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to easily highlight, take notes, and review key vocabulary all in one place-
even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos, rich media, and embedded
interactives engage students and give them access to the help they need when
they need it. Pearson eText is available within Mastering when packaged with a
new book or as an upgrade students can purchase online.

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 University Physics with
Modern Physics includes a full
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in the Instructor Resources area in
Mastering Physics. Resources include
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tables, and end-of-chapter elements
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solutions manual and test bank.

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Instructors also have access to Learning Catalytics. With Learning Catalytics, you'll hear from every student when
it matters most. You pose a variety of questions that help students recall ideas, apply concepts, and develop critical-
thinking skills. Your students respond using their own smartphones, tablets, or laptops. You can monitor responses
with real-time analytics and find out what your students do-and don't-understand. Then, you can adjust your
teaching accordingly and even facilitate peer-to-peer learning, helping students stay motivated and engaged.
SEARS AND ZEMANSKY'S

UNIVERSITY PHYSICS
WITH MODERN PHYSICS
FIFTEENTH EDITION

HUGH D. YOUNG

ROGER A. FREEDMAN
University of California, Santa Barbara

CONTRIBUTING AUTHOR
A. LEWIS FORD
Texas A&M University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Young, Hugh D., author. I Freedman, Roger A., author. IYoung, Hugh D. Sears and Zemansky's university physics.
Title: University physics with modern physics I Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman.
Other titles: Some previous editions have title: Sears and Zemansky's university physics with modern physics
Description: 15th edition. I Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson Higher Education, [2020] I Includes bibliographical references
and index. Content.~: Mechanics. Units, physical quantities, and vectors- Motion along a straight line--Motion in
two or three dimensions-Newton's laws of motion- Applying Newton's laws- Work and kinetic energy-
Potential energy and energy conservation- Momentum, impulse, and collisions- Rotation of rigid bodies-
Dynamics of rotational motion- Equilibrium and e lasticity- Fluid mechanics-Gravitation- Periodic motion-
Waves, acoustics. Mechanical waves- Sound and hearing- Thermodynamics. Temperature and heat- Thermal
properties of matter- The first law of thermodynamics- The second law of them1odynamics. Contents:
Electromagnetism. Electric charge and electric field-Gauss's law- Electric potential-Capacitance and dielectrics-
Currenc, resistance, and electromotive force- Direct-current circuit.~-Magnetic field and magnetic forces-
Sources of magnetic field- Electromagnetic induction- Inductance- Alternating current- Electromagnetic
waves-Optics. The nature and propagation of light-Geometric optics- Interference- Diffraction-
Modem physics. Relativity- Photons : light waves behaving as particles- Particles behaving as waves-
Quantum mechanics I : wave functions-Quantum mechanics II : atomic structure- Molecules and condensed
matter- Nuclear physics- Particle physics and cosmology.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018042240 I ISBN 9780135159552 (hardcover: alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Physics- Textbooks. I Physics-Study and teaching (Higher)
Classification: LCC QC2l.3 .Y68 2020 I DOC 530-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018042240

ISBN 10: 0- 135- 15955-5; ISBN 13: 978-0-1 351 -5955-2 (Extended edition)

@Pearson www.pearsonhighered.com
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Roger A. Freedman is a Lecturer in Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He
was an undergraduate at the University of California campuses in San Diego and Los Angeles
and did his doctoral research in nuclear theory at Stanford University under the direction of Pro-
fessor J. Dirk Walecka. Dr. Freedman can1e to UCSB in 198 J after three years of teaching and
doing research at the University of Washington.
At UCSB, Dr. Freedman bas taught in both the Department of Physics and the College of
Creative Studies, a branch of the university intended for highly gifted and motivated under-
graduates. He bas published research in nuclear physics, elementary particle physics, and laser
physics. In recent years, be bas worked to make physics lectures a more interactive experience
through the use of classroom response systems and pre-lecture videos.
In the 1970s Dr. Freedman worked as a comic book letterer and helped organize the San
Diego Comic-Con (now the world's largest popular culture convention) during its first few
years. Today, when not in the classroom or slaving over a computer, Dr. Freedman can be found
either flying (he holds a commercial pilot's license) or with his wife, Caroline, cheering on the
rowers of UCSB Men's and Women's Crew.

