activities of the human resources function 16 9.2 Trainer delivery styles 159
2.1 Key SHRD characteristics – Garavan (1991) versus 9.3 Characteristics of effective trainers 168
McCracken and Wallace (2000a) 32 10.1 Summary of key hierarchical evaluation
2.2 A learning culture self-audit 38 models 177
2.3 Lagging and leading HRD specialists 39 10.2 Summary of hierarchical measures
2.4 The activities of HRD specialists 40 of evaluation 180
3.1 Staged approach to HRD strategy formulation 50 10.3 Summary of potential organizational blockages
4.1 Types of non-formal learning 66 to evaluation from perspective of key
4.2 Workplace learning – facilitators and barriers 67 stakeholders 188
4.3 Adult learning – assumptions, prerequisites 11.1 Sample organization competence
and guidelines 69 framework – core themes 201
5.1 Phases of organizational learning and their 12.1 Future trends in leadership development 214
challenges 86 12.2 The spectrum of development activities that
5.2 Characteristic features of the learning comprise HRD 216
organization 89 12.3 Leading vs. managing competencies 217
5.3 Main differences between organizational 12.4 Key elements of development in
learning and the learning organization 90 organizations 219
5.4 Barriers and facilitators to developing a culture 12.5 Criteria for evaluating leadership
of organizational learning 97 development 227
6.1 OD principles 106 13.1 Attributes, characteristics and skills
6.2 Desired results of OD interventions 107 that promote graduates’ employability 235
7.1 Sample of projected demand for call agents 125 13.2 Soft skills and hard skills 237
7.2 Skills matrix 130 13.3 Country groups by global HRD
8.1 HRD support available to SMEs 137 competitiveness scores 239
8.2 Action verbs for learning outcomes, 13.4 National survey of employers’ views of Irish
grouped by meaning 140 higher education outcomes (2013) 240

xii
 Contributor biographies
Editors
Dr Ronan Carbery is Senior
Lecturer in Management in the
School of Management and
Marketing at the College of
Business, University College
Cork, Ireland. Ronan is
co-editor of the European
Journal of Training and
Development. His research
interests include career
development, talent management and participation
in HRD activities. He was awarded the University of
Limerick Teaching Excellence award in 2013. He is
co-editor of Human Resource Management: A Concise
Introduction (2013).
Dr Christine Cross lectures in
Organizational Behaviour and
Human Resource Management
at the Kemmy Business School,
University of Limerick. Prior
to joining UL she worked for
a number of multinational
organizations in both
management and human
resource management roles. This experience has led to
a wide range of research, consultancy and publication
interests covering areas such as the workforce
experiences of immigrants; training and development in
call centres; and investigating the glass ceiling. Christine
is also a co-director of the Age in the Workplace
Research Network (AWR-net), which is located at
the Kemmy Business School. This network focuses on
researching multiple issues associated with age in the
workplace.
Contributors
Dr Claire Armstrong (B.Comm,
PhD, MCIPD, FRAMI) is an
associate lecturer in the Faculty
of Business and Law at the Open
University and an adjunct lecturer
at the Kemmy Business School,
University of Limerick. Prior to
this, she held posts at DCU Business
School, Limerick Institute of Technology and Shannon
College of Hotel Management. She also held a visiting
appointment at Aston University, UK. Claire’s main
areas of expertise are in organizational behaviour, HRM,
research methods and health care management. She
has published extensively on these topics in academic
journals, including Human Resource Management, The
International Journal for Human Resources Management,
The International Journal for Quality in Healthcare and
Advances in Developing Human Resources. She has also
published several practice-oriented reports on topics
such as high-performance work systems, training and
development, and health care management. She is a
reviewer for a number of HRM, organizational behaviour
and health care management journals and is an associate
editor for Advances in Developing Human Resources.
Dr Paul Donovan is Principal Researcher
and Senior Lecturer at the School of
Business at the National University
of Ireland, Maynooth. He served a
one-year period as Head of School
and Director of Teaching and Learning
immediately prior to this appointment.
He was previously Head of Management
Development and Registrar at the Irish Management
Institute (IMI), specializing in Management Development.
xiii
xiv | Contributor biographies |
Before joining IMI he worked as a general operations
manager with Bord na Mona, the Irish Peat Development
Authority. He was also Training and Development
Manager of the Bord na Mona group. His private sector
experience includes conducting major reviews of HRD
capability with hundreds of clients, including IBM, and a
comprehensive identification of training needs with Dell
and trainer capability upgrades with Boston Scientific. He
has designed and delivered extensive programmes in the
public sector, most notably with the Department of Finance
and Enterprise, the Department of Trade and Employment,
and the Health Service Executive. He has written peer-
reviewed articles on learning transfer and over ten books in
training and general management, and writes a column for
HRD magazine, the journal of the Irish Institute of Training
and Development, of which he is a fellow. Paul holds a
master’s degree in organizational behaviour and another in
technology and learning (both from Trinity College Dublin)
and a doctorate from Leicester University.
Dr Linda Dowling-Hetherington
has been with the School of
Business at University College
Dublin since 1996. She has
many years experience in the
management and development
of part-time, distance learning
and off-campus programmes,
and has been the Director of the School’s Centre for
Distance Learning since its establishment in 2002.
From UCD, she holds a Bachelor of Commerce (HRM),
a Master of Business Studies (HRM) and a Certificate
in Adult Education, along with a Doctor of Education
(EdD) from the University of Bath. She has considerable
teaching experience in the human resource management
and human resource development areas on UCD
programmes in Ireland, Hong Kong and Singapore.
Her areas of research interest include human resource
development, transnational education, student-centred
approaches to the management of distance learning
programmes, development of academic competencies,
undergraduate research experiences, and the changing
higher education landscape and its impact on faculty.
Dr Mary Fitzpatrick (BBS
with Spanish, GDE (Business),
MBS, MCIPD, SFSEDA, PhD)
is the Regional Teaching and
Learning Advocate in the
Centre for Teaching and
Learning and lectures in
Academic Development, HRD and Organizational
Behaviour at the University of Limerick. At a regional
level, she successfully led an inter-institutional project
on regional teaching enhancement within four higher
educational institutions, establishing a wide range of
professional development initiatives to this end. She
completed her PhD in the area of learning and inter-
organizational networks. Her research interests lie
within learning and development, with a particular
focus on the efficacy of professional development
activities, the student experience in teaching and
learning, and the role of learning and development
at work. She is a chartered member of the CIPD
and a senior fellow of SEDA. She has extensive HRD
consultancy experience within both the private
and the public sector.
Prof. Thomas N. Garavan is
Professor of Leadership at
Edinburgh Napier Business School.
He was formerly Professor and
Associate Dean in Postgraduate
Studies and Executive
Education, Kemmy Business
School, University of Limerick.
He teaches HRD, training and development, and
leadership development. He is author of more than
100 academic articles, co-editor of European Journal
of Training and Development and a member of the
Board of Directors of the Academy of Human Resource
Development.
Dr T.J. McCabe is Lecturer in
HRM and Research Methods at
the National College of Ireland.
He leads a number of post-
graduate and undergraduate
modules, including Research
Methods, Strategic Human
Resource Management, Employee
Relations and HRD. His research interests extend to
trust and commitment among nursing professionals,
and human resource management issues in the
health sector. He has presented this work at national
and international conferences, and co-chaired the
HRM track for the 14th Annual Conference of the
Irish Academy of Management. He has published
papers in both academic and practitioner journals,
and received the award for Best Paper, Healthcare
and Public Sector Management Track, Irish Academy
of Management in 2011.
 | Contributor biographies |
Dr Martin McCracken is Senior
Lecturer in Organizational
Behaviour at the University
of Ulster. He is the editor of
Education and Training and
is a member of the editorial
advisory boards of a number
of influential journals, such as
Employee Relations, Leadership
and Organizational Development Journal and The
European Journal of Training and Development.
He obtained a PhD from Edinburgh Napier University
in 2002 and has been actively researching issues
connected with human resource development/
management, employability and organizational change.
He has published his work in a number of leading
academic journals, including The International Journal
of Human Resource Management, Human Resource
Management Journal, Human Resource Development
International and the European Management Journal,
and has played a key role in carrying out UK research
projects commissioned by (among others): the
Department for Education and Employment; Sector
Skills Development Agency; and Leonardo Da Vinci
Research Programme (EU).
Dr Clíodhna MacKenzie is
a lecturer in the School of
Management & Marketing at
University College Cork. Prior
to that she lectured at the
University of Limerick. She
holds a degree in business
from the University of
Limerick. She has previously
worked for both US multinationals and global IT
consulting firms. She has international experience
in the IT and telecoms fields and has worked in the
US, Singapore and Thailand, as well as many parts of
Europe. Her academic research focuses on the ‘dark
side’ of organizational behavior, such as organizational
narcissism, leadership derailment, counterproductive
work behaviour and organizational personality
disorders (OPDs). Her research interests include
risk-taking behaviour, corporate governance, ethics,
corporate social responsibility, human resource
management/development, and leadership and
organization development. She is also a member
of the University Forum for Human Resource
Development (UFHRD) and the Irish Academy of
Management.
xv
Dr Jean McCarthy is a lecturer
and researcher in the areas of
Human Resource Management,
Human Resource Development
and Organizational Behaviour
at the Kemmy Business
School, University of
Limerick. A graduate of the
University of Limerick, and a former Fulbright
Scholar at Colorado State University, her research
interests include adult learning, high-performance
work systems and the social psychology of work. Her
research has attracted financial support from the
Irish Research Council, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
and the Fulbright Commission. She is also a Global
Research Associate with the Sloan Center on Aging
& Work at Boston College, and is founder and
co-director of the Age in the Workplace Research
Network (AWR-net), which is an international
network of researchers seeking to address issues
associated with age, generations and diversity at
work. She has extensive experience in teaching and
supervision at undergraduate, post-graduate and post-
experience levels, as well as working with community-
based and Youthreach education and training
programmes.
Dr Sue Mulhall has worked in
a variety of human resource
management (HRM) and
training/education positions
and lectures in human resource
development at the Dublin
Institute of Technology (DIT),
Ireland. She is a pracademic,
combining theory and practice, particularly
in the field of career management. Prior to joining DIT
in 2012, she ran her own HRM learning, consulting
and coaching business for over a decade and was
previously a HRM professional for 13 years. Through
her research and teaching, she offers fresh insights to
the academic and practitioner communities resulting
from her exposure to the dilemmas and challenges
facing knowledge workers, managers and leaders in
dynamic organizations in the contemporary workplace.
Drawing on her depth and breadth of experience, She
researched her international award-winning doctorate
on career success, exploring how personal transitions
impact on career experiences. Her findings have been
published in international peer-reviewed journals and
at conferences.
xvi | Contributor biographies |
Dr Clare Rigg is based at the
Institute of Technology Tralee,
Ireland, where she leads an
action learning-based MBA
programme. Following an
early career in economic
development and urban
regeneration in Birmingham, England, she developed an
interest in collaborative working that was further fostered
through encountering action learning as an approach to
management development in 1990. She has researched
and published widely on action learning, critical
management learning and HRD, including the co-authored
books Action Learning, Leadership and Organizational
Development in Public Services (2006); Critical Human
Resource Development: Beyond Orthodoxy (2007); and
Learning and Talent Development (2011). She is co-editor
of the journal Action Learning: Research and Practice.
 Tour of the book

