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Contents vii
Since the publication of the first edition of Regenerative Chapter 15, a perspective on what we have achieved in
Biology and Medicine in 2006, we have made steady regenerative biology and medicine, and what I think are
advances in understanding the origin and characteristics of the most exciting prospects that lie ahead. For those using
stem cells in epithelia, skeletal muscle, and bone, and in the book as a course text, this organization allows the
the niche signals that regulate the activities of these cells. instructor to focus on either regenerative biology or regen-
Simultaneously, we witnessed one of the most remarkable erative medicine, or to combine the two by using doublet
breakthroughs ever in regenerative biology, the epigenetic chapters. I initially tried to present the material accord-
reprogramming of somatic cells to cells remarkably similar ing to regenerative mechanism, but this was not practical
to embryonic stem cells, dubbed induced pluripotent stem because nearly all biological systems use more than one
cells (iPSCs). The creation of these cells from skin fibrob- mechanism of regeneration. Thus it was better to separate
lasts of animals was announced in 2007, and then from organ systems for the discussion of both regeneration and
human skin fibroblasts in 2008. The result has been a mega regenerative medicine. Reading Chapters 1, 9 and 15, or
explosion of research papers to find safer, more efficient the summaries of Chapters 1–15, will provide an abridged
ways to make these cells, understand the process by which content for purposes of short courses.
reprogramming takes place, and compare iPSCs to bona Regenerative biology and medicine has generated an
fide ESCs. The creation of iPSCs is a tide that has raised all enormous literature, of which I have sampled probably
boats in regenerative biology, and it is one with enormous no more than 5%, as was the case with the first edition.
implications for regenerative medicine. A potentially even Moreover, by the time this work is published, many new
greater breakthrough has been the transdifferentiation of one ideas and facts will have emerged, due to the ever-greater
cell type directly to another in situ. We now can think with increase in the number of research papers appearing each
more confidence that the ultimate goal of regenerative medi- week. In fact, each topic of this book could warrant a sepa-
cine, the chemical induction of regeneration directly at the rate volume of its own, and this has been done already for
site of an injury, something that urodele amphibians know a number of the topics. What I have hoped to accomplish
how to do naturally, is attainable for a whole list of mamma- here is to provide a panoramic view of regenerative biol-
lian tissues and organs that do not regenerate. ogy and medicine within which to integrate old and new
Like the first edition, the second edition of this book data into an ever-clearer global picture, like that of a jig-
is directed to multiple audiences: research investigators, saw puzzle that emerges as more and more pieces are fitted
graduate students, medical students and postdoctoral fel- to it.
lows who want a single overall synthesis of this young I thank my colleagues Jo Ann Cameron, Fengyu Song,
field, as well as investigators from fields not directly Xiaoping Chen, Deepali Jhamb, and Nandini Rao who
related to regenerative biology and medicine such as have read parts of the manuscript at various stages. My
chemistry, informatics, computer science, mathemat- editor Christine Minihane and the production team of
ics, physics and engineering who have expertise that can Julia Haynes, Halima Williams, and Carolyn Holleyman
contribute to its advance. Regenerative biology and medi- have made this project much easier with their patience and
cine has now developed to the point where it is becoming discerning eyes. I thank them for their wonderful efforts.
a topic for advanced undergraduate courses, and the book The W.M. Keck Foundation and the U.S. Army Research
was written with this audience in mind as well. Office supported research cited from my laboratory from
I have re-organized the content of the book into three 2006 to the present.
parts. Part One, consisting of Chapters 1–8, covers the David L. Stocum
biology of regeneration. Part Two consists of Chapters Indianapolis
9–14 and covers regenerative medicine. Part Three is February, 2012
xi
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Part I
Regenerative Biology
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Chapter 1
experiments begun by Lavoisier (1743–1794) in the second preformed appendages, the growth of which was stimulated
half of the 18th century and carried on by others into the by amputation. In the early 20th century, regeneration was
19th century showed that life depended on chemical reac- recognized as a regulative process that restored the whole
tions that were reproducible in the laboratory. With the from the remaining part. A major research aim of Thomas
formulation of the cell theory by Schleiden and Schwann Hunt Morgan (1866–1945), before he turned to genet-
in 1838–1839 and the later microscopic observations of ics, was to explain regeneration in terms of chemical and
Virchow, Remak and others, it became clear that cells are physical principles (Morgan, 1901). Over a century later,
the fundamental units that carry out the chemical reactions we are still in the process of formulating this explanation
of life and that new cells are created by the division of exist- and simultaneously advancing the age-old dream of being
ing cells, thus explaining growth and reproduction. able to regenerate tissues and organs that do not regenerate
The 20th century saw an unparalleled explosion of spontaneously. Now, in the second decade of the 21st cen-
biological and medical knowledge. Major advances were tury, rapid advances in multidisciplinary biological science,
the discovery and production of antibiotics, the develop- chemistry and informatics have put that goal within reach.
ment of molecular replacement therapies for diseases such
as diabetes, an understanding of the immune system that III. REGENERATION OCCURS AT ALL
revealed the antigenic differences between “self ” and
“non-self ”, and the development of highly sophisticated
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
imaging and surgical technologies. These advances, cou- All organisms regenerate, though the degree of regenera-
pled with advances in engineering and materials science tive ability varies among species and with level of biologi-
and the development of immunosuppressive drugs, have cal organization within the individual organism (Goss,
given us the ability to transfuse blood and replace dam- 1969). Some invertebrates, such as ascidians, coelenter-
aged and dysfunctional tissues and organs through tissue ates, flatworms and annelid worms, can regenerate whole
and organ transplants and implants of bionic devices. organisms from fragments of the body. The roots, stems,
Without question, however, the most fundamental and and leaves of plants have extensive regenerative capacity,
far-reaching event of 20th century biology was the dis- and entire plants can be grown from single cells or small
covery, in mid-century, that DNA is the hereditary mate- cuttings (Carlson, 2007; Birnbaum and Sanzhez-Alvarado,
rial (Avery et al., 1944; Hershey and Chase, 1952) and 2008, for reviews). For example, a single carrot cell can
that it has a helical structure consisting of two deoxyribose regenerate a whole carrot (Steward et al., 1964). Compared
sugar–phosphate backbones held together by complemen- to these life forms, the regenerative capacity of vertebrate
tary base pairs, adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine tissues, including humans, is limited, but no less vital.