IN MEMORIAM: HUGH YOUNG ( 1930- 2013)

Hugh D. Young was Emeritus Professor of Physics at Carnegie Mellon University. He earned
both his undergraduate and graduate degrees from that university. He earned his Ph.D. in fun-
dan1ental particle theory under the direction of the late Richard Cutkosky. Dr. Young joined the
faculty of Carnegie Mellon in 1956 and retired in 2004. He also had two visiting professorships
at the University of California, Berkeley.
Dr. Young's career was centered entirely on undergraduate education. He wrote several
undergraduate-level textbooks, and in 1973 he became a coauthor with Francis Sears and Mark
Zemansky of their well-known introductory textbooks. In addition to his role on Sears and
Zemansky's University Physics, he was the author of Sears and Zemansky's College Physics.
Dr. Young earned a bachelor's degree in organ performance from Carnegie Mellon in
1972 and spent several years as Associate Organist at St. Paul's Cathedral in Pittsburgh.
He often ventured into the wilderness to hike, climb, or go caving with students in Carn-
egie Mellon's Explorers Club, which he founded as a graduate student and later advised.
Dr. Young and his wife, Alice, hosted up to 50 students each year for Thanksgiving dinners
in their home.
Always gracious, Dr. Young expressed his appreciation earnestly: " I want to extend my
heartfelt thanks to my colleagues at Carnegie Mellon, especially Professors Robert Kraemer,
Bruce Sherwood, Ruth Chabay, Helmut Vogel , and Brian Quinn , for many stimulating dis-
cussions about physics pedagogy and for their support and encouragement during the writing
of several successive editions of this book. I am equally indebted to the many generations of
Carnegie Mellon students who have helped me learn what good teaching and good writing are,
by showing me what works and what doesn't. It is always a joy and a privilege to express my
gratitude to my wife, Alice, and our children, Gretchen and Rebecca, for their love, support,
and emotional sustenance during the writing of several successive editions of this book. May
all men and women be blessed with love such as theirs." We at Pearson appreciated his profes-
sionalism, good nature, and collaboration. He will be missed.

A. Lewis Ford is Professor of Physics at Texas A&M University. He received a B.A. from Rice
University in 1968 and a Ph.D. in chemical physics from the University of Texas at Austin in
1972. After a one-year postdoc at Harvard University, be joined the Texas A&M physics fac-
ulty in 1973 and has been there ever since. Professor Ford has specialized in theoretical atomic
physics- in particular, atomic collisions. At Texas A&M be bas taught a variety of undergradu-
ate and graduate courses, but primarily introductory physics.

iii
 TO THE STUDENT
HOW TO SUCCEED IN PHYSICS
BY REALLY TRYING
Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale Community College, Emeritus

Physics encompasses the large and the small, the o ld and the new. From the atom to galaxies,
from electrical circuitry to aerodynamics, physics is very much a part of the world around
us. You probably are taldng this introductory course in calculus-based physics because it is
required for subsequent courses that you plan to take in preparation for a career in science or
engineering. Your professor wants you to learn physics and to enjoy the experience. He or she
is very interested in helping you learn this fascinating subject. That is part of the reason your
professor chose this textbook for your course. That is also the reason Ors. Young and Freedman
asked me to write this introductory section. We want you to succeed!
The purpose of this section of University Physics is to give you some ideas that will assist
your leaming. Specific suggestions on how to use the textbook will follow a brief discussion of
general study habits and strategies.

PREPARATION FOR THIS COURSE

If you had high school physics, you will probably leam concepts faster than those who have not
because you will be fan1iliar with the language of physics. If English is a second language for
you, keep a glossary of new terms that you encounter and make sure you understand how they
are used in physics. Likewise, if you are further along in your mathematics courses, you will
pick up the mathematical aspects of physics faster. Even if your mathematics is adequate, you
may find a book such as Edward Adelson 's Get Ready for Physics to be a great help for sharp-
ening your math skills as well as your study skills.

LEARNING TO LEARN
Each of us has a different learning style and a preferred means of learning. Understanding your
own learning style will help you to focus on aspects of physics that may give you difficulty and
to use those components of your course that will help you overcome the difficulty. Obviously
you will want to spend more time on those aspects that give you the most trouble. If you learn
by hearing, lectures will be very important. If you learn by explaining, then working with other
students will be useful to you. If solving problems is difficult for you, spend more time learning
how to solve problems. Also, it is important to understand and develop good study habits. Per-
haps the most important thing you can do for yourself is set aside adequate, regularly scheduled
study time in a distraction-free environment.