ng services and technological advancements and coaching, mentoring and g

Learning outcomes Key terms d in Chapter 1 allows organizations to manage

D and HRM services remotely as virtual services,
managers express doubt conce
with learning and developmen
her organizations are taking the option of feel exposed due to inexperien
A set of learning outcomes are Each chapter contains an on-page ing their HRD functions. Regardless of the
h taken, whoever is ultimately responsible for
or capability (Garavan et al., 20
often accused of lacking time t
identified at the start of each chapter. explanation of a number of g the HRD function needs to recognize the
ents of the task. We will first look at the role of
and have not necessarily bough
should be part of a leader-led t
function. strategy. Research on the devo
After you have studied the chapter, important words, phrases and suggests that HRD specialists a
devolve, due primarily to conce
completed the activities and answered concepts that you need to know role of the HRD and power and having to focus
ction strategic in nature.
It is the overall vision, value
the review questions, you should be in order to understand HRD, its ideology of the owner, chairm
rtments generally employ people with that have the critical influence
able to achieve each of the stated theoretical basis and its related bility for specialized areas within the overall
tion. A number of HR activities, once the
which HRD operates in an org
organization, it is generally the

objectives. areas. it of the HR function,

devolved to line devolved refers to the process of moving decision
senior m
create t
rs in order to allow making downwards, from HR to line managers operatio
unction to engage in line managers managers who have employees process
cision making and free profile o

2
directly reporting to them and who have a higher level
to focus on strategic of responsibility than those employees are influ
s ▸ Chapter 2. It is the beli

Strategic HRD Making links

managers include employee selection,
To allow you to see the
Martin interconnected nature of the
manager who works most closely with the
e. The types of activities normally devolved
in the added value that HRD c
organization. For example, Ric
of the Virgin Group, adopts a
e and performance management. From an
spective, the line manager is also in an ideal
to HRD and believes in contin
how to retain employees over
to identify performance gaps and learning ways he does this is to promo
nd through the performance management possible by creating a culture
they can offer opportunities to participate in learning is not restricted to se

By the end of topics in the field of HRD, areas

this chapter you Learning outcomes
should be able
to:
Define Strategic Human Resource Development
that link to topics and concepts in
(SHRD) and understand how it differs from
Human Resource Development
other chapters are identified. An aspect which is clearly agreed upon in all of the
definitions shown above is that SHRD is clearly in
evidence when there is a long-term focus upon planning
SHRD to truly take hold, nine
to be in place in relation to a
factors. These nine factors are
Explain why it is important for organizations to and implementing HRD activities. column in Table 2.1 and inclu
ensure that their HRD activities are linked to As you can appreciate, SHRD clearly stresses that if management support, role of
an organization is to truly have a strategic approach to and how evaluation is carried
corporate strategy
its HRD activities it has to do more than simply align the table, Garavan’s original n
Understand the role of key stakeholders in HRD training and development to corporate strategy, but, in include such fundamentals as
in the organization, namely the HRD function, fact, must elevate these to a higher level. development is integrated wit
and goals and that environme
senior, functional and line managers, as well as
training and development tak
individual employees
Consider this … consider THIs… However, since Garavan’s o
created several authors have
Organizations use a variety of terms to describe and elaborate upon his SHRD
This feature is designed to the work that SHRD professionals undertake. Some
use the term ‘learning and development specialist’,
based upon empirical researc
of large UK-based organizatio
Wallace (2000a) produced an
stimulate your thinking about a others the term ‘organizational development
specialist’, and others describe the SHRD specialist
as a ‘learning solutions specialist’. Why do
characteristics (see Table 2.1)
are discussed in more detail i

specific issue, idea or perspective organizations use so many different titles? What
would you suggest?
1 Organizational missi
related to the chapter topic. Garavan (1991) suggested tha
level SHRD needs to be integr
Theoretical models of SHRD and that those involved in de
should illustrate how HRD ac
This part of the chapter explores two of the most corporate goals and mission o
influential theoretical models of SHRD. In 1991 Garavan this fit or integration is vital, b

The Future of the British Army?

