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(Ebook PDF) Comprehensive Energy Systems, Vol.4a - Energy Conversion - Ebook PDF All Chapter
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4.1 The Role of Energy Conversion
Shahid Islam, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada and King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Ibrahim Dincer, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4.1.1 Introduction 2
4.1.2 Background 4
4.1.3 Systems and Applications 7
4.1.3.1 Conversion of Chemical Energy of Fuel to Heat 7
4.1.3.1.1 Heating value of a fuel 7
4.1.3.2 Thermal Efficiency of Energy Conversions 8
4.1.4 Energy Conversions Analysis of Systems in Steady State 9
4.1.4.1 Turbines and Compressors 10
4.1.4.2 Heat Engines 14
4.1.4.3 Thermal Efficiency 15
4.1.4.4 Refrigerators 16
4.1.4.4.1 Coefficient of performance 17
4.1.4.5 Heat Pump 18
4.1.4.6 Absorption Chillers 19
4.1.4.7 The Carnot Heat Engine 20
4.1.5 Renewable Energy Conversions 21
4.1.5.1 Biomass Energy Conversion 21
4.1.5.2 Wind Energy Conversion 22
4.1.5.3 Ocean Current Energy 24
4.1.5.4 Solar Thermal Energy Conversions 25
4.1.5.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion 28
4.1.6 Case Studies 29
4.1.6.1 Case Study 1 30
4.1.6.1.1 Thermodynamic assessment 30
4.1.6.1.2 Results and discussion 33
4.1.6.2 Case Study 2 34
4.1.6.2.1 Thermodynamic assessment 34
4.1.6.2.2 Results and discussion 35
4.1.7 Future Directions 36
4.1.8 Concluding Remarks 37
References 37
Further Reading 38
Relevant Websites 39
Subscripts H High
a Charging water inlet state HE Heat exchanger
abs Absorber hp Heat pump
act Actual i Inlet state
avail Available L Low
avg Average n n type semiconductor
b Charging water exit state p p type semiconductor
c Cold P Pump
c Discharging water inlet state prod Products
chrg Charging rev Reversible
cond Condenser s Source
cool Cooling effect of absorption chiller st Storing
d Discharging water exit state t Turbine
dest Destruction th Thermal
dis Discharging TEC Thermoelectric cooler
E exit state TEG Thermoelectric generator
en Energy u Utilization
eva Evaporator vap Vaporize
gen Generator 0 Reference environment
h Hot 1, 2,….67 State number
4.1.1 Introduction
A huge number of energy conversion processes occur naturally. Humans have invented a large number of additional energy
conversion methods throughout history. Energy conversion devices can be classified according to chemical and physical principles,
and the different forms of energy at the inlet and exit states of the device. In this chapter, different types of energy conversion
fundamentals including renewable energy will be discussed and explained. The simplified process of changing energy from one
form to another is referred to as energy conversion as represented in Fig. 1.
The term “heat-power engineering” was commonly used for “energy conversion engineering” before World War II. The energy
of available sources like the sun, fossil fuels, and nuclear fuels can be transformed into useful energy such as electricity, rotation,
propulsion, cooling, and heating through energy conversion engineering [1]. Energy conversion engineers face the biggest chal-
lenges, like selection of the appropriate method, minimizing losses, reducing pollution, and reducing overall cost of the developed
systems, respectively.
Energy conversion
Energy source Useful energy
technology
45
40 History Projections
Additions
30 Solar
20 Wind
10 Oil and gas
0 Nuclear
10 Coal
Retirements
20
30
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
Fig. 3 Additions and retirements of annual electricity generating capacity in gigawatts. Reproduced from Energy Information Administration US.
Annual energy outlook report. Available: https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/0383(2017).pdf; 2017 [accessed 20.03.17].
The demand for energy is estimated to increase at a much faster rate in the near future. Fig. 2 provides an overview of the energy
consumption through previous years and an estimate of the future energy consumption, based on different energy sources [2].
Renewable energy sources (except hydropower) continue to offer more potential than actual energy production.
The demand of energy is increasing worldwide due to growing population and higher living standards. The combustion of
fossil fuels, mainly coal, natural gas, and petroleum, supply most of the energy demand of the world. The utilization of fossil fuels
through combustion to meet the increasing energy demand results in fast depletion of fossil fuel reserves and environmental
degradation like acid rain, smog formation, global warming, ozone depletion, and health hazards. The energy conservation and
search for alternative sources of energy are crucial to encounter with energy crisis and pollution. In the past, various investigations
have been done on the conservation of energy in fossil fueled power generation systems. It is important to exploit alternative
sources of energy to mitigate environmental concerns and global warming.
Conservation and energy efficiency have exhibited compelling results over the past three decades. In addition to this, energy
efficient processes offer potential to relieve some of the dependence on the import of petroleum products and compensate
increased electric power demand to some extent [3]. Fig. 3 represents the additions and retirements of the annual electricity
generating capacity in gigawatts from different energy sources according to the US Energy Information Administration annual
energy outlook report [2].
The projections show that the use of coal to generate electricity is going to end by 2040, whereas the use of solar, oil, and gas
energy sources will increase considerably. The environmental concerns and the limitations of the resources available on Earth are
the deriving factors to increase the conversion of solar energy into electricity. The use of new concepts and alternatives to convert
renewable energy are gaining acceptance due to strict environmental legislations.
Currently the focus on the renewables is short term as compared to the long term objectives due to limited research and budget
constraints. Nevertheless, open attitudes are established as new and previously discarded ideas are now being implemented. Some
4 The Role of Energy Conversion
Table 1 Illustrations of energy conversion processes corresponding to the initial form of the available energy and converted form of energy
System
Energy in Process
Energy out
Surroundings
Loss
Fig. 4 Layout of energy conversion process with loss to surroundings.
of the examples are combined gas and steam turbine cycles, solar and wind energy-based farms, rotary combustion engines,
multigeneration, solar concentrators, photovoltaic (PV) solar power, waste driven devices, turbocharged engines, fluidized-bed
combustors, and coal- and biomass-based integrated gasification combined cycle power plants. The modification in the old
technologies and the continuous development of new ones are necessary to meet the rapidly growing energy demand of the world.
Hence, energy conversion engineering is an exceedingly appealing, complicated, and feasible field at present due to increased
environmental concerns [1].
The conversion of one form of energy to another form depends on the process, requirements, and the quality of the available
initial form of the energy. The process and the connections between the different forms of available energies are tabulated in
Table 1.
The most usable form of energy in a substance is usually in the form of extremely structured chemical bonds such as gasoline
and sugar. It is possible to convert all other forms of energy to heat completely but the complete conversion of the heat to other
energy forms is not possible because of factors like heat loss, friction, and other constraints. Therefore, the thermal efficiencies (Zth)
of the energy conversion are considerably less than 100%. Typical steam power converts about 35%–40% of the heat to electricity
whereas typical automobile engines based on gasoline operate at about 25% efficiency. Some amount of thermal energy is lost
when it is converted to other forms of energy as represented in Fig. 4. In some cases it is very difficult to conserve the waste energy,
for instance, 90% of the electrical power/energy is wasted in the form of heat in a light bulb while only 10% is converted to
electricity. This clearly indicates that energy conversion efficiency has some distinct limits. Hence, a low temperature thermal
reservoir is required as a sink to convert energy to useful work [4–7].
4.1.2 Background
The study of the history of science and engineering presented in Table 2 shows some of the key ideas and inventions along with the
names of inventors. Some of these inventions are the landmarks for the energy conversion engineers. The significant inventions are
tabulated in Table 2 as it is not possible to present the complete history associated with energy conversion. Most of these
milestones were the achievements of teams of recognized individuals whose talents were essential part toward success. Table 2 also
portrays how these ideas, events, and scientific and technological advancements are linked with each other and their dependence
on their predecessor [8].
The Role of Energy Conversion 5
Source: Modified from Sorensen B. Renewable energy conversion, transmission and storage. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Academic Press and Woodford C, Technology timeline.
Available: http://www.explainthatstuff.com/timeline.html; 2017 [accessed 25.10.17].
The capacity to perform work is called energy. The different forms of available energy are heat, gravitational, electrical,
chemical, light, and nuclear. The summation of all forms of energy such as internal, kinetic energy, and potential energy in a
system is the total energy possessed by the system. The sum of chemical, nuclear, sensible, and latent energies is the internal energy
associated with a system. The rotation and vibration effects of atoms and molecules are the main cause of sensible internal energy.
The combination of latent and sensible forms of internal energy is the thermal energy of a system. The natural sciences have placed
boundaries on the classification of different forms of energy, such as interactions between neutrons and protons in the nucleus are
atomic energy and energy of chemical bonds is chemical energy. The energy due to the molecular structure of a substance is
independent of reference conditions [9].
The energy resources available in nature are connected to the energy services through energy systems. An extensive array of
energy harnessing technologies is used to transform primary energy resources into useful commodities. The advanced technologies
have also been developed to move energy to the location where energy service is required. For example, human travel is service, the
6 The Role of Energy Conversion
car is service technology, and gasoline is energy commodity produced in a refinery through crude oil. Therefore, crude oil can be
categorized as a primary energy resource [10].
The shares of several primary sources available in a country are referred to as an energy mix. The main factors that define the
structure of an energy mix are availability of the resources, geopolitical and environmental context, and the development of
specific technologies to extract a particular energy resource in the context of political interest [10].
The stored potential energy in hydrogen can be released through fusion as in the sun. Sunlight is among the one of the
converted energies as result of fusion in sun. Furthermore, this sunlight is converted into gravitational potential as it helps water to
evaporate, then this water rains on the elevated areas of the earth. This rain water is stored in dams, which produce electricity with
the help of turbines due to the potential energy of the rain water. Solar energy is also responsible for weather conditions like
hurricanes, rain, wind, snow etc. Plants capture and convert water and carbon dioxide into proteins and carbohydrates through a
chemical process called photosynthesis. This potential of chemical energy is the cause of the development and growth of biological
cells [9].
