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Name: __________________________ Date: _____________

1. Choose the best answer. The topics studied in macroeconomics include:

A) inflation.
B) unemployment.
C) economic growth.
D) inflation, unemployment, and economic growth.

2. The topics studied in macroeconomics include:

A) inflation.
B) monopolies.
C) spillovers, such as pollution.
D) mergers.

3. Macroeconomics entails the study of the:

A) overall behavior of the economy.
B) individual decision makers.
C) market structures.
D) cost and production decisions by firms.

4. Macroeconomics focuses on:

A) the economy as a whole.
B) individual decisions.
C) wages.
D) the allocation of scarce resources.

5. The topics studied in macroeconomics include:

A) the price of a motorcycle.
B) the wages of engineers.
C) the general price level in the economy.
D) how much ice cream consumers buy.

6. Which is MOST likely a macroeconomic, not microeconomic, question?

A) Is the national unemployment rate rising or falling?
B) Are consumers buying more bottled water and less fruit juice?
C) Are salaries for nurses rising or falling?
D) Should a tax be levied on each tonne of carbon dioxide a factory emits?

Page 1
 7. Which is a microeconomic question, rather than a macroeconomic question?
A) Will a decrease in the income tax rate lift the nation out of a recession?
B) Will an increase in consumer spending cause inflation?
C) Will a decrease in the income tax rate lead to a government budget deficit?
D) Will an increase in the cigarette tax reduce the number of packs sold?

8. How the actions of individuals and firms interact to produce a particular economy-wide
level of performance is the focus of:
A) macroeconomics.
B) fiscal policy.
C) monetary policy.
D) microeconomics.

9. Which would most likely be a MICROECONOMIC question?

A) Should I go to business school or take a job?
B) What determines the overall salary levels paid to workers in a given year?
C) What government policies should be adopted to promote full employment and
growth?
D) What determines the level of output for the economy as whole?

10. Which would NOT be classified as a MACROECONOMIC question?

A) How many people are employed in the economy as a whole?
B) What determines the overall level of prices?
C) What determines the overall trade in goods, services, and financial assets between
Canada and the rest of the world?
D) What determines a university's cost of offering a new course?

11. Which question is the MOST appropriate to the study of MICROECONOMICS?

A) How does the aggregate price level affect consumer spending?
B) How does the level of interest rates affect investment spending?
C) How much will Sony charge for the new game system to be introduced later this
year?
D) How does the GDP affect overall government spending?

12. Which question is the MOST appropriate to the study of MACROECONOMICS?

A) How does the aggregate price level affect overall consumer spending?
B) How does the level of interest rates affect Delta's decision to buy a new airplane?
C) How much will Sony charge for the new game system to be introduced later this
year?
D) What determines whether Wachovia opens a new office in Beijing?

Page 2
13. Promotion of employment and growth in the economy as a whole is the focus of:
A) macroeconomics.
B) fiscal policy.
C) monetary policy.
D) microeconomics.

14. If all of the households and businesses start saving more during economic hard times,
then aggregate income will fall, hurting everyone in the economy. This is known as the:
A) quantity theory.
B) crowding-out theory.
C) paradox of thrift.
D) permanent income hypothesis.

15. The concept that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts best characterizes:
A) microeconomics.
B) supply and demand.
C) macroeconomics.
D) business forecasting.

16. A key insight into macroeconomics is that in the short run the combined effect of
individual decisions:
A) is always the same as what one individual intended.
B) may be very different from what any one individual intended.
C) is always beneficial to the economy as a whole.
D) is always detrimental to the economy as a whole.

17. A rubber-necking traffic jam is an example of:

A) microeconomics in action.
B) individual behavior that has a large aggregate impact.
C) the paradox of thrift.
D) an outcome smaller than the sum of its parts.

18. What do a rubber-necking traffic jam and the paradox of thrift have in common?
A) Individual behavior has large negative consequences for the whole of society.
B) Seemingly bad behavior ends up harming everyone.
C) Seemingly careless behavior leads to good times for all.
D) Government intervention can only make matters worse.

Page 3
19. In the paradox of thrift:
A) firms that are pessimistic about the future lay off the most saving-conscientious
workers.
B) when families and business are feeling pessimistic about the future, they spend
more.
C) increased saving by individuals increases their chances of becoming unemployed.
D) risky behavior during economic tough times has large negative consequences for
society.

20. In contrast to the conclusions drawn from microeconomics, many economists argue that
in macroeconomics, government:
A) control of rent prices increases overall economic activity.
B) intervention in markets usually leaves society as a whole worse off.
C) taxation of goods and services does not cause a deadweight loss of economic
welfare.
D) intervention in markets can prevent or reduce the effects of adverse events on the
macroeconomy.

21. The view that the government should take an active role in the macroeconomy dates to:
A) the Seven Years' War.
B) World War I.
C) the Great Depression.
D) the Vietnam War.

22. Changing the level of government spending is an example of _____ policy.

A) a fiscal
B) an interest rate
C) a monetary
D) an exchange rate

23. The modern macroeconomic tools used by the government are _____ policy and _____
policy.
A) tax; antitrust
B) fiscal; monetary
C) monetary; exchange rate
D) capital; labour

Page 4
24. Changing interest rates is an example of _____ policy.
A) fiscal
B) tax
C) monetary
D) exchange rate

25. Fiscal policy refers to changes in _____ to affect overall spending in the economy.
A) interest rates
B) government spending and taxation
C) the quantity of money
D) interest rates and of government spending

26. The economist whose writings in the 1930s argued that the cause of an economic
depression is inadequate spending was:
A) Herbert Hoover.
B) John Maynard Keynes.
C) Andrew Mellon.
D) Joseph Schumpeter.

27. One role of government policy is to:

A) provide insurance to cover damages from macroeconomic fluctuations.
B) attempt to manage short-run macroeconomic fluctuations.
C) subsidize private insurance for businesses to cover harm from macroeconomic
fluctuations.
D) avoid Keynesian economics.

28. Among the tools available to macroeconomic policy makers is:

A) fiscal policy, for use in manipulating government spending and taxation.
B) antitrust policy, to break up monopolies.
C) environmental policy, to clean up the economy.
D) improving standards for food and drugs.

29. In 1936 economic theory changed dramatically with the publication of:
A) The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, by John Maynard
Keynes.
B) The Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith.
C) The Road to Serfdom, by F. A. Hayek.
D) Principles of Economics, by Paul Samuelson.

Page 5
30. The central mission of modern macroeconomics is to prevent:
A) shortages.
B) surpluses.
C) high gas prices.
D) a deep recession like the Great Depression.