In November 2013 it was soldiers). The rationale given for dow
announced that the British Army the restructuring was that as the ma
was to embark upon a major international security environment tha
restructuring exercise, which changes there will be less need mo
would allow it to be able to for large numbers of regular for
operate effectively and efficiently soldiers or ‘boots on the ground’ as
in a global arena in the future. The innovations in military technology So
most important SHRD implication continue to change how war and BB
of the proposed security situations bel
changes centred are managed. BB

HRD in the news around the skills

and competency
hrD in the news Ultimately, these
innovations
new

Qu
Each chapter contains an example of coverage of its main topic in the media. requirement arising
from increasing
would also
impact on skills
1

the size and expertise of the and competency requirements

The aim here is to highlight how you can apply the constructs and concepts in Army Reserve (soldiers who
are employed by the army on
for soldiers at all levels in the
army. Speaking on BBC Radio
2

the chapter to the management of people in the real world of the workplace. a part-time basis and still have
regular civilian jobs) to 30,000
about the restructuring, the UK
Defence Secretary noted that
soldiers while simultaneously the changes were designed to
A set of questions accompanies each feature to assist with this application to a reducing the size of the regular
full-time army (by around 20,000
reverse the decline of the Army
Reserve, which had been ‘run

practical situation.
Practicalities for the HRD chances of being cons
specialist: Performing to must continuously lin
a strategic level business results.

Table 2.3 Lagging and

xvii
xviii | Tour of the book |

Building your skills

This feature asks you to place yourself in where the
trainers an
building your skills
the position of a line manager and to think way, i.e. lea
resources a
As a student, you may have already developed a
about what you would do in the situation particular set of learning skills or a certain learning
style over the years and become comfortable with
2008). Trai
quickly to g
shorter per
that has been presented to you. this style. However, the adoption of this learning
style may not necessarily result in the best use
easy; many
of your study time or lead to the most effective
earlier in th
outcomes from the perspective of your learning
of feedback
and grades achieved. Consider the VARK sensory
has been le
learning styles described earlier in this chapter.
expected o
E-learning
● Which learning style do you tend to exhibit networks w Active case study
most often?
● How might you draw upon other learning styles?
Social Lear
the growin
These short case studies provide
● How might your learning skills be enhanced by
drawing on a wider range of sensory learning
activities. I
(2013a) hig
the opportunity for you to link
styles? e-learning
● What might your lecturers need to do, or the material covered in the
change, to facilitate your use of the full range The d
of learning styles? years chapter to a real-life situation.
of bot
and p Questions are posed at the end
comp
While e-learning allows organizations to deliver training
dd l i ii i i l li f
such
i
of the case studies, which can be
Chapter review questions answered either in class or as part
Each chapter has eight questions that of an assignment.
can be used as class exercises or for self-
testing and evaluating your knowledge and
understanding of the chapter topic. Developing Leaders for Competitive Advantage: The Ca
The development of leaders JetBlue Speakup Survey revealed
to contribute to the strategic that both managers and employe
growth of an perceived that
organization is leaders within the
recognized as a organization were
this organization.
gy
major challenge.
active case study not effective and
JetBlue, which lacked the skills t
over a period of manage people.
Summary and an Assessment of Implications, Human Resource
13 years has grown from eight to JetBlue senior executives,
Management, 44(4), 413–432.
This chapter highlights the issues involved in managing Economist Intelligence Group (2009) The Role of HR 193 aircraft, took to the skies in including CEO David Neeleman
the HRD function in organizations. It is important to in Uncertain Times, London: Economist Intelligence
highlight that the role of the HRD function is to facilitate
and enable learning rather than to be the sole provider
of learning. In order to obtain commitment from line
Group.
Mafi, S. L. (2000) Managing the HRD Function and Service
Quality: A Call for a New Approach, Human Resource
Useful websites 2000 using a novel concept –
bringing humanity back to air
and president Dave Barger,
realized that this leadership
travel. Based at New York’s gap needed to be addressed
managers and senior management to this approach,
the HRD function plays a key role in formulating HRD
strategy by adopting an ongoing collaborative approach
Development Quarterly, 11(1), 81–86.
An abundance of websites exist on Kennedy International Airport,
JetBlue, a non-union airline,
and designed a new leadership
development programme. The
that involves engagement with these stakeholders. Being useful websites
able to articulate this strategy is essential to managing
the HRD function as it serves as a supporter and enabler
of the overall business strategy.
Bersin by Deloitte https://www.bersin.com/practice/
Browse.aspx?p=Learning-@-Development
topics related to HRD. At the end distinguished itself from other
low-fare carriers by offering seat-
executive team recognized that
leadership development should
This is an excellent resource detailing up-to-date research back entertainment systems with be closely integrated with the
chapter review questions
on industry trends in HRD, benchmarking standards, and
case studies and factbooks.
of each chapter we have identified live television, comfortable seats corporate culture and that
SHRM Organizational and Employee Development: and blue corn chips. The company leadership should be developed a
1 What role does the line manager play in assisting the
HRD function?
2 Outline the role of the HRD function in developing
http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/orgempdev/pages/
default.aspx
This section of the SHRM website provides excellent links
those we believe you will find most quickly grew to about $1.9 billion
in annual revenue in 2012 and
all levels: supervisors, managers
directors and vice presidents. In
an HRD strategy. to current research and guides for those working in HRD
3 What are the steps to formulating an HRD strategy?
4 What should a learning strategy articulate?
5 Suggest some metrics that the HRD function can use
functions.
CIPD Costing and benchmarking learning and
development http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/
useful in furthering your knowledge became increasingly popular with
travellers. It soon realized that
order to systematically identify
development needs, JetBlue used
its massive growth had created the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
to demonstrate its value to the organization.
6 What is the difference between a cost centre and a
service centre?
factsheets/costing-benchmarking-learning-
development.aspx
CIPD’s guide to costing HRD activities gives useful
and understanding of the discipline. a major leadership gap within to help in the needs identification
7 Why do some organizations choose to outsource information on budgeting for HRD activities. the organization. It had a lot of process. Following the needs
their HRD activities? CIPD HR Function page http://www.cipd.co.uk/ inexperienced supervisors and identification process, both the
8 How is the HRD function viewed in SMEs? hr-topics/hr-function.aspx
This provides a lot of information on how to manage the
overall HR function.
further reading Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor
http://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/human-
Clardy, A. (2008) The Strategic Role of Human Resource resources-managers.htm
Development in Managing Core Competencies, Human This site provides information on what skills
Resource Development International, 11(2), 183–197. people working in the HR function require, the
Cooke, F. L., Shen, J. and McBride, A. (2005) Outsourcing working environment, and how to get a job in a
HR as a Competitive Strategy? A Literature Review HR function.