The energy extracted from the environment is called primary energy and can be categorized in three groups:
1. renewable energy (e.g., solar energy, wind, biomass, ocean, hydropower, and geothermal energy)
2. nonrenewable energy (e.g., crude oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear fuel)
3. waste
Primary energy can be transformed to a useful form of secondary energy through the transformation process depicted in Fig. 5, [11].
Primary energy from nonrenewable energy sources like oil, natural gas, and coal provide 85% of the total demand of the world
[7,12]. The projections of the world energy show that fossil fuels will still be dominating by 2035. According to the principle of
supply and demand, the increase in the price of fossil fuels due to depletion will in turn make it economical to exploit renewable
energy sources such as wind, solar, and biomass [7,12]. In most of the cases electrical energy is the final useful form of energy. The
type of final energy form required sets a limit between the energy consumption and production [13,14].
The transformation of other forms of energy to electrical is based on the seven fundamental approaches [9]:
1. Static electricity is generated from the transport of charge and physical separation. The mechanical separation and transpor-
tation of the charge increase the difference between positive ( þ ve) and negative ( ve) charges, which results in static
electricity. The lightning phenomenon is the best natural illustration of static discharge.
2. Electromagnetic induction is a process in which kinetic energy is transformed into electrical energy through three main devices:
an electrical generator, an alternator, and a dynamo. This is the most widely used commercial process of electricity generation
that uses the mechanical energy to drive a generator. The mechanical energy can be produced through different modes like
hydro, tidal, wind, and heat engines.
3. Electrochemistry is a method of transforming chemical energy into electricity, such as, fuel cells and batteries.
4. Thermoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon of conversion of temperature differences at low and high temperature junctions
of the device to electricity. Thermocouples, thermionics, and thermopiles are the best examples of the thermoelectric effect.
5. Photoelectric effect is a process in which light is transformed into electricity, like solar cells.
6. Piezoelectric effect is the generation of electricity as a result of mechanical strain induced in electrically anisotropic crystals.
7. Nuclear transformation is the generation and acceleration of the charged particles. It is possible to directly convert nuclear
energy to electrical energy through beta decay in small scale projects.
Some most commonly used devices or the processes to convert one form of energy to another form are tabulated in Table 3.
The output energy in the form of electrical and mechanical are in high demand from energy sources as these forms can be
converted to any other useful form easily.
Secondary energy
Primary energy
Petroleum products,
Crude oil, coal, derived solid fuels
Transformation
Fig. 5 Transformation of primary form of energy to secondary form of energy. Modified from Schobert HH. Energy and society. New York, NY:
Taylor & Francis; 2002.
The Role of Energy Conversion 7
Source: Modified from Wu C. Thermodynamic cycles: computer-aided design and optimization. New York,
NY: Dekker; 2004 and Granet I, Bluestein M. Thermodynamics and heat power. 6th ed Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall; 2000.
Energy conversion technology blossomed after the establishment of thermodynamic fundamentals and electromagnetism,
prior to which the technological advancement was significantly slow. The development and advancement in the nuclear tech-
nology is a result of theoretical and experimental research performed in the first half of the 20th century.
The geothermal production of heat and power depends on the depth of reservoirs. Hydrothermal systems with temperatures
more than 453K are found near the boundaries of plate tectonics. Intermediate temperatures with range 373–453K and low
temperatures below 373K geothermal systems are also present in continental settings with/without hydrothermal resources. On
the basis of the temperature, geothermal energy sources can be categorized as low temperatures below 363K, moderate tem-
peratures between 363 and 423K, and high temperatures above 423K [15].
Some important energy conversion systems with their applications are discussed in this section.
Illustrative Example 1: The HHV of methane (CH4) at room temperature (21ºC) is measured as 55,533 kJ/kg. Convert this HHV
to LHV for a given heat of vaporization of water; DHvap,water ¼ 2454 kJ/kg at 21ºC.
Solution:
Assumption: Combustion of methane is complete, no unburnt methane in products.
The equation of chemical reaction of the combustion process can be defined as
CH4 þ 3=2O2 -CO2 þ H2 O
Many engineering devices like engines, compressors, and turbines are classified as steady-flow devices once they start operating
under steady state for long hours after completing their transient start-up duration. Under steady state operation the fluid flow
across the control volume is steady so such devices are called steady-flow processes. This means that the properties of fluid may
change while flowing through a control volume but these remain constant during the entire process. The amount of mass energy
and volume at inlet state of a steady-flow system must be equal to the exit state as shown in Fig. 6.
The mass balance at inlet and exit states can be written as
X X
_ ¼
m _
m ðkg=sÞ ð11Þ
in in oui out
The fluid properties may change over a cross section between inlet and exit but the rate of change remains constant at inlet and/
or exit. The interactions of heat and work between surroundings and steady-flow system remain unchanged with time. Hence, in a
steady-flow process heat transfer rate and power obtained to or from the system remain constant. Fig. 7 represents the balance of
mass flow rate and enthalpy when a stream is split in two streams at the exit.
The enthalpy is considered in systems with ideal fluid flow instead of internal energy and the work (PV) performed by fluid
flow is included within enthalpy. The mass balance of the above system can be written as
m _2þm
_1 ¼m _3 ð12Þ
The energy balance equation (EBE) can be written as
_ 1 h1 ¼ m
m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 ð13Þ
The general equation of all forms of energy (mass, heat, and work) balance across a control volume can be expressed as
E_ in ¼ E_ out ðkW Þ ð14Þ
Mass in
Control
volume
mCV = Constant
.
m1 .
m2
h1
Control h2
volume .
m3
h3
Fig. 9 Industrial steam turbine with capacity from 2 to 250 MW. Modified from Siemens Steam Turbines. Available from: https://www.energy.
siemens.com/hq/en/fossil-power-generation/steam-turbines/steam-turbine-products.htm; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].
A water heater in a steady state operation is represented in Fig. 8. Mass of cold water m _ 1 enters the tank with heat Q _ in , where
electric heating element performs work W_ in and heats up the water. The heat lost to the environment is Q _ out . The energy balance in
the form of heat, work, and mass can be written as
X X
Q_ in þ W
_ in þ _ ¼Q
my _ out þ W
_ out þ _
my ð15Þ
in out
The unit mass of the fluid flowing possesses the summation of enthalpy, kinetic energy, and potential energy.
V2
y¼hþ þ gz
2
By substituting the value of “y” in above equation
X V2
X
V2
Q_ in þ W
_ in þ _ hþ
m þ gz ¼ _ out þ W
Q _ out þ _ hþ
m þ gz ð16Þ
in 2 out 2
The energy balance relation is easy to use in the case when the amount and the direction of transfer of heat and work are well
known. Conversely, when both of these parameters are unknown then direction for work or heat interactions are assumed. The
general form of energy balance or the first law associated with a steady-flow system can be represented as
X X
_ W _ ¼ V2 V2
Q _ hþ
m þ gz _ hþ
m þ gz ð17Þ
out 2 in 2
_ or W
The negative value of Q _ shows that the assumption of heat or work transfer was made in the wrong direction and needs to
be reversed. The above expression can be simplified for a single stream as
_ W _ ¼m V 2 V12
Q _ h2 h1 þ 2 þ g ðz2 z1 Þ ð18Þ
2
Fig. 10 An oil-free SST-600 steam turbine including active magnetic bearing. Modified from Siemens Steam Turbines. Available from: https://
www.energy.siemens.com/hq/en/fossil-power-generation/steam-turbines/steam-turbine-products.htm; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].
Fig. 10 shows an oil-free steam turbine (SST-600), which includes an active magnetic bearing for efficient operation. Pumps,
fans, and compressors work opposite to the turbine as they increase the pressure of the working fluid. These devices are driven
through mechanical energy, which rotates the shaft so the work input is required to drive them. The function of these three devices
is similar but there is a difference in the tasks.
• Compressors: Intake low pressure gas and compress it to a very high pressure.
• Fans: Mobilize gas while there is slight increase in the pressure as well.
• Pumps: Perform work similar to the compressors except that they handle liquids unlike gas in the compressors.
_
The turbines are very well insulated so heat transfer is approximately equal to zero QE0 . The heat transfer for compressors is
also assumed zero as except for the cases where inlet cooling is provided. It is also important to note that fans, pumps, and
compressors require work input to drive whereas, turbines produce work output. The change in the potential energies associated
with these devices is negligible therefore it is assumed zero (Dpe E 0). The change in the velocities in these devices is also too low
to cause any major change so the kinetic energies of these devices are also taken as zero (Dke E 0). In turbines, the fluctuation in
the fluid velocities are often too high, which results in substantial change in the kinetic energy but this change is minor as
compared to change in the enthalpy, therefore, kinetic energy is evaded from the analysis [6,20].
Recent developments have successfully produced highly efficient and sustainable compressors for numerous applications
within process industries as presented in Fig. 11. A wide range of turbocompressors are available to suit specific needs.
Illustrative Example 2: The intake of an air compressor receives air at 101.325 kPa and 290K and compresses it to 607.95 kPa and
450K. The air flows at a rate of 0.025 kg/sec. The heat loss during the compression process is 20 kJ/kg. Calculate the power required
to drive the compressor assuming that net change in kinetic and potential energies is zero (Figs. 12 and 13).
Solution: Compression process is steady and power input is required.