31. Which two types of policy are considered to be macroeconomic?

A) monetary and fiscal policy
B) monetary and regulation policy
C) fiscal and regulation policy
D) fiscal policy and price controls

32. Fiscal policy attempts to affect the level of overall spending by making changes in:
A) the interest rate.
B) the money supply.
C) banking regulations.
D) taxes and spending.

33. Monetary policy attempts to affect the overall level of spending by making changes in:
A) taxes.
B) taxes and spending.
C) taxes and interest rates.
D) interest rates and the quantity of money.

34. Monetary policy attempts to affect the overall level of spending through:
A) changes in the inflation rate.
B) changes in the quantity of money and the interest rate.
C) changes in tax policy or government spending.
D) discretionary regulation of profits and wages.

35. Fiscal policy attempts to affect the overall level of spending through:
A) changes in the inflation rate.
B) changes in the quantity of money or the interest rate.
C) changes in tax policy or government spending.
D) discretionary regulation of profits and wages.

Page 6
36. If macroeconomic policy has been successful over time, it is likely that the economy has
NOT seen:
A) any inflation.
B) any severe recessions.
C) any unemployment.
D) a business cycle.

37. Use of monetary policy entails changes in:

A) government spending.
B) tax receipts.
C) the quantity of money.
D) tax rates.

38. Use of fiscal policy involves changes in:

A) interest rates.
B) government spending.
C) the quantity of money.
D) the quantity of money and interest rates.

39. When the Great Depression reached its trough in 1933, the unemployment rate was
approximately _____%.
A) 5
B) 10
C) 20
D) 50

40. The onset of the Great Depression:

A) was not a shock to anyone, since most economists predicted the Roaring Twenties
were bound to end in disaster.
B) caused a disagreement between the Hoover administration and conventional
economists because Hoover wanted the government to intervene much more
quickly than most others.
C) came as a considerable shock to the conventional wisdom of economics at that time
and opened the door for critiques of mainstream thought by economists like John
Maynard Keynes.
D) was in 1918 at the end of World War I.

Page 7
41. The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, written by _____ and
published in _____, transformed the way economists thought about macroeconomics.
A) Milton Friedman; 1946
B) Paul Samuelson; 1940
C) John Maynard Keynes; 1936
D) Paul Lucas; 1966

42. The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money was written by:
A) Robert Lucas.
B) David Ricardo.
C) John Maynard Keynes.
D) Thomas Malthus.

43. Keynesian economics stressed:

A) the importance of total spending.
B) the self-correcting power of free markets.
C) the long run.
D) that the Depression should run its course to bring down the high cost of living.

44. In recent times, the Canadian government has been trying to help the economy through
one of the worst economic slumps ever. The policies used are based on _____ theory.
A) Keynesian
B) classical
C) supply-side
D) trickle-down

45. Keynesian economics promotes ideas that:

A) government intervention can be destabilizing.
B) the government can help a depressed economy via fiscal and monetary policies.
C) the private sector is perfectly capable of regulating itself.
D) the free market system will always prevail.

46. A change in the level of overall spending in the economy due to a change in the interest
rate, brought about by a change in the quantity of money, is an example of _____
policy.
A) monetary
B) fiscal
C) free-market
D) trickle-down

Page 8
47. Changing government spending and taxes to affect overall spending is use of _____
policy.
A) tax-and-spend
B) monetary
C) fiscal
D) free-trade

48. John Maynard Keynes believed that the government should:

A) actively try to mitigate the effects of recessions by using fiscal and monetary
policies.
B) not interfere with the economy but let the economy self-correct.
C) intervene only when there is a boom but let the recession run its course.
D) not use fiscal and monetary policies, as these policies have long-term adverse
effects.

49. Periods in which output and employment are falling in many industries are called:
A) recessions.
B) booms.
C) expansions.
D) deflations.

50. An expansion is a period in which:

A) output declines.
B) the price level falls.
C) output rises.
D) deflation occurs.

51. Recessions are periods when:

A) output rises.
B) the aggregate price level rises.
C) the unemployment rate is falling.
D) output and employment are falling in many industries.

52. The short-run alternation between economic downturns and recessions, then economic
upturns and expansions is known as the _____ cycle.
A) business
B) contractionary
C) expansionary
D) disequilibrium

Page 9
53. If during several quarters, the economy is simultaneously increasing its levels of output
and employment, then the economy is in a(n):
A) depression.
B) expansion.
C) recession.
D) turning point between a recovery and a downturn.

54. A business cycle is a:

A) very deep and prolonged economic downturn.
B) period in which output and employment are rising.
C) period in which output and employment are falling.
D) short-run shift between economic upturns and downturns.

55. The switching between recessions and expansions is known as the:

A) unemployment rate.
B) long-run economic growth.
C) business cycle.
D) macroeconomy.

56. In a typical business cycle, the trough is immediately followed by the:

A) peak.
B) recession.
C) depression.
D) expansion.

57. In a typical business cycle, the peak is immediately followed by the:

A) recession.
B) trough.
C) expansion.
D) depression.

58. An economic expansion in Canada is typically associated with a(n):

A) falling inflation rate.
B) increase in the poverty rate.
C) increase in output.
D) decrease in corporate profits.

Page 10
59. Economists have identified several consecutive quarters of falling employment, and
forecasts for the next few months suggest more of the same. The economy is at the
_____ stage of the business cycle.
A) recession
B) expansion
C) peak
D) trough

60. For the past several months, per capita output has increased at a slower and slower rate.
Over the same period, the unemployment rate has been falling, but it appears that both
have leveled off. Where in the business cycle is the economy?
A) peak
B) recession
C) trough
D) expansion

61. The point at which a recession ends and the expansion begins is called the:
A) trough.
B) downturn.
C) peak.
D) lag.

62. The trough of the business cycle:

A) comes right after the expansion phase.
B) comes before the recession phase.
C) is a temporary maximum level of real GDP.
D) is a temporary minimum level of real GDP.

63. A period of rising real GDP is a(n)_______in the business cycle:

A) peak
B) trough
C) expansion
D) recession

64. A period of falling real GDP is a(n)________ in the business cycle:

A) peak
B) trough
C) expansion
D) recession

Page 11
65. A pattern of expansion, then recession, then expansion again is a(n):
A) annual trend.
B) secular trend.
C) business cycle.
D) consumer cycle.

66. The point on a business cycle when real GDP stops rising and begins falling is a(n):
A) peak.
B) trough.
C) expansion.
D) recession.