Further reading
There are numerous HRD
resources and other topics
that are also covered in this
textbook. The aim here is to
highlight a few specific texts and
journal articles we believe can
assist you in developing your
understanding and furthering
your knowledge of the many
areas introduced in this book.
 Spotlight on skills:
Text and video feature

This feature aims to encourage you to develop your skills
in HRD by asking you to consider specific questions and
activities. This gives you the opportunity to identify and
diagnose problems and develop possible solutions or
actions in relation to the chapter topic. Each of these
features is accompanied by a link to video interviews
with professionals on the book’s companion website.
The skills-related questions posed in the text feature are
addressed by the practitioner in the video. To maximize
this resource, you should first attempt to answer the
questions in the book and then watch the video.
Companion website
The book’s companion website at www.palgrave.com/
carbery-hrd offers a number of resources for both
lecturers and students. Lecturers can access PowerPoint
slides, a comprehensive testbank of multiple choice
questions and solutions to the Active Case Study
questions.

spotlight on skills
Working as an HRD manager, you have been asked
to justify your expenditure on HRD programmes
undertaken by the organization over the past
12 months. How can you demonstrate the value
of HRD? Will you focus on the value to the
organization, to employees, or both?
To help you answer the questions above, visit www.
palgrave.com/carbery-hrd and watch the video of
Jemma Carty talking about the value of HRD.

xix
 Case Study Grid

Chapter Title Industry Focus

2 Developing Leaders for Competitive
Advantage: The Case of JetBlue
3 Benefit or Cost?
4 Improving Individual Learning at
The Courtyard Hotel in Tokyo
5 After-Action Reviews in the US Army Military, US
6 Organization Development in
Netflix
7 The ‘Free Hand’ Approach to LNA
8 Designing an Induction Programme
at McBurger’n’Fries
9 Training the Taxman!
10 Applying HRD Principles to the
Cosmetics Industry: Case Study
from Oriflame’s Research and
Development Subsidiary
11 O’Brien’s Homeware
12 Fosco Data Handling: The Leadership Information and
Challenges
13 Enterprise Rent-a-Car Graduate
Training and Development
Programme
14 The Ethical HR Value Chain
Aviation, US Development for strategic growth
Pharmaceutical, US Budgeting for HRD
Hospitality, Japan Facilitating employee learning
Capturing organizational learning
Media, US Developing organizational culture
Manufacturing, UK Identifying learning needs
Services, Ireland Devising learning objectives and designing
an induction programme
Government Delivering an HRD programme
Cosmetics, global Evaluating HRD programmes
Retail, Ireland Developing a talent management strategy
Identifying leadership development
communications challenges
technology, UK
Car rental, global Linking graduate training to business needs
Information and Developing an ethics awareness
communications programme
technology, US

xx
 Mapping of the text to CIPD standards

The CIPD HR Profession Map captures what HR people
do and deliver across every aspect and specialism of
the profession, and it looks at the underpinning skills,
behaviour and knowledge that they need to be most
successful. The map identifies ten professional standards,
and each standard comprises a range of performance
behaviours that span four levels of competence. The
standards we are most concerned with for this text are:
Standard 4: Organization Development
Standard 5: Resource and Talent Planning
Standard 6: Learning and Talent Development
We have mapped each chapter in the textbook to
these three standards. For a detailed description of each
standard, please see http://www.cipd.co.uk/cipd-hr-
profession/hr-profession-map/.

CIPD Standard Chapter(s)

4.1 OD strategy, planning and business case development 6
4.2 Organization capability assessment 2, 6
4.3 Culture assessment and development 2
4.4 Organization development intervention and execution 2, 6
4.5 Change communications 6
4.6 OD methodology 6
4.7 Project and programme management 6
4.8 Cultural differences 2, 5, 6
4.9 Culture change 5, 6, 14
4.10 Change management 3
4.11 Change communications 3

5.1 Workforce planning 1, 2

5.2 Resourcing 1, 2
5.3 Talent identification and succession 11
5.4 Assessment and selection 7
5.5 Induction 8
5.6 Exit 7, 13
5.7 Legal framework 14
5.8 Resourcing 1, 2
5.9 Recruitment 13
5.10 Talent and succession 11
5.11 Assessment 8, 9
5.12 Induction 8

xxi
xxii | Mapping of the text to CIPD standards |

CIPD Standard Chapter(s)

6.1 Capability and skills assessment 1, 2, 7
6.2 Organization capability strategy, planning and business case 1, 2, 3
development
6.3 Design L&D solutions 8
6.4 Deliver L&D solutions 9
6.5 Leadership development 12
6.6 Talent management 11
6.7 Capability assessment 2
6.8 Learning styles 4
6.9 Blended learning solutions 4, 8
6.10 Supplier management 8, 9
6.11 Facilitation 9
6.12 Diversity 1, 12
6.13 Measure and evaluate interventions 10
 Skills development
Presentation Skills
Regardless of the industry sector, or the size of the
organization you work in, you will need to have the
ability to present your ideas clearly and succinctly. This
will often happen in a setting where you use a software
programme such as PowerPoint to provide an overview
of the context and key points. Increasingly, some job
vacancies require you to make an oral presentation as
part of the selection process. In order to present your
ideas and arguments clearly, there are a number of stages
involved in the making of an oral presentation. Some of
the key issues involved are outlined here in order to assist
you in developing this important skill, either through
your coursework or after college.
Planning your presentation
Be clear about what your core message is and repeat this at
different stages during the presentation in order to increase
its impact. Is it to inform? To sell your idea? To defend a
position? To present a new idea? Whatever the answer,
keep asking yourself why in different ways. What is the
objective I want to achieve? What will I accept as evidence
that my presentation has succeeded? What do I want the
audience to think or feel at the end of the presentation?
Analyse your audience. What are their expectations
of your presentation? Do they expect to be informed?
Persuaded? Have their existing ideas challenged? What
do you they already know? The key to a successful
presentation is to know what your audience expects and
that you meet or exceed that expectation.
How much time do you have for your presentation?
Be careful not to run over an allocated time slot. This will
detract from your effectiveness.
What should you wear? This may seem a little strange
to include here; however, confidence is an important
element in an effective presentation. You need to be
comfortable and appropriately dressed to project the
‘right’ message.
Handling nerves
Many people find this the most difficult part of making a
presentation.
● Be well prepared and organized. Most people will feel
nervous before a presentation. Knowing what you
are going to say and being organized will reduce your
level of nervousness. The first two minutes of any
presentation are the most crucial. If you feel confident
and clear about what you are going to say in the early
stage of the presentation, this will help alleviate your
nerves for the remainder of the presentation. Once you
have passed the first two minutes and you mentally
believe that the presentation is going well, this will allow
the reminder of the presentation to run more smoothly.
● Don’t read directly from your notes – use visual aids. This
means that the words/pictures you use on the screen
should act as your ‘prompt’. Do not use hand-held notes
as they will just act to provide a false sense of security. If
you lose your place in the notes, or have learned what to
say and then mix up your notes, your level of effectiveness
in the eyes of the audience will be diminished.
● Rehearse in advance. Trial runs are an excellent method
of preparation and allow you to establish how long
your presentation will take. This also develops your
self-confidence, which will work to reduce your
nervousness.
● Pay attention to your ‘mannerisms’ and work to
overcome them. Ask a friend/family member to
highlight any repeated unconscious behaviours you
might have, such as running your hands through
your hair; shaking the change in your pocket; swaying
from side to side; or speaking too fast. These are very
distracting for the audience.
● Practise deep breathing before you get to the room/
place where the presentation is to be made. This will
help reduce the overall feeling of nervousness.
● Be in the room in plenty of time and check that the
equipment and your presentation are working.
● Thinking positive means you are more likely to feel and
behave positively.
xxiii
xxiv | Skills development |
Structuring your presentation
The golden rule is simple:
● Tell them what you are going to tell them
(introduction).
● Tell them (main body).
● Tell them what you’ve told them (conclusion).
The introduction
● The introduction should comprise approximately 10
percent of your presentation. It should provide a map
for the reader of what is going to come.
● Introduce the topic, and yourself (if necessary).
● Start with an attention-getting hook – make a bold
claim, present a striking fact/statistic, ask a question,
use a quotation. If you have a suitable quote, surprising
information or a visual aid – use it to grab the
audience’s attention.
Body language
● Speak clearly and audibly throughout. Vary the
tone of your voice, as this creates interest in your
message.
● Face the audience, not the screen behind you or your
laptop. Speak to the audience and make eye contact
with people in the room. This demonstrates that you
are paying attention to them and encourages them to
pay attention to you.
● Don’t speak too fast, as your message can get lost in
translation.
● Show enthusiasm for the topic/issue/idea, as
enthusiasm is contagious.
● Project your voice out towards the audience. Do not
speak down to your shoes!
● Regard the presentation as an opportunity
to shine.
The conclusion
● Remind the audience of what you set out to do at
the start. That means stressing the key point of your
presentation.
● Briefly repeat the main points you made.
● End on an interesting point, as this assists people in
remembering your presentation.
● Thank the audience for listening and invite questions.
Time Management Skills
People who effectively manage their time are the highest
achievers in all walks of life, from business, to sport,
to public service. Yet, they have only the same number
of hours in a day as the rest of us. This is why time
management is believed to be a critical skill for success.
Many people spend their days in a frenzy of activity, but
achieve very little because they are not concentrating on
the right things. Mobile phones, laptops and e-mail mean
we are virtually contactable 24 hours a day. People often
feel unable to go on holiday without being able to be
contacted. Technology has made us accessible no matter
where we are, whether it’s in the Outer Hebrides or on
the Amazon. In the section below we provide some tips
and techniques to help you become more effective at
managing your most valuable resource – your time.
Your workspace
Where you work has a significant impact on your
productivity and mental wellbeing! While some people
are happy to work surrounded by paper, files, teacups
etc., other people seem to be able to work at a clutter-
free desk. In reality, the brain can only concentrate fully
on one thing at a time. The more ‘stuff ’ on your desk, the
more tempted you will be to be distracted by it and to
pick it up. This instantly causes a distraction. Cluttered
desks are not conducive to clear thinking. You should:
● Clear your desk of everything not related to what
you are working on now. Otherwise your attention is
constantly being drawn to other issues/tasks.
● Resist the temptation to leave papers/a file/book on
your desk.
● Always leave your desk tidy and empty when you are
finished working at night.
Work efficiently
Handle each piece of paper/each e-mail only once. The
principle behind handling paper/e-mails only once is
that it forces you to make a decision about every piece
of paper/e-mail you touch. Avoid reading something
and then saying ‘I’ll deal with that later’. The rules are
either:
● Do it straight away.
● Decide to postpone it until later and identify that it
still needs to be done.
● When in doubt . . . throw it out or delete it!
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Plate 3.