Assumptions:
1. Process is steady-flow so no change with time at any point, so Dmcv ¼ 0 and DEcv ¼ 0.
2. Ideal properties of air are taken from Engineering Equation Solver (EES).
3. Negligible changes in kinetic and potential energies (Dke ¼0 and Dpe ¼0).
Analysis: Compressor is assumed as a system with control volume. Work is supplied and heat is lost. Mass crosses the system
boundary so m_1¼m
_2¼m _
dEsystem
E_ in E_ out ¼ ¼ 0 ðSteady stateÞ
dt
E_ in ¼ E_ out
_ in þ mh
W _ out þ mh
_ 1 ¼Q _ 2 ðDke ¼ 0 and Dpe ¼ 0Þ
W _ in ¼ mq_ out þ mðh
_ 2 h1 Þ
12 The Role of Energy Conversion
Fig. 11 Single-stage turbocompressor. Adapted from A unique portfolio of turbocompressors for all industries. Available from: https://www.
energy.siemens.com/hq/en/compression-expansion/product-lines/; 2017 [accessed 12.04.17].
qout = 20 kJ/kg
P2 = 607.95 kPa
T2 = 450K
Air
m = 0.025 kg/s
.
Win =?
P1 = 101.325 kPa
T1 = 290K
P1 = 3 MPa
T1 = 673K
V1 = 60 m/s
z1 = 12m
Steam turbine
Wout = 6 MW
P2 = 15 kPa
x2 = 90%
V2 = 190 m/s
z2 = 5m
Illustrative Example 3: Steam enters an adiabatic steam turbine at 3 MPa and 773K, and leaves at 15 kPa with 90% quality of
steam. Turbine produces 6 MW power. The velocities and the heights at inlet and exit are 190 m/s and 12 m, and 60 m/s and 5 m,
respectively.
Solution: The inlet and exit temperature, pressure, velocity, and quality of the steam are given as shown in Fig. 8. Calculations
of changes in kinetic and potential energies, work done per unit mass, and mass flow rate have to be performed.
Assumptions:
1. Process is steady-flow so no change with time at any point, so Dmcv ¼ 0 and DEcv ¼ 0.
2. Real fluid properties of steam are taken from EES.
3. Turbine is adiabatic.
Analysis:
The turbine is considered as a system with control volume. Mass crosses the system boundary so m _2¼m
_1 ¼m _
T1 ¼ 773K
h1 ¼ 3456 kJ=kg
h2 ¼ 2361 kJ=kg
Dh ¼ 1095 kJ=kg
V22 V12 ð190 m=sÞ2 ð60 m=sÞ2 1 kJ=kg
Dke ¼ ¼
2 2 1000 m2 =s2
1 kJ=kg
Dpe ¼ g ðz2 z1 Þ ¼ ½ 9:8 m=s2 ð12 5Þm
1000 m2 =s2
Discussion: It is important to note that the magnitude of potential energy is too low while the magnitude of kinetic energy is
negligible as compared to the enthalpy. Therefore, for the calculation of most of the engineering problems both of these energies
are usually omitted as inclusion will not make any significant difference.
1. Use high temperature source like furnace, solar energy, nuclear reactor, etc. to provide heat.
2. Convert partial amount of heat to work.
3. Reject waste heat to sink (low temperature reservoirs like rivers, etc.).
4. Operate based on a complete cycle.
A simple heat engine that absorbs heat from a high temperature source and rejects it to the sink is shown in Fig. 14.
The devices that operate in a closed loop or cycle including heat engines use a fluid that absorbs heat from the source and
rejects it to a sink; this fluid is called a working fluid. The wider sense of heat engine includes internal combustion engines, which
burn hydrocarbon line gasoline, and this fluid does not complete the thermodynamic cycle.
The definition of heat engine is best suited to the external combustion engine such as the steam turbine or steam power plant.
Steam is generated by heating the water through an external source, which runs the turbine, and then working fluid is cooled close
to the atmospheric conditions in a condenser and then is pumped back to the boiler with the help of a pump. The simplified
schematic of a power plant is shown in Fig. 15.
Heat source
high temperature
Qin
Heat
engine Wnet, out
Qout
Heat sink
low temperature
Fig. 14 Schematic of a heat engine operating between heat source and sink.
Energy source
Qin
Boiler
Pump Wout
Turbine
Win
Condenser
Qin ¼Heat addition in boiler from high temperature source to the steam
Win ¼Work output delivered by the turbine
Qout ¼ Heat rejection in condenser to atmosphere or any other low temperature sink
Wout ¼Work input required to pump the water back to the boiler
The net amount of the work obtained through this power plant is the difference between the total work output and total work
input as
Wnet;out ¼ Win Wout ðkJÞ ð19Þ
The net change in the internal energy of a closed system operating in a cycle is zero. There are four components connected with
each other through pipes in the above steam power plant and the same working fluid is flowing through them; hence this can be
treated as closed loop. Therefore, the net amount of work output can also be calculated from the difference between the heat
supplied and heat rejected as
Wnet;out
Zth ¼ ð21Þ
Qin
where, Wnet,out ¼ Qin Qout therefore,
Qout
Zth ¼ 1 ð22Þ
Qin
Illustrative Example 4: Two heat engines are operating at the same heat source of 250 kJ. The heat sink of engine 1 and engine 2
are 187.5 and 175 kJ, respectively. Find net amount of work done and thermal efficiencies of both engines.
Solution:
1. Heat engine 1 with sink 187.5 kJ
Qin ¼ 250 kJ
Qin ¼ 187:5 kJ
Eq. (20) can be used to calculate the net amount of work output.
Wnet;out ¼ Qin Qout
187:5
Zth ¼ 1 ¼ 25%
250
2. Heat engine 2 with sink 175 kJ
Qin ¼ 250 kJ
Qin ¼ 175 kJ
16 The Role of Energy Conversion
W net,out = 60 kW
Fuel in m fuel
Qin
Qout
Exhaust out
Fig. 16 Schematic of an internal combustion engine.
175
Zth ¼ 1 ¼ 30%
250
Illustrative Example 5: An engine of a car delivers 60 kW of power while working with 27% of thermal efficiency. The car is
burning liquid propane whose heating value is 46,340 kJ/kg. Calculate rate of fuel consumption.
Solution: The rate of fuel consumption or the mass flow rate of fuel is to be calculated while power output and thermal
efficiency are given.
Assumptions: The engine of the car provides constant power (Fig. 16).
Analysis: The car engines convert chemical energy of the fuel to mechanical. In this case, 27% of the total energy of fuel is being
converted to power. According to the thermal efficiency amount of energy required to produce 60 kW power can be found as
_
_ in ¼ W net;out ¼ 60 kW ¼ 222:2 kW
Q
Zth 0:27
which means 222.2 kW thermal energy should be supplied to the engine to get 60 kW output for a 27% efficient engine. Hence
mass flow rate can be determined as
222:2 kW
_ ¼
m ¼ 0:0048 kg=s ¼ 17:28 kg=h
46;340 kJ=kg
Discussion: The fuel consumption depends on efficiency of the engine, which means engines with high efficiency consume less
fuel as compared to the engines with less efficiency.
4.1.4.4 Refrigerators
The heat transfer from high temperature source to low temperature sink occurs naturally in the universe and there is no need for a
special device for this purpose. However, the reverse process is not possible without some special device called a refrigerator. The
refrigerators transfer the heat from low temperature space to high temperature region.
The operation of refrigerators is also cyclic just like heat engines. The refrigerant is a working fluid, which circulates in a closed
loop in refrigerators. The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is most widely used, and is based on four main components:
• Compressor: Compresses refrigerant from vapor phase to liquid phase and condenser pressure.
• Condenser: The high temperature compressed refrigerant condenses after rejecting its heat through the condenser to the
surrounding medium.
• Expansion Valve: The temperature and pressure of the refrigerant is dropped remarkably because of the throttling effect as it
passes through the capillary tube.
• Evaporator: The low temperature refrigerant evaporates in the evaporator as it absorbs the heat of the refrigerated area/space.
Then working fluid is directed back to the compressor and the loop is completed.
A schematic of the refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 17. The symbols Wnet,in, QL, and QH represent the net amount of work
input, heat gained from the refrigerated space at TL, and heat rejected to the high temperature region at TH, respectively.
The Role of Energy Conversion 17
Surroundings
QH
Condenser
Compressor
W net,in
Expansion
valve
Evaporator
Refrigerated QL
space
Warm heated
space
TH >TL
QH
Compressor
Wnet,in
Expansion
valve
Cold outside QL
air
Desired output QL
COPR ¼ ¼ ð23Þ
Required work input Wnet;in
The ratio of the above equation can also be written in the form of rate for both output and input. The amount of work input in
this case for the closed loop can be expressed as
Wnet;in ¼ QH QL ð24Þ
It is important to note that the COPR can be more than one, which means that the amount of heat removed from the
refrigerated space can be more than the work input whereas, thermal efficiencies are always less than one. This is why the
efficiencies of the refrigerators are expressed as COP to avoid any confusion.
18 The Role of Energy Conversion
Illustrative Example 6: The heat is rejected from a refrigerator at the rate of 480 kJ/min. The power required to drive the
compressor is 3.2 kW. Find out
1. Coefficient of performance.
2. The rate at which heat is rejected to the surroundings.
Solution: The power required to drive the compressor is provided whereas, COP and rate at which heat is rejected are to be
calculated.
Assumption: Refrigerator operates in steady state.
Analysis:
This means that each kJ of the work input removes 2.5 kJ of heat.
(2) The rate of heat rejection can be calculated as
_H¼Q
Q _ net;in ¼ 480 þ 3:2 kW 60 kJ=min ¼ 672 kJ=min
_L þW
1 kW
Discussion: The amount of energy removed from the refrigerator is transferred to the room, which shows that energy can be
converted to another form but cannot be destroyed.
Illustrative Example 7: A house has to be maintained at 23ºC by a heat pump device. The amount of heat lost from the house is
90,000 kJ/h when ambient temperature is 3ºC. If the COP of the heat pump is 3, then calculate
Solution: The COP of the heat pump is known whereas, the power required to drive heat pump and rate of heat absorbed from
ambient are to be calculated.
6
3 2
7
Condenser
Evaporator
Space
heating Heat source
8 5 4 1
Compressor
Fig. 19 Schematic of an R410a driven heat pump.