(Watson and Crick, 1953). The enormous power of this All molecules, cells and tissues experience turnover,
structure to explain how the genetic material is replicated and thus must be continually regenerated to maintain the
and mutates, and how information for protein structure is integrity of the organism. On the molecular level, regener-
encoded in it and expressed, led to exponential advances ation is ubiquitous. All cells can adjust the balance of pro-
in our knowledge of cell, developmental, and evolutionary tein synthesis and degradation in response to biochemical
biology. or mechanical load. For example, cardiomyocytes replace
Regeneration became a focus of systematic scientific most of their molecules over the course of two weeks and
investigation only in the 18th century, though it figured adjust their rate of protein synthesis upwards under a sus-
prominently in the ancient Greek myths of the Hydra and tained increase in blood pressure, becoming hypertrophied
Prometheus recounted by Homer and Hesiod (Dinsmore, (Gevers, 1984). At the level of the single-cell free-living
1998) and in the medieval accounts of the regeneration unicellular protozoans such as the amoeba, Tetrahymena,
of severed human arms and legs (Goss, 1991). Abraham Stentor and Acetabularia can regenerate themselves after
Trembly performed detailed experiments on the regenera- removal of large cytoplasmic fragments, as long as nuclear
tion of hydra that made a deep impression on the biologists material is present in the remaining fragment (Goss, 1969).
of the time (Lenhoff and Lenhoff, 1991), while Reaumer As little as 1/80 of an amoeba is capable of reconstituting a
and Spallanzani reported observations on the regeneration complete amoeba (Vorontsova and Liosner, 1960).
of limbs in crustaceans and newts, respectively (Skinner Regeneration is most complex at the tissue level and
and Cook, 1991; Dinsmore, 1991). Studies on limb devel- above. On the one hand, it is thought that some differenti-
opment and regeneration in the latter part of the 19th and ated cells, such as neurons of the human cerebral cortex,
the early part of the 20th centuries made major contribu- are never renewed. On the other hand, we know that the
tions to the understanding of development. Prior to the 20th cells of many tissues turn over and that the rate of turnover
century, limb regeneration in amphibians and crustaceans varies with the tissue. Rapid turnover and replacement is
was explained in the context of preformation. The limbs of characteristic of epithelial cells of the skin and linings of
these animals were presumed to contain multiple copies of the digestive, respiratory and urogenital tracts, as well as
6 PART | I Regenerative Biology
the myeloid and lymphoid cells of the hematopoietic sys- questions have been obtained, but they have revealed four
tem. The liver, on the other hand, turns over once a year, potential mechanisms of tissue regeneration in vertebrates.
and the skeletal system once a decade. This type of regen- These are cellular re-growth, regeneration from pre-
eration, which involves cell replacement within an intact existing differentiated parent cells, transdifferentiation, and
tissue, can be termed maintenance regeneration. By con- the activation of adult stem cells (Fig. 1.2).
trast, massive cell loss caused by injury or disease (i.e.,
tissue loss) elicits a much more intense local response to A. Cellular Re-Growth
restore the missing tissue. This response can be termed
injury-induced regeneration. It is important to remember Regeneration by cellular re-growth involves the loss of
that both forms of regeneration are homeostatic mecha- a cytoplasmic part and its subsequent restoration by re-
nisms (see Galliot and Ghila, 2010, for review). growth from the remainder of the cell. This occurs in ver-
Regeneration and asexual reproduction are intimately tebrate tissues in which elongated cells or cell processes
related in some invertebrates (Birnbaum and Sanzhez- are bundled together to form the tissue. For example,
Alvarado, 2008). Coelenterates and flatworms appear within skeletal muscle, myofibers regenerate across small
to use the same mechanisms for regeneration as they do gaps after transection by re-sealing the membranes of their
for reproduction. Thus, planaria and hydra can undergo cut ends followed by membrane extension and re-fusion.
reproduction by fission, with two new individuals being The most spectacular regeneration by cell re-growth in
reconstituted from the fission products. Although verte- vertebrates occurs in the transected axons of peripheral
brates cannot reproduce by fission, regeneration is never- nerves, where the part of the transected axon that is con-
theless relevant to their reproduction, since it allows them tinuous with the nerve cell body grows back to its target
to survive to reproductive age and thereby propagate the tissue (Yannas, 2001).
species. The relationship between reproduction and regen-
eration in vertebrates has been exquisitely summed up in B. Regeneration from Pre-Existing
two quotes. The great cell biologist E.B. Wilson wrote
in the second edition of his classic book “The Cell in
Parent Cells
Development and Heredity” (1925) that “…life is a contin- This is a versatile form of regeneration that can involve
uum, a never-ending stream of protoplasm in the form of three different mechanisms: compensatory hyperplasia;
cells, maintained by assimilation, growth and division. The epithelial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT) and the
individual is but a passing eddy in the flow who vanishes reverse, mesenchymal to epithelial transformation (MET);
and leaves no trace, while the general stream of life goes and dedifferentiation/redifferentiation.
forward”. Forty-three years later, in his book “Principles
of Regeneration” (1969) the 20th century master of regen-
1. Compensatory Hyperplasia
erative biology Richard J. Goss observed that “If there
were no regeneration there could be no life. If everything Compensatory hyperplasia is the proliferation of cells
regenerated there would be no death. All organisms exist while they maintain their differentiated structure and
between these two extremes. Other things being equal, function. The classic example is liver regeneration
they tend toward the latter end of the spectrum, never quite (Michalopoulos and DeFrances, 1997; Trembly and Steer,
achieving immortality because this would be incompatible 1998). After partial hepatectomy the hepatocytes of the
with reproduction”. In other words, as individuals we use liver, as well as its non-parenchymal cell types (Kupffer,
regeneration to locally reverse the second law of thermo- Ito, bile duct epithelial, and fenestrated epithelial cells),
dynamics for a short time, a struggle we ultimately lose, divide while continuing to perform their functions of glu-
but one that we win as a species over a longer span of time cose regulation, synthesis of blood proteins, secretion of
through reproduction. bile, and drug metabolism, until the original mass of the
liver is restored. Other cell types regenerated by this mech-
IV. MECHANISMS OF VERTEBRATE anism are β-cells of the pancreatic islets, cardiomyocytes
of the heart, and endothelial cells of regenerating blood
REGENERATION vessels.