Answer the following questions for yourself:

Am I able to use fundamental mathematical concepts from algebra, geometry, and trig-
onometry? (If not, plan a program of review with help from your professor.)
In similar courses, what activity has given me the most trouble? (Spend more time on
this.) What has been the easiest for me? (Do this first; it will bui ld your confidence.)
Do I understand the material better if I read the book before or after the lecture? (You
may learn best by skimming the material, going to lecture, and then undertaking an in-
depth reading.)
Do I spend adequate time studying physics? (A rule of thumb for a class like this is to de-
vote, on average, 2.5 hours out of class for each hour in class. For a course that meets 5 hours
each week, that means you should spend about I 0 to 15 hours per week studying physics.)
Do I study physics every day? (Spread that I 0 to 15 hours out over an entire week!) At
what time of the day am I at my best for studying physics? (Pick a specific time of the
day and stick to it.)
Do I work in a quiet place where I can maintain my focus? (Distractions w ill break
your routine and cause you to miss important points.)

iv
 HOW TO SUCCEED IN PHYSICS BY REALLY TRYING

WORKING WITH OTHERS

Scientists or engineers seldom work in isolation from one another but rather work coopera-
tively. You will learn more physics and have more fun doing it if you work with other students.
Some professors may fom1alize the use of cooperative learning or facilitate the fom1ation of
study groups. You may wish to form your own infom1al study group with members of your
class. Use e-mail to keep in touch with one another. Your study group is an excellent resource
when you review for exams.

LECTURES AND TAKING NOTES

An important component of any college course is the lecture. lo physics this is especially
important, because your professor will frequently do demonstrations of physical principles,
run computer simulations, or show video clips. All of these are learning activities that will help
you understand the basic principles of physics. Don't miss lectures. If for some reason you do,
ask a friend or member of your study group to provide you with notes and let you know what
happened.
Take your class notes in outline form, and fill in the details later. It can be very difficult to
take word-for-word notes, so just write down key ideas. Your professor may use a diagran1
from the textbook. Leave a space in your notes and add the diagran1 later. After class, edit your
notes, filling in any gaps or omissions and noting things that you need to study further. Make
references to the textbook by page, equation number, or section number.
Ask questions in class, or see your professor during office hours. Remember that the only
"dumb" question is the one that is not asked. Your college may have teaching assistants or peer
tutors who are available to help you with any difficulties.

EXAMINATIONS
Taking an examination is stressful. But if you feel adequately prepared and are well rested,
your stress will be lessened. Preparing for an exan1 is a continuous process; it begins the mo-
ment the previous exan1 is over. You should immediately go over the exam to understand any
mistakes you made. If you worked a problem and made substantial errors, try this: Take a piece
of paper and divide it down the middle with a line from top to bottom. lo one colunm, write the
proper solution to the problem. In the other column, write what you did and why, if you know,
and why your solution was incorrect. If you are uncertain why you made your mistake or how
to avoid making it again, talk with your professor. Physics constantly builds on fundan1ental
ideas, and it is important to correct any misunderstandings immediately. Warning: Although
cramming at the last minute may get you through the present exam, you will not adequately
retain the concepts for use on the next exam.