The Role of Energy Conversion 19
Discussion: It is important to note that 2/3 of the heat requirement of the house is extracted from the ambient air. Conversely,
if an electric heater is used the total amount of heat 90,000 kJ/h will be delivered by electric power input, which is why heat pump
devices are preferable even though initial investment is high.
Illustrative Example 8: The evaporator of an absorption chiller is producing 2200 kJ of cooling effect. The amount of heat
generated in the generator is 1470 kJ. Calculate the COP of the absorption chiller.
Solution: The amount of heat at the generator and the cooling produced in the evaporator are known whereas, COP is to be
calculated.
Assumption: Absorption refrigeration system is reversible.
Analysis: The COP of the reversible absorption refrigeration can be calculated using Eq. (28) as
QL ¼ 2200 kJ
Qgen ¼ 1470 kJ
Heat source 1
3 Pump 2 7
8
Generator HE 5 Absorber
4 5 6
Absorption refrigeration system
12
13
9
Condenser Evaporator Cooling
10 11
14
Cooling
15
water
16
QL 2200
COPrev;absorption ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:5
Qgen 1470
Discussion: It can be observed that 1.5 kJ of cooling can be produced for each kJ of heat supplied at the generator of the
absorption chiller.
Corollary 1: When two power cycles, an irreversible and a reversible, operate between identical temperature reservoirs then the
maximum thermal efficiency of the irreversible power cycle is always less than the reversible one.
Corollary 2: The thermal efficiencies of reversible power cycles are the same when these operate at identical high and low
temperature reservoirs.
High-temperature source
TH = 1000K
Low-temperature sink at
TL = 300K
Fig. 21 Schematic of the efficiencies of the reversible, irreversible, and impossible heat engines (HE). Reproduced from Cengel YA, Boles MA.
Thermodynamics an engineering approach. 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011.
The Role of Energy Conversion 21
The comparison of the thermal efficiencies associated with reversible and the actual heat engines while operating between
identical temperature reservoirs is as follows:
8
> oZth;rev irreversible heat engine
<
Zth ¼ Zth;rev reversible heat engine ð33Þ
>
: 4Z
th;rev impossible heat engine
Illustrative Example 9: A Carnot heat engine operates between high and low temperature reservoirs at 705 and 29ºC, respectively.
The engine extracts 600 kJ of heat from the source in a cycle. Calculate
1. Thermal efficiency of the engine.
2. Heat lost to sink during each cycle.
Solution: The temperatures of heat source and sink, and heat extracted are known Carnot efficiency and heat lost to sink are to
be calculated.
Assumption: Heat engine is reversible.
Analysis:
(1) The thermal efficiency of a reversible Carnot heat engine can be calculated using Eq. (31) as
TL ð273 þ 29Þ
Zth;C ¼ 1 ¼1 ¼ 0:69 ¼ 69%
TH ð273 þ 705Þ
(2) Now by using Eq. (33), the heat rejected to the sink can be calculated as
TL ð273 þ 29ÞK
QL;rev ¼ QH ¼ ð600 kJÞ ¼ 185:3 kJ
TH ð273 þ 705ÞK
Discussion: It can be observed that 31% loss in the efficiency is because this percentage of the heat supplied is lost to the sink.
The natural sources of energy like sunlight, wind, geothermal, biomass, rain, and tides are treated as renewable energy resources,
which are replenished naturally after use. The energy from the sun is considered as a sustainable and a renewable source. In
addition to this, solar thermal systems can provide power indirectly. Some of the important renewable energy sources are
discussed below.
1. Thermal conversion: Biomass feedstock is heated with or without oxygen and converted to other forms of energy. Direct
combustion, torrefaction, and pyrolysis are the main processes involved in thermal conversion.
2. Thermochemical conversion: The combination of heat and chemical processes is applied to biomass to convert it into other
forms of energy products. Gasification is one of the most important thermochemical conversion processes.
3. Biochemical conversion: The biomass is broken down into liquid-based fuels through bacteria, enzymes, or microorganisms
which involves fermentation and anaerobic digestion.
4. Chemical conversion: Biomass is converted into liquid fuels by using chemical agents.
The generation of electricity from biomass is considered as an inefficient use of biomass as the efficiency of such plants is only
25%. Efficiency levels of up to 80%–90% can be achieved through cogeneration technologies, whereas biopower efficiencies are
25%. The waste heat at the exit of the steam turbine is used to produce heat in combined heat and power (CHP) plants.
The steam exiting the turbine loses a portion of the heat contents in it. This heat at the exit of the turbine is usually wasted to
the atmosphere. The fuel gases also contain significant amount of thermal energy, which is vented to the outside air. The efficient
recovery and utilization of the waste heat is the main focus of CHP systems. The production of heat along with the electricity
generation yields higher overall energy and exergy efficiencies, reduced cost, and less CO2 emissions. The ideal application of these
kind of systems is in pulp and paper mills as the demand of both heat and electricity is high in such industries. The high cost
associated with the waste heat recovery unit can only be justified when the demand of heat is high. The district heating plants in
Europe are successfully operating based on CHP technology with proven efficiency.
Many researchers have studied biomass energy-based cogeneration systems for numerous industries like palm oil, rice, wood,
sugar, and paper [29]. The technoeconomical overview of the variety of biomass samples has yielded competitive results for
almond shell and olive stone [30]. The variety of biomass gasification processes are feasible energetically and exergetically for the
22 The Role of Energy Conversion
production of hydrogen and power [31]. The study of ignition and combustion characteristics of small particles of biomass and
biomass energy-based multigeneration have yielded imperative results [31–34]. A biomass feedstock-based CHP plant is displayed
in Fig. 22.
1. Horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT): Uses a rotor that rotates about a horizontally placed shaft.
2. Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT): Uses a rotor that rotates about a vertically placed shaft.
Both types of wind turbines are displayed in Fig. 23 along with their main features. The whole drivetrain mechanism is located
on the tower in HAWT. The major two disadvantages of this type of windmill are gravity causes cyclic stresses on the blades so
these should be oriented in the direction of the wind, and servicing is difficult as the driving mechanism is mounted on the tower.
The advantage of this type of wind mill is that it can access stronger winds available at high altitudes by placing the rotor at a tall
tower. Conversely, the drivetrain of VAWT is located on the ground. Hence, there are no gravitational stresses on the rotor as well
as no problem with the orientation of the blades. However, in VAWT, it is not possible to install the blades at high altitudes to
Combustion gases
Flue gas Chimney
cleaning
Heat
exchanger
Combustion
chamber Generator
Biomass
feedstock HP
steam
Feed
water
Boiler Residual heat Electricity
Heat
Fig. 22 Biomass-based combined heat and power power plant. Modified from Biomass Innovation Centre: fueling rowth through clean
technology. Available from: http://www.biomassinnovation.ca/CombinedHeatAndPower.html; 2017 [accessed 28.10.17].
Rotor diameter
Rotor
blade
Generator
Rotor Gear box
diameter Rotor
tower
Gear box
Fig. 23 A schematic of horizontal-axis wind turbine and vertical-axis wind turbine. Modified from Goswami DY, Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca
Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
The Role of Energy Conversion 23
extract more useful work available due to strong winds. In addition to this, the blades of VAWTs experience severe fluctuating
aerodynamic load arising as a result of rotation.
The propeller-type HAWT are generally classified as
The most common types of modern VAWT have curved blades that are fixed in pitch. A massive 722 ft (220 m) wind turbine
located at Maade, Denmark is considerably taller than the London Eye. It is the biggest and most powerful in the world with a
production capacity of 260,000 kWh. The power produced by this wind turbine in 24 h can meet the electricity requirement of
hundreds of homes for a month [35]. The harmonization of new wind turbine rotor blade development is possible using
the PC computer with the CATIA designing system and the Gerber Garment cutter system. The blade fabricated from composite
laminated materials yields better results. The contour of the airfoil can be formed by a continuous structural pocket and a fiberglass
skin [36].
The kinetic energy of the wind is converting into rotational kinetic energy in the turbine. This rotational energy is converted to
electrical energy with the help of a generator coupled with wind turbine and then this electrical energy can be supplied to domestic
or industrial users through the national grid. The speed of the wind and the swept area of the turbine are the two main factors that
define the conversion of available energy. It is important to calculate the economic viability by making initial estimates of output
power and energy output of each turbine before planning or establishing a new wind form. In 1919, German physicist Albert Betz
concluded that it is impossible to convert more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a
rotor. This statement is known as the Betz limit or Betz’s law. The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any design of wind
turbine is 0.59, which means that maximum energy extracted by any windmill is no more than 59% of the wind energy. This is
known as the “power coefficient” and is defined as
CP;max ¼ 0:59
Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum limit. The Cp value is unique to each turbine type and is a function of
wind speed that the turbine is operating in. Once we incorporate various engineering requirements of a wind turbine – strength
and durability in particular – the real world limit is well below the Betz limit with values of 0.35–0.45 common even in the best
designed wind turbines. In general, when all the losses associated with gear box, bearings, and generator are considered then
about 10%–30% of the wind energy is transformed to electricity. Therefore, the power that can be extracted from the wind is
represented as
1
Pavail ¼ rAV 3 CP ð34Þ
2
where, r, A, and v3 represent density of air, swept area, and wind speed respectively. The swept area depends upon the length of the
turbine blades. Fig. 24 represents direct drive type 2 MW wind turbine with adaptronic blades.
Illustrative Example 10: A windmill has length of the blades 48 m and power coefficient is 0.4. The wind is flowing at the speed
of 15 m/s. Calculate the power produced by the wind turbine. Take the density of the air as 1.23 kg/m3.
Fig. 24 Schematic of direct drive type wind turbine of 2 MW with adaptronic blade. Reproduced from Rasuo B, Dinulovic M, Veg A, Grbovic A,
Bengin A. Harmonization of new wind turbine rotor blades development process: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;39:874–82.