We ask four basic questions when exploring how regen-
eration occurs. The questions are: (1) what is the origin 2. Epithelial to Mesenchymal and
(cell type and anatomical location) of the cells that per- Mesenchymal to Epithelial Transformation
form regeneration; (2) what are the characteristics of the
(EMT/MET)
cells; (3) what kinds of activities do the cells engage in to
accomplish regeneration; and (4) what are the factors that Epithelial and mesenchymal cells can be transformed
regulate these activities? Only partial answers to these into one another, a phenomenon called epithelial to
Chapter | 1 An Overview of Regenerative Biology 7
M
AX
MN
1. CH P
2. D/R D P R
3. EMT
E M
(C) Transdifferentiation
1. Direct T
2. Indirect D T
P
ASC
SR LC PC Differentiate
FIGURE 1.2 The four mechanisms of regeneration. (A) Cellular re-growth. Axon re-growth to muscle target (M) after transecting the axon (Ax) of
a motor neuron (MN). Arrow indicates direction of re-growth. (B) Regeneration from parent differentiated cells. (1) Compensatory hyperplasia (CH),
in which a differentiated cell proliferates (P) to expand the population. (2) Dedifferentiation/redifferentiation (D/R), in which the cell first reverts to an
undifferentiated state (dedifferentiates, D), proliferates (P), and redifferentiates (R) into the parent cell type. (3) Epithelial (E) to mesenchymal (M) and
mesenchymal to epithelial transformation, allowing epithelial cells to migrate and proliferate as mesenchymal cells before redifferentiating into epithe-
lial cells again. (C) Transdifferentiation, which may occur directly by initiation of a new pattern of gene expression simultaneously with repression of
the old one, or indirectly by dedifferentiation (D) to a more primitive state, then transdifferentiating (T) to a new cell type. (D) Activation of adult stem
cells. Adult stem cells (ASC) typically divide to produce a lineage-committed daughter (LC) and another stem cell, a process called self-renewal (SR).
The lineage committed cell proliferates (P) to form precursor cells (PC) that differentiate into the terminal cell type. The diagram depicts a unipotent
ASC, but many ASCs are multipotent.
mesenchymal transformation (EMT) and mesenchymal to Developmental examples of EMT and MET are the trans-
epithelial transformation (MET). These transformations formation of epithelial cells into mesenchymal cells during
are prominent mechanisms of development and of pathol- the morphogenetic movements of gastrulation and the for-
ogies such as fibrosis and cancer (Thiery et al., 2009, for mation of kidney tubules from metanephric mesenchyme,
review). EMT allows epithelial cells to migrate, whereas respectively (Gilbert, 2010, for review). EMT in cancer
MET restricts migration by establishing an epithelium. is responsible for metastasis. EMT/MET is also essential
8 PART | I Regenerative Biology
for epithelial wound repair, where epithelial cells assume by a stem cell division is termed self-renewal. There are
a state in which they can migrate across a wound surface two major classes of ASCs, epithelial and mesenchymal.
while maintaining loose contacts, then re-form into a tight ASCs have varying degrees of developmental potential,
epithelium. In urodele (salamander) spinal cord regenera- depending on the tissue they serve. Some are multipoten-
tion, EMT of ependymal epithelial cells allows a gap in tial and give rise to several cell types, as in the hematopoi-
the cord to be bridged by mesenchymal cells. MET then etic system, others such as epidermal stem cells appear to
restores the epithelium, the cells of which form end-feet be unipotent and give rise only to keratinocytes. Activation
channels for axon re-growth (Chernoff et al., 2003). of ASCs may take place differently in maintenance vs.
injury-induced regeneration. In maintenance regenera-
tion, the stem cells undergo continual but slow division
3. Dedifferentiation/Redifferentiation (D/R)
in response to environmental signals, feeding a constant
Dedifferentiation is a reverse epigenetic reprogramming stream of progeny into a new microenvironment that
resulting in the loss of phenotypic specialization and rever- induces them to differentiate, but ramp up stem cell activa-
sion of cells to a less differentiated state that allows them tion and proliferation in response to injury.
to proliferate and redifferentiate into their parent cell type.
Dedifferentiation/redifferentiation is a relatively common
1. Epithelial Stem Cells
mechanism of regeneration in lower vertebrates. Teleost
fish regenerate fins and barbels by D/R and certain spe- Epithelia make up 60% of the differentiated tissue types in
cies of lizards can regenerate tails by this mechanism. the body (Slack, 2000) and are derived from the ectoder-
The divas of D/R in the vertebrate world, however, are mal and endodermal layers of the gastrula. Epithelial cells
the larval and adult urodele amphibians. These animals are anchored to one another and to a basement membrane
use dedifferentiation to regenerate complex structures that by specialized cell junctions. The principal intracellular
adult frogs, birds, reptiles and mammals cannot, including proteins that distinguish them are keratins. Epithelial cells
limbs, tails, jaws, lens, spinal cord, neural retina, and intes- constitute the epidermis of the skin, and line cavities of
tine (Brockes and Kumar, 2008, for review). organ systems such as the digestive, respiratory, and uri-
nary tracts, and central nervous system. The olfactory and
optic nerves are derived from nasal epithelium and the reti-
C. Transdifferentiation nal ganglion epithelium, respectively. The hepatocytes of
Transdifferentiation is the conversion of one cell type to the liver, the acinar cells of the pancreas, and their associ-
another cell type, usually with an intervening dedifferen- ated ductule and duct cells are arranged as epithelia. The
tiation step that confers plasticity on the cell. This plas- cardiovascular system is lined with specialized epithelial
ticity allows local injury factors to direct proliferation cells called endothelial cells that are distinguished from
and differentiation of the dedifferentiated cells into the epithelial cells by their heart and blood vessel-specific
cell type that needs to be regenerated. Good examples of location, morphology and expression of vimentin rather
this type of regeneration are the regeneration of lens cells than keratins, as well as specific cell surface antigens.
from pigmented epithelial cells of the dorsal iris in newts, The stem cells that regenerate the epidermis of the skin
and the regeneration of cartilage from fibroblasts during and the epithelia of tubular organ systems are located in
urodele limb regeneration. Theoretically, it is also possible the basal layers of their respective tissues. The liver and
that instead of going through a dedifferentiation step, the pancreas regenerate by reproduction of parental cells after
activity of the set of genes specifying the old cell type is surgical loss of tissue, but their ductules harbor stem cells
suppressed simultaneously with the activation of suites of for regeneration after injury by other means. Endothelial
genes characteristic of the new cell type. cells are regenerated by stem cells residing in the bone
marrow and the circulation, and by cells in the endothe-
lium itself that have regenerative capacity.