Packs of cards closely resembling the original Tarots are still to be

found in some parts of Switzerland, Germany, and Alsace, where
they are used by the peasantry in the districts which are not much
frequented by travellers; but they are unknown to the rest of the
world except as curiosities. They are, however, the sole
representatives of the cards which the Crusaders or the gypsies
brought into Europe, and which the latter use whenever possible to
divine the future or recall the past. Some writers point to the eastern
origin of these Tarots, because in them “Death” is numbered thirteen,
and the idea of fatality or bad luck attached to that number is
essentially Oriental; and they declare that the fact that the
emblematical Atouts are numbered from low to high, just as certain
Asiatic alphabets are written from left to right, may cover a similar
interpretation.
 CHESS.

A LMOST all writers on Cards have admitted the strong

resemblance they bear to Chess; and M. Paul la Croix declares
that in comparatively modern times the game of chess and games of
cards showed strikingly similar features, which demonstrated their
common origin,—the art of painting being resorted to to depict the
one, and that of sculpture to represent the other.
A pretty history of the origin of Chess has been related. It states
that the game was invented for the amusement of an Oriental
potentate, and was played with living figures, who were required to
move at the word of command from one square to another of a huge
tiled court-yard which was surrounded by the balconies of the palace
and its harem, from which all the movements of the pieces on the
pavement below could be watched by the sovereign and his court.
Living games of Chess have been played for amusement or “sweet
charity’s sake” even in modern times; but such cumbersome pieces
must have been difficult to manage, and it was only natural that the
ingenious mind which contrived living chessmen should soon have
superseded them with figures carved in a convenient material such
as wood or ivory, and then placed the mimic armies on a miniature
battle-field which could be easily commanded by two or more
players.
The Eastern origin of Chess is undisputed, but when and by whom
it was introduced into Europe is unknown. According to Herodius, the
Lydians suffered from a long and severe famine in the reign of Atys,
and in order to forget their misery, invented many games, particularly
dice. Previous writers attribute the invention of games of chance to
the Greeks during the siege of Troy, and Cicero mentions games in
the camp; but it does not follow that these games were either chess,
cards, or dice. They may have been knuckle-bones or jack-stones,
as that game was known in very early days, and pictures
representing persons playing with them have been found among
Egyptian antiquities.
It has been asserted positively by the oldest traditions that the
cards of Indian origin are only chessmen transferred to paper on
which the principal pieces of the game are reproduced, the game
being improved by admitting more than two players.
In the game of Chess there are generally only two armies of
pawns, each one being commanded by a King, a Vizir (which in the
lapse of years has become a Queen), a Knight, an Elephant (which
became a fool and after that a Bishop), and a Dromedary (afterward
a Castle); and the game shows a striking similarity to the Indian
games of cards, which have eight companies distinguished by their
colours and emblems, and of which each one has their King, their
Vizir, and their Elephant. The two games differ, of course; but
sufficient resemblances between them remain to show their common
origin, which recalls the terrible game of war, in which each
adversary must assault, manœuvre, make combinations, and exert
eternal vigilance.
We learn from a most reliable source (Abel de Rémusat, Journal
asiatique, September, 1822) that playing-cards came to Europe from
India and China, and that, like the game of Chess, they were known
to the Arabians and the Saracens from the beginning of the twelfth
century. At first these games found little popular favour, most
probably because they were introduced at a period when civil and
ecclesiastical authorities most positively forbade all games of
chance.
From India Chess spread gradually to other countries. The
Persians seem to have known it about the middle of the sixth
century; and Singer, in his “History of Playing-cards,” states that it
reached China at nearly the same period, and in the reign of the
Emperor Wa-si.
There are such striking resemblances between the figures used in
Chess and those on cards as to leave very little doubt where the
inspiration for the latter originated.
 Beautiful circular cards made of ivory have been found, on which
the figures are painted as if the artist were unable to carve the forms
that he desired to represent, and therefore was obliged to paint them
on a flat surface. These cards are small disks, which might easily be
placed on the squares of a board and moved from one to the other
like chessmen. The advantage of commanding a concealed army
instead of one spread out on an open field probably soon became
apparent, and the result was that some slight changes in the shape
of the pictured figure and the material used were soon made, which
with various modifications have come down to us as the modern
playing-card.
If a study is made of some of the different packs of Chinese cards,
it will be seen that horses, deer, and other animals are represented
on them, together with symbols which seem to mark the suits. In
other packs, instead of the figure of the animal, Chinese characters
are placed above the symbol marking the suit, which characters
seem to have been put there instead of the picture, and which it is
affirmed state, “This is the horse,” or “This one is the deer,” as the
case may be,—as if on one of our court cards the legend “This is the
Queen” should be written on its face, instead of placing there the
quaintly garbed female form which usually represents that august
person.
We find the principal figures from the chess-board reproduced in
the Tarots, and also in some of the Spanish and German packs.
There is the King, the Knight, or mounted horseman, and the Knave.
The pawns or common soldiers are represented by numbers; but
there is this difference between Cards and the game of Chess as it is
generally played,—in the former there are four armies, or as we
should call them “suits,” and each one is headed by the King instead
of the two sides generally seen in Chess. Now, Mr. Chatto remarks
that there is an Indian game of Chess which is called Chaturanga, or
“The Four Kings,” in which two allied armies play against the same
opponents. He also gives a few rules for this game. “Having marked
eight squares on all sides,” says the Sage, “place the red army to the
east, the green to the south, the yellow to the west, and the black to
the north.” It is worthy of notice that these colours form the ground of
four of the suits of one of the divisions of an eight-suit pack of
Hindostanee cards; and this supports the theory that the painted
ivory disks might have originally been used on the chess-board and
then held in the hand. This strange Indian game of Chess would also
point to the first division of the mimic warriors into four armies, each
one distinguished by its uniform of different colours, which when
placed in the cards became known as “suits.” This word was
probably derived from the French en suite, which signifies “to follow.”
There is another game known in which two chess-boards are
joined. “It is played by two persons on each side, each of whom is
concerned to defend his own game at the same time that he co-
operates with his ally to distress by every means in his power the
two armies opposed to them.” “Four-handed Chess” is described in
Hoyle’s Book of Games, which illustrates a board with one hundred
and sixty squares. The game is played with four sets of chessmen,
coloured, respectively, white, black, red, and green, like those of the
Indian game.
The Queen, both in Chess and Cards, has a European if not an
entirely French origin. She takes the place of the Eastern Vizir, or
General; and it may be particularly remarked that in the game of
Chess she is more of an Amazon or Joan of Arc than the consort of
a reigning monarch. Her height also is excessive for a woman, in
proportion to the other pieces, and her active duties of harassing the
enemy and protecting her slow-moving husband while leading his
army to battle show that although she is called a Queen she is
usurping the position of a general, who could more appropriately fill
this important, active, and warlike place than she can.
In the Card Kingdom the Queen is a much more lifelike and
womanly person, as in it she aids and abets her sovereign lord and
master, and is generally meekly subordinate to him.
While drawing attention to the resemblances between the games
of Chess and of Cards, we must not forget to notice a slight but
perhaps important fact; and that is that all the ancient packs had
checkered backs, as if the little army were loath to leave the old
battle-field, but transferred it to their backs, and exposed that to the
gaze of the opponent instead of standing in battle-array upon it. The
oldest existing packs or Tarots retain these checkered backs; and
some authors have decided that Tarot means “checkered,” and that
the name is derived from this circumstance.
The author of “Playing and Other Cards in the British Museum,”
Mr. W. H. Wiltshire, derides the idea that cards derive their origin
from the chessmen, and points out the fact that “in all such games
there are certain approximations, although hardly enough to
establish an identity of origin. Chess,” he says, “is a game of
calculation and combinations; cards are purely chance.” This seems
hardly a fair objection, as there are many games of cards that call for
calculations and combinations, some of them requiring much thought
and study, although on the other hand there are many that may be
played mechanically and without bestowing much thought upon
them. Mr. Wiltshire also declares “that in Chess the pieces are
exposed and the positions equalized, while the cards are hidden,
and the cleverest person may be beaten by a novice without having
made one trick.” Some particular game of cards may have been in
the author’s mind when he made this statement; but there are a
great many card games about which it would not be true.
 ENGRAVING.