24 The Role of Energy Conversion
Solution: Length of blade, wind speed air density, and power coefficient are given while power produced by the wind turbine
needs to be calculated.
Assumption: Wind is flowing at constant speed.
The swept area of the turbine can be calculated as
A ¼ pr 2
A ¼ 3:14 482
A ¼ 7234:6 m2
The power produced by the turbine can be calculated using Eq. (34)
1
Pavail ¼ rAV 3 CP
2
1
Pavail ¼ 1:23 7234:6 153 0:4
2
Pavail ¼ 6 MW
Discussion: The wind turbine can produce 6 MW of power. It is important to check the behavior of the turbine at different
wind speeds because smooth operation of the wind turbine is more important. In actuality, a design with high power output at
high wind speeds requires more maintenance.
Ocean level
Ocean current
Ocean current
turbine
Ocean floor
Oil prices greatly influence efforts to harness ocean energy, with activity increasing when oil prices are high and vice versa.
Recent concerns about increasing global CO2 emissions and other environmental issues have increased efforts to derive energy
from oceans.
Illustrative Example 11: A turbine of radius 6 m is generating electricity driven through an ocean current moving with a speed of
3.7 m/s. Calculate the electrical power density and the total electrical power generation. Assume that 37% of the ocean current can
be converted to the electrical power. The density of ocean water is 1028 kg/m3.
Solution:
Assumptions: Conversion of ocean current to electricity is assumed to be 37%.
The power density in the ocean current can be calculated by using Eq. (35), as
1 3
Pa ¼ rV ¼ 0:5 1028 3:73 ¼ 26; 036 W=m2
2
Now Eq. (36) can be used to get the electrical power density generated using ocean current
Pe ¼ 0:35 Pa ¼ 0:35 26; 036 ¼ 7713 W=m2 ¼ 9:113 kW=m2
The total electrical power generated can be evaluated as
Ptotal;e ¼ Pe A ¼ 7:713 p 62 ¼ 1030 kW
Discussion: The total electrical power generated by the ocean current plant is 1.03 MW. The power produced is directly
proportional to the radius and cube of velocity of the ocean current.
The solar radiation is concentrated on the absorber with the help of reflectors. The advanced solar collectors are able to provide
temperatures in the range of 10001C or even higher. The desired temperature and economics of the solar thermal application
depend upon the design and the selection of working. Some types of solar thermal collectors are tabulated in Table 4 on the basis
of their temperature range.
Illustrative Example 12: The mass flow rate of isobutane in the closed PTSC cycle is 25 kg/s as shown in Fig. 26. Therminol VP-1
exits parabolic solar trough collectors at 202, then enters the solar heat exchanger at 3201C and leaves at 701C after heating up
isobutane to 239.41C. The water at ambient pressure enters the condenser at 251C and leaves at 42.41C. Isobutane exits ORC
turbine at 351C. The pressures at inlet and exit of the pump are 75 and 2500 kPa, respectively. Determine (1) net rate of work done
by the ORC turbine; (2) the net rate of work done required to drive the pump; and (3) the energy and exergy efficiencies of the
ORC turbine. Take the ambient temperature to be 251C, and the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and pump to be 85%
assuming no pressure drop across the solar heat exchanger.
Solution:
For the schematic of the closed PTSC system (Fig. 26), the rate balance equations can be written.
For the solar heat exchanger the balance equations can be expressed as follows:
_1 ¼m
Mass balance equation ðMBEÞ: m _ 2 ðfor Therminol VP 1Þ
Table 4 Types of solar collectors with concentration ratio and typical range of temperature
Source: Reproduced from Goswami DY, Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
26 The Role of Energy Conversion
ORC turbine
3 Isobutane
1
Solar
collectors
7 8
m _4
_3¼m ðfor isobutaneÞ
EBE: m _ 4 h4 ¼ m
_ 1 h1 þ m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3
_ 1 ex1 þ m
Exergy Balance Equation ðExBEÞ: m _ 4 ex 4 ¼ m
_ 2 ex2 þ m _ des;HEX
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex
For the condenser, the balance equations can be written as
_5¼m
MBE: m _6 ðfor isobutaneÞ
m _7
_8 ¼m ðwater circulation for coolingÞ
EBE: m _ 7 h7 ¼ m
_ 5 h5 þ m _ 6 h6 þ m
_ 8 h8
EnBE: m _ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;cond ¼ m
_ 5 s5 þ m _ 6 s6 þ m
_ 8 s8
_ 5 ex 5 þ m
ExBE: m _ 7 ex 7 ¼ m
_ 6 ex 6 þ m _ des;cond
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex
For turbine, the balance equations can be written as
_3¼m
MBE: m _5
_ 3 h3 ¼ m
EBE: m _ act;turb
_ 5 h5 þ W
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;turb ¼ m
EnBE: m _ 5 s5
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
ExBE: m _ act;turb þ Ex
_ 5 ex5 þ W _ des;turb
EBE: m _ act;p ¼ m
_ 4 h4 þ W _ 4 h4
_ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
EnBE: m _ 4 s4
_ act;p ¼ m
_ 4 ex4 þ W
ExBE: m _ des;p
_ 4 ex4 þ Ex
For Therminol VP-1 one can obtain the following properties from EES.
For state 1,
)
T 1 ¼ 251C h1 ¼ 601:4 kJ=kg
P1 ¼ 202 kPa s1 ¼ 1:393 kJ=kg K
The Role of Energy Conversion 27
Table 5 Input and calculated data for the PTSC system in illustrative example 9
State no. Fluid type P (kPa) m_ (kg/s) T (1C) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg)
Also, for the reference state enthalpy and entropy for isobutane,
)
T 0 ¼ 251C h0 ¼ 598:7 kJ=kg
P0 ¼ 101:321 kPa s0 ¼ 2:513 kJ=kg K
1. Using the energy rate balance for the turbine, the rate of work done by the turbine can be determined as
_ act;turb ¼ m
W _ 3 ðh3 h5 Þ ¼ ð25 kg=sÞð1034 689:5ÞkJ=kg ¼ 8612:5 kW
2. Similarly, the volume of isobutane at state 6 using EES
v4 ¼ 0:5775 m3 =kg
W_ net
Zu ¼ ð37Þ
_ b ½hA h0 T0 ðsA S0 Þ
m
where, W _ net represents the net power obtained through geothermal cycle; m_ b , hA, h0, T0, sA, and s0 represent mass flow rate of brine,
enthalpy of brine at inlet, enthalpy at dead state, dead state temperature, entropy at inlet, and entropy at dead state, respectively.
Geothermal plants with huge capacity have been installed around the world. Geysers Geothermal Complex, installed in
California with a capacity of 1517 MW, is one of the largest geothermal plants in the world, as shown in Fig. 28 [43]. The plant is
actively producing 900 MW power.
Some geothermal power plants in the world on the basis of the installed capacity for power production are tabulated in Table 6.
Illustrative Example 13: Brine enters the heat exchanger at a temperature of 440K. The mass flow rate of brine is 95 kg/s and net
power of the geothermal cycle is 1200 kW. Find the utilization efficiency at dead state temperature 25ºC.
Solution: The mass flow rate of geothermal fluid and net power of the cycle are given while utilization efficiency need to be
calculated.
Assumption: Pressure losses in heat exchangers are negligible.
Analysis: (1) The utilization efficiency of a geothermal cycle can be calculated using Eq. (37) as
W_ net
Zu ¼
_ b ½hA h0 T0 ðsA S0 Þ
m
2 3
Superheater
1
seperator
Flash
ORC
turbine Electricity generator
9
8
10 4
Pump 1
Condenser
14
Mixing
chamber
11
15
Preheater
5
6
12 7
Pump 3
Geotherrmal Pump 2
reservior
13 Reinjection
Fig. 27 Schematic of a basic geothermal power plant. Reproduced from Islam S, Dincer I. Development, analysis and performance assessment of
a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol Energy 2017;147:328–43.
The Role of Energy Conversion 29
Fig. 28 Geysers Geothermal Complex, California, United States. Reproduced from The top 10 biggest geothermal power plants in the world.
Available from: http://www.power-technology.com/features/feature-top-10-biggest-geothermal-power-plants-in-theworld/; 2017 [accessed 25.05.17].
Source: Reproduced from The top 10 biggest geothermal power plants in the world. Available from: http://www.power-technology.com/features/feature-top-10-biggest-geothermal-
power-plants-in-theworld/; 2017 [accessed 25.05.17].
The enthalpy and entropy values at inlet temperature 440K and dead state 298K are determined using EES as
hA @440K ¼ 705 kJ=kg
In this section, there are multiple case studies presented to include the analyses of selected renewable energy-based integrated
systems for multigeneration. Case study 1 presents the advantages of integrating thermoelectric devices in multigeneration systems;
30 The Role of Energy Conversion
Thermoelectric
Electrolyzer
generator Heat
whereas, solar and geothermal-based renewable energy are combined in Case study 2 for improved performance of the multi-
generation system. These studies include the assessment of subsystems as well as overall systems.
where, ZT represents figure of Merit, Th denotes high temperature junction, and Tc symbolizes low temperature junction of the
thermoelectric. Magnitude of figure of merit is selected as “1” for the calculations.
The COP associated with thermoelectric cooler (TEC) can be calculated as [46]
Qc
COPTEC ¼ ð39Þ
PTEG
where, Qc and PTEG represent the amount of heat absorbed and power input to TEC.
The Role of Energy Conversion 31
Source: Compiled from Paola A, Fabrizio Z, Fabio O. Techno-economic optimisation of hydrogen production by
PV – electrolysis: ‘RenHydrogen’ simulation program. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2011;36(2):1371–81.