67. The point on a business cycle when real GDP stops falling and begins rising is a(n):
A) peak.
B) expansion.
C) trough.
D) recession.

68. The sequence of business cycle phases is:

A) peak, trough, expansion, recession.
B) peak, expansion, trough, recession.
C) peak, recession, trough, expansion.
D) peak, expansion, recession, trough.

69. Rising total output accompanied by increasing employment is generally known as a(n):
A) stagflation.
B) recession.
C) inflation.
D) expansion.

70. A country's real gross domestic product (GDP) undergoes periodic fluctuations called
a(n):
A) recession.
B) business cycle.
C) expansion.
D) trough.

Page 12
Use the following to answer questions 71-72:

71. (Figure: The Business Cycle) Point B on this graph shows a(n):
A) peak.
B) trough.
C) expansion.
D) recession.

72. (Figure: The Business Cycle) The movement from point B to C is called a(n):
A) trough.
B) expansion.
C) depression.
D) peak.

73. A recession does NOT lead to:

A) higher unemployment.
B) reduced output.
C) reduced income and living standards.
D) higher employment.

74. In Canada, recessions are typically associated with a(n):

A) falling unemployment rate.
B) decrease in the number of people living in poverty.
C) decrease in the percentage of Canadians with dental insurance.
D) increase in corporate profits.

Page 13
75. The most painful effect of a recession is:
A) inflation.
B) unemployment.
C) money neutrality.
D) liquidity trap.

76. The most painful consequence of a recession is:

A) rising unemployment.
B) increasing inflation.
C) increasing aggregate output.
D) higher interest rates.

77. In many countries, economists adopt the rule that a recession is a period of at least
_____ during which aggregate output falls.
A) one quarter
B) two consecutive quarters
C) three consecutive quarters
D) a full year

78. The most widely used indicator of the conditions in the labour market is the:
A) unemployment rate.
B) population growth rate.
C) inflation rate.
D) trade deficit.

79. The _________ is the most widely used indicator of the conditions in the labour market.
A) trade deficit
B) population growth rate
C) inflation rate
D) unemployment rate

80. The purpose of macroeconomic policy is to:

A) bring unemployment closer to the natural rate.
B) reduce the severity of recessions.
C) rein in excessively strong expansions.
D) bring unemployment closer to the natural rate, rein in excessively strong
expansions, and reduce the severity of recessions.

Page 14
81. According to official statistics for Canada, since the Great Depression:
A) economists are confident that the business cycle has been tamed.
B) the economy has constantly had positive real GDP growth rates.
C) the economy had longer recessions than expansions only during the 1960s and
1990s.
D) the economy has not had another severe and prolonged economic downturn
comparable to it.

82. A depression occurs when:

A) both output and employment increase.
B) the economic downturn becomes extremely deep and prolonged.
C) both price level and unemployment increase.
D) output rises but employment remains unchanged.

83. Long-run growth is the sustained upward trend in:

A) aggregate output per person over several decades.
B) the unemployment rate over time.
C) interest rates over time.
D) aggregate output per person over the business cycle.

84. Long-run growth is the:

A) sustained upward trend in aggregate output per person over several decades.
B) expansion phase of business cycles.
C) downturn phase of business cycles.
D) sustained downward trend in the employment rate over several decades.

85. Long-run growth is a(n):

A) sustained upward trend in the economy's overall output per person, which
generates higher incomes and a higher standard of living for its members.
B) increase in the rate of inflation across time, which reduces real salaries.
C) increase in the overall output of the economy over a 3- or 4-year period.
D) reduction in the price level over decades.

86. Historical evidence shows that for determining a country's living standards, over:
A) an extended period, long-run growth is just as important as the business cycle.
B) short periods, long-run growth is less important than the business cycle.
C) an extended period, long-run growth is much more important than the business
cycle.
D) long periods, it is difficult to determine whether the business cycle or long-run
growth is more important.

Page 15
87. An increase in the nation's _____ is generally accepted as a long-run indicator of a
rising standard of living.
A) output per person
B) unemployment rate
C) inflation rate
D) trade deficit

88. Long-run economic growth is best measured by:

A) a sustained rise in the production of goods and services.
B) the growth of the money supply.
C) trade surpluses in the long run.
D) the rate of private saving.

89. Which one of the following measures long-run economic growth?

A) a rise in employment
B) an increase in the money supply
C) a sustained increase in the production of goods and services
D) an increase in the labour force

90. Economists use the term long-term growth to indicate:

A) the expansion phase of the business cycle.
B) the growth of the economy over several decades.
C) the growth of the economy over 1–5 years.
D) long-run growth of the value of a company.

91. Per capita economic growth is:

A) growth per unit of capital.
B) growth per person.
C) always accelerated during a business cycle.
D) a sustained increase in interest rates.

92. Which statement about the Canada economy is FALSE?

A) Since World War II, aggregate output has grown more slowly than the population.
B) Since World War II, aggregate output has grown more rapidly than the population.
C) Since World War II, macroeconomic policy has helped make the economy more
stable.
D) Long-run growth per capita is the key to higher wages and a rising standard of
living.

Page 16
93. Which statement is TRUE?
A) In the past century, the population of Canada has grown faster than output.
B) Long-run growth models and business cycle models are the same.
C) Since World War II, the economy of Argentina has grown faster than the economy
of Canada.
D) The level of saving is important for long-run growth.

94. Which statement is TRUE?

A) Inflation means an increase in the overall level of prices.
B) Deflation refers to a decrease in prices only in the energy and transportation
sectors.
C) During inflation, most people enjoy an increase in their standard of living even if
their wages don't increase.
D) Inflation was a problem for the first time in the recession of 1929–1933.

95. Inflation:
A) is a movement of the economy toward economic growth.
B) can be thought of as an increase in a nation's standard of living.
C) is a sustained fall in the overall level of prices.
D) is an increase in the overall level of prices.

96. If the economy grew at 3% this year and average prices increased _____, people would
be better off this year than the last year.
A) by 3%
B) faster than 3%
C) less than 3%
D) faster than 10%

97. If wages grew at 5% last year and average prices grew at 3%, then the average worker:
A) is better off.
B) is worse off.
C) has lost purchasing power.
D) is unaffected.

Page 17
 98. If workers' nominal wages have risen by 50% over a 10 years and prices have increased
by 40% in that same period, then we can safely conclude that the amount of goods and
services workers can buy has:
A) fallen.
B) increased.
C) not changed.
D) decreased in quality.

99. An increase in the nation's overall price level is:

A) long-term economic growth.
B) unemployment.
C) inflation.
D) deflation.