T HE order obtained in 1441 by the master card-makers of Venice

from their Senate which prohibited the introduction into that city
of “large quantities of cards printed and painted outside of Venice,”
should be particularly noticed, as printed cards are especially
mentioned as well as painted ones; and this points to the fact that
there was in use some process besides the original one of painting
or stencilling when the cards of that period were being
manufactured.
The fragments of the French packs which show by many marks
but particularly by their costumes that they were executed about the
time of Charles the Seventh, were possibly some of the first efforts of
the wood-engraver. They were probably produced between the years
1420 and 1440,—that is, before the greater part of the xylographies
now known.
The first pictures produced by printing with blocks of wood were
probably used as playing-cards; and this is an invention which is
very much older than that of printing with movable types.
By the middle of the fifteenth century cards had spread all over
Europe, and necessity called for an economical process by which
they might be rapidly as well as cheaply produced.
In 1392 three packs of Tarots were painted for the King of France
by Jacquemin Gringonneur, for which he received fifty-six sols
parisis,—that is to say, about one hundred and seventy francs, or
thirty-four dollars.
A single pack of Tarots, which were charmingly painted about
1415 by Marziano, Secretary to the Duc de Milan, cost fifteen
thousand écus d’or (about five hundred dollars); and in 1454 a pack
of cards intended for a dauphin of France cost only fourteen or
fifteen francs, or three dollars. In the thirty years which had elapsed it
is evident that a cheap process of manufacturing cards had been
discovered.
Cards had also become merchandise, and were sold at the same
time as counters, or épingles; and from the latter is derived the
French expression “tirer son épingle de jeu.”
It has generally been conceded that the Chinese understood the
art of wood-engraving long before it was practised in Europe. Marco
Polo, who visited China about the middle of the thirteenth century,
describes, in his interesting book of travels, a mode of printing or
stamping with coloured ink; and it is probable that printing from a
block was also known to the Chinese at that time.
Authorities do not agree about which are the first specimens of
wood-engraving, but it is more than probable that a rude picture of
Saint Christopher carrying the infant Jesus, which is dated 1425, is
one of the earliest specimens of the art. This curious and interesting
print was discovered pasted in the cover of a manuscript in the
library of the Chartreuse at Buxheim in Suabia. Mr. Singer gives a
description of the infancy of the xylographic art, and says that the
demand for playing-cards increased so rapidly after their introduction
into the European countries that it became imperative to
manufacture them at a moderate price; and thus wood-engraving
became of consequence, and its productions soon became a most
important article of commerce.
It is probable that at first the wood-engravers produced only small
pictures of saints, influenced no doubt by their priestly surroundings,
as nearly all of the early wood-cuts which have been found are of
pious subjects; and they were probably executed by the inhabitants
of the religious houses, who were at the time the educated men of
the day. These early engravings are printed on paper of the shape,
size, and style of the earliest known playing-cards. The saints’
pictures always bore a small streamer or ribbon, on which the name
of the holy person represented was written. On the early specimens
of playing-cards names are always placed beside the heads of the
court cards; and this may have been necessary in order to
distinguish the saint from the king, as it is possible that the engraver
may have used the same figures to represent not only the holy
personages, but also the members of the royal card family, and they
could be distinguished only by the names written beside them.
An old chronicler of the city of Ulm, of about the year 1397, states
that playing-cards have been sent in bundles to Italy, Sicily, and
other southern countries in exchange for groceries and other
merchandise; and it may have been this exportation of cards from
Germany, which probably increased most rapidly, that called for the
edict forbidding the importation of cards into Venice in 1441. It also
points to their having been manufactured in quantities even before
1423, the date of the earliest known wood-cut.
Cards were not only produced by hand-painting, stencilling, or
wood-engraving, but really artistic and beautifully executed cards
were engraved on copper, in 1466, by an artist known as Le Maître
(the Master), but by no other name.
Only a few specimens of these unique cards are now to be found
in some museums, and the series is not complete. According to
calculation, they should consist of seventy cards, containing five
suits instead of four, with fourteen cards in each suit and four figures
or court cards to each one. The face cards are the King, Queen,
Knight, and Knave; and the marks show a bizarre collection of
savages, wild beasts, birds of prey, and flowers. They are grouped
and numbered and arranged in such a way as to be easily
distinguished and sorted into the correct suits.
In 1463 the card-makers of England endeavoured to protect
themselves from the foreign importation of cards, and they must
have been a somewhat influential guild even at that early date to
require and receive this protection from the Government; but no
cards have been discovered that were undoubtedly of English
manufacture of that period.
 MATERIALS.