Q_ 1 T0
ex 47 ex48 Ts
cTES ¼ ¼1 ð50Þ
ex 46 ex44 ðex46 ex 44 Þ
32 The Role of Energy Conversion
Component Values
Source: Based on data provided by Islam S, Dincer I, Yilbas BS. Energetic and exergetic
performance analyses of a solar energy-based integrated system for multigeneration including
thermoelectric generators. Energy 2015;93:1246–58.
Source: Modified from Islam S, Dincer I, Yilbas BS. Energetic and exergetic performance analyses of a solar
energy-based integrated system for multigeneration including thermoelectric generators. Energy
2015;93:1246–58.
_ net þ Q
W _ cool
_ hp 1 T0 þ Q T0 _ cond 1 T0 þ Q
1 þQ _ HE 4 1 T0 þ Q
_ TES 1 T0
Ts;hp Ts;eva Ts;cond Ts;HE Ts;TES
coverall ¼ ð51Þ
_ solar 1 T0
EGH þ Q Ts;solar
where
_ solar ¼ m
Q _ PTSC;in hPTSC;in m
_ PTSC;out hPTSC;out ð52Þ
The Role of Energy Conversion 33
Heat
Heat
Fig. 30 Schematic of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for single generation. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol
Energy 2017;147:328–43.
Heat
Heat Heat
Absorption Cooling
refrigeration
chiller
Fig. 31 Flow diagram of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for cogeneration. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol
Energy 2017;147:328–43.
Heat
Heat Heat
Fig. 32 Flow diagram of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for trigeneration. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol
Energy 2017;147:328–43.
The organic Rankine turbine of the system produces 4331 kW excluding thermoelectric generator (TEG) and 4310 kW
including TEG. Despite the fact that the organic Rankine turbine including TEG provides slightly less amount of work done, the
overall system is still more efficient. This is because of the presence of the PV cooling system, which increases the energy and exergy
efficiencies of PV panels in the order of 4.5% and 4.7%, respectively. The COP of the absorption refrigeration chiller and heat
pump are found to be 1.5 and 3.3, respectively. The high magnitude of heat pump reflects how efficiently the waste heat is
conserved in the proposed system and this is another contributing factor for the increased performance of the overall system.
Table 8 tabulates the main findings of this case study.
The significant rate of exergy destruction occurring in major subunits/components of the overall system is tabulated in Table 9.
It is obvious that the major irreversibilities are associated with the solar cycle of the overall system followed by the LiBr driven
absorption refrigeration chiller. Moreover, the significant magnitude of irreversibilities in the heat pump is due to the exergy
destruction occurring in the compressor and the TES system accounts for the least rate of exergy destruction due to less temperature
difference between charging and discharging.
_ net;cogen þ Q
W _ cool
Zcogen ¼ ð54Þ
ðm _
_ i hi þ Qsolar Þ
Thermal energy
storage system 1
Heat
Heat
Heat Heat
Heat
Thermal energy
storage system 2
Fig. 33 Flow diagram of combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Modified from Islam S, Dincer I.
Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol
Energy 2017;147:328–43.
The Role of Energy Conversion 35
_ hp þ Q
_ net;trigen þ Q
W _ cool
Ztrigen ¼ ð55Þ
_ _
ðmi hi þ Qsolar Þ
_ hp þ Q
_ net;multigen þ Q
W _ cool þ Q
_ Dryer þ Q
_ TES
Zmultigen ¼ ð56Þ
ðm _
_ i hi þ Qsolar Þ
The exergy efficiencies of all proposed systems from single generation to multigeneration system can calculated as
W_ net;singen
csingen ¼ ð57Þ
_ i exi þ Q
m _ solar 1 T0
Ts;sun
W _ cool
_ net;cogen þ Q T0
1
Ts;evp
ccogen ¼ ð58Þ
_ solar 1
_ i exi þ Q
m T0
Ts;sun
W _ hp 1 T0 þ Q
_ net;trigen þ Q _ cool T0
1
Ts Ts
ctrigen ¼ ð59Þ
_ solar 1 T0
_ i ex i þ Q
m Ts;sun
The exergy efficiency for the multigeneration or overall system can be found as
_ hp 1 T0 þ Q
_ net;multigen þ Q
W _ cool T0 _ Dryer 1 T0 þ Q
1 þQ _ TES 1 T0
Ts Ts Ts Ts
cmultigen ¼ ð60Þ
_ solar 1 T0
_ i ex i þ Q
m Ts;sun
_ solar ¼ ðm
where Q _ i hi m
_ e he Þ.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Multigeneration Trigeneration Cogeneration Single generation
system system system system
Fig. 34 Graphical representation of efficiencies of single generation, cogeneration, trigeneration, and multigeneration system. Data from Islam S,
Dincer I. Development, analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for
multigeneration. Sol Energy 2017;147:328–43.
36 The Role of Energy Conversion
10,000
100
10
e
al s
1
2
tp r
r
pr r
3
r
cl
p
p
rh r
ea sso
te
la
er cto
e
S
S
um
tio m
cy
E
C chil
y
ea
TE
TE
H
rp pu
H
Su Dr
e
e
eo coll
n
m
so at
om
pe
e
r
H
H
la
th
So
Ab
G
Fig. 35 The rate of exergy destruction occurring in subsystems of the multigeneration system. Data from Islam S, Dincer I. Development,
analysis and performance assessment of a combined solar and geothermal energy-based integrated system for multigeneration. Sol Energy
2017;147:328–43.
compressor of heat pump as it operates at a larger temperature difference. The heat losses in other subunits like TES, heat
exchangers, and dryer are less, therefore, the rate of exergy destruction associated with these is insignificant.
The variation in the reference environment conditions affects the performance of the proposed multigeneration system. Fig. 36
displays the fluctuation in the exergy efficiencies of the single generation, cogeneration, trigeneration, and multigeneration systems
against the variation in the ambient temperature from 298 to 310K. The exergy efficiencies of single generation, cogeneration,
trigeneration, and multigeneration system are enhanced from 54% to 57.6%, 60% to 62.8%, 60.4% to 63%, and 62.2% to 63.5%,
respectively. The exergy efficiencies are enhanced because of less temperature difference as a result of increased ambient
temperature.
The rate of variation in the exergy destructions in subunits of the multigeneration system against the fluctuation in the ambient
temperature from 298 to 310K are graphically represented in Fig. 37. The magnitude of exergy destruction rate decreases with the
increase in the ambient temperature. This is due to the fact that the temperature difference between operating conditions and
ambient conditions is reduced with the increase in ambient temperature.
The exclusive integration of more than one energy conversion method is of great importance to meet the increasing demand of
electricity in upcoming years. Further advancements in the best possible integration of more than one energy resource and waste
energy harness methods will enhance the energy and exergy efficiencies of the conversion methods. The integration of TEG and
their best possible configuration necessitates further research. Moreover, development of improved thermoelectric materials is vital
to achieve increased output from thermoelectric devices.
The Role of Energy Conversion 37
In addition to this, gasification of the oil and biomass waste integrated with multigeneration system is an attractive option to
convert the waste into useful energy with less emissions. Aspen Plus simulation of the animal waste-based dual gasifier reveals that
CO2 emissions can be reduced by further using the produced CO2 as a gasification agent [52].
Farrukh et al. [53] combined solar and biomass energy sources and optimized multigeneration system. They found the newly
developed hybrid system more efficient and economical as compared to the operation of solar and biomass systems individually.
Recently, Islam et al. [54] developed a novel renewable energy-based multigeneration system and reported overall increase in the
energy and exergy efficiencies. Moreover, the energy and exergy efficiencies associated with the ORC were also increased due to
multigeneration.
Shim et al. [55] proposed an enhanced energy conversion device using ultrafast magnetic cooling effect phenomenon. The
magnetic cooling effect originates from a large change in entropy by the forced magnetization alignment, which has long been
considered to be utilized as an alternative environment-friendly cooling technology compared to conventional refrigeration. Wu
et al. [56] developed a novel energy conversion method based on hydrogel material for self-powered sensor system applications
that can harvest energy from environment vibrations and supply power to sensors without any external power source.
Moreover, the integration of various types of renewable energy systems with thermoelectric devices including the assessment of
their best configuration to reduce pollution is another direction for research. Ali and Yilbas developed an innovative design for an
extended leg TEG with tapering and segmented pin configuration for improved thermal performance [57].
Several energy conversion methods are presented and discussed from energy, exergy, and environmental perspectives. There are
advantages as well as disadvantages associated with each method of energy conversion. The novel integration of two or more
renewable energy conversion methods can help to moderate or swap the usage of fossil fuels for electricity generation. The high
initial investment is one of the major challenges in the expansion and commercialization of the renewable energy-based integrated
multigeneration systems. The profitability of such systems can be achieved through the advances in the technologies to extract
increased amount of useful energy from a source through multigeneration and manufacturing of tough materials that can
withstand increased temperatures. The transportation and effective utilization of the byproducts such as hydrogen and other
chemicals is another challenge associated with such systems. Case studies showed that integrating two renewable energy resources
is advantageous to generate multiple outputs with high efficiency.
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[26] Cohce MK, Dincer I, Rosen MA. Energy and exergy analyses of a biomass-based hydrogen production system.Bioresour Technol 2011;102(18):8466–74.
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[31] Kalinci Y, Hepbasli A, Dincer I. Exergoeconomic analysis and performance assessment of hydrogen and power production using different gasification systems. Fuel
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[34] Taheri MH, Mosaffa AH, Garousi Farshi L. Energy, exergy and economic assessments of a novel integrated biomass based multigeneration energy system with hydrogen
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[39] Ahmadi P, Dincer I, Rosen MA. Energy and exergy analyses of hydrogen production via solar-boosted ocean thermal energy conversion and PEM electrolysis. Int J
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world/; 2017 [accessed 25.05.17].
[44] Islam S, Dincer I, Yilbas BS. Energetic and exergetic performance analyses of a solar energy-based integrated system for multigeneration including thermoelectric
generators. Energy 2015;93:1246–58.