100. During inflation, the _____ price level _____.

A) average; falls
B) average; increases
C) average; remains constant
D) real; falls

101. The annual percentage change in the aggregate price level is negative when there is:
A) deflation.
B) disinflation.
C) inflation.
D) spiraling inflation.

102. With inflation:

A) overall prices are increasing, although some may be decreasing.
B) all prices must be increasing.
C) the economy must be contracting.
D) the economy must be producing at full employment.

103. Inflation:
A) raises the cost of making purchases.
B) can result in a decrease in barter transactions.
C) encourages people to hold cash.
D) makes borrowers worse off.

Page 18
104. Deflation:
A) raises the cost of making purchases.
B) makes borrowers better off.
C) encourages people to hold cash rather than invest.
D) is caused only by changes in interest rates.

105. With regard to the aggregate price level, economists generally believe that:
A) price stability is desirable.
B) inflation is worse than deflation.
C) deflation is worse than inflation.
D) inflation benefits most retired people.

106. Which statement is TRUE about inflation and deflation?

A) Both are good for the economy.
B) Inflation is always good for the economy and deflation is always bad for the
economy.
C) Inflation is always bad for the economy and deflation is always good for the
economy.
D) Both inflation and deflation can pose problems for the economy.

107. Inflation affects people adversely because:

A) nominal income falls.
B) purchasing power tends to increase.
C) the budget deficit increases.
D) it causes money to lose its value over time.

108. Which statement is CORRECT?

A) Supply and demand cannot explain why a particular good or service becomes more
expensive relative to other goods and services.
B) Inflation affects only the more advanced countries, whereas less advanced
countries face deflation.
C) Employment levels remained stable during the Great Depression.
D) When the economy is in recession and jobs are hard to find, inflation tends to fall.

109. Price stability occurs when:

A) the overall price level is zero.
B) the economy is at full employment.
C) the overall cost of living is changing very slowly.
D) food prices have remained the same.

Page 19
110. If a country sells more goods and services to the rest of the world than it purchases from
the other countries, then the country has a:
A) trade deficit.
B) budget deficit.
C) trade surplus.
D) budget surplus.

111. If a country has a trade deficit, does it indicate that the country has a serious problem?
A) No. Trade deficits occur when a country's investment spending is higher than its
level of saving.
B) Yes. Trade deficits occur when a country has low productivity.
C) Yes. Trade deficits occur when a country does not have a comparative advantage in
production.
D) Yes. Trade deficits occur when a country has a high budget surplus.

112. Goods and services that are produced in a foreign country but consumed domestically
are called:
A) exports.
B) imports.
C) investment goods.
D) consumer durables.

113. An open economy:

A) trades goods and services with other countries.
B) does not regulate its industries.
C) does not impose taxes on its citizens.
D) allows free practice of speech and religion.

114. A nation whose value of imports exceeds its value of exports is said to have:
A) hyperinflation.
B) a trade deficit.
C) price stability.
D) a trade surplus.

115. An open economy:

A) trades only with its neighbours.
B) trades goods but not services or assets with other countries.
C) does not trade goods, services, or assets with other countries.
D) trades goods and services with other countries.

Page 20
116. In an open economy:
A) the exchange rate is determined by the government.
B) specialization in activities with a comparative advantage is not possible.
C) trade is beneficial only to the larger economy.
D) there is trade in goods, services, and/or assets with other countries.

117. The trade balance is the difference between the values of:
A) the trade deficit and the budget deficit.
B) exports and imports.
C) the exchange rates of two countries that are engaged in international trade.
D) the national debt and the foreign debt.

118. The additional profit earned by Microsoft Corporation by marketing and using a
proprietary method of coding software is a microeconomic issue.
A) True
B) False

119. Fiscal policy entails changes in the quantity of money or the interest rate.
A) True
B) False

120. Monetary and fiscal policy are tools to reduce the severity of recessions.
A) True
B) False

121. One type of macroeconomic policy is manipulating the money supply.

A) True
B) False

122. Fiscal policy can be used to reduce the severity of recessions.

A) True
B) False

123. The business cycle is the long-run alternation between downturns and upturns.
A) True
B) False

Page 21
124. Expansions are periods when real GDP and employment are growing.
A) True
B) False

125. Recessions are periods in which output and employment are falling.
A) True
B) False

126. Business cycles are defined by the expansion, contraction, then expansion again of
nominal GDP.
A) True
B) False

127. Following a trough, real GDP increases.

A) True
B) False

128. The peak of the business cycle provides evidence that the recession is over.
A) True
B) False

129. Between 1980 and 2017, inflation wiped out most of the wage gains of the typical
worker.
A) True
B) False

130. A newspaper article documents the closing of a factory and the many jobs that are lost.
A separate article describes the rising Canadian unemployment rate. Why is the first
article a microeconomic issue and the second article a macroeconomic issue?

131. The economy is in a recession and the federal government passes legislation to reduce
income taxes. Tom, seeing an increase in his take-home pay, goes to Best Buy and
purchases a new television. Why is the tax cut a macroeconomic issue, while Tom's new
TV is a microeconomic issue?

132. Explain what is meant by the paradox of thrift.

Page 22
133. What are Keynesian policies?

134. Suppose the business cycle is expanding. Predict how the economic indicators of real
gross domestic product, the unemployment rate, and the inflation rate are moving.

135. You read a newspaper article that says the unemployment rate rose this month. Are we
in a recession? Explain.

136. What is long-run economic growth, and why is it so important for a nation's economy?

137. Your boss is impressed with your performance over the past year and has decided to
give you a 5% increase in your salary. Are you clearly better off with your increased
salary? What factors must be considered?

138. In a typical business cycle recession, the unemployment rate rises and the inflation rate
falls. Explain these two trends.

139. Canada imports coffee from Brazil and exports cars to Brazil. Is this a macroeconomic
or microeconomic issue?

140. One of the issues of importance to macroeconomists is:

A) the behavior of individuals and their allocation of income.
B) how firms determine the profit-maximizing level of output.
C) understanding how living standards change over time.
D) the behavior of individual markets.

141. In macroeconomics:
A) aggregate data such as real GDP, the price level, and unemployment are analyzed.
B) individual and firm decisions regarding utility and profit maximization are studied.
C) long-term growth is not considered to be important.
D) market intervention from the government is not considered important.

Page 23
142. The paradox of thrift highlights:
A) the role of investment in the macroeconomy.
B) how individual decisions to save more may worsen a recession.
C) how an increase in spending occurs during recessions.
D) irrational behavior on the part of households.