T HE process of manufacturing Playing-cards now deserves

attention. It seems that the first packs of Tarots which have been
preserved were made of two pieces of cardboard, and were
afterward pasted together. The backs had a checkered pattern
designed on them, and were placed so as to overlap the face; and
the diapered edge was carefully pasted down and formed a
protection and a frame to the pictured side.
It may be as well to quote here the graphic account given by Mr.
Chatto in his “Facts and Speculations on Playing-cards.” He says:—
“The following account of the manner of making cards at the
manufactory of Messrs. de la Rue & Co. of London is extracted from
Bradshaw’s Journal, April 16, 1842:—
“‘The first object that engages our attention is the preparation of
the paper intended to be formed into cards. It is found that ordinary
paper when submitted to pressure acquires a certain degree of
polish, but not sufficient for playing-cards of the finest quality. In
order, therefore, that it may admit of the high finish which is
afterwards imparted, the paper is prepared by a white enamel colour
consisting of animal size and other compounds. This substance,
which renders the paper impermeable to the atmosphere, is laid on
with a large brush and left to dry.
“‘The paper being ready for use, we proceed to explain the printing
of the fronts of the cards, which are technically distinguished as pips
and têtes.
“‘To commence with the simpler, the pip (that is, the Hearts,
Diamonds, Spades, and Clubs), sets of blocks are produced, each
containing forty engravings of one card; and as the ordinary method
of letterpress printing is employed, forty impressions of one card are
obtained at the same moment. As the pips bear but one colour, black
or red, they are worked together at the hand-press or steam-printing
machine.
“‘For the têtes, however (or court cards), which with the outline
contain five colours,—dark blue, light blue, black, red, and yellow,—a
somewhat different contrivance is employed. The colours are printed
separately, and are made to fit into each other with great nicety, in
the same manner as in printing silks or paper-hangings. For this
purpose a series of blocks are provided which if united would form
the figure intended to be produced. By printing successively from
these blocks, the different colours fall into their proper places until
the whole process is completed. After the printing is done the sheets
are carried into a drying-room heated to 80° Fahrenheit, and are
allowed to remain there three or four days, in order to fix the
colours.’”
In France the card generally consists of two pieces of paper, but in
England a more substantial article is required. It is generally four
sheets thick,—that is, the foreside and the back, and two inside
layers of an inferior description. The pasting of these sheets together
requires care and clever manipulation. After the sheets are pasted
together, they are thoroughly dried, enamelled, and then cut into
cards which are sorted by being laid out on a table about two
hundred at a time, until all the cards that constitute a pack are
spread out; so that by this operation two hundred packs are
completed almost simultaneously. The best cards are called Moguls;
the others, Harrys and Highlanders.
Paper was almost a necessity in card-making; and England could
not have provided it when cards were first made there, as the art of
paper-making was unknown before the reign of Henry the Seventh,
who lived from 1485 to 1509. Even as late as the days of Queen
Anne, paper was imported from Germany for the purpose.
Many other materials have been used in manufacturing cards
besides paper. As has been mentioned, beautiful packs have been
painted on ivory or mother of pearl. Parchment and leather have
been often used; thin tablets of wood and large leaves have been
pressed into service, as well as stout paper which was neither card
nor pasteboard. The Chinese and Hindoos sometimes used a cotton
paper so stout and smooth as to make it most suitable for the
purpose; and the curious wooden sticks carved with distinguishing
figures used by the Haida Indians show perhaps the most peculiar
materials used in the manufacture of games.
Mr. Chatto mentions a pack of Hindostanee cards in the Museum
of the Royal Asiatic Society which are made of canvas, and are said
to be a thousand years old. He says: “On first handling them they
seem to be made of thin veneers of wood. These cards are circular;
and the figures or marks appear to be executed by hand, not printed
nor stencilled.”
The Malays use cards made of cocoanut or palm-tree leaves,
which are first well dried, and the symbols or distinctive characters
are then traced on the leaf with an iron style.
A story in the “History of the Conquest of Florida,” by Garcilasso
de la Vega, relates that “the soldiers who were engaged in that
expedition, having burnt all their cards after the battle of Manoila
(about 1542), made themselves new ones of parchment, which they
painted admirably as if they had followed the business all their lives;
but as they either could not or would not make so many as were
wanted, players had the cards in turn for a limited time.”
Such fragile and thin materials have sometimes been used in the
production of cards that dealing was difficult and shuffling
impossible. One very beautiful pack has been produced, and is
preserved in the South Kensington Museum in London, which was
embroidered on silk.
Such materials as gold, silver, and tortoise-shell, and even small
tiles have been used in the manufacture of cards; but when made
from these materials they have been difficult to handle, and have
been regarded only as curiosities; and at the present day thick
pasteboard, either highly enamelled or quite without glaze of any
kind, is in general use all over the world.
 NAME.

T HE first positive mention of Playing-cards is in a manuscript by

Nicholas de Covellezzo, which is preserved among the Archives
of Viterbo. “In 1379,” says the Chronicler, “playing-cards were
introduced in Viterbo. These came from the country of the Saracens,
and were called Naïb.” The Italians have for centuries called their
cards Naibi, and in Spain they are still named Naypes.
M. la Croix remarks that in Arabic the word Naïb signifies
“captain,” and declares that this name proves the military origin of
Cards, and points to their connection with Chess.
Mr. Taylor, in his work on Playing-cards, quotes from the above-
mentioned manuscript by Nicholas de Covellezzo, which records the
introduction of cards into Italy, and says: “The use of the term Naïb in
Italy for cards is one of the strongest proofs of their introduction into
Europe by the gypsies. To this day they are called in Spain Naypes,
which is clearly a corruption of the Arabic Nabi, ‘a prophet;’ and we
have therefore the significant fact that cards have been and are still
called in Spain by a title which fortune-tellers (gypsies, in fact) might
easily be supposed to claim.”
Mr. Singer quotes from various authorities to show the derivation
of the word Naipes, and says that “it may mean ‘flat’ or ‘even,’” which
would describe a card; and also that the Hebrew word Naibes
denotes “sorcery, fortune-telling, prediction,” etc.
Mr. Chatto derives the same word from one found in Hindostanee,
Na-eeb or Naib, which signifies a viceroy, lieutenant, or deputy, and
says: “As the game of Chess was known in Hindostan by the name
of ‘The Four Kings,’ if cards were suggested by Chess and invented
in the same country, the supposition that they might have been
called Chatier-Nawaub, ‘The Four Viceroys,’ as the cognate game of
Chess was called ‘The Four Kings,’ and that this name subsequently
became changed into Chartati-Naib, is at least as probable as the
derivation of Naipes from N. P., the initials of Nicolas Pepin, their
supposed inventor;” which derivation is gravely given by another
author.
It is only in Italy that the old name of Naipes or Naibi is retained. In
Portugal the word has become corrupted into Naipe; in Spain,
Naypes or Naipes. In France cards are called Cartes à jouer; and a
pack is named a Jeu. In Germany they are termed Briefe and Karten
and Spielkarten. In Holland the name is Kaarten or Speelkaarten; in
Denmark, Kort or Spelkort; and in Russia, Kartu. The term Alea,
which was frequently employed in ancient ordinances and laws,
seems to cover all games of chance, and is not used to signify
playing-cards alone. The derivation of the English word card from the
French carte is too plain to require further comment.
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF PACKS OF
CARDS INTO SUITS.