D. Activation of Adult Stem Cells (ASCs)
ASCs are sequestered as relatively rare undifferentiated
cells within regeneration-competent tissues as they differ- 2. Mesenchymal Stem Cells
entiate during embryonic development, where they reside The remainder of the tissue types of the body is derived
in environmental microniches that maintain their stem cell from the mesodermal and ectomesodermal (neural crest)
character. When activated by other niche factors, they can layers of the gastrula and neurula. These include the
divide symmetrically to give rise to two stem cells or two musculoskeletal system, cardiac muscle, smooth mus-
lineage-committed cells, or asymmetrically to give rise to cle, and loose connective tissues associated with these
a lineage-committed cell and another stem cell (Morrison tissues, and the dermis of the skin. Mesenchymal stem
and Spradling, 2008). The production of another stem cell cells (MSCs) were originally isolated from bone marrow
Chapter | 1 An Overview of Regenerative Biology 9
E. The Regeneration of Many Tissues and regeneration by ASCs (Scadden, 2006; Knoblich,
Involves More than One Mechanism 2008; Morrison and Spradling, 2008; Voog and Jones,
2010, for reviews). Current evidence suggests that many
Most tissues use one of these four mechanisms as their pri- niches direct tissue repair via the recapitulation of devel-
mary means of regeneration, but a substantial number can opmental programs (Voog and Jones, 2010), but this is not
regenerate by more than one mechanism. Thus, red blood always the case. Anatomically, the niches of ASCs can be
cells and intestinal epithelium regenerate solely by adult widely distributed throughout tissues (e.g., satellite cells of
stem cells, whereas the liver and pancreas use compensa- muscle), confined to restricted spaces (e.g., bulge of hair
tory hyperplasia to regenerate after surgical injury, but follicle, subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles), or
stem cells for chronic chemical injury. Urodele append- scattered as facultative spaces (hematopoietic stem cells of
ages regenerate primarily by dedifferentiation/redifferen- the bone marrow).
tiation, but adult stem cells, EMT/MET, cellular re-growth
and transdifferentiation also contribute to the regenerative
process.
A. Niche Signaling Molecules
The signaling molecules of the niche can be classified as
V. THE NICHE CONCEPT IN TISSUE paracrine, autocrine, juxtacrine, and endocrine. Paracrine
signals are secreted by cells and diffuse over short ranges
REPAIR
to bind with receptors on neighboring cells. Signals can be
The cells of all tissues reside in microenvironments propagated from cell to cell in this way. Many (but not all)
(niches) consisting of an extracellular matrix (ECM) and paracrine signals can be grouped into four families on the
a variety of soluble molecules, some of which are made basis of their structure. These are the fibroblast growth fac-
locally and others by tissues some distance away and cir- tor (FGF) family, the Hedgehog family, the Wnt family, and
culating in the blood (Fig. 1.3). The composition and spa- the TGF-β superfamily, consisting of the TGF-β family, the
tial organization of the niche determine the activities of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family, the Nodal pro-
cells. Both the ECM and soluble molecules can act as sig- teins, the Vg1 family, and several other proteins (Gilbert,
naling molecules (ligands) that bind to receptors embedded 2010). An autocrine signal is one that binds to receptors
in cell plasma membranes or residing in the nucleus of the on the surface of the cell that produces it. Juxtacrine sign-
cells. Ligand binding triggers a conformational change in aling involves contact between cells, in which a ligand on
the receptor that sets off a chain of intracellular reactions one cell surface binds to a receptor on the other. Endocrine
resulting in changes in the configuration of the cytoskel- signals circulate in the blood and bind to nuclear receptors.
eton or a change in the short-term or long-term pattern of Some paracrine signals, such as retinoic acid (RA), also
gene transcription of the cell. bind to nuclear receptors (Deuster, 2008).
Niche composition has been particularly well stud- Short amino acid sequences of cell adhesive ECM
ied in wound repair by fibrosis (Barrientos et al., 2008) components also act as signals by binding to cell surface
10 PART | I Regenerative Biology
(A) OB OB (B)
BM
EpSC
HSC
Cp
Cp
Cp Cp
FIGURE 1.4 Maintenance of (A) hematopoietic stem cell (HSC), and (B) epithelial stem cell (EpSC) niches. The HSC niche is maintained by para-
crine signals between HSCs (double arrows) and from capillaries (Cp, single arrows) and by juxtacrine contact (bars) of HSCs with stromal cells such
as osteoblasts (OB). Epithelial cells are maintained in their niche by juxtacrine contact (bars) between themselves and with their basement membrane
(BM) and by paracrine signals between the EpSCs and capillaries.
receptors called integrins (Hynes, 2002). For example, the receptor kinase activity that initiates a chain of phos-
maintenance of HSCs in a quiescent state relies on their phorylation reactions by other kinases using ATP that
adherence to osteoblasts of the bone marrow stroma alters the cytoskeleton or activates/suppresses transcription
through N-cadherin of adherens junctions and fibronec- factors (Gilbert, 2010). Many kinases also regulate intra-
tin-binding integrins (α4β1, α5β1) (Zhang et al., 2003). cellular signaling by endocytosis of receptors or ligands
Blocking this adhesion inhibits hematopoiesis in long- (Polo and Di Fiore, 2006). There are two intracellular des-
term bone marrow cultures (Whetton and Graham, 1999). tinations for endosomes. In one, the receptor is delivered
Mechanical properties of the ECM such as porosity, stiff- to compartments involved in signaling, and in the other
ness, elasticity, tension and compression play key roles in the receptor is delivered to a degradative compartment,
cell behavior as well (Ingber, 2006; Engler et al., 2006; thereby keeping the intensity and duration of the signal
Guilak et al., 2009). Whether or not cells interact with within a normal range. In addition, there is an apoptotic
each other and the ECM in two dimensions (as in tissue pathway to eliminate unwanted or unneeded cells, and an
culture monolayers) or three dimensions also influences autophagic pathway for intracellular remodeling.
cell behavior. Solid tissues, for example, behave much
more normally if cultured in three-dimensional scaffolds.