143. Fiscal and monetary policies:

A) have no role in macroeconomic policies.
B) have been used by the government for over 250 years.
C) are most effective in microeconomic settings.
D) are used to correct for short-term economic fluctuations.

144. Fiscal policy entails:

A) setting the money supply.
B) setting levels of taxation and/or government spending.
C) setting interest rates in specific markets.
D) correcting only recessionary problems.

145. Keynesians argue that low levels of spending:

A) are irrelevant.
B) can lead to prolonged recessions.
C) are not helped by monetary or fiscal policy efforts.
D) are evident only during expansions.

146. Setting interest rates and the money supply in an effort to change overall spending in an
economy is called:
A) fiscal policy.
B) monetary policy.
C) investment.
D) the stock market.

147. Setting government spending and taxes in an effort to change overall spending in an
economy called:
A) fiscal policy.
B) monetary policy.
C) investment.
D) the stock market.

Page 24
148. During the Great Depression, unemployment rates reached as high as _____%.
A) 20
B) 50
C) 10
D) 60

149. Recessions tend to be _____, and expansions tend to be _____.

A) short; short
B) long; long
C) short; long
D) long; short

150. During a recession, one will often observe:

A) rising aggregate output.
B) rising unemployment rates and falling aggregate output.
C) rising employment rates.
D) zero unemployment rates.

151. When economists measure economic growth, they often use:

A) the inflation rate.
B) the unemployment rate.
C) nominal GDP.
D) real GDP.

152. One normally expects that unemployment increases while aggregate output and
aggregate incomes decrease during:
A) an expansion.
B) government intervention.
C) a recession.
D) the peak of the business cycle.

153. A contraction in the business cycle is:

A) the long run.
B) a recession.
C) accompanied by an increase in employment.
D) viewed as a rarity.

Page 25
154. When an economy is operating between a trough and a peak of the business cycle, it is
in:
A) an expansion.
B) a contraction.
C) a short-run condition.
D) the beginning of a fall in aggregate spending.

155. An economic recovery does NOT encompass:

A) sustained economic growth.
B) a short-run increase in aggregate production.
C) a time of increasing employment.
D) the end of the business cycle.

156. When an economy is expanding, unemployment tends to _____ and overall prices tend
to _____.
A) fall; rise
B) fall; fall
C) rise; fall
D) rise; rise

157. When an economy's overall production grows faster than its population, it is
undergoing:
A) long-run growth per capita.
B) an increase in nominal GDP.
C) deflation.
D) the paradox of thrift.

158. An overall decrease in the price level is called:

A) inflation.
B) deflation.
C) long-run growth.
D) the result of an increase in economic production.

159. When overall price levels rise over time, it is referred to as:
A) deflation.
B) inflation.
C) an increase in purchasing power.
D) the consumer price index.

Page 26
160. If an economy is open:
A) anyone can immigrate to the country.
B) trading with other countries makes up a portion of its economy.
C) it does not trade with other countries.
D) its real GDP will drop.

161. A trade surplus occurs:

A) during economic contractions only.
B) when the value of imports exceeds the value of exports.
C) when the value of imports is less than the value exports.
D) when unemployment is rising.

162. If the value of a country's exports is GREATER than the value of its imports, it is:
A) running a trade surplus.
B) running a trade deficit.
C) in an economic contraction.
D) likely to find its investment spending greater than its level of saving.

163. If a country runs a trade deficit, its investment spending is probably:

A) above its level of saving.
B) less than its level of saving.
C) equal to its level of saving.
D) equal to zero.

164. The relation between a country's level of saving and investment:

A) affects its trade balances.
B) does not affect an open economy.
C) has often been used to correct a trade deficit but not a trade surplus.
D) pertains to trade surpluses only.

Page 27
Answer Key
1. D
2. A
3. A
4. A
5. C
6. A
7. D
8. A
9. A
10. D
11. C
12. A
13. A
14. C
15. C
16. B
17. B
18. A
19. C
20. D
21. C
22. A
23. B
24. C
25. B
26. B
27. B
28. A
29. A
30. D
31. A
32. D
33. D
34. B
35. C
36. B
37. C
38. B
39. C
40. C
41. C
42. C
43. A
44. A

Page 28
45. B
46. A
47. C
48. A
49. A
50. C
51. D
52. A
53. B
54. D
55. C
56. D
57. A
58. C
59. A
60. A
61. A
62. D
63. C
64. D
65. C
66. A
67. C
68. C
69. D
70. B
71. B
72. B
73. D
74. C
75. B
76. A
77. B
78. A
79. D
80. D
81. D
82. B
83. A
84. A
85. A
86. C
87. A
88. A
89. C
90. B

Page 29
 91. B
92. A
93. D
94. A
95. D
96. C
97. A
98. B
99. C
100. B
101. A
102. A
103. A
104. C
105. A
106. D
107. D
108. D
109. C
110. C
111. A
112. B
113. A
114. B
115. D
116. D
117. B
118. A
119. B
120. A
121. B
122. A
123. B
124. A
125. A
126. B
127. A
128. B
129. B
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.

Page 30
137.
138.
139.
140. C
141. A
142. B
143. D
144. B
145. B
146. B
147. A
148. A
149. C
150. B
151. D
152. C
153. B
154. A
155. D
156. A
157. A
158. B
159. B
160. B
161. C
162. A
163. A
164. A