[45] Al-Ali M, Dincer I. Energetic and exergetic studies of a multigenerational solar-geothermal system. Appl Therm Eng 2014;71:16–23.
[46] Yu J, Wang B. Enhancing the maximum coefficient of performance of thermoelectric cooling modules using internally cascaded thermoelectric couples. Int J Refrig
2009;32(1):32–9.
[47] Dincer I, Rosen MA. Energy, environment and sustainable development. Oxford: Elsevier; 2013.
[48] Khaliq A, Kumar R, Dincer I. Performance analysis of an industrial waste heat based trigeneration system. Int J Energy Res 2009;33:737–44.
[49] Ahmadi P, Dincer I, Rosen MA. Performance assessment and optimization of a novel integrated multi-generation system for residential buildings. Energy Build
2013;67:568–78.
[50] Islam S, Dincer I. Comparative performance study of an integrated air-cycle refrigeration and power generation system. Appl Therm Eng 2016;
[51] Khalid F, Dincer I, Rosen MA. Energy and exergy analyses of a solar-biomass integrated cycle for multigeneration. Sol Energy 2015;112:290–9.
[52] Fernandez-Lopez M, Pedroche J, Valverde JL, Sanchez-Silva L. Simulation of the gasification of animal wastes in a dual gasifier using Aspen Pluss. Energy Convers
Manag 2017;140:211–7.
[53] Khalid F, Dincer I, Rosen MA. Thermoeconomic analysis of a solar-biomass integrated multigeneration system for a community. Appl Therm Eng 2017;120:645–53.
[54] Islam S, Dincer I, Yilbas BS. Analysis and assessment of a biomass energy-based multigeneration system with thermoelectric generators. Energy Fuels 2017;31
(10):10901–15.
[55] Shim J-H, Syed AA, Kim C-H, et al. Ultrafast giant magnetic cooling effect in ferromagnetic Co/Pt multilayers. Nat Commun 2017;8(1):796.
[56] Wu X, Li G, Lee D-W. A novel energy conversion method based on hydrogel material for self-powered sensor system applications. Appl Energy 2016;173:103–10.
[57] Ali H, Yilbas BS. Innovative design of a thermoelectric generator of extended legs with tapering and segmented pin configuration: Thermal performance analysis. Appl
Therm Eng 2017;123:74–91.
Further Reading
Akrami E, Chitsaz A, Nami H, Mahmoudi SMS. Energetic and exergoeconomic assessment of a multi-generation energy system based on indirect use of geothermal energy.
Energy 2017;124:625–39.
Bejan A, Tsatsaronis G, Moran MJ. Thermal design and optimization. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1996.
Capareda S. Introduction to biomass energy conversions. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group; 2013.
Cengel YA, Boles MA. Thermodynamics an engineering approach. 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2011.
Demirel Y. Nonequilibrium thermodynamics. Transport and Rate Processes in Physical, Chemical and Biological Systems, 2007; 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2007.
The Role of Energy Conversion 39
Demirel Y. Energy: production, conversion, storage, conservation and coupling. London, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht: Springer; 2012.
Dincer I. Refrigeration systems and applications. 3rd ed. London: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2017.
Dincer I, Rosen MA. Energy, Environment And Sustainable Development. Oxford: Elsevier; 2013.
Dincer I, Rosen MA, Ahmadi P. Optimization of Energy Systems. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2017.
Goswami Y, Dharendra , Krieth F. Energy conversion. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2007.
Moran MJ, Shapiro HB, Boettner DD, Bailey M. Fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics. 7th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons Ltd; 2011.
Relevant Websites
http://www.fao.org/docrep/u2246e/u2246e02.htm
Basic Energy Concepts.
http://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Energy_conversion_technology
Energy Education.
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-60-fundamentals-of-advanced-energy-conversion-spring-2004/
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/types-of-energy-conversions.html
Study.com: Types of Energy Conversions.
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cla_lesson4_forms_states_conversions
Teach Engineering.
4.2 Heat Exchangers
Almıla G Yazıcıoğlu, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Selin Aradağ, Ece Aylı, Gizem Gülben, and Sadık Kakaç, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Ankara, Turkey
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4.2.1 Introduction 41
4.2.1.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers 41
4.2.1.1.1 Type of interaction 41
4.2.1.1.2 Recuperation/regeneration 41
4.2.1.1.3 Flow configuration 42
4.2.1.1.4 Heat transfer mechanism 42
4.2.1.1.5 Geometry 42
4.2.1.2 Heat Exchanger Selection 45
4.2.1.3 Recent Developments 45
4.2.1.3.1 Microscale heat exchangers 46
4.2.1.3.2 Nanofluids 48
4.2.2 Background/Fundamentals 49
4.2.2.1 Design Methods for Heat Exchangers 49
4.2.2.1.1 Log mean temperature difference method 50
4.2.2.1.2 Effectiveness-number of transfer units method 50
4.2.2.2 Background on Gasketed-Plate Heat Exchangers 51
4.2.3 Specifics of Gasketed-Plate Heat Exchanger Design 55
4.2.4 Experimental Work and Software Development 56
4.2.4.1 Experiments 56
4.2.4.2 Computer Software Development 56
4.2.5 Case Study 58
4.2.6 Validation and Verification 59
4.2.6.1 Validation of the Software Using Experimental Data 59
4.2.6.2 Verification of the Computer Software With Correlations in Literature 60
4.2.7 Future Directions 65
4.2.8 Closing Remarks 67
Acknowledgments 67
References 67
Further Reading 69
Relevant Websites 69
Subscripts f Fouled
1 Inlet h Hot
2 Outlet i Inside
b Bulk o Outside
c Cold w Wall
eff Effective
4.2.1 Introduction
Heat exchangers (HEX) are essential components in various industries, including aerospace, chemical, food, electronics, health,
petroleum, power, and transportation, among others. They allow heat transfer between two or more fluids for the purpose of
heating or cooling in processes, such as refrigeration, residential heating, electronics cooling, power production, wastewater
treatment and heat recovery, and combustion. This chapter aims to provide a brief background on the classification, selection, and
design of HEX, and focuses on gasketed-plate HEX (GPHEX) with a summary of recent developments in literature, including
experimental and numerical work, and the specifics of GPHEX design methodology.
The first objective of this work is to provide the classification and types of HEX (Section 4.2.1.1) and to provide general
information on the HEX selection process, design methods, and methodology (Sections 4.2.1.2 and 4.2.2.1). After providing
general information on the classification and design of HEX, the main focus of the chapter is on GPHEX; specifically, the work
aims to shed light on the design, experiments, computations, and selection of plates for GPHEX. General information on GPHEX
including advantages, utilization, plate geometries, and design is provided. A detailed literature survey on the state of the art is in
Section 4.2.2.2. Section 4.2.3 explains the design procedure of GPHEX in detail. In Section 4.2.4, the details of a GPHEX selection
software coded based on the correlations developed using experimental findings on several types of plates are explained. Sec-
tion 4.2.5 is devoted to a case study of this software. Results are discussed in Section 4.2.6, whereas future directions and closing
remarks are provided in Sections 4.2.7 and 4.2.8.
4.2.1.1.2 Recuperation/regeneration
Another classification is based on whether recuperation (direct transfer) or regeneration (storage) occurs in the HEX. Direct-transfer
should not be confused with direct contact, explained above. Most conventional HEX, such as double-pipe, shell-and-tube, or
gasketed-plate are recuperators, where the heat is transferred directly (either through contact or through a separating wall) from the
hot fluid to the cold fluid and both flows are continuous. In contrast, in a regenerator, a matrix is utilized to store the thermal
energy as it is first transferred from the hot fluid to the matrix, then from the matrix to the cold fluid, as a result of which the flow is
generally periodic. Regenerators may be fixed matrix, such as air preheaters for furnaces, or rotary – either disk-type or drum-type.
In a rotary regenerator, the matrix alternately flows in and out of the two gas streams as it stores and releases thermal energy; these
are often utilized in steam power plants and gas turbines.
42 Heat Exchangers
(A) (B)
Fluid 1 Fluid 1
4.2.1.1.5 Geometry
The final classification is based on the geometry of the HEX design and the major features of the construction, thus the type of
HEX. As new and specialized designs are added to the market each day, the geometry becomes more complex and unique.
Nevertheless, three major categories may be described: tubular, plate, and extended-surface. In a tubular HEX, one fluid flows
inside the tube, while the other flows on the outside, with the number of tubes, flow configuration, and tube diameter, length, and
arrangement being key variables in the design.
The most common tubular HEX are double-pipe (hairpin) and shell-and-tube HEX; while spiral-tube HEX are also utilized. A
simple double-pipe HEX has one pipe placed concentrically inside a larger-diameter pipe, with one fluid flowing inside the inner
tube and the other flowing through the annular space between the two tubes. U-shaped return bends enclosed in a housing are
used to connect inner tubes and the whole structure resembles a hairpin, hence the name. Modular use of these HEX is possible;
individual hairpins may be combined in series of parallel configurations to meet the pressure drop and temperature requirements
in the process. Heat transfer surface areas are generally small, unless multiple inner tubes and/or fins on the surfaces of the inner
tubes are utilized, thus double-pipe HEX are usually more suitable for low heat duty applications. They can withstand high
pressures, especially on the tube side, due to small tube diameters, and cleaning and maintenance are relatively easy, compared to
other types of HEX.
Shell-and-tube HEX are perhaps the most widely used type of tubular HEX due to their versatility in construction and
application. They are formed by placing a large tube bundle inside a shell, with one fluid flowing through the tubes, while the
Heat Exchangers 43
Fig. 2 A shell-and-tube heat exchangers (HEX) with single shell-and-tube side passes. Courtesy of Konuk Isı.
Fig. 3 The U-tube bundle, tube sheet, and baffles of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (HEX). Courtesy of Konuk Isı.
other is on the shell-side, in parallel, counter, cross-flow or a combination of these, depending on the specifics of construction. An
example is shown in Fig. 2. Baffles are often used to guide the shell-side flow across the tubes, enhance the heat transfer coefficient
on the shell-side by promoting turbulence, and support the tube bundle against sagging and vibration. Fig. 3 is an example of the
tube bundle inserted into the shell, with supporting baffles, and the tube sheet at one end of the bundle. It is possible to employ
different tube and shell types or number of passes, tube layouts, baffle types and geometries, based on requirements of design;
such as heat duty, pressure drop, fouling, and cleaning, and maintenance. In general, shell-and-tube HEX designs are more
complex and costly compared to double-pipe HEX, but they have much larger heat transfer surface areas, thus they can accom-
modate larger heat duties. Spiral-tube HEX have coaxial-flow and contain spirally wound coils inside a shell, making benefit of the
increased heat transfer coefficients in the curved tubes compared to straight tubes. These type of HEX are preferred in applications
with clean fluids, since cleaning is nearly impossible.
In plate HEX, instead of tubes, thin plates form the flow channels. Fluid streams flow between the plates, which may have
corrugations or wavy surfaces to promote heat transfer depending on the type of fluid. GPHEX, which are the main focus of this
chapter, are the most widely used type of plate HEX. They were initially used in the food industry due to their ease of cleaning, but
have now come to be preferred as alternatives to shell-and-tube HEX in relatively lower pressure and heat duty liquid-to-liquid
applications. They are composed of a pack of plates as the heat transfer surface with gaskets and the components of the frame,
which includes a fixed plate, a compression (pressure) plate, an upper carrier bar, a guidance bar, a support column, and tightening
bolts and nuts. A sample GPHEX assembly is provided in Fig. 4. The flow pattern for each fluid is through the passages formed by
44 Heat Exchangers
Fig. 4 A gasketed-plate HEX (GPHEX) assembly showing the plate pack, end plates, bolts, and nuts.
Fig. 5 The plates and gaskets of a gasketed-plate HEX (GPHEX) demonstrating the alternating flow patterns of each fluid. Courtesy of Alfa Laval
Corporate AB.
alternate plate pairs, as shown in Fig. 5. Plate corrugation design and the specialized gaskets direct the fluids across the plates and
prevent intermixing of the fluids and leakage to the outside. A major advantage is that the heat transfer area (plates) is easily
accessible, which allows for changing the configuration to suit different process requirements by changing the number of plates
and cleaning. In addition, heat transfer coefficients are very high due to small channel sizes and increased turbulence. GPHEX will
be investigated in detail in the following sections. Other types of plate HEX are also available, such as spiral plate and lamella HEX.
Heat Exchangers 45
Fluid 2
Fluid 1 Fluid 2
Fluid 1
(A) (B)
Fig. 6 Common core types of extended surface heat exchangers (HEX). (A) Plate-fin HEX and (B) tube-fin HEX.
Extended-surface HEX make use of fins on the main heat transfer surface area – tube or plate – to enhance heat transfer by both
promoting turbulence and increasing the heat transfer surface area. They are also known as compact HEX since surface area-to-
volume ratios are high (over 700 m2 m3) compared to other types of HEX. As a result, they are widely preferred in applications in
the transportation and aircraft industries, where limited space is available. Plate-fin HEX, generally used for gas-to-gas applications,
and tube-fin HEX, used with the liquid on the tube side and the gas on the finned side, are the major categories, but finned tubes,
such as those used in double-pipe HEX, are also common. In the plate-fin HEX, whose simple core structure is shown in Fig. 6(A),
corrugated fins are sandwiched between flat plates, forming the fluid channels. The fins may be plain, perforated, serrated, or wavy,
but specialized designs are also possible. Good flow distribution in the channels tends to be a problem, therefore manifold design
requires special attention in the construction of the HEX. In addition, pressure drop can be high due to small hydraulic diameters.
Tube-fin HEX are utilized when low heat transfer coefficients are encountered on one side due to gas flow and liquid flow may still
be used inside tubes. The fins are fixed on the outside of an array of tubes, which may be round, flattened, or elliptical. Due to
relative ease of construction, the fins are generally continuous plates, as sketched in Fig. 6(B), attached to the tubes by brazing,
welding, or mechanical fit. Extended surfaces may also be utilized on the inside of tubes, especially for condensing and boiling
applications, through the use of microfins (rough surfaces) and helical wire or twisted tape inserts.
"Mitäkö tarkoitan!"
"Mitäkö tarkoitan!" parkaisee hän toisen kerran. "Et kai sinä ole
niin vastasyntynyt, ettet sitä itsekin älyäisi."
*****
"Oliko teillä jotakin sanan vaihtoa?" kysyy isä vähän ajan kuluttua.
Isä on taas vaiti. Olisiko äiti kertonut, — niin, miksei olisi, on vain
odotettava, mitä tulee.
Vihdoinkin:
Eikö nyt olisi selvintä langeta polvilleen, tunnustaa kaikki ja, pyytää
anteeksi ja sitten lähteä. Mutta koko Helmin olento on kuin
herpautunut ja ajatusvoima turtunut. Hän istuu vain paikallaan ja
silmät katsovat suoraan eteen.
*****
Ah, Nikolai, minä olin sinulle kuin köyhän miehen ainoa lammas,
joka vietiin. Sinulla ei ollut edes vanhempia, omasi olin vain minä,
siinä suhteessa olit minua samalla kertaa onnellisempi ja
onnettomampi. En voi tulla luoksesi haudan yli, mutta sittenkään älä
unohda minua. Ellet rakasta, niin vihaa, kun vaan muistat.
Saaren Helmi odottelee eikä hän itsekään tiedä, mitä hän odottelee,
mutta jotakin vaan, joka pakosta on tuleva. Hänen hermonsa ovat
paatuneet, hän on valmis vastaanottamaan mitä muuta tahansa kuin
häpeän ja siihen kuuluvat ihmisten katseet. Sarkan Nikolaille on hän
kirjoittanut, pyytänyt häntä olemaan työssä ja touhussa, mutta
kirjoittamaan harvemmin. Kirjeet herättävät huomiota, oli hän
sanonut. Eikö työ ole surun paras lääke? kysyi hän itseltään
vaatiessaan Nikulta yhä enemmän ja enemmän työtä. Sillä jos
Nikolai rakasti häntä niin, niinkuin hän uskoi, niin suuri oli se suru,
joka oli Nikua kohtaava.
Mutta kun kerran Niku on ollut mies minut ottamaan, niin kai on
mies jättämäänkin, ajattelee hän ja sydän tahtoo itkeä, mutta hän
pakottaa silmänsä kyynelettömiksi.
Itse hän ei kuitenkaan niin ollut tahtonut. Hän oli tahtonut olla
rehellinen ja hän oli tahtonut olla kokonainen, mutta hänen oli
pidettävä kunniassa neljäs käsky eikä hän saanut ehdoin tahdoin
saattaa äitiään hautaan.
*****
"Sisään!"
Ja sitten:
"Ei minua kukaan nähnyt. Olen jalkaisin liikkeellä ja kun näin valon
kamaristasi ja vierasporstuan oven auki puikahdin sisälle kenenkään
huomaamatta."
"Se on sisälle, mutta entä ulos."
"Niin."
"Ei", sanoo poika ujosti, "tahdoin vain saada selon siitä, huolitko
minusta."
"Älä tee pilkkaa, Helmi", huohotti hän, "sen takia, että olen ujo ja
saamaton. Sillä minä en ole tällaisissa asioissa ennen kulkenut,
minulla ei ole tottumusta. Kuule Helmi, minä en ole sen laadun
miehiä, että voisin lakkaamatta, vuosikausia, juosta jälessäsi ja
mahdollisissa ja mahdottomissa tilaisuuksissa kuiskata: Helmi,
Helmi, minä rakastan sinua. Mutta sen tahdon sanoa sinulle, että
siitä asti, kuin ylimalkaan olen tiennyt, mitä rakkaus on, on se
kohdistunut sinuun, sen sanon vieläkin eikä se muuksi muutu, vaikka
elävä saatana olisi."
"Muistan."
Helmi hymähti.
"En", vastasi hän. "Mutta vuosia olen sinua ajatellut enkä ole
luoksesi pyrkinyt kuin sen yhden ainoan kerran. Ja silloinkin vain
puhellakseni."
Helmi miettii, yhä vain miettii ja silmissä palaa tuli, joka voisi
kammottaa Suontaan Heikkiä, jos hän sen huomaisi.
"Ihmiset eivät saa saada tietää, että olet ollut täällä yömyöhällä",
puhuu hän viimein matalasti ja ikäänkuin neuvottomana kääntäen
katseensa pois. "Alhaalla voivat vielä valvoa äidin kanssa. Parempi,
että menet viiden vaiheilla tai hiukan sitä ennen. — Lupaatko maata
lattialla rauhallisesti?"
"Voi, Helmi, minähän tulen kuitenkin huomenna takaisin. Älä vaadi
sellaista, jota en voi luvata tai anna minun mennä."
"Kyllä minä koetan", kuiskasi hän, "mutta anna kun suutelen sinua
ensin."
*****
"Minähän rakastan sinua ja, niinkuin sinä olet minun, niin olen
minä sinun."
Onko se sama Saaren Helmi kuin ennen, joka nyt katselee häntä
kiiltävästä pinnasta, vaikeitten kehysten keskeltä. Ensin Helmi
peräytyy ja laskee kuvastimen syrjään, mutta ottaa sen heti
uudelleen käteensä. Ellei uskalla itseään katsella, niin mitä sitten!
"Vai niin."
"Ja minä vastasin, että kun asiat niin päin näyttävät olevan, niin
eihän siinä muu auta."
Helmi aikoo mennä sisälle, mutta isän katse pidättää häntä. Helmi
säpsähtää sitä katsetta, siinä on melkein kammoa.