1. Notch Pathway
Figure 1.4 illustrates examples of stem cell regulation by
niche factors. The Notch receptor is a major mediator of stem cell self-
Cells often need to signal one another at long range by renewal and fate determination during embryonic develop-
juxtacrine or paracrine means. Such signaling is achieved ment and regeneration (Lai, 2004). Vertebrate cells have
by structural extensions of the signaling cell to the target four different Notch receptors (Lundkvist and Lendhal,
cell, for example the extension of motor axons from spinal 2001). Notch is a transmembrane protein that is sig-
neuron cell bodies to muscles and the extension of filopo- naled (activated) by the membrane-bound ligands Delta,
dia from ingressing mesenchymal cells to the ectoderm in Jagged and Serrate on neighboring cells. Endocytosis and
gastrulating sea urchin embryos (Rorth, 2003). membrane trafficking regulate ligand and receptor avail-
ability at the cell surface. Endocytosis of bound ligand is
thought to generate a mechanical force that causes a con-
B. Signal Transduction Pathways formational change in Notch that allows its extracellular
Six main signaling pathways used by cells have been domain to be cleaved off by a metalloprotease called
identified that fall into two groups based on recep- ADAM (Kopan and Ilagan, 2009). Next, the presenelin
tor structure (Fig. 1.5). In the first group, ligands bind to enzyme cleaves off the Notch intracellular domain (NICD)
monomeric receptors. This group includes the Notch, Wnt, (Lecourtis and Schweisguth, 1998; Schroeter et al., 1998).
and Hedgehog pathways. Notch is a juxtacrine pathway, The NICD translocates to the nucleus, where it interacts
whereas Wnt and Hedgehog are paracrine pathways. In with the DNA-binding protein RBP-Jκ and the histone
the second group, ligands bind to dimeric receptors. This acetyltransferases p300 and PCAF (Wallberg et al., 2002)
group includes the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), JAK- to activate target genes whose products act as transcrip-
STAT, and TGF-β pathways, all of which are paracrine. In tional repressors of genes encoding products that promote
general, these pathways use variations on a common theme cell differentiation (Nakamura et al., 2000).
to signal to the interior of the cell. The change in receptor The activity of the NICD is inhibited by the Numb
conformation by a ligand gives the cytoplasmic domain of protein (Jan and Jan, 1998). Asymmetric localization of
Chapter | 1 An Overview of Regenerative Biology 11
Wnt
LRP6
Fz
HAT RBP-Jκ D P
PAR-1
GSK-3
L P β-c
ICD
Ax
N Nrp-1 APC
Lef/
Tcf
Nu mRNA
Nu
Gli Ras
1,2
P
P
Gli
1,2 ERK
P
P TF
P P
P P P P
ΙΙ P JAK JAK
P
Ι P STAT STAT P
TGF-β BMP
S 2,3 P S 1,5,8 P H H HT
S4 S4
S 2,3 P S 1,5,8 P
FIGURE 1.5 Simplified sketches of six major signaling pathways used for development and regeneration. Descriptions in text. The signal in the
Notch pathway actively maintains cells as stem cells whereas the signals in the other pathways activate cells to divide asymmetrically. (A) Notch path-
way. L ligand, N notch protein, ICD intracellular domain, P presenelin, HAT histone acetyltransferases, RBP-Jκ DNA binding protein.
The ICD, HAT and RBP-Jκ form a complex that binds to the regulatory regions of differentiation genes to block their transcription. The blockade is
maintained by the protein NRP-1, which prevents the translation of Numb (Nu) mRNA. If translated, Numb inhibits the removal of the ICD from Notch
and the transcription-inhibiting complex is not formed, activating the cell. (B) Wnt pathway. Fz and LRP6 co-receptors for Wnt. PAR-1 protein
kinase that phosphorylates (P) the Disheveled protein (D). GSK-3 glycogen synthase kinase-3, Ax axin, APC adenomatous polyposis coli pro-
tein, β-C beta catenin. Lef and Tcf transcription factors that in the absence of Wnt signaling inhibit transcription of genes that activate stem cells.
(C) Hedgehog pathway. Ptc patched protein, Smo smoothened protein, Gli transcription factor that is the counterpart of cubitus interruptus in
Drosophila. (D) RTK pathway. GF growth factor, P phosphate, AP adaptor protein that recognizes phosphorylated receptor and activates the
Ras protein, leading to a chain of phosphorylation reactions that ends in ERK, a mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) that phosphorylates tran-
scription factors (TFs). (E) TGF-β (Smad) pathway. P phosphate, S Smad proteins. The type I and II receptors are each dimers. (F) JAK-STAT
pathway. P phosphate. The STAT proteins form transcriptional complexes that are homodimers (H) or heterodimers (HT).
12 PART | I Regenerative Biology
Numb in one daughter cell during the division of an ASC 3. Hedgehog Pathway
thus leads to lineage commitment of that cell, whereas
The hedgehog family of signaling molecules has three
the other daughter remains as a stem cell. Expression of
members, sonic hedgehog (Shh), Indian hedgehog (Ihh),
the Numb protein is regulated at the translational level by
and desert hedgehog (Dsh). These proteins are important in
Nrp-1 (Musashi-1 in Drosophila), a RNA-binding protein
stem cell self-renewal, proliferation and fate specification,
(Sakakibara et al., 1996). Nrp-1 binds numb mRNA, pre-
and tissue patterning (Zhang et al., 2001; Reya et al., 2001;
venting it from being translated (Imai et al., 2001). Thus
Lai et al., 2003). Unlike the Notch ligands or the Wnts, the
in the absence of Nrp-1, Numb will be made and localized,
hedgehog signal acts to inhibit the action of its receptor,
leading to lineage commitment.
Patched. Patched is bound to, and inhibits, the actual sig-
nal transducer for hedgehog, Smoothened. When hedgehog
2. Canonical Wnt Pathway binds to Patched, Smoothened is activated. To be active,
hedgehog must be cleaved to form an amino-terminal pep-
An important set of transcriptional factors that maintains
tide that is esterified at its C-terminus to a cholesterol mol-
ASCs in a quiescent state is the Tcf/Lef family, down-
ecule (Porter et al., 1996; Taipale and Beachy, 2001).
stream effectors of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway.