Page 31
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Limnaea stagnalis, about 15,000 in Helix aspersa (that is, about
400,000 to the square inch), about 30,000 in Limax maximus, and as
many as 40,000 in Helix Ghiesbreghti, a large species from Mexico;
they are very numerous also in Nanina, Vitrina, Gadinia, and
Actaeon. But Umbrella stands far and away the first, as far as
number of teeth is concerned. In both U. mediterranea and U. indica
they entirely baffle calculation, possibly 750,000 may be somewhere
near the truth.
The teeth on the radula are almost invariably disposed in a kind of
pattern, exactly like the longitudinal rows of colour in a piece of
ribbon, down the centre of which runs a narrow stripe, and every
band of colour on one side is repeated in the same relative position
on the other side. The middle tooth of each row—the rows being
counted across the radula, not longitudinally—is called the central or
rachidian tooth; the teeth next adjacent on each side are known as
the laterals, while the outermost are styled uncini or marginals. As a
rule, the distinction between the laterals and marginals is fairly well
indicated, but in the Helicidae and some of the Nudibranchiata it is
not easy to perceive, and in these cases there is a very gradual
passage from one set to the other.
The central tooth is nearly always present. It is wanting in certain
groups of Opisthobranchiata, some of the carnivorous Pulmonata,
and in the Conidae and Terebridae, which have lost the laterals as
well. Voluta has lost both laterals and marginals in most of the
species, and the same is the case with Harpa. In Aeolis, Elysia, and
some other Nudibranchiata the radula consists of a single central
row. Other peculiarities will be described below in their proper order.
The extreme importance of a study of the radula depends upon
the fact, that in each species, and a fortiori in each genus and family,
the radula is characteristic. In closely allied species the differences
exhibited are naturally but slight, but in well-marked species the
differences are considerable. The radula, therefore, serves as a test
for the distinction of genera and species. For instance, in the four
known recent genera of the family Strombidae, viz. Strombus,
Pteroceras, Rostellaria, and Terebellum, the radula is of the same
general type throughout, but with distinct modifications for each
genus; and the same is true, though to a lesser extent, for all the
species hitherto examined in each of the genera. These facts are
true for all known genera, differences of the radula corresponding to
and emphasising those other differences which have caused genera
to be constituted. The radula therefore forms a basis of classification,
and it is found especially useful in this respect in dealing with the
largest class of all, the Gasteropoda, and particularly with the chief
section of this order, the Prosobranchiata. Thus we have—
Prosobranchiata Monotocardia (a) Toxoglossa
(b) Rachiglossa
(c) Taenioglossa
(d) Ptenoglossa
(e) Gymnoglossa

Diotocardia (f) Rhipidonlossa

(g) Docoglossa[324]
(a) Toxoglossa.—Only three families, Terebridae, Conidae, and
Cancellariidae, belong to this section. There is no central tooth, and
no laterals, the radula consisting simply of large marginals on each
side. In Conus these are of great size, with a blunt base which
contains a poison-gland (see p. 66), the contents of which are
carried to the point by a duct. The point is always singly and
sometimes doubly barbed (Fig. 116). When extracted, the teeth
resemble a small sheaf of arrows (Figs. 113, 115). A remarkable
form of radula, belonging to Spirotropis (a sub-genus of Drillia, one
of the Conidae), enables us to explain the true history of the radula
in the Toxoglossa. Here there are five teeth in a row, a central tooth,
and one lateral and one marginal on each side, the marginals being
very similar in shape to the characteristic shafts of the Conidae (Fig.
114). It is evident, then, that the great mass of the Toxoglossa have
lost both their central and lateral teeth, and that those which remain
are true uncini or marginals. Spirotropis appears to be the solitary
survival of a group retaining the primitive form of radula.
 Fig. 113.—Radula of Bela
turricula Mont. × 70.

Fig. 114.—Portion of radula of Spirotropis

carinata Phil., Norway. × 70.
 Fig. 115.—Eight teeth from
the radula of Terebra
caerulescens Lam. ×
60.
The arrangement of teeth in all these sections is expressed by a
formula applicable to each transverse row of the series. The central
tooth, if present, is represented by 1, and the laterals and marginals,
according to their number, on each side of the central figure. Thus
the typical formula of the Toxoglossa is 1.0.0.0.1, the middle 0
standing for the central tooth which is absent, and the 0 on each side
of it for the absent laterals; the 1 on each extreme represents the
one uncinus in each row. Thus the formula for Spirotropis, which has
also one lateral on each side and a rachidian or central tooth, is
1.1.1.1.1. Often the formula is given thus: where 30
and 42 stand for the average number of rows of teeth in Conus and
Spirotropis respectively; the same is sometimes expressed thus:
1.0.0.0.1 × 30; 1.1.1.1.1 × 42.
 Fig. 116.—A tooth from
the radula of Conus
imperialis L., S.
Pacific, × 50, showing
barb and poison duct.

Fig. 117.—Portion of the radula of Melongena

vespertilio Lam., Ceylon. × 30.
 Fig. 118.—Portion of the radula of Eburna japonica Sowb.,
China. × 30.

Fig. 119.—Portion of the radula of Murex regius Lam.,

Panama. × 60.
(b) The Rachiglossa comprise the 12 families Olividae, Harpidae,
Marginellidae, Volutidae, Mitridae, Fasciolariidae, Turbinellidae,
Buccinidae, Nassidae, Columbellidae, Muricidae, and
Coralliophilidae. Certainly most and probably all of these families are
or have been carnivorous, the Coralliophilidae being a degraded
group which have become parasitic on corals, and have lost their
teeth in consequence. The characteristics of the group are the
possession of a central tooth with from one cusp (Boreofusus) to
about fourteen (Bullia), and a single lateral more or less cuspidate,
the outer cusp of all being generally much the largest. Thus in
Melongena respertilio (Fig. 117) the central tooth is tricuspid, the
central cusp being the smallest, while the laterals are bicuspid; in
Eburna japonica (Fig. 118) the central tooth is 5-cusped, the two
outer cusps being much the smallest. The teeth, on the whole, are
sharp and hooked, with a broad base and formidable cutting edge. In
the Olividae, Turricula, Buccinopsis, and the Muricidae the laterals
are unicuspid and somewhat degraded (Fig. 119). In Mitra and the
Fasciolariidae they are very broad and finely equally toothed like a
comb (Figs. 120, 121). The whole group is destitute of marginals.

Fig. 120.—Portion of the radula of Imbricaria marmorata

Swains. × 80.

Fig. 121.—Three rows of teeth from the radula of Fasciolaria

trapezium Lam. × 40.
Fig. 122.—Six teeth from
the radula of
Cymbium diadema
Lam., Torres Strait. ×
25.
 Fig. 123.—Examples of
degraded forms of
radula: A, Cantharus
pagodus Reeve,
Panama (nascent end),
× 40; A´, same radula,
central and front portion;
B, Columbella varia
Sowb., Panama, × 50.