E VER since the fifteenth century evidences of the existence and

popularity of cards have been found in Italy, Spain, Germany,
and France.
The names, colours, emblems, number, and form change with the
countries or caprices of the card-makers; but what are termed Cartes
Tarots or Cartes Françaises are always the original cards which
came from the East, and which are in a greater or less degree
faithful imitations of the still more ancient game of Chess.
It is related that on the 5th of March, 1423, Saint Bernardin, of
Sienna, addressed a crowd which had assembled before a church in
that place, and inveighed with such energy and eloquence against all
games of chance that his hearers rushed to search for their dice,
their chess, and their cards, and lighting a large bonfire, immolated
them on the spot.
One man stood by who watched mournfully the movements of the
frantic crowd, and then bursting into tears cried out to the preacher:
“Father,” quoth he, “I make cards. I have no other work by which I
can make a livelihood; by stopping my profession, you condemn me
to starve.”
“If painting is the only thing you can do for a living,” replied the
preacher, “take this picture [showing him the sacred monogram
surrounded by brilliant rays] and copy it.”
The workman followed this advice, and became wealthy by
reproducing it.
This tale shows how well established the use of cards was in the
fifteenth century; and specimens of the cards of that period are still in
existence, and at once strike the observing student with the fact that
the four great divisions or suits exist (although with different
symbols) in almost all the known packs.
It is probable that in France the Tarots were used for many years
exactly as they were when first introduced into that country, until the
rearrangement of the pack by the French courtiers for the
convenience of their demented sovereign. When this ingenious
condensation of the original pack took place, the symbols of the
Orient were discarded, and the adapter chose two colours to
represent the different suits, and placed les Cœurs (Hearts), les
Carreaux (Diamonds), les Piques (Spades), les Trifles (Clubs), as
the symbols that marked them instead of those on the Tarots, which
were Denari (Money), Spade (Swords), Coppe (Cups), and Bastoni
(Maces). These devices were not distinguished by particular colours;
and it is only when the French cards have been copied and adapted
that we find the distinctive colours red and black marking the
divisions of the suits.
Playing-cards without doubt reached Germany through Italy, but
during their journey toward the north they lost their Eastern character
and their Saracenic name almost at once. They never seem to have
been called Naïb, or by any name resembling that word. The first
mention of cards in Germany calls them Briefe; that is to say, letters.
The first card-makers were named Brief-maler.
The Germans composed symbols to mark the suits for
themselves, and rejected the Eastern ones, and were probably
unconscious that such devices as Hearts, Diamonds, etc., existed on
the cards of the neighbouring country; for intercourse in those days
was not rapid, and each kingdom was as independent of its fellow as
if oceans divided them. M. la Croix says that the Germans “with their
love of symbolism discovered a vegetable as well as a military
signification in the original game of cards.” While making important
changes, they retained a little of their warlike character in their
symbols and figures, and placed among them some designs inspired
by the vegetable world. The devices with them signified the triumphs
and the honours of war, and they discarded the weapons of the East,
the Swords and the Staves, and disdained the sordid money and the
priestly chalice, and adopted sprays of oak and of ivy as if intended
for victors’ wreaths, and chose tiny bells, or grelots, as distinctive
marks, as these were among the most important signs of German
nobility, and borne by them among the other heraldic marks, and
considered most honourable emblems. These symbols gave a more
peaceful aspect to the ancient warlike game.
The names of the German suits are Schellen (Bells), Hertzen
(Hearts), Grün (Green), and Eicheln (Acorns). It is not now known at
what period these symbols which have become a distinguishing
character of the German cards were adopted, but during part of the
fifteenth century other objects were also represented on their cards;
and the different marks quarrelled with the others and strove to be
generally adopted, but without success, as those named above have
been the only ones in use for many generations, although they are
now being gradually superseded by the French designs, which
among English-speaking nations are known as Hearts, Diamonds,
Clubs, and Spades.
Some ancient German packs which have been preserved are not
only very remarkable for the beautiful workmanship lavished on their
production and as handsome specimens of the engraver’s art, but
are also curious because they contain five suits instead of the
ordinary four. These were divided into Hares, Parrots, Pinks, Roses,
and Columbines, with the usual King, Queen, Knight, and Knave in
each suit. These cards were executed in the fifteenth century in the
city of Cologne. Other packs of engraved cards made about the
latter end of the fifteenth century in Germany had their suits marked
by animals, flowers, and birds, and were not coloured, the symbols
marking the suits without other aid. The mark of the Grün, or Leaf, in
the German card resembles in shape the Hearts and Spades of the
French. The shape of all these pips is closely analogous; and the
Heart provided with a short handle and called a Spade or given a
long stem and named a Leaf must originally have had a common
origin, all knowledge of which is lost in the mists of the Middle Ages.
 The Pique may have received its name of Spade in its English
home, not, as some authors fancy, because the word was a
corruption of the Spanish Espadas, but because it resembled in
shape the spade or shovel which was in use in England when cards
first made their appearance there. M. la Croix fancies the shape of
the Heart resembles a shield, and points to this as supporting his
claim that the designs on the cards had a military origin. Among the
miners in some parts of England Diamonds are frequently called
Picks, owing to their resemblance to the head of that tool. M. la Croix
also declares that les Cœurs were the symbols placed on the cards
by the French adapter, in order to do honour to his friend Jacques
Cœur, a merchant of the day whose trade with the East might have
been the means of introducing the cards into France, and fancies
that les Trifles denoted “the heraldic plant of Agnes Sorel,”—the
King’s mistress, who had adopted the humble clover-leaf as her
badge as a sort of pun upon her own name; the French word sorel
signifying the plant the leaves of which bear some resemblance to
the Trifle on the cards.
The Grelots on the German cards may have been copied from the
“Hawk-bell,”—a favourite mark of nobility, and one which it was
considered an honour to be able to display among the symbols on
the coat of arms. Bells were also an insignia of rank in India; and
some writers have pointed out that the Germans might have copied
the devices on their cards from Hindoo packs, as well as from the
better known Tarots or Saracen cards. Bells have always been
favourite decorations; and their use dates back to the hangings of
the Temple, where the fringes which adorned the curtains and the
garments of the high-priest were ornamented with bells.
In a beautiful pack of Hindoo cards mentioned by Mr. Singer seven
suits were found, consisting of Suns represented by golden disks,
Moons or silver circles, Crowns, Cushions, Harps, Letters, and
Swords. These cards closely resemble the Tarots, and may have
originated in a common source. In some of the Hindoo packs the
suits are distinguished by a colour as well as by the form of the
symbol.
 Although parts of packs which from the devices they bear may
have been imported from Germany or Spain, and which seem to
have been well used, are preserved in the British Museum, having
been found in England, only cards of French origin have been
universally used there, and they have held undisputed sway from the
middle of the fifteenth century, when the distinctive colours of red
and black, and the emblems of Hearts, Diamonds, Spades, and
Clubs were generally adopted, and have remained nearly
unchanged from that time to the present. There was no attempt to
shade the pips or the figures and faces of the court cards at any time
in England, and the outlines were simply coloured and laid on in
solid blocks. The French have changed their figures, and shaded
their faces, and made their pips slightly more symmetrical in shape;
but they are very nearly the same as when originally designed by the
clever-fingered French courtier.
CARDS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.