Smoothened is phosphorylated and, in Drosophila,
The family consists of four members, Tcf-1-3 and Lef-1.
releases the Cubitus interruptis (Ci) protein that is tethered
These transcription factors are widely expressed dur-
to microtubules. Ci is a transcription factor that acts as a
ing embryonic development and in stem cells, where in
repressor or activator, depending on whether it is cleaved.
combination with Groucho-related proteins, they serve as
In the absence of hedgehog signal, the carboxy-terminal
transcriptional repressors in the absence of a Wnt signal
domain of Ci is cleaved off and moves to the nucleus,
(Cavallo et al., 1998; Roose et al., 1998; Brantjes et al.,
where it acts as a transcriptional repressor. In the presence
2001). In the absence of Wnt signaling, β-catenin is contin-
of hedgehog signal, the entire Ci molecule is released and
ually degraded by a destruction complex consisting of two
translocated to the nucleus, where it acts as a transcrip-
tumor suppressor proteins axin and adenomatous polyposis
tional activator (Van den Heuvel, 2001; Lum and Beachy,
coli (APC) that act as the scaffold for the complex, and two
2004). Different sets of genes are activated depending
kinases, CK1 and GSK-3 that continually phosphorylate
on the concentration of Ci. In vertebrates, three different
β-catenin (Clevers, 2006). Phosphorylated β-catenin is ubi-
proteins, Gli 1–3, have evolved to effect transcriptional
quinated and targeted for degradation by the proteasome.
repression or activation in the hedgehog pathway (Stecca
Wnt proteins, of which 15 have been identified, bind
and Ruiz i Altaba, 2002). In the absence of hedgehog sig-
to the Frizzled (Fz) receptor and its co-receptor LRP5/6
nal, the carboxy termini of Gli 2 and 3 are enzymatically
(Wehrli et al., 2000). This interaction phosphorylates
cleaved off so that transcription cannot be activated. The
LRP5/6, leading to loss of the ability of the β-catenin
carboxy terminus of Gli-1 is not removed, but intact Gli-1
destruction complex to phosphorylate β-catenin, which is
cannot activate transcription by itself. In the presence of
now stabilized and accumulates in the nucleus, where it
hedgehog signal, the enzymes that cleave off the carboxy
displaces Groucho proteins and synergizes with Lef and
terminus of Gli 2 are inhibited by Smoothened. Gli-2 and
Tcf to activate transcription. Inhibition of the β-catenin
Gli 1 and 2 now act together as transcriptional activators,
destruction complex is via both inhibition of GSK3 by
while Gli-3 acts as a transcriptional repressor (Wang et al.,
the Disheveled protein, which is phosphorylated by the
2000; Aza-Blanc et al., 2000). The hedgehog and Wnt
PAR-1 kinase, and by the recruitment of axin away from
pathways share certain similarities, suggesting that they
the complex by LRP5/6 (Clevers, 2006; Bilic et al., 2007).
may be sister pathways that synergize to affect stem cell
Canonical Wnt signaling is inhibited by a number of
proliferation (Lum and Beachy, 2004).
antagonists that mimic the molecular structure of Fz and
also by the Dickkopf (DKK) proteins, which bind directly
4. Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) Pathway
to LRP-5/6 (Bafico et al., 2001).
Dsh may have a role in a “non-canonical” Wnt sig- The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) pathway is used by a
naling pathway through its ability to interact with Rho wide variety of growth factors such as fibroblast growth
GTPase, an enzyme that can activate kinases to phospho- factors (FGFs), platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), epi-
rylate cytoskeletal proteins and alter cell shape, polarity dermal growth factors (EGFs), vascular endothelial growth
and motility (Bejsovec, 2005; Katoh, 2005). A second non- factor (VEGF), and stem cell factor (SCF) (Schlessinger,
canonical Wnt pathway works through Fz by its activa- 2000). These ligands bind to specific RTKs. RTKs are
tion of a phospholipase enzyme that leads to the release of transmembrane proteins that are dimerized by their ligands
stored calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum (Kohn and and undergoes a conformational change that results in the
Moon, 2005). Calcium activates many proteins involved in autophosphorylation of specific tyrosines on the cytoplas-
a wide variety of biological functions. mic domain of the receptor. An adaptor protein recognizes
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tan buena...! Usted, en el primer año, estuvo una temporada en el
primer banco de la izquierda, cerca de la ventana. ¡Vea usted si me
acuerdo! Me parece que estoy viendo su cabeza rizada”. Luego se
quedó un rato pensativo. “¡Era muchacho vivo...! ¡Vaya! ¡Mucho! el
segundo año estuvo enfermo del crup. Me acuerdo cuando volvió
usted a la escuela, delgado y envuelto en un mantón. Cuarenta años
han pasado, ¿no es verdad? Ha sido muy bueno al acordarse de su
maestro. Han venido otros en años anteriores a buscarme, antiguos
discípulos míos: un coronel, sacerdotes, varios señores”. Preguntó a
mi padre cuál era su profesión. Luego dijo: “Me alegro, me alegro de
todo corazón. Se lo agradezco. Hacía tanto tiempo que no veía a
nadie, que tengo miedo de que usted sea el último”. “¡Quién piensa
en eso!—exclamó mi padre—, usted está bien y robusto; no debe de
decir semejante cosa”. “¡Eh, no!—respondió el maestro—. ¿No ve
usted este temblor?—y enseñó las manos—. Ésta es mala señal:
me atacó hace años, cuando todavía estaba en la escuela. Al
principio no hice caso; me figuré que pasaría. Pero, al contrario, fué
creciendo. Llegó un día en que no podía ya escribir. ¡Ah! aquel día,
la primera vez que hice un garabato en el cuaderno de un discípulo,
fué para mí un golpe mortal. Aun seguí adelante algún tiempo, pero
al fin no pude más, y después de sesenta años de enseñanza tuve
que despedirme de la escuela, de los alumnos y del trabajo. Me
costó mucha pena. La última vez que di lección me acompañaron
todos hasta casa y me festejaron mucho; pero yo estaba triste y
comprendía que mi vida iba acabando. El año anterior había perdido
mi mujer y mi hijo. No me quedaron más que dos nietos labradores.
Ahora vivo con algunos cientos de liras que me dan de pensión. No
hago nada y los días me parece que no concluyen nunca. Mi única
ocupación consiste en hojear mis viejos libros de escuela,
colecciones de periódicos escolares y algún libro que me regalan.
Allí están—dijo señalando a la pequeña biblioteca—, allí están mis
recuerdos, todo mi pasado... ¡No que queda más en el mundo!”.
Luego, cambiando de improviso, dijo alegremente: “Voy a
proporcionar a usted una sorpresa, querido señor”. Se levantó, y
acercándose a la mesa, abrió un cajoncito largo que contenía
muchos paquetes pequeños, atados todos con un cordón, y con una
fecha escrita de cuatro cifras. Después de buscar un momento,
abrió uno, hojeó muchos papeles, sacó uno amarillento y se lo
presentó a mi padre. ¡Era un trabajo suyo de hacía cuarenta años!
En la cabeza había escrito lo siguiente: (el nombre de mi padre) y
dictado, 3 de abril, 1838. Mi padre al momento reconoció su letra,
gruesa, de chico, y se puso a leer sonriendo. Pero de pronto se le
nublaron los ojos. Yo me levanté para preguntarle qué tenía.
Luego le besé yo; tenía la cara mojada por las lágrimas. Mi padre
me empujó hacia dentro del coche, y en el momento de subir cogió
con rapidez el tosco bastón que llevaba el maestro en su mano,
poniéndole en su lugar una hermosa caña con puño de plata y sus
iniciales, diciéndole: “Consérvela en mi memoria”. El viejo intentó
devolvérsela y recobrar la suya; pero mi padre estaba ya dentro y
había cerrado la portezuela. “¡Adiós, mi buen maestro!”. “¡Adiós, hijo
mío...!—contestó él (el tren se puso en movimiento)—¡y Dios le
bendiga por el consuelo que ha traído a un pobre viejo!”. “¡Hasta la
vista!”, gritó mi padre con voz conmovida. Pero el maestro movió la
cabeza, como diciendo: “No, ya no nos veremos más”. “Sí, sí—
repitió mi padre—; hasta la vista”. Él respondió levantando su
trémula mano al cielo: “¡Allá arriba!”. Y desapareció a nuestra vista
en la misma postura, señalando con la mano al cielo.
CONVALECENCIA
Jueves 20.—¡Quién me había de decir, cuando volvía tan alegre de
aquella hermosa excursión con mi padre, que pasaría diez días sin
ver el campo ni el cielo! He estado muy malo, en peligro de muerte.
He oído sollozar a mi madre, he visto a mi padre muy pálido,
mirándome con los ojos fijos, a mi hermana Silvia y mi hermano que
me hablaban en voz baja, al médico de los anteojos, que no se
separaba de mi lado, y me decía cosas que yo no comprendía. He
estado bien cerca de dar un último adiós a todos. ¡Ah, pobre madre
mía! Pasé tres o cuatro días por lo menos, de los cuales no me
acuerdo nada, como si hubiese estado en medio de un sueño
embrollado y obscuro. Me parece haber visto al lado de mi cama a
la buena maestra de la sección primaria superior, que se esforzaba
por sofocar la tos con el pañuelo para no molestarme; recuerdo,
confusamente también, a mi maestro, que se inclinó para besarme,
y me pinchó un poco la cara con sus barbas; he visto pasar, como
en medio de una niebla, la cabeza roja de Crosi, los rizos rubios de
Deroso, al calabrés vestido de negro, a Garrón, que me trajo una
naranja mandarina con hojas, y se marchó en seguida porque su
madre estaba enferma. Me desperté como de larguísimo sueño, y
comprendí que estaba mejor al ver a mi padre y a mi madre que
sonreían, y al oír a Silvia que cantaba. ¡Oh, qué sueño tan triste ha
sido! Luego, cada día que pasaba me sentía mejor. Vino el
albañilito, que me hizo reír al poner el hocico de liebre, que ahora lo
hace admirablemente porque se le ha alargado algo la cara con la
enfermedad; ¡pobrecillo! Vino Coreta, y también Garofi, a regalarme
dos billetes para su nueva rifa de “un cortaplumas con cinco
sorpresas”, que compró a un tendero amigo suyo. Ayer, mientras
dormía, entró Precusa, puso su cara sobre mi mano, sin
despertarme, y como venía del taller de su padre, negro de polvo del
carbón, me dejó una marca negra en la manga, que luego, al
despertarme, he visto con mucho gusto. ¡Qué verdes se han puesto
los árboles en estos pocos días! ¡Y qué envidia me dan los
muchachos que veo ir corriendo a la escuela con sus libros, cuando
mi padre me acerca a la ventana! Pero poco tardaré en volver yo
también. ¡Estoy tan impaciente por volver a ver a todos, mi banco, el
jardín, aquellas calles; saber todo lo que en este tiempo haya
pasado; coger de nuevo mis libros y mis cuadernos, que me parece
que ya hace un año que no los veo! ¡Pobre madre mía, qué delgada
y qué pálida está! ¡Pobre padre mío, qué aire tan cansado tiene! ¡Y
mis buenos compañeros que han venido a verme, y andaban de
puntillas y me besaban en la frente! Me da tristeza pensar que
llegará un día en que nos separemos. Con Deroso y con algún otro
quizá continuaré haciendo mis estudios; pero ¿y los demás? Una
vez que concluyamos el cuarto año, ¡adiós!, no nos volveremos a
ver; no los veré ya al lado de mi cama cuando esté malo; Garrón,
Precusa, Coreta, tan buenos muchachos, tan queridos compañeros
míos, esos no los volveré a ver probablemente.
LA MADRE DE GARRÓN
Sábado 29.—Apenas volví a la escuela, recibí muy triste noticia.
Hacía varios días que Garrón no iba porque su madre estaba
gravemente enferma. Murió el sábado por la tarde. Ayer mañana, en
seguida de que entré en la escuela, nos dijo el maestro: “Al pobre
Garrón le ha cabido la más negra desgracia que puede caer sobre
un niño. Su madre ha muerto. Mañana volverá a clase. Desde ahora
os suplico, muchachos, que respetéis el terrible dolor que destroza
su alma. Cuando entre, saludadlo con cariño, estad serios; nadie
juegue, nadie sonría al mirarlo, nadie, os lo recomiendo”. Y en
efecto, esta mañana, algo más tarde que los demás, entró el pobre
Garrón. Sentí una grande angustia en el corazón al verlo. Tenía la
cara sin vida, los ojos encendidos, y apenas se sostenía sobre las
piernas: parecía que había estado enfermo un mes; era difícil
reconocerlo; vestía todo de negro, y daba compasión. Nadie respiró;
todos le miraron. Apenas entró, al ver por primera vez la escuela,
donde su madre había venido a buscarle casi todos los días; aquel
banco sobre el cual tantas veces se había inclinado ella los días de
examen para hacerle la última recomendación, y donde él tantas
veces había pensado en ella, impaciente por salir a encontrarla, no
pudo menos que estallar en un golpe de llanto desesperado. El
maestro lo trajo a su lado, y apretándole contra su pecho, le dijo:
“¡Llora, llora, pobre niño, pero ten valor! Tu madre ya no está aquí;
pero te ve, te ama todavía, vive a tu lado, y la volverás a ver, porque
tienes un alma buena y honrada como ella. Ten valor”. Dicho esto, le
acompañó al banco, cerca de mí. Yo no me atreví a mirarle. Sacó
sus cuadernos y sus libros, que hacía muchos días que no había
abierto; al abrir el libro de lectura, donde hay una viñeta que
representa una madre con su hijo de la mano, no pudo contener el
llanto, y dejó caer su cabeza sobre el brazo. El maestro nos hizo
señal para que lo dejásemos estar así, y comenzó la lección. Yo
hubiese querido decirle algo, pero no sabía. Le puse una mano
sobre el brazo, y le dije al oído: “No llores, Garrón”. No contestó, y
sin levantar la cabeza del banco, puso su mano en la mía, y así la
tuvo un buen rato. A la salida nadie le habló; todos pasaron a su
lado con respeto y silencio. Yo vi a mi madre, que me esperaba, y
corrí a su encuentro para abrazarla; pero ella me rechazaba y
miraba a Garrón. En el primer momento no comprendí por qué; pero
luego advertí que Garrón solo, a un lado, me miraba; me miraba con
implacable tristeza, que quería decir: “¡Tú abrazas a tu madre; yo ya
no la abrazaré más! ¡Tú tienes todavía madre, y la mía ha muerto!”.
Entonces comprendí por qué mi madre me rechazaba, y salí sin
darle la mano.
JOSÉ MAZZINI
Sábado 29.—Garrón vino también hoy por la mañana a la escuela;
estaba pálido y tenía los ojos hinchados por el llanto; apenas miró
los regalillos que le habíamos puesto sobre el banco para
consolarle. El maestro había llevado, sin embargo, una página de un
libro de lectura para reanimarle. Primero nos advirtió que fuésemos
todos mañana a las doce al Ayuntamiento, para ver dar la medalla
del valor a un muchacho que ha salvado a un niño en el Po, y que el
lunes nos dictaría él la descripción de la fiesta, en vez del cuento
mensual. Luego, volviéndose a Garrón, que estaba con la cabeza
baja, le dijo: “Garrón, haz un esfuerzo y escribe tú también lo que
voy a dictar”. Todos cogimos la pluma. El maestro dictó: “José
Mazzini, nació en Génova en 1805, murió en Pisa en 1872; patriota
de alma grande, escritor de preclaro ingenio, inspirador y primer
apóstol de nuestra revolución italiana, por amor a la patria vivió
cuarenta años pobre, desterrado, perseguido, errante, con heroica
fidelidad a sus principios y a sus propósitos. José Mazzini, que
adoraba a su madre, y que había heredado de ella todo lo que en su
alma fortísima y noble había de más elevado y puro, escribía así a
un fiel amigo suyo para consolarle de la mayor de las desventuras.
Poco más o menos he aquí sus palabras: ‘Amigo: No, no verás
nunca a tu madre sobre esta tierra. Ésta es la tremenda verdad. No
voy a verte, porque el tuyo es de aquellos dolores solemnes y
santos que es necesario sufrir y vencer cada cual por sí mismo.
¿Comprendes lo que quiero decir con estas palabras? ¡Es preciso
vencer el dolor! Vencer lo que el dolor tiene de menos santo, de
menos purificante; lo que, en vez de mejorar el alma, la debilita y la
rebaja. Pero la otra parte del dolor, la parte noble, la que
engrandece y levanta el espíritu, ésta debe permanecer contigo y no
abandonarte jamás. Aquí abajo nada substituye a una buena madre.
En los dolores, en los consuelos que todavía puede darte la vida, tú
no la olvidarás jamás. Pero debes recordarla, amarla, entristecerte
por su muerte de un modo que sea digno de ella. ¡Oh, amigo,
escúchame! La muerte no existe, no es nada. Ni siquiera se puede
comprender. La vida es vida, y sigue la ley de la existencia: el
progreso. Tenías ayer una madre en la tierra: hoy tienes un ángel en
otra parte. Todo lo que es bueno sobrevive con mayor potencia a la
vida eterna. Por consiguiente, también el amor de tu madre. Ella te
quiere ahora más que nunca, y tú eres responsable de tus actos
ante ella más que antes. De ti depende, de tus obras, el encontrarla,
el volverla a ver en otra vida. Debes, por tanto, por amor y
reverencia a tu madre, llegar a ser mejor y que goce de ti, de tu
conducta. Tú, en adelante, deberás en todo acto tuyo decirte a ti
mismo: ‘¿Lo aprobaría mi madre?’. Su transformación ha puesto
para ti en el mundo un ángel custodio, al cual debes referir todas las
cosas. Sé fuerte y bueno; resiste el dolor desesperado y vulgar; ten
la tranquilidad de los grandes sufrimientos en las grandes almas;
esto es lo que ella quiere’.
Entramos en el patio.
Entretanto, todos los muchachos del barrio del Po, que estaban
cerca de nosotros, pasaron delante y le hacían señas a su
compañero, para hacerse ver, llamándole en voz baja. A fuerza de
llamarle se hicieron oír. El muchacho les miró y se cubrió la boca
con el sombrero para ocultar una sonrisa.
El alcalde, que tenía el pelo cano y llevaba una faja tricolor, se puso
de pie junto a la mesa; los demás, detrás y a los lados.