Fig. 124.—Three rows of the radula of Sistrum spectrum Reeve, Tonga, × 80.
The laterals to the right are not drawn in.
Several remarkable peculiarities occur. Harpa loses the radula
altogether in the adult. In the young it has lost only the laterals, and
consists of nothing but the central tooth. Marginella has no laterals;
the central tooth is small and comb-shaped, with blunt cusps. In
Voluta the laterals are generally lost, but in Volutomitra and one
species of Voluta[325] they are retained. The central tooth usually
has three strong cusps, and is very thick and coloured a deep red or
orange (Fig. 122); in the sub-genus Amoria it is unicuspid, in shape
rather like a spear-head with broadened wings; in Volutolyria it is of a
different type, with numerous unequal denticulations, something like
the laterals of Mitra or Fasciolaria. Of the Mitridae, Cylindromitra has
lost the laterals. Among the Buccinidae, Buccinopsis possesses a
curiously degraded radula, the central tooth having no cusps, but
being reduced to a thin basal plate, while the laterals are also
weakened. This degradation from the type is a remarkable feature
among radulae, and appears to be characteristic, sometimes of a
whole family, e.g. the Columbellidae (Fig. 123, B), sometimes of a
genus, sometimes again of a single species. Thus in Cantharus (a
sub-genus of Buccinum) the radula is typical in the great majority of
species, but in C. pagodus Reeve, a large and well-grown species, it
is most remarkably degraded, both in the central and lateral teeth
(Fig. 123, A). This circumstance is the more singular since C.
pagodus lives at Panama side by side with C. ringeus and C.
insignis, both of which have perfectly typical radulae. It is probable
that the nature of the food has something to do with the
phenomenon. Thus Sistrum spectrum Reeve was found to possess
a very aberrant radula, not of the common muricoid type, but with
very long reed-like laterals. This singularity was a standing puzzle to
the present writer, until he was fortunate enough to discover that S.
spectrum, unlike all other species of Sistrum, lives exclusively on a
branching coral.
The dental formula for the Rachiglossa is thus 1.1.1, except in
those cases where the laterals are absent, when it is 0.1.0.
Fig. 125.—Portion of the radula of Cassis sulcosa Born., × 40. The marginals to
the right are not fully drawn.
(c) The Taenioglossa comprise 46 families in all, of which the
most important are Tritonidae, Cassididae, Cypraeidae, Strombidae,
Cerithiidae, Turritellidae, Melaniidae, Littorinidae, Rissoidae,
Paludinidae, Ampullariidae, Cyclophoridae, Cyclostomatidae, and
Naticidae. The radula is characterised by a central tooth of very
variable form, the prevailing type being multicuspid, the central cusp
the largest, on a rather broad base; a single lateral, which is often a
broad plate, more or less cusped, and two uncini, rather narrow, with
single hooks, or slightly cusped. The accompanying figures of
Cassis, Vermetus, and Cypraea, and those of Littorina and
Cyclophorus given on pp. 20, 21, are good examples of typical
taenioglossate radulae.

Fig. 126.—Four rows of teeth from the radula of

Vermetus grandis Gray, Andamans. × 40.
In Homalogyra the radula is much degraded, the central tooth is
large and triangular on a broad base, the lateral is represented only
by a thin oblong plate, and the uncini are absent. In some species of
Jeffreysia the uncini are said to be absent, while present in others.
Lamellaria has lost both its uncini, but the radula of the allied
Velutina is quite typical. A peculiar feature in this group is the
tendency of the marginals to increase in number. A stage in this
direction is perhaps seen in Ovula, Pedicularia, and the
Cyclostomatidae. Here the outermost of the two marginals is by far
the larger and broader, and is strongly pectinated on its upper edge;
in the Cyclostomatidae the pectinations are rather superficial; in
Ovula (where both marginals are pectinated) they are decidedly
deeper; in Pedicularia they are deeper still, and make long slits in the
tooth, tending to subdivide it altogether. In Turritella the number of
marginals is said to vary from none (in T. acicula) to three (T.
triplicata), but the fact wants confirmation. Solarium is an aberrant
form, possessing simply a number of long uncini, which recall those
of Conus or Pleurotoma, and is therefore hard to classify; the allied
Torinia has a radula which appears allied to Ovula or Pedicularia. In
Triforis the teeth are identical throughout, very small, about 27 in a
row, tricuspid on a square base, cusps short.
The normal formula of the Taenioglossa is 2.1.1.1.2; in Lamellaria,
1.1.1; in Triforis, 13.1.13, or thereabouts.

Fig. 127.—Two rows of the radula of Cypraea tigris

L. × 30.
 Fig. 128.—Portion of the radula of Ianthina
communis Lam. × 40.
(d) Ptenoglossa.—This section consists of two families only, which
certainly appear remarkably dissimilar in general habits and
appearance, viz., the Ianthinidae and Scalariidae. In all probability
their approximation is only provisional. The radula, which in Ianthina
is very large, and in Scalaria very small, possesses an indefinite
number of long hooked teeth, of which the outermost are the largest.
The central tooth, if present (it does not occur in Ianthina), is the
smallest in the series, and thus recalls the arrangement in some of
the carnivorous Pulmonata (p. 232). In Ianthina the radula is formed
of two large divisions, with a gap between them down the middle.
The formula is ∞.1.∞ or ∞.O.∞ according as the central tooth in
Scalaria is or is not reckoned to exist.
(e) Gymnoglossa.—In the absence of both jaw and radula it is not
easy to classify the two families (Eulimidae and Pyramidellidae)
which are grouped under this section. Fischer regards them as
modified Ptenoglossa; one would think it more natural to
approximate them to the Taenioglossa.
 Fig. 129.—Portion of the radula of Margarita umbilicalis
Brod., Labrador. × 75 and 300.
(f) Rhipidoglossa.—This section consists of seventeen families,
the most important being the Helicinidae, Neritidae, Turbinidae,
Trochidae, Haliotidae, Pleurotomariidae, and Fissurellidae. The
radula is characterised by—
(1) The extraordinary development of the uncini, of which there
are so many that they are always reckoned as indefinitely numerous.
They are long, narrow, hooked, and often cusped at the top, and
crowded together like the ribs of a fan, those at the extreme edge not
being set straight in the row, but curving away backwards as they
become smaller; in Solariella alone, where there are from five to ten,
can they be counted.
 Fig. 130.—Portion of the radula of Nerita albicilla L., Andaman Is.,
with central tooth highly magnified: c, c, the capituliform tooth.
× 40.
(2) The varying number of the laterals. The average number of
these is five on each side; in some cases (Livona) there are as many
as nine, in some (Neritopsis) only three. The lateral next to the uncini
(which is specially large in the Neritidae, and is then known as the
capituliform tooth) is regarded by some authorities as the first
uncinus, by others as the sole representative of the laterals, the
teeth on the inner side of it being reckoned as multiplied central
teeth. According to this latter view, Livona will have as many as
seventeen central teeth. Taking five as the average number of
‘laterals,’ we shall have the following different ways of constituting
the rhipidoglossate formula, the first being that to which preference is
given, viz.:—
(1) ∞.5.1.5.∞, i.e. one central, five laterals, including the ‘last lateral’
tooth.
(2) (∞.1).4.1.4.(1.∞), regarding the ‘last lateral’ as first uncinus, but
specialising it by a number.
(3) ∞.1.(4.1.4).1.∞, regarding the ‘last lateral’ as the only lateral.
In the Neritidae and the derived fresh-water genera (Neritina,
Navicella) the first lateral, as well as the capituliform tooth, is very
large, and in shape rather like the blade bone of a shoulder of
mutton; the intervening laterals are very small. In Neritopsis (a
degraded form) the central tooth and first lateral are entirely wanting.
In the neritiform land-shells (Helicina, Proserpina) the first lateral is
no larger than the others, while the capituliform tooth is enormous.
Hydrocena is a very aberrant and apparently degraded form; the
laterals between the first and the capituliform tooth are all wanting. In
Haliotis, Scissurella, and Pleurotomaria the five laterals are of fairly
equal size; in Fissurella we again meet with a large capituliform
tooth, with very small laterals.
(g) The Docoglossa are in direct contrast with the Rhipidoglossa
in possessing few and strong teeth, instead of many and weak.
There are only three families, Acmaeidae, Patellidae, and Lepetidae.
In some of the Acmaeidae there are not more than two teeth in a
row, while in no species are there more than twelve. The radula is,
however, very long; there are as many as 180 rows in Patella
vulgata. The teeth are thick, generally of a very deep red horn colour,
rather opaque. The cartilage in which they are set is remarkably
thick, and in some species whose teeth are very few a considerable
portion of this cartilage is left quite bare.

Fig. 131.—Portion of the radula of

Patella cretacea Reeve, seen in
half profile. × 40.
 Although the teeth are so few, the arrangement is by no means
simple. The special feature of the group is the multiplication of
identical centrals. Of these there are two in Acmaea, and four, as a
rule, in Patella. Thus in these two genera there is seldom an
absolutely central tooth. Either laterals or marginals are liable to be
lost, but there are never more than two of either in Acmaea, and
never more than two laterals and three marginals in Patella. Thus
the formula varies from 0.0.(1 + 0 + 1).0.0 in Pectinodonta, 2.2.(1 + 0
+ 1).2.2 in Collisellina (both Acmaeidae), to 3.2.(1 + 0 + 1).2.3 in
Patinella, and 3.1.(2 + 0 + 2).1.3 in Patella proper. In the Lepetidae
there is an absolutely central tooth, which appears to be made up of
the coalescence of several teeth, no laterals, and about two
marginals; formula, 2.0.1.0.2.

Fig. 132.—Two rows of the radula of Pterotrachea

mutica Les., Naples. × 60.
The radula of the Heteropoda is quite characteristic, and shows
no sign of affinity with any other Prosobranchiate. The central tooth
is large, broad, tricuspid, and denticulated on a broad base; the
single lateral is strong, often bicuspid; the two marginals simple,
long, falciform; formula, 2.1.1.1.2 (Fig. 132).
 Fig. 133.—A, Portion of the radula of Chiton
(Acanthopleura) spiniger] Sowb., Andamans, × 30;
B, portion of the radula of Dentalium entalis L.,
Clyde, × 50.
Amphineura.—(a) Polyplacophora.—The radula of the
Chitonidae is quite unique. It resembles that of the Docoglossa in
being very long, and composed of thick and dark horn-coloured
teeth. The number of teeth, however, is considerably greater,
amounting almost invariably to seventeen in each row. There are
three rather small central teeth, the two outer of these being similar;
next comes a very large lateral (the major lateral), usually tricuspid,
which is followed by two much smaller laterals, which are scarcely
more than accessory plates; then a very large and arched marginal
(the major uncinus), at the outer side of which are three accessory
plates. Some consider there is only one central tooth, and count the
two small teeth on each side of it as laterals.
Thus the formula is either (3 + 1).(2 + 1).3.(1 + 2).(1 + 3) or (3 +
1).(2 + 1 + 1).1.(1 + 1 + 2).(1 + 3).
(b) Aplacophora.—Of this rather obscure order, Chaetoderma has
a single strong central tooth, Neomenia has no radula, Proneomenia
and Lepidomenia have about twenty falciform teeth, much larger at
one end of the radula than the other; formula, 0.1.0.
Opisthobranchiata.—The radula of the Opisthobranchiata is
exceedingly variable in shape, size, and number and character of
teeth. Not only do allied families differ greatly from one another, but
allied genera often possess radulae widely distinct in plan. Thus,
among the Polyceridae, Goniodoris has no central tooth, one large
lateral and one marginal (form. 1.1.0.1.1); Doridunculus the same,
with five marginals (form. 5.1.0.1.5); Lamellidoris one each of
median, laterals, and marginals (1.1.1.1.1); Idalia, Ancula, and
Thecacera the same as Goniodoris; Crimora several each of laterals
and marginals. Even species of the same genus may differ; thus the
formula for Aeolis papillosa is 0.1.0, but for Ae. Landsbergi 1.1.1; for
Philine aperta 1.0.1, but for Philine pruinosa 6.0.6.

Fig. 134.—Two teeth from the radula of Aeolis

papillosa L. × 55.
It must not be forgotten, however, that a simple repetition of the
same tooth, whether lateral or marginal, does not necessarily
constitute an important characteristic, nor does the presence or
absence of a central tooth. In most of the cases mentioned above,
the difference in the number of laterals and marginals is due to the
multiplication of identical forms, while the central tooth, when
present, is often a mere plate or narrow block without cusps, whose
presence or absence makes little difference to the character of the
radula as a whole.
There appear to be three well-marked types of radula among the
Opisthobranchiata.
(a) Radula with a single strong central tooth, rows few. This form
is characteristic of the Aeolididae, Fionidae, Glaucidae, Dotoidae,
Hermaeidae, Elysiidae (Fig. 135), and Limapontiidae. In the
Aeolididae it is sometimes accompanied by a single lateral. The
same type occurs in Oxynoe, and in Lobiger (= Lophocercus).
(b) Radula with the first lateral very strongly developed. This type
may take the form of (1) a single lateral, no central or marginals, e.g.
Onchidoris, Scaphander (Fig. 137, A), Philine (certain species),
Ringicula, or (2) first lateral strongly developed, and repeated in
succeeding laterals (2–6) on a smaller scale, e.g. Philine (certain
species). A few marginals are sometimes added, e.g. in Polycera,
Lamellidoris (where there is a degraded central tooth, Fig. 137, B),
Idalia, and Ancula.

Fig. 135.—Radula of
Elysia viridis Mont. ×
40. Type (a).