Standard, Extended,
and Three-Volume Editions
With Mastering Physics:
• Standard Edition: Chapters 1- 37
(ISBN 978-0 -135-64663-2)
• Extended Edition: Chapters 1-44
(ISBN 978-0 -135-15970-5)
Without Mastering Physics:
• Standard Edition: Chapters 1- 37
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21611-8)
• Extended Edition: Chapters 1-44
(ISBN 978-0 -135-15955-2)
• Volume 1: Chapters 1- 20
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21672-9)
• Volume 2: Chapters 21- 37
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21612-5)
• Volume 3: Chapters 37- 44
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21673-6)
vi
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
PREFACE
In the years since it was first published, University Physics has always embraced change,
not just to include the latest developments in our understanding of the physical world, but
also to address our understanding of how students learn physics and how they study.
In preparing for this new Fifteenth Edition, we listened to the thousands of students
who have told us that they often struggle to see the connections between the worked ex-
amples in their textbook and problems on homework or exams. Every problem seems
different because the objects, situations, numbers, and questions posed change with each
problem. As a result, students experience frustration and a lack of confidence. By contrast,
expert problem-solvers categorize problems by type, based on the underlying principles.
Several of the revisions we have made therefore address this particular challenge by,
for example, helping students see the big picture of what each worked example is trying
to illustrate and allowing them to practice sets of related problems to help them identify
repeating patterns and strategies. These new features are explained in more detail below.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
• Worked example KEYCONCEPT statements appear at the end of every Example and
Conceptual Example, providing a brief summary of the key idea used in the solution to
consolidate what was most important and what can be broadly applied to other prob-
lems, to help students identify strategies that can be used in future problems.
J
• KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS in the new Guided Practice section at the
end of each chapter are based on selected worked examples. They build in difficulty
by changing scenarios, swapping the knowns and unknowns, and adding complexity
and/or steps of reasoning to provide the most helpful range of related problems that
use the same basic approach to solve. These scaffolded problem sets help students see
patterns and make connections between problems that can be solved using the same un-
derlying principles and strategies so that they are more able to tackle different problem
types when exam time comes.
• Expanded Caution paragraphs focus on typical student misconceptions and problem
areas. Over a dozen more have been added to this edition based on common errors
made in Mastering™ Physics.
• Updated and expanded Application sidebars give students engaging and relevant
real-world context.
• Based on data from Mastering Physics and feedback from instructors, changes to
the homework problems include the following:
• Over 500 new problems, with scores of other problems revised to improve clarity.
• Expanded three-dot-difficulty and Challenge Problems significantly stretch
students by requiring sophisticated reasoning that often involves multiple steps or
concepts and/or mathematical skills. Challenge Problems are the most difficult
problems in each chapter and often involve calculus, multiple steps that lead stu-
dents through a complex analysis, and/or the exploration of a topic or application
not explicitly covered in the chapter.
• New estimation problems help students learn to analyze problem scenarios, assess
data, and work with orders of magnitude. This problem type engages students to
more thoroughly explore the situation by requiring them to not only estimate some
of the data in the problem but also decide what data need to be estimated based on
real-world experience, reasoning, assumptions, and/or modeling.
• Expanded cumulative problems promote more advanced problem-solving tech-
niques by requiring knowledge and skills covered in previous chapters to be inte-
grated with understanding and skills from the current chapter.
• Expanded alternative problem sets in Mastering Physics provide textbook-specific
problems from previous editions to assign for additional student practice.
 PREFACE v ii

KEY FEATURES OF UNIVERSITY PHYSICS

• A QR cod e at the beginning of the new Guided Practice section in each chapter allows
(!).!
. ·'(!.)
(. '
students 10 use a mobile phone to access the Study Area of Mastering Physics, where
they can watch interactive videos of a physics professor giving a relevant physics dem-
onstration (Video Tutor Demonstrations) or showing a narrated and animated worked
~:t
(!)~ ~ :_.,.
Example (Video Tutor Solutions). All videos also play directly through links within the
Pearson eText.
• End-of-chapter Bridging Problems provide a transition between the single-concept
Examples and the more chal lenging end-of-chapter problems. Each Bridging Problem
poses a difficult, multiconcept problem that typically incorporates physics from earlier
chapters. The Solution Guide that follows each problem provides questions and hints
that help students approach and solve challenging problems with confidence.
• Deep and extensive problem sets cover a wide range of difficulty (with blue dots to in-
dicate relative difficulty level) and exercise both physical understanding and problem-
solving expertise. Many problems are based on complex real-life situations.
• This textbook offers more Examples and Conceptual Examples than most other lead-
ing calculus-based textbooks, allowing students to explore problem-solving challenges
that are not addressed in other textbooks.
• A research-based problem-solving approach (Identify, Set Up, Execu te, Evaluate)
is used in every Example as well as in the Problem-Solving Strategies, in the Bridging
Problems, and throughout the Instructor's Solutions Manual and the Study Guide. This
consistent approach teaches students to tackle problems thoughtfully rather than cut-
ting straight to the math.
• Problem-Solving Strategies coach students in how to approach specific types of problems.
• The figures use a simplified graphical style to focus on the physics of a situation, and
they incorporate blue explanatory annotations. Both techniques have been demon-
strated to have a strong positive effect on learning.
• Many figures that illustrate Example solutions take the form of black-and-white pencil
sketches, which directly represent what a student should draw in solving such problems
themselves.
• The popular Caution paragraphs focus on typical misconceptions and student
problem areas.
• End-of-section Test Your Understanding questions let students check their grasp of
the material and use a multiple-choice or ranking-task format to probe for common
misconceptions. Answers are now provided immediately after the question in order to
encourage students to try them.
• Visual Summa ries at the end of each chapter present the key ideas in words, equations,
and thumbnai l pictures, helping students review more effectively.
Masteringrn is the teaching and learning platform that empowers you 10 reach every
student. By combining trusted author content with digital tools developed to engage
students and emulate the office-hour experience, Mastering personalizes learning and
improves results for each student. Now providing a fully integrated experience, the eText
is linked 10 every problem within Mastering for seamless integration among homework
problems, practice problems, the textbook, worked examples, and more.
Reach every student with Mastering
• