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Contents
Preface for the Instructor vii HISTOLOGY: BASIC TISSUES
A Word to the Student ix OF THE BODY
EXERCISE

THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION 5 Classification of Tissues 53

EXERCISE
Activity 1 E
 xamining Epithelial Tissue Under the
1 The Language of Anatomy 1 Microscope 55
Activity 2 E
 xamining Connective Tissue Under the
Activity 1 Locating Body Regions 4
Microscope 61
Activity 2 Observing Sectioned Specimens 5
Activity 3 E
 xamining Nervous Tissue Under the
Activity 3 Practicing Using Correct Anatomical Terminology 6 Microscope 67
Activity 4 Identifying Organs in the Abdominopelvic Activity 4 Examining Muscle Tissue Under the
Cavity 9 Microscope 68
Activity 5 Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions 9 Review Sheet Classification of Tissues 71
Review Sheet The Language of Anatomy 11
EXERCISE THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
2 Organ Systems Overview 15 EXERCISE

Dissection and Identification: 6 The Integumentary System 77

The Organ Systems of the Rat 16 Activity 1 Locating Structures on a Skin Model 78
Activity 1 Observing External Structures 17 Activity 2 D
 ifferentiating Sebaceous and Sweat Glands
Activity 2 Examining the Oral Cavity 17 Microscopically 82
Activity 3 Opening the Ventral Body Cavity 17 Activity 3 Plotting the Distribution of Sweat Glands 82
Activity 4 Examining the Ventral Body Cavity 18 Activity 4 Identifying Nail Structures 83
Activity 5 Examining the Human Torso Model 23 Activity 5 C
 omparing Hairy and Relatively Hair-Free Skin
Microscopically 84
Group Challenge Odd Organ Out 24
Activity 6 Taking and Identifying Inked Fingerprints 85
Review Sheet Organ Systems Overview 25
Review Sheet The Integumentary System 87

THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS USES

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
EXERCISE

3
EXERCISE
The Microscope 27
Activity 1 Identifying the Parts of a Microscope 28
7 Overview of the Skeleton:
Classification and Structure of
Activity 2 Viewing Objects Through the Microscope 30
Bones and Cartilages 91
Activity 3 E
 stimating the Diameter of the
Microscope Field 32 Activity 1 Examining and Classifying Bones 93
Activity 4 Perceiving Depth 33 Activity 2 Examining a Long Bone 93
Activity 5 Preparing and Observing a Wet Mount 33 Activity 3 Examining the Effects of Heat and Hydrochloric
Acid on Bones 96
Review Sheet The Microscope 35
Activity 4 E
 xamining the Microscopic Structure of Compact
Bone 96
THE CELL Activity 5 Examining the Osteogenic Epiphyseal Plate 98
EXERCISE
Review Sheet O
 verview of the Skeleton: Classification
4 The Cell: Anatomy and Division 39 and Structure of Bones and
Cartilages 101
Activity 1 Identifying Parts of a Cell 40
EXERCISE
Activity 2 Identifying Components of a Plasma
Membrane 41 8 The Axial Skeleton 105
Activity 3 Locating Organelles 41 Activity 1 Identifying the Bones of the Skull 106
Activity 4 Examining the Cell Model 41 Group Challenge Odd Bone Out 113
Activity 5 Observing Various Cell Structures 42 Activity 2 Palpating Skull Markings 115
Activity 6 Identifying the Mitotic Stages 45 Activity 3 Examining Spinal Curvatures 117
Review Sheet The Cell: Anatomy and Division 49

iii
 Anatomy and Physiology
Laboratory Safety Guidelines*
1.  pon entering the laboratory, locate exits, fire extinguisher, fire blanket, chemical shower,
U
eyewash station, first aid kit, containers for broken glass, and materials for cleaning up spills.
2.  o not eat, drink, smoke, handle contact lenses, store food, or apply cosmetics or lip balm in
D
the laboratory. Restrain long hair, loose clothing, and dangling jewelry.
3. S tudents who are pregnant, are taking immunosuppressive drugs, or have any other medical
conditions (e.g., diabetes, immunological defect) that might necessitate special precautions in
the laboratory must inform the instructor immediately.
4.  earing contact lenses in the laboratory is inadvisable because they do not provide eye protec-
W
tion and may trap material on the surface of the eye. Soft contact lenses may absorb volatile
chemicals. If possible, wear regular eyeglasses instead.
5. Use safety glasses in all experiments involving liquids, aerosols, vapors, and gases.
6.  econtaminate work surfaces at the beginning and end of every lab period, using a commer-
D
cially prepared disinfectant or 10% bleach solution. After labs involving dissection of preserved
material, use hot soapy water or disinfectant.
7.  eep all liquids away from the edge of the lab bench to avoid spills. Clean up spills of viable
K
materials using disinfectant or 10% bleach solution.
8. Properly label glassware and slides.
9. Use mechanical pipetting devices; mouth pipetting is prohibited.
10. W
 ear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids, mucous membranes, and
nonintact skin, and when touching items or surfaces soiled with blood or other body fluids. Change
gloves between procedures. Wash hands immediately after removing gloves. (Note: Cover open cuts
or scrapes with a sterile bandage before donning gloves.)
11.  lace glassware and plasticware contaminated by blood and other body fluids in a disposable
P
autoclave bag for decontamination by autoclaving, or place them directly into a 10% bleach
solution before reuse or disposal. Place disposable materials such as gloves, mouthpieces, swabs,
and toothpicks that have come into contact with body fluids into a disposable autoclave bag,
and decontaminate before disposal.
12.  o help prevent contamination by needlestick injuries, use only disposable needles and lan-
T
cets. Do not bend the needles and lancets. Needles and lancets should be placed promptly
in a labeled, puncture-resistant, leakproof container and decontaminated, preferably by
autoclaving.
13. Do not leave heat sources unattended.
14. Report all spills or accidents, no matter how minor, to the instructor.
15. Never work alone in the laboratory.
16. Remove protective clothing before leaving the laboratory.

*
Adapted from:
Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), Fifth Edition. 2007. U.S. Government Printing ­Office.
­Washington, D.C. www.cdc.gov/od/OHS/biosfty/bmbl5/bmbl5toc.htm
Centers for Disease Control. 1996. “Universal Precautions for Prevention of Transmission of HIV and Other Bloodborne
­Infections.” ­Washington, D.C. www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/bp_universal_precautions.html
Johnson, Ted, and Christine Case. 2010. Laboratory Experiments in Microbiology, Ninth Edition. San Francisco: P
­ earson
­Benjamin ­Cummings.
School Chemistry Laboratory Safety Guide. 2006. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Bethesda, MD.
www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/NIOSH2007107.pdf
The Metric System

Metric to English con- English to metric

Measurement Unit and abbreviation Metric equivalent version factor conversion factor

Length 1 kilometer (km) 5 1000 (103) meters 1 km 5 0.62 mile 1 mile 5 1.61 km
1 meter (m) 5 100 (102) centimeters 1 m 5 1.09 yards 1 yard 5 0.914 m
5 1000 millimeters 1 m 5 3.28 feet 1 foot 5 0.305 m
1 m 5 39.37 inches 1 foot 5 30.5 cm
1 centimeter (cm) 5 0.01 (1022) meter 1 cm 5 0.394 inch 1 inch 5 2.54 cm
1 mm 5 0.039 inch
1 millimeter (mm) 5 0.001 (1023) meter
1 micrometer (μm) 5 0.000001 (1026) meter
[formerly micron (μ)]
1 nanometer (nm) 5 0.000000001 (1029)
[formerly millimicron meter
(mμ)]
1 angstrom (Å) 5 0.0000000001
(10210) meter

Area 1 square meter (m2) 5 10,000 square 1 m2 5 1.1960 square 1 square yard 5
centimeters yards 0.8361 m2
1 m2 5 10.764 square 1 square foot 5
feet 0.0929 m2
1 square centimeter 5 100 square 1 cm2 5 0.155 square 1 square inch 5
(cm2) millimeters inch 6.4516 cm2
Mass 1 metric ton (t) 5 1000 kilograms 1 t 5 1.103 ton 1 ton 5 0.907 t
1 kilogram (kg) 5 1000 grams 1 kg 5 2.205 pounds 1 pound 5 0.4536 kg
1 gram (g) 5 1000 milligrams 1 g 5 0.0353 ounce 1 ounce 5 28.35 g
1 g 5 15.432 grains
1 milligram (mg) 5 0.001 gram 1 mg 5 approx. 0.015
grain
1 microgram (μg) 5 0.000001 gram
3
Volume 1 cubic meter (m ) 5 1,000,000 cubic 1 m3 5 1.3080 cubic 1 cubic yard 5
(solids) centimeters yards 0.7646 m3
1 m3 5 35.315 cubic 1 cubic foot 5
feet 0.0283 m3

1 cubic centimeter 5 0.000001 cubic meter 1 cm3 5 0.0610 cubic 1 cubic inch 5
(cm3 or cc) 5 1 milliliter inch 16.387 cm3
1 cubic millimeter (mm3) 5 0.000000001 cubic meter
Volume 1 kiloliter (kl or kL) 5 1000 liters 1 kL 5 264.17 gallons 1 gallon 5 3.785 L
(liquids 1 liter (l or L) 5 1000 milliliters 1 L 5 0.264 gallons 1 quart 5 0.946 L
and gases) 1 L 5 1.057 quarts
1 milliliter (ml or mL) 5 0.001 liter 1 ml 5 0.034 fluid 1 quart 5 946 ml
5 1 cubic centimeter ounce 1 pint 5 473 ml
1 ml 5 approx. 14 1 fluid ounce 5
teaspoon 29.57 ml
1 ml 5 approx. 15–16 1 teaspoon 5 approx.
drops (gtt.) 5 ml
1 microliter (μl or μL) 5 0.000001 liter
Time 1 second (s or sec) 1
5 60 minute
1 millisecond (ms or msec) 5 0.001 second

Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) °F 5 95 (°C) 1 32 °C 5 59 (°F 2 32)

 1
The Language of Anatomy

E X E R C I S E
M A T E R I A L S L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S

• Human torso model (dissectible) hh Describe the anatomical position, and explain its importance.
• Human skeleton
hh Use proper anatomical terminology to describe body regions,
• Demonstration: sectioned and labeled orientation and direction, and body planes.
kidneys [three separate kidneys uncut
or cut so that (a) entire, (b) transverse hh Name the body cavities, and indicate the important organs in each
sectional, and (c) longitudinal sectional cavity.
views are visible] hh Name and describe the serous membranes of the ventral body cavities.
• Gelatin-spaghetti molds hh Identify the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions on a torso model or
• Scalpel image.

P R E - L A B Q U I Z

1. Circle True or False. In the anatomical position, the body is lying down.
2. Circle the correct underlined term. With regard to surface anatomy,
abdominal / axial refers to the structures along the center line of the body.
3. The term superficial refers to a structure that is:
a. attached near the trunk of the body c. toward the head
b. toward or at the body surface d. toward the midline
4. The _________ plane runs longitudinally and divides the body into right and
left parts.
a. frontal c. transverse
b. sagittal d. ventral
5. Circle the correct underlined terms. The dorsal body cavity can be divided
into the cranial / thoracic cavity, which contains the brain, and the sural /
vertebral cavity, which contains the spinal cord.

A
student new to any science is often overwhelmed at first by the termi-
nology used in that subject. The study of anatomy is no exception. But
without this specialized terminology, confusion is inevitable. For example,
what do over, on top of, and behind mean in reference to the human body? Anato-
mists have an accepted set of reference terms that are universally understood.
These allow body structures to be located and identified with a minimum of words
and a high degree of clarity.
This exercise presents some of the most important anatomical terminology
used to describe the body and introduces you to basic concepts of gross anatomy,
the study of body structures visible to the naked eye.

Anatomical Position
When anatomists or doctors refer to specific areas of the human body, the pic-
ture they keep in mind is a universally accepted standard position called the
­anatomical position. In the anatomical position, the human body is erect, with
the feet only slightly apart, head and toes pointed forward, and arms hanging at the
sides with palms facing forward (Figure 1.1). It is also important to remember
that “left” and “right” refer to the sides of the individual, not the observer.

1
2 Exercise 1

Head

Neck

Axial
region Thorax

Trunk
region
Abdomen

Pelvis
Perineum
Appendicular
region: Limbs

Figure 1.1 Anatomical position.

hh Assume the anatomical position, and notice that it is not par- Brachial: Arm (upper portion of the upper limb)
ticularly comfortable. The hands are held unnaturally forward Buccal: Cheek
rather than with the palms toward the thighs.
Carpal: Wrist
Check the box when you have completed this task.
Cephalic: Head
Cervical: Neck
Regional Anatomy Coxal: Hip
The body is divided into two main regions, the axial and Crural: Leg (lower portion of the lower limb)
appendicular regions (Figure 1.1). The axial region includes Digital: Fingers or toes
the head, neck, and trunk; it runs along the vertical axis of the
body. The appendicular region includes the limbs, which Femoral: Thigh
are also called the appendages or extremities. The body is Fibular (peroneal): Side of the leg
also divided up into smaller regions within those two main Frontal: Forehead
divisions. These anterior and posterior body regions are sum-
marized below and they are illustrated in Figure 1.2. Hallux: Great toe
Inguinal: Groin
Anterior Body Landmarks Mammary: Breast
Note the following regions in Figure 1.2a: Manus: Hand
Abdominal: Located below the ribs and above the hips Mental: Chin
Acromial: Point of the shoulder Nasal: Nose
Antebrachial: Forearm Oral: Mouth
Antecubital: Anterior surface of the elbow Orbital: Bony eye socket (orbit)
Axillary: Armpit Palmar: Palm of the hand
 The Language of Anatomy 3

Cephalic (head) Cephalic

Frontal Otic
Orbital Occipital
Nasal
Buccal
Upper limb
Oral Cervical (neck)
Acromial
Mental
Brachial
Cervical Antecubital
Thoracic Olecranal Back (dorsal)
Sternal Antebrachial Scapular
Axillary Carpal
Mammary Vertebral
Abdominal
Umbilical Lumbar

Pelvic Manus (hand) Sacral

Inguinal Palmar
Pollex Gluteal
Digital
Perineal
(between anus
Lower limb and external
Coxal genitalia)
Pubic
(genital) Femoral
Patellar
Popliteal
Crural
Sural
Fibular or peroneal

Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Abdomen Tarsal
Back (Dorsum) Calcaneal
Digital
Plantar
Hallux

(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal

Figure 1.2 Anatomical position and regional terms. Heels are raised to illustrate the
plantar surface of the foot, which is actually on the inferior surface of the body.

Patellar: Kneecap Cephalic: Head

Pedal: Foot Dorsal: Back
Pelvic: Pelvis Femoral: Thigh
Pollex: Thumb Gluteal: Buttocks
Pubic: Genital Lumbar: Lower back
Sternal: Breastbone Manus: Hand
Tarsal: Ankle Occipital: Back of the head
Thoracic: Chest Olecranal: Posterior aspect of the elbow
Umbilical: Navel Otic: Ear
Pedal: Foot
Posterior Body Landmarks Perineal: Between the anus and external genitalia
Note the following body surface regions in Figure 1.2b: Plantar: Sole of the foot
Acromial: Point of the shoulder Popliteal: Back of the knee
Brachial: Arm Sacral: Posterior region between the hip bones
Calcaneal: Heel of the foot
4 Exercise 1

Scapular: Shoulder blade

Body Planes and Sections
Sural: Calf
The body is three-dimensional, and to observe its internal
Vertebral: Spine structures, it is often helpful and necessary to make use of a
section, or cut. When the section is made through the body
A C T I V I T Y 1 wall or through an organ, it is made along an imaginary surface
or line called a plane. A section is named for the plane along
Locating Body Regions which it is cut. Anatomists commonly refer to three planes
Locate the anterior and posterior body regions on yourself, (Figure 1.3), or sections, that lie at right angles to one another.
your lab partner, and a human torso model. ■ Sagittal plane: A plane that runs longitudinally and divides the
body into right and left parts is referred to as a sagittal plane. If
it divides the body into equal parts, right down the midline of
the body, it is called a median, or midsagittal, plane.

(a) Median (midsagittal) plane (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane

Vertebral Right Left

column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen

Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal

fat layer cord

Figure 1.3 Planes of the body, with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) scans. Note that the transverse section is an inferior view.
 The Language of Anatomy 5

Frontal plane: Sometimes called a coronal plane, the fron-

tal plane is a longitudinal plane that divides the body (or an
organ) into anterior and posterior parts.
Transverse plane: A transverse plane runs horizontally,
dividing the body into superior and inferior parts. When
organs are sectioned along the transverse plane, the sections
are commonly called cross sections.
On microscope slides, the abbreviation for a longitudinal
section (sagittal or frontal) is l.s. Cross sections are abbrevi-
ated x.s. or c.s.
A median or frontal plane section of any nonspherical
object, be it a banana or a body organ, provides quite a differ- (a) Transverse (cross)
ent view from a cross section (Figure 1.4). section

A C T I V I T Y 2

Observing Sectioned Specimens

1. Go to the demonstration area and observe the transversely
and longitudinally cut organ specimens (kidneys).
2. After completing instruction 1, obtain a gelatin-spaghetti
mold and a scalpel, and take them to your laboratory bench.
(Essentially, this is just cooked spaghetti added to warm gela-
tin, which is then allowed to gel.)
3. Cut through the gelatin-spaghetti mold along any plane,
and examine the cut surfaces. You should see spaghetti strands
that have been cut transversely (x.s.) and some cut longitudi-
nally (a median section).
(b) Median section
4. Draw the appearance of each of these spaghetti sections
below, and verify the accuracy of your section identifications
with your instructor.
(c) Frontal sections

Figure 1.4 Objects can look odd when viewed in

­section. This banana has been sectioned in three
­different planes (a–c), and only in one of these planes
(b) is it easily recognized as a banana. If one cannot
­recognize a ­sectioned organ, it is possible to reconstruct
its shape from a series of successive cuts, as from the
three serial sections in (c).

Transverse section Median section

Directional Terms
Study the terms that follow, referring to Figure 1.5. Notice
that certain terms have different meanings depending on
whether they refer to a four-legged animal (quadruped) or to
a human (biped).
Superior/inferior (above/below): These terms refer to place-
ment of a structure along the long axis of the body. For exam-
ple, the nose is superior to the mouth, and the abdomen is
inferior to the chest.
Anterior/posterior (front/back): In humans, the most ante-
rior structures are those that are most forward—the face,
chest, and abdomen. Posterior structures are those toward the
backside of the body. For instance, the spine is posterior to
the heart.
Medial/lateral (toward the midline/away from the midline or
median plane): The sternum (breastbone) is medial to the ribs;
the ear is lateral to the nose.
These terms of position assume the person is in the ana-
tomical position. The next four term pairs are more absolute.
They apply in any body position, and they consistently have
the same meaning in all vertebrate animals.
6 Exercise 1

Superior (cephalad)

Posterior Anterior
(dorsal) (ventral)

Proximal Superior (dorsal)

Posterior Anterior
(caudal) (cephalad)

Distal

(a) Inferior (caudal) (b) Inferior (ventral)

Figure 1.5 Directional terms. (a) With reference to a human. (b) With reference to a
four-legged animal.

Cephalad (cranial)/caudal (toward the head/toward the A C T I V I T Y 3

tail): In humans, these terms are used interchangeably with
superior and inferior, but in four-legged animals they are the Practicing Using Correct
same as anterior and posterior, respectively. Anatomical Terminology
Ventral/dorsal (belly side/backside): These terms are Use a human torso model, a human skeleton, or your own body
used chief ly in discussing the comparative anatomy of to practice using the regional and directional terminology.
animals, assuming the animal is standing. In humans, the
terms ventral and dorsal are used interchangeably with the 1. The wrist is _______________to the hand.
terms anterior and posterior, but in four-legged animals, 2. The trachea (windpipe) is _______________ to the spine.
ventral and dorsal are the same as inferior and superior,
3. The brain is _______________ to the spinal cord.
respectively.
4. The kidneys are _______________ to the liver.
Proximal/distal (nearer the trunk or attached end/farther
5. The nose is _______________ to the cheekbones.
from the trunk or point of attachment): These terms are used
primarily to locate various areas of the body limbs. For exam- 6. The thumb is _______________ to the ring finger.
ple, the fingers are distal to the elbow; the knee is proximal to 7. The thorax is _______________ to the abdomen.
the toes. However, these terms may also be used to indicate 8. The skin is _______________ to the skeleton. ■
regions (closer to or farther from the head) of internal tubular
organs.
Superficial (external)/deep (internal) (toward or at the body
Body Cavities
surface/away from the body surface): For example, the skin The axial region of the body has two large cavities that pro-
is superficial to the skeletal muscles, and the lungs are deep vide different degrees of protection to the organs within them
to the rib cage. (Figure 1.6).
 The Language of Anatomy 7

Cranial
Cranial cavity cavity
(contains brain)

Vertebral
cavity

Pleural
Dorsal Thoracic cavity
body cavity
cavity Mediastinum
(contains
heart and
lungs) Pericardial
cavity

Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal Diaphragm Ventral body
cord) cavity
(thoracic and
Abdominal cavity abdominopelvic
(contains digestive Abdomino- cavities)
organs) pelvic
cavity

Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
Dorsal body cavity bladder, reproductive
Ventral body cavity organs, and rectum)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Figure 1.6 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.

Dorsal Body Cavity
The dorsal body cavity can be subdivided into two cavi-
ties. The cranial cavity, within the rigid skull, contains the
brain. The vertebral (or spinal) cavity, which is within the
bony vertebral column, protects the delicate spinal cord.
Ventral Body Cavity
Like the dorsal cavity, the ventral body cavity is subdivided.
The superior thoracic cavity is separated from the rest of the
ventral cavity by the dome-shaped diaphragm. The heart and
lungs, located in the thoracic cavity, are protected by the bony
rib cage. The cavity inferior to the diaphragm is often referred
to as the abdominopelvic cavity. Although there is no further
physical separation of the ventral cavity, some describe the
abdominopelvic cavity as two areas, a superior abdominal
cavity (the area that houses the stomach, intestines, liver, and
other organs) and an inferior pelvic cavity (the region that is
partially enclosed by the bony pelvis and contains the repro-
ductive organs, bladder, and rectum).
Serous Membranes of the Ventral Body Cavity
The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of
the organs it contains are covered with a very thin, double-
layered membrane called the serosa, or serous membrane.
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is referred
to as the parietal serosa, and it is continuous with a similar
membrane, the visceral serosa, covering the external surface
of the organs within the cavity. These membranes produce a
thin lubricating fluid that allows the visceral organs to slide
over one another or to rub against the body wall without fric-
tion. Serous membranes also compartmentalize the various
organs. This helps prevent infection in one organ from spread-
ing to others.
The specific names of the serous membranes depend on
the structures they surround. The serosa lining the abdominal
cavity and covering its organs is the peritoneum, that enclos-
ing the lungs is the pleura, and that around the heart is the
pericardium (Figure 1.7). A fist pushed into a limp balloon
demonstrates the relationship between the visceral and pari-
etal serosae (Figure 1.7d).
Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Because the abdominopelvic cavity is quite large and contains
many organs, it is helpful to divide it up into smaller areas for
discussion or study.
Most physicians and nurses use a scheme that divides the
abdominal surface and the abdominopelvic cavity into four
approximately equal regions called quadrants. These quad-
rants are named according to their relative position—that is,
right upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left upper quad-
rant, and left lower quadrant (Figure 1.8). (Note that the
terms left and right refer to the left and right side of the body
in Figure 1.8, not the left and right side of the art on the page).
8 Exercise 1

Lung Ribs Heart

Parietal pleura
Parietal
pericardium
Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity
with serous fluid with serous fluid

Visceral pleura Visceral

pericardium
Diaphragm

(a) Serosae associated with the lungs: pleura (b) Serosae associated with the heart: pericardium

Anterior Visceral
peritoneum

Liver Peritoneal Outer balloon wall

cavity (with (comparable to parietal serosa)
serous fluid)
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Stomach
Parietal Inner balloon wall
peritoneum Kidney (comparable to visceral serosa)
(retroperitoneal)

Wall of
Posterior
body trunk
(c) Serosae associated with the abdominal viscera: peritoneum (d) Model of the serous membranes and serous cavity

Figure 1.7 Serous membranes of the ventral body cavities.

Right upper Left upper

quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)

Right lower Left lower

quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)
Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic ­quadrants. Superficial
organs are shown in each quadrant.
 The Language of Anatomy 9

A C T I V I T Y 4 Pubic (hypogastric) region: Immediately inferior to the

Identifying Organs in the
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Examine the torso model to respond to the following direc-
tions and questions.
Name two organs found in the left upper quadrant.
_______________________ and _______________________
Name two organs found in the right lower quadrant.
_______________________ and _______________________
Which organ (Figure 1.8) is divided into identical halves by
umbilical region; encompasses the pubic area.
Inguinal, or iliac, regions: Lateral to the hypogastric region
and overlying the superior parts of the hip bones.
Lateral (lumbar) regions: Between the ribs and the flaring
portions of the hip bones; lateral to the umbilical region.
Hypochondriac regions: Flanking the epigastric region later-
ally and overlying the lower ribs.
A C T I V I T Y 5
Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions
Locate the regions of the abdominopelvic surface on a human
torso model. ■

the median plane? _______________________ ■

A different scheme commonly used by anatomists divides
the abdominal surface and abdominopelvic cavity into nine
separate regions by four planes (Figure 1.9a). As you read
through the descriptions of these nine regions and locate them,
also note the organs the regions contain (Figure 1.9b).
Umbilical region: The centermost region, which includes the
umbilicus (navel).
Epigastric region: Immediately superior to the umbilical
region; overlies most of the stomach.
Other Body Cavities
Besides the large, closed body cavities, there are several types
of smaller body cavities (Figure 1.10). Many of these are in
the head, and most open to the body exterior.
Oral cavity: The oral cavity, commonly called the mouth,
contains the tongue and teeth. It is continuous with the rest
of the digestive tube, which opens to the exterior at the
anus.
Nasal cavity: Located within and posterior to the nose,
the nasal cavity is part of the passages of the respiratory
system.

Liver Diaphragm
Right Left
hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac Spleen
region region region Gallbladder Stomach

Ascending colon of Transverse colon

Right Left of large intestine
Umbilical large intestine
lateral (lumbar) lateral (lumbar)
region region region Small intestine Descending colon
of large intestine
Cecum Initial part of
Right inguinal Pubic Left inguinal
(iliac) (hypogastric) (iliac) sigmoid colon
Appendix
region region region
Urinary bladder

(a) (b)

Figure 1.9 Abdominopelvic regions. Nine regions are delineated by four planes.
(a) The superior horizontal plane is just inferior to the ribs; the inferior horizontal
plane is at the superior aspect of the hip bones. The vertical planes are just medial
to the nipples. (b) Superficial organs are shown in each region.
10 Exercise 1

Middle ear
cavity

Orbital
cavity Synovial cavity
(orbit) in a joint
between neck
vertebrae
Nasal Fibrous
cavity layer
around
Oral cavity joint
(mouth)

Tongue

Figure 1.10 Other body cavities. The oral, nasal, orbital, and middle ear cavities are
located in the head and open to the body exterior. Synovial cavities are found in joints
between bones, such as the vertebrae of the spine, and at the knee, shoulder, and hip.

Orbital cavities: The orbital cavities (orbits) in the skull
house the eyes and present them in an anterior position.
Middle ear cavities: Each middle ear cavity lies just medial
to an eardrum and is carved into the bony skull. These cavi-
ties contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the
hearing receptor in the inner ears.
Synovial cavities: Synovial cavities are joint cavities—they
are enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround the freely
movable joints of the body, such as those between the verte-
brae and the knee and hip joints. Like the serous membranes
of the ventral body cavity, membranes lining the synovial
cavities secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction as the
enclosed structures move across one another.
Name ________________________________

Lab Time/Date ________________________

E X E R C I S E 1
The Language of Anatomy

S H E E T
Regional Terms
1. Describe completely the standard human anatomical position. ______________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Use the regional terms to correctly label the body regions indicated on the figures below.

R E V I E W
Thorax

Abdomen

Back (Dorsum)

(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal

11
12 Review Sheet 1

Directional Terms, Planes, and Sections

3. Define plane. _______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Several incomplete statements appear below. Correctly complete each statement by choosing the appropriate anatomical term
from the choices. Use each term only once.
anterior inferior posterior superior
distal lateral proximal transverse
frontal medial sagittal

1. The thoracic cavity is _______________ to the abdominopelvic cavity.

2. The trachea (windpipe) is _______________ to the vertebral column.

3. The wrist is _______________ to the hand.

4. If an incision cuts the heart into left and right parts, a _______________ plane of section was used.

5. The nose is _______________ to the cheekbones.

6. The thumb is _______________ to the ring finger.

7. The vertebral cavity is _______________ to the cranial cavity.

8. The knee is _______________ to the thigh.

9. The plane that separates the head from the neck is the _______________ plane.

10. The popliteal region is _______________ to the patellar region.

11. The plane that separates the anterior body surface from the posterior body surface is the _______________ plane.

5. Correctly identify each of the body planes by writing the appropriate term on the answer line below the drawing.

(a) (b) (c)

Body Cavities
6. Name the muscle that subdivides the ventral body cavity. ____________________________________________________

7. Which body cavity provides the least protection to its internal structures? ________________________________________

8. For the body cavities listed, name one organ located in each cavity.

1. cranial cavity ___________________________________________________________________________________

2. vertebral cavity _________________________________________________________________________________

3. thoracic cavity __________________________________________________________________________________

 The Language of Anatomy 13

4. abdominal cavity ________________________________________________________________________________

5. pelvic cavity ____________________________________________________________________________________

6. mediastinum _____________________________________________________________________________________

9. Name the abdominopelvic region where each of the listed organs is located.

1. spleen _________________________________________________________________________________________

2. urinary bladder __________________________________________________________________________________

3. stomach (largest portion) __________________________________________________________________________

4. cecum _________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Explain how serous membranes protect organs from infection. ________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

11. Which serous membrane(s) is/are found in the thoracic cavity? ________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

12. Which serous membrane(s) is/are found in the abdominopelvic avity? __________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

13. Using the key choices, identify the small body cavities described below.
Key: a. middle ear cavity c. oral cavity e. synovial cavity
b. nasal cavity d. orbital cavity

_____________ 1. holds the eyes in an anterior-facing _____________ 3. contained within the nose
position
_____________ 4. contains the tongue
_____________ 2. houses three tiny bones involved in
hearing _____________ 5. surrounds a joint

14. + Name the body region that blood is usually drawn from. _________________________________________________

15. + A patient has been diagnosed with appendicitis. Use anatomical terminology to describe the location of the person’s

pain. Assume that the pain is referred to the surface of the body above the organ. _________________________________

16. + Which body cavity would be opened to perform a hysterectomy? __________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

17. + Which smaller body cavity would be opened to perform a total knee joint replacement? ____________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

18. + An abdominal hernia results when weakened muscles allow the protrusion of abdominal structures. In the case of an
umbilical hernia, parts of a serous membrane and the small intestine form the bulge. Which serous membrane is involved?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________
 2
Organ Systems Overview

E X E R C I S E
M A T E R I A L S L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S

• Freshly killed or preserved rat hh Name the human organ systems, and indicate the major functions of
(predissected by instructor as a each system.
demonstration; or for student dissection,
hh List several major organs of each system, and identify them in a
one rat for every two to four students)
dissected rat, human cadaver or cadaver image, or dissectible human
or predissected human cadaver
torso model.
• Dissection trays
• Twine or large dissecting pins hh Name the correct organ system for each organ.
• Scissors
• Probes
• Forceps
P R E - L A B Q U I Z
• Disposable gloves
• Human torso model (dissectible) 1. Name the structural and functional unit of all living things.
2. The small intestine is an example of a(n) , because it is
­composed of two or more tissue types that perform a particular function for
the body.
a. epithelial tissue c. organ
b. muscle tissue d. organ system
3. The system is responsible for maintaining
homeostasis of the body via rapid communication.
4. The kidneys are part of the system.
5. The thin muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities is the
.

T
he basic unit of life is the cell. Cells fall into four different categories
according to their structures and functions. These categories correspond to
the four primary tissue types: epithelial, muscular, nervous, and connective.
A tissue is a group of cells that are similar in structure and function. An organ is
a structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a specific ­function
for the body.
An organ system is a group of organs that act together to perform a particular
body function. For example, the organs of the digestive system work together to
break down foods and absorb the end products into the bloodstream to provide nutri-
ents and fuel for all the body’s cells. In all, there are 11 organ systems (Table 2.1).
Read through this summary of the body’s organ systems before beginning
your rat dissection or examination of the predissected human cadaver. If a human
cadaver is not available, Figures 2.3 through 2.6 will serve as a partial replacement.

15
16 Exercise 2
  Table 2.1 Overview of Organ Systems of the Body
Organ system Major component organs
Integumentary Skin, hair, and nails; cutaneous
sense organs and glands
Skeletal Bones, cartilages, tendons,
ligaments, and joints
Muscular Muscles attached to the skeleton
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
sensory receptors
Endocrine Pituitary, thymus, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal
glands; ovaries, testes, and pancreas
Cardiovascular Heart and blood vessels
Lymphatic Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
spleen, and thymus
Respiratory Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and lungs
Digestive Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines,
and accessory structures including
teeth, salivary glands, liver, and
pancreas
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and
urethra
Reproductive Male: testes, prostate, scrotum,
penis, and duct system, which
carries sperm to the body exterior
Female: ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, mammary glands, and
vagina
D I S S E C T I O N A N D I D E N T I F I C AT I O N
The Organ Systems of the Rat
Many of the external and internal structures of the rat are quite
similar in structure and function to those of the human, so a
study of the gross anatomy of the rat should help you under-
stand our own anatomy. The following instructions include
Function
• Protects deeper organs from mechanical, chemical, and
bacterial injury, and from drying out
• Excretes salts and urea
• Aids in regulation of body temperature
• Produces vitamin D
• Supports the body and protects internal organs
• Provides levers for muscular action
• Cavities provide a site for blood cell formation
• Bones store minerals
• Primary function is to contract or shorten; in doing so, skeletal
muscles allow locomotion (running, walking, etc.), grasping and
manipulation of the environment, and facial expression
• Generates heat
• Allows body to detect changes in its internal and external
environment and to respond to such information by activating
appropriate muscles or glands
• Helps maintain homeostasis of the body via rapid communication
• Helps maintain body homeostasis, promotes growth and
development; produces chemical messengers called hormones that
travel in the blood to exert their effect(s) on various target organs
• Primarily a transport system that carries blood containing oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions, hormones, and other substances
to and from the tissue cells where exchanges are made; blood is
propelled through the blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart
• Antibodies and other protein molecules in the blood protect the body
• Picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood
• Cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris
• Houses lymphocytes that act via the immune response to protect
the body from foreign substances
• Keeps the blood continuously supplied with oxygen while
removing carbon dioxide
• Contributes to the acid-base balance of the blood via its carbonic
acid–bicarbonate buffer system
• Breaks down ingested foods to smaller particles, which can be
absorbed into the blood for delivery to the body cells
• Undigested residue removed from the body as feces
• Filters the blood and rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes,
including urea, uric acid, and ammonia, which result from the
breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
• Maintains water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of blood
• Provides gametes called sperm for producing offspring
• Provides gametes called eggs; the female uterus houses the
developing fetus until birth; mammary glands provide nutrition for
the infant
directions for dissecting and observing a rat. In addition,
instructions for observing organs (Activity 4, “Examining the
Ventral Body Cavity,” page 18) also apply to superficial obser-
vations of a previously dissected human cadaver. The general
instructions for observing external structures also apply to
human cadaver observations. The photographs in Figures 2.3
through 2.6 will provide visual aids.
Another random document with
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 Some advantage in transportation is the most fundamental and most
important of the causes determining the location of a distributing center. It may
almost be said to be the only cause for the formation of such centers. For some
reason or reasons a particular place is more conveniently and cheaply reached by
many people than any surrounding point; and, as a result, they naturally exchange
commodities there. The country store is located at the crossing of roads. There also
is the village. In a mountain country the market town is at the junction of two, or,
still better, of three valleys. Another favorite location is the end of a mountain pass,
or a gap that is a thoroughfare between two valleys. If rivers are difficult to cross,
settlements will spring up at the safest ferries or fords. In a level plain, a town will
be near its center, and a focus of roads or railroads in such a plain, fertile and
populous, will almost surely make a city.[42]
It is the railroad and the steamship that determine where a new business shall
be developed, quite as often as the government policy. The grant of special rates
and privileges to shippers is nowadays the most efficient kind of protection.
It is this quickening and cheapening of transportation that has given such
stimulus in the present day to the growth of large cities. It enables them to draw
cheap food from a far larger territory and it causes business to locate where the
widest business connection is to be had, rather than where the goods or raw
materials are most easily produced. And the perfection of the means of
communication, the post-office and the telegraph, intensifies the same result.[43]
The entire net increase of the population of 1870 to 1890 in Illinois,
Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota was in cities and towns possessing competitive
rates, while those having non-competitive rates decreased in population, and in
Iowa it is the general belief that the absence of large cities is due to the earlier
policy of the railways giving Chicago discriminating rates.[44]

The advent of the trolley line and more recently of the

automobile has produced still further disturbing elements in the
growth of human communities. Their effect has been chiefly to
modify the life of the small town or village, causing the decline of
some and the sudden growth of others. The introduction of these two
forms of transportation, more particularly of the automobile, has
been the most potent force in our recent American history in
affecting redistribution of our population and in the disorganization
of our rural and small-town institutions which grew up on the basis
of a horse-and-vehicle type of mobility.[45]
The evolution of new types of industry is another feature that
becomes a determining factor in the redistribution of the country’s
population. As we review our census reports we see the emergence
each decade of one or more important industries; first, the textile
industry causing concentrations of population in the eastern states,
then the development of the iron and steel industry with its center of
operations gradually shifting farther and farther west, and more
recently the advent of the automobile and oil industries making for
enormous concentration of population in certain states of the Union,
also the motion picture industry with its concentrated center in
southern California. The emergence of a new industry has a far-
reaching effect in disturbing the status quo of communal life.
Competition soon forces the new industry to concentrate its
productive enterprises in one or two communities; these
communities then serve as great magnets drawing to themselves the
appropriate population elements from communities far and near.
IV. THE EFFECT OF ECOLOGICAL CHANGES
ON THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF
COMMUNITY
Population migrations resulting from such sudden pulls as are
the outcomes of unusual forms of release in community growth may
cause an expansion in the community’s development far beyond the
natural culmination point of its cyclic development, resulting in a
crisis situation, a sudden relapse, disorganization, or even panic. So-
called “boom towns” are towns that have experienced herd
movements of population beyond the natural point of culmination.
On the other hand, a community which has reached the point of
culmination and which has experienced no form of release is likely to
settle into a condition of stagnation. Its natural surplus of population
is forced to emigrate. This type of emigration tends to occasion folk-
depletion in the parent community. The younger and more
enterprising population elements respond most sensitively to the
absence of opportunities in their home town. This is particularly true
when the community has but a single economic base, such as
agriculture, lumbering, mining. Reformers try in vain to induce the
young people to remain on the farms or in their native villages, little
realizing that they are working in opposition to the general principles
of the ecological order.
Again, when a community starts to decline in population due to
a weakening of the economic base, disorganization and social unrest
follow.[46] Competition becomes keener within the community, and
the weaker elements either are forced into a lower economic level or
are compelled to withdraw from the community entirely. There are,
of course, periodic and temporary fluctuations in the economic
balance, due either to circumstances which affect the entire
economic order or to the vicissitudes of the particular industry from
which the community draws its sustenance. These temporary
fluctuations, however, while important from the standpoint of social
well-being, do not comprise the basic determinants of community
development.
The introduction of an innovating element into the adjustment
of a community may be designated as the initial stage of an invasion
which may make for a complete change in the structure and
organization of the community. The introduction of a new mode of
transportation, for instance, may transform the economic
organization of a community and make for a change in population
type.

Thus the Harlem Railroad transformed Quaker Hill from a community of

diversified farming, producing, manufacturing, selling, consuming, sufficient unto
itself, into a locality of specialized farming. Its market had been Poughkeepsie,
twenty-eight miles away, over high hills and indifferent roads. Its metropolis
became New York, sixty-two miles away by rail and four to eight miles by wagon-
road.
With the railroad’s coming, the isolated homogeneous community scattered.
The sons of the Quakers emigrated. Laborers from Ireland and other European
lands, even negroes from Virginia, took their places. New Yorkers became
residents on the Hill, which became the farthest terminus of suburban travel.[47]

The establishment of a new industry, especially if it displaces the

previous economic base, may also make for a more or less complete
change of population without greatly modifying the size of the
community. This condition is exemplified in many of the small towns
of the state of Washington which have changed from lumbering to
agriculture or from one type of agriculture to another. In many cases
few of the previous inhabitants remained after the invasion of the
new economic base.
As a community increases in size, however, it becomes better
able to accommodate itself to invasions and to sudden changes in
number of inhabitants. The city tends to become the reservoir into
which the surplus population drains from the smaller communities
round about.
V. ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES DETERMINING
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF
COMMUNITY
In the process of community growth there is a development
from the simple to the complex, from the general to the specialized;
first to increasing centralization and later to a decentralization
process. In the small town or village the primary universal needs are
satisfied by a few general stores and a few simple institutions such as
church, school, and home. As the community increases in size
specialization takes place both in the type of service provided and in
the location of the place of service. The sequence of development
may be somewhat as follows: first the grocery store, sometimes
carrying a few of the more staple dry goods, then the restaurant,
poolroom, barber shop, drug store, dry-goods store, and later bank,
haberdashery, millinery, and other specialized lines of service.[48]
The axial or skeletal structure of a community is determined by
the course of the first routes of travel and traffic.[49] Houses and
shops are constructed near the road, usually parallel with it. The
road may be a trail, public highway, railroad, river, or ocean harbor,
but, in any case, the community usually starts in parallel relation to
the first main highway. With the accumulation of population and
utilities the community takes form, first along one side of the
highway and later on both sides. The point of junction or crossing of
two main highways, as a rule, serves as the initial center of the
community.
As the community grows there is not merely a multiplication of
houses and roads but a process of differentiation and segregation
takes place as well. Residences and institutions spread out in
centrifugal fashion from the central point of the community, while
business concentrates more and more around the spot of highest
land values. Each cyclic increase of population is accompanied by
greater differentiation in both service and location. There is a
struggle among utilities for the vantage-points of position. This
makes for increasing value of land and increasing height of buildings
at the geographic center of the community. As competition for
advantageous sites becomes keener with the growth of population,
the first and economically weaker types of utilities are forced out to
less accessible and lower-priced areas. By the time the community
has reached a population of about ten or twelve thousand, a fairly
well-differentiated structure is attained. The central part is a clearly
defined business area with the bank, the drugstore, the department
store, and the hotel holding the sites of highest land value. Industries
and factories usually comprise independent formations within the
city, grouping around railroad tracks and routes of water traffic.
Residence sections become established, segregated into two or more
types, depending upon the economic and racial composition of the
population.
The structural growth of community takes place in successional
sequence not unlike the successional stages in the development of
the plant formation. Certain specialized forms of utilities and uses do
not appear in the human community until a certain stage of
development has been attained, just as the beech or pine forest is
preceded by successional dominance of other plant species. And just
as in plant communities successions are the products of invasion, so
also in the human community the formations, segregations, and
associations that appear constitute the outcome of a series of
invasions.[50]
There are many kinds of intra-community invasions, but in
general they may be grouped into two main classes: those resulting
in change in use of land, and those which introduce merely change in
type of occupant. By the former is meant change from one general
use to another, such as of a residential area into a business area or of
a business into an industrial district. The latter embraces all changes
of type within a particular use area, such as the changes which
constantly take place in the racial and economic complexion of
residence neighborhoods, or of the type of service utility within a
business section. Invasions produce successional stages of different
qualitative significance, that is, the economic character of the district
may rise or fall as the result of certain types of invasion. This
qualitative aspect is reflected in the fluctuations of land or rental
values.
The conditions which initiate invasions are legion. The following
are some of the more important: (1) changes in forms and routes of
transportation;[51] (2) obsolescence resulting from physical
deterioration or from changes in use or fashion; (3) the erection of
important public or private structures, buildings, bridges,
institutions, which have either attractive or repellent significance; (4)
the introduction of new types of industry, or even a change in the
organization of existing industries; (5) changes in the economic base
which make for redistribution of income, thus necessitating change
of residence; (6) real estate promotion creating sudden demands for
special location sites, etc.
Invasions may be classified according to stage of development
into (a) initial stage, (b) secondary or developmental stage, (c)
climax. The initial stage of an invasion has to do with the point of
entry, the resistance or inducement offered the invader by the prior
inhabitants of the area, the effect upon land values and rentals. The
invasion, of course, may be into an unoccupied territory or into
territory with various degrees of occupancy. The resistance to
invasion depends upon the type of the invader together with the
degree of solidarity of the present occupants. The undesirable
invader, whether in population type or in use form, usually makes
entry (that is, within an area already completely occupied) at the
point of greatest mobility. It is a common observation that foreign
races and other undesirable invaders, with few exceptions, take up
residence near the business center of the community or at other
points of high mobility and low resistance. Once established they
gradually push their way out along business or transportation
thoroughfares to the periphery of the community.
The commencement of an invasion tends to be reflected in
changes in land value. If the invasion is one of change in use the
value of the land generally advances and the value of the building
declines. This condition furnishes the basis for disorganization. The
normal improvements and repairs are, as a rule, omitted, and the
owner is placed under the economic urge of renting his property to
parasitic and transitory services which may be economically strong
but socially disreputable and therefore able and obliged to pay higher
rentals than the legitimate utilities can afford. It is a well-known fact
that the vices under the surveillance of the police usually segregate in
such transitional areas.[52]
During the course of development of an invasion into a new
area, either of use or type, there takes place a process of
displacement and selection determined by the character of the
invader and of the area invaded. The early stages are usually marked
by keenness of competition which frequently manifests itself in
outward clashes. Business failures are common in such areas and the
rules of competition are violated. As the process continues,
competition forces associational groupings. Utilities making similar
or complementary demands of the area tend to group in close
proximity to one another, giving rise to subformations with definite
service functions. Such associations as amusement areas, retail
districts, market sections, financial sections, and automobile rows
are examples of this tendency.
The climax stage is reached in the invasion process, once the
dominant type of ecological organization emerges which is able to
withstand the intrusions of other forms of invasion. For example, in
the development of a residential district, when it is not controlled in
advance by building restrictions, the early stages of growth are
usually marked by wide variations in the type and value of buildings
constructed. But, in the process of development, a uniform cost type
of structure tends to dominate, gradually eliminating all other types
that vary widely from the norm, so that it is customary to find a
considerable degree of economic homogeneity in all established
residential districts. The same process operates in areas devoted to
business uses, competition segregates utilities of similar economic
strength into areas of corresponding land values, and at the same
time forces into close proximity those particular forms of service
which profit from mutual association such as financial
establishments or automobile display-rooms. Once a dominant use
becomes established within an area, competition becomes less
ruthless among the associational units, rules of control emerge, and
invasion of a different use is for a time obstructed.
The general effect of the continuous processes of invasions and
accommodations is to give to the developed community well-defined
areas, each having its own peculiar selective and cultural
characteristics. Such units of communal life may be termed “natural
areas,”[53] or formations, to use the term of the plant ecologist. In any
case, these areas of selection and function may comprise many
subformations or associations which become part of the organic
structure of the district or of the community as a whole. It has been
suggested that these natural areas or formations may be defined in
terms of land values,[54] the point of highest land value representing
the center or head of the formation (not necessarily the geographic
center but the economic or cultural center), while the points of
lowest land value represent the periphery of the formation or
boundary line between two adjacent formations.
Each formation or ecological organization within a community
serves as a selective or magnetic force attracting to itself appropriate
population elements and repelling incongruous units, thus making
for biological and cultural subdivisions of a city’s population.
Everyone knows how racial and linguistic colonies develop in all of
our large cities, but the age and sex segregations which take place are
not quite so obvious to common perception. In the city of Seattle,
which has in general a sex composition of 113 males to 100 females,
the downtown district, comprising an area inscribed by a radius of
half a mile or so, has from 300 to 500 males to every 100 females.
But in the outlying districts of the city, except in one or two
industrial sections, these ratios are reversed. Females predominate
in numbers over males in all the residential neighborhoods and in
the suburbs of the city. This same condition is true with regard to the
age distribution of population. The school census shows an absolute
decline in the number of children of school age in the central districts
of the city although the total population for this area has shown an
increase for each decade. It is obvious, then, that the settler type of
population, the married couples with children, withdraw from the
center of the city while the more mobile and less responsible adults
herd together in the hotel and apartment regions near the heart of
the community.
This process of population-sifting produces not only increasing
mobility with approach from the periphery to the center of the
formation, but also different cultural areas representing different
mores, attitudes, and degrees of civic interest. The neighborhoods in
which the settler type of population resides, with their
preponderance of women and children, serve as the custodians of the
stabilizing and repressive mores. It is in the Seattle neighborhoods,
especially those on the hill-tops, that the conservative, law-abiding,
civic-minded population elements dwell. The downtown section and
the valleys, which are usually industrial sites, are populated by a
class of people who are not only more mobile but whose mores and
attitudes, as tested by voting habits, are more vagrant and radical.

R. D. McKenzie
 CHAPTER IV
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE
NEWSPAPER

I. THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE

The newspaper has a history; but it has, likewise, a natural
history. The press, as it exists, is not, as our moralists sometimes
seem to assume, the wilful product of any little group of living men.
On the contrary, it is the outcome of a historic process in which many
individuals participated without foreseeing what the ultimate
product of their labors was to be.
The newspaper, like the modern city, is not wholly a rational
product. No one sought to make it just what it is. In spite of all the
efforts of individual men and generations of men to control it and to
make it something after their own heart, it has continued to grow
and change in its own incalculable ways.
The type of newspaper that exists is the type that has survived
under the conditions of modern life. The men who may be said to
have made the modern newspaper—James Gordon Bennett, Charles
A. Dana, Joseph Pulitzer, and William Randolph Hearst—are the
men who discovered the kind of paper that men and women would
read and had the courage to publish it.
The natural history of the press is the history of this surviving
species. It is an account of the conditions under which the existing
newspaper has grown up and taken form.
A newspaper is not merely printed. It is circulated and read.
Otherwise it is not a newspaper. The struggle for existence, in the
case of the newspaper, has been a struggle for circulation. The
newspaper that is not read ceases to be an influence in the
community. The power of the press may be roughly measured by the
number of people who read it.
The growth of great cities has enormously increased the size of
the reading public. Reading, which was a luxury in the country, has
become a necessity in the city. In the urban environment literacy is
almost as much a necessity as speech itself. That is one reason there
are so many foreign-language newspapers.
Mark Villchur, editor of the Russkoye Slovo, New York City,
asked his readers how many of them had read newspapers in the old
country. He found that out of 312 correspondents only 16 had
regularly read newspapers in Russia; 10 others from time to time
read newspapers in the Volast, the village administration center, and
12 were subscribers to weekly magazines. In America all of them
were subscribers or readers of Russian newspapers.
This is interesting because the immigrant has had, first and last,
a profound influence on the character of our native newspapers. How
to bring the immigrant and his descendants into the circle of
newspaper readers has been one of the problems of modern
journalism.
The immigrant who has, perhaps, acquired the newspaper habit
from reading a foreign-language newspaper is eventually attracted to
the native American newspapers. They are for him a window looking
out into the larger world outside the narrow circle of the immigrant
community in which he has been compelled to live. The newspapers
have discovered that even men who can perhaps read no more than
the headlines in the daily press will buy a Sunday paper to look at the
pictures.
It is said that the most successful of the Hearst papers, the New
York Evening Journal, gains a new body of subscribers every six
years. Apparently it gets its readers mainly from immigrants. They
graduate into Mr. Hearst’s papers from the foreign-language press,
and when the sensationalism of these papers begins to pall, they
acquire a taste for some of the soberer journals. At any rate, Mr.
Hearst has been a great Americanizer.
In their efforts to make the newspaper readable to the least-
instructed reader, to find in the daily news material that would thrill
the crudest intelligence, publishers have made one important
discovery. They have found that the difference between the high-
brow and the low-brow, which once seemed so profound, is largely a
difference in vocabularies. In short, if the press can make itself
intelligible to the common man, it will have even less difficulty in
being understood by the intellectual. The character of present-day
newspapers has been profoundly influenced by this fact.
 II. THE FIRST NEWSPAPERS
What is a newspaper? Many answers have been given. It is the
tribune of the people; it is the fourth estate; the Palladium of our civil
liberties, etc.
On the other hand, this same newspaper has been characterized
as the great sophist. What the popular teachers did for Athens in the
period of Socrates and Plato the press has done in modern times for
the common man.
The modern newspaper has been accused of being a business
enterprise. “Yes,” say the newspaper men “and the commodity it sells
is news.” It is the truth shop. (The editor is the philosopher turned
merchant.) By making information about our common life accessible
to every individual at less than the price of a telephone call we are to
regain, it is urged—even in the complicated life of what Graham
Wallas calls the “Great Society”—some sort of working democracy.
The advertising manager’s notion is again something different.
For him the newspaper is a medium for creating advertising values.
The business of the editor is to provide the envelope which incloses
the space which the advertising man sells. Eventually the newspaper
may be conceived as a sort of common carrier, like the railway or the
post office.
The newspaper, according to the author of the Brass Check, is a
crime. The brass check is a symbol of prostitution. “The brass check
is found in your pay envelope every week—you who write and print
and distribute our newspapers and magazines. The brass check is the
price of your shame—you who take the fair body of truth and sell it in
the market place, who betray the virgin hopes of mankind into the
loathsome brothel of big business.”
This is the conception of a moralist and a socialist—Upton
Sinclair.
Evidently the newspaper is an institution that is not yet fully
understood. What it is, or seems to be, for any one of us at any time
is determined by our differing points of view. As a matter of fact, we
do not know much about the newspaper. It has never been studied.
One reason we know so little about the newspaper is that as it
exists today it is a very recent manifestation. Besides, in the course of
its relatively brief history, it has gone through a remarkable series of
transfigurations. The press today is, however, all that it was and
something more. To understand it we must see in its historic
perspective.
The first newspapers were written or printed letters; news-
letters they were called. In the seventeenth century English country
gentlemen used to employ correspondents to write them once a week
from London the gossip of the court and of the town.
The first newspaper in America, at least the first newspaper that
lasted beyond its first issue, was the Boston News-Letter. It was
published by the postmaster. The village post-office has always been
a public forum, where all the affairs of the nation and the community
were discussed. It was to be expected that there, in close proximity to
the sources of intelligence, if anywhere, a newspaper would spring
up. For a long time the position of postmaster and the vocation of
editor were regarded as inseparable.
The first newspapers were simply devices for organizing gossip,
and that, to a greater or less extent, they have remained. Horace
Greeley’s advice to a friend who was about to start a country paper is
as good today as it was then.

Begin with a clear conception that the subject of deepest interest to an average
human being is himself; next to that, he is most concerned about his neighbors.
Asia and the Tongo Islands stand a long way after these in his regard. It does seem
to me that most country journals are oblivious as to these vital truths. If you will,
so soon as may be, secure a wide awake, judicious correspondent in each village
and township of your county, some young lawyer, doctor, clerk in a store, or
assistant in a post office who will promptly send you whatever of moment occurs in
his vicinity, and will make up at least half your journal of local matter thus
collected, nobody in the county can long do without it. Do not let a new church be
organized, or new members be added to one already existing, a farm be sold, a new
house be raised, a mill be set in motion, a store be opened, nor anything of interest
to a dozen families occur, without having the fact duly though briefly chronicled in
your columns. If a farmer cuts a big tree, or grows a mammoth beet, or harvests a
bounteous yield of wheat or corn, set forth the fact as concisely and
unexceptionally as possible.

What Greeley advises friend Fletcher to do with his country

paper the city editor of every newspaper, as far as it humanly is
possible, is still trying to do. It is not practicable, in a city of
3,000,000 and more, to mention everybody’s name. For that reason
attention is focused upon a few prominent figures. In a city where
everything happens every day, it is not possible to record every petty
incident, every variation from the routine of the city life. It is
possible, however, to select certain particularly picturesque or
romantic incidents and treat them symbolically, for their human
interest rather than their individual and personal significance. In this
way news ceases to be wholly personal and assumes the form of art.
It ceases to be the record of the doings of individual men and women
and becomes an impersonal account of manners and life.
The motive, conscious or unconscious, of the writers and of the
press in all this is to reproduce, as far as possible, in the city the
conditions of life in the village. In the village everyone knew everyone
else. Everyone called everyone by his first name. The village was
democratic. We are a nation of villagers. Our institutions are
fundamentally village institutions. In the village, gossip and public
opinion were the main sources of social control.
“I would rather live,” said Thomas Jefferson, “in a country with
newspapers and without a government than in a country with a
government and without newspapers.”
If public opinion is to continue to govern in the future as it has
in the past, if we propose to maintain a democracy as Jefferson
conceived it, the newspaper must continue to tell us about ourselves.
We must somehow learn to know our community and its affairs in
the same intimate way in which we knew them in the country
villages. The newspaper must continue to be the printed diary of the
home community. Marriages and divorce, crime and politics, must
continue to make up the main body of our news. Local news is the
very stuff that democracy is made of.
But that, according to Walter Lippmann, is just the difficulty.
“As social truth is organized today”, so he says, “the press is not
constituted to furnish from one edition to the next the amount of
knowledge which the democratic theory of public opinion
demands.... When we expect it to supply such a body of truth, we
employ a misleading standard of judgment. We misunderstand the
limited nature of news, the illimitable complexity of society; we
overestimate our own endurance, public spirit, and all-round
competence. We suppose an appetite for uninteresting truths which
is not discovered by any honest analysis of our own tastes....
Unconsciously the theory sets up the single reader as theoretically
incompetent, and puts upon the press the burden of accomplishing
whatever representative government, industrial organization, and
diplomacy have failed to accomplish. Acting upon everybody for
thirty minutes in twenty-four hours, the press is asked to create a
mystical force called ‘public opinion’ that will take up the slack in
public institutions.”[55]
It is evident that a newspaper cannot do for a community of
1,000,000 inhabitants what the village did spontaneously for itself
through the medium of gossip and personal contact. Nevertheless the
efforts of the newspaper to achieve this impossible result are an
interesting chapter in the history of politics as well as of the press.
 III. THE PARTY PAPERS
The first newspapers, the news-letters, were not party papers.
Political journals began to supersede the news-letters at the
beginning of the eighteenth century. The news with which the
reading public was most concerned at that time was the reports of
the debates in Parliament.
Even before the rise of the party press certain prying and curious
individuals had made a business of visiting the Strangers’ Gallery
during the sessions of the House of Commons in order to write up
from memory, or from notes taken down surreptitiously, accounts of
the speeches and discussions during an important debate. At this
time all the deliberations of Parliament were secret, and it was not
until 100 years later that the right of reporters to attend the sessions
of the House of Commons and record its proceedings was officially
recognized. In the meantime reporters were compelled to resort to all
sorts of subterfuges and indirect methods in order to get
information. It is upon this information, gathered in this way, that
much of our present history of English politics is based.
One of the most distinguished of these parliamentary reporters
was Samuel Johnson. One evening in 1770, it is reported, Johnson,
with a number of other celebrities, was taking dinner in London.
Conversation turned upon parliamentary oratory. Someone spoke of
a famous speech delivered in the House of Commons by the elder
Pitt in 1741. Someone else, amid the applause of the company,
quoted a passage from this speech as an illustration of an orator who
had surpassed in feeling and beauty of language the finest efforts of
the orators of antiquity. Then Johnson, who up to that point had
taken no part in the discussion, spoke up. “I wrote that speech,” he
said, “in a garret in Exeter Street.”
The guests were struck with amazement. He was asked, “How
could it have been written by you, sir?”
“Sir,” said Johnson, “I wrote it in Exeter Street. I never was in
the gallery of the House of Commons but once. Cave had interest
with the doorkeepers; he and the persons employed under him got
admittance; they brought away the subjects of discussion, the names
of the speakers, the side they took, and the order in which they rose,
together with notes of the various arguments adduced in the course
of the debate. The whole was afterward communicated to me, and I
composed the speeches in the form they now have in the
“Parliamentary Debates,” for the speeches of that period are all
printed from Cave’s magazine.”[56]
Someone undertook to praise Johnson’s impartiality, saying that
in his reports he seems to have dealt out reason and eloquence with
an equal hand to both political parties. “That is not quite true,” was
Johnson’s reply. “I saved appearances tolerably well; but I took care
that the Whig dogs should not have the best of it.”
This speech of William Pitt, composed by Johnson in Exeter
Street, has long held a place in school books and collections of
oratory. It is the famous speech in which Pitt answered the
accusation of the “atrocious crime of being a young man.”
Perhaps Pitt thought he delivered that speech. At any rate there
is no evidence that he repudiated it. I might add that Pitt, if he was
the first, was not the last statesman who is indebted to the reporters
for his reputation as an orator.
The significant thing about this incident is that it illustrates the
manner in which, under the influence of the parliamentary reporters,
something like a constitutional change was effected in the character
of parliamentary government. As soon as the parliamentary orators
discovered that they were addressing not only their fellow-members
but, indirectly, through the medium of the press, the people of
England, the whole character of parliamentary proceedings changed.
Through the newspapers the whole country was enabled to
participate in the discussions by which issues were framed and
legislation was enacted.
Meanwhile, the newspapers themselves, under the influence of
the very discussions which they themselves instigated, had become
party organs. Whereupon the party press ceased to be a mere
chronicle of small gossip and came to be what we know as a “journal
of opinion.” The editor, meanwhile, no longer a mere newsmonger
and humble recorder of events, found himself the mouthpiece of a
political party, playing a rôle in politics.
 During the long struggle for freedom of thought and speech in
the seventeenth century, popular discontent had found literary
expression in the pamphlet and broadside. The most notable of these
pamphleteers was John Milton, and the most famous of these
pamphlets was Milton’s Areopagitica: A Defence of the Liberty of
Unlicensed Printing, published in 1646; “the noblest piece of English
prose” it has been called by Henry Morley.
When the newspaper became, in the early part of the eighteenth
century, a journal of opinion, it took over the function of the political
pamphlet. The opinion that had formerly found expression in a
broadside was now expressed in the form of editorial leading articles.
The editorial writer, who had inherited the mantle of the
pamphleteer, now assumed the rôle of a tribune of the people.
It was in this rôle, as the protagonist of the popular cause, that
the newspaper captured the imagination of our intelligentsia.
When we read in the political literature of a generation ago
references to “the power of the press,” it is the editor and the
editorial, rather than the reporter and the news, of which these
writers are thinking. Even now when we speak of the liberty of the
press it is the liberty to express an opinion, rather than the liberty to
investigate and publish the facts, which is meant. The activities of the
reporter, upon which any opinion that is relevant to existing
conditions is likely to be based, are more often regarded as an
infringement of our personal rights than an exercise of our political
liberties.
The liberty of the press for which Milton wrote the Areopagitica
was the liberty to express an opinion. “Give me the liberty,” he said,
“to know, to alter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above
all liberties.”
Carlyle was thinking of the editorial writer and not of the
reporter when he wrote: “Great is journalism! Is not every able editor
a ruler of the world, being a persuader of it?”
The United States inherited its parliamentary government, its
party system, and its newspapers from England. The rôle which the
political journals played in English politics was re-enacted in
America. The American newspapers were a power with which the
British government had to reckon in the struggle of the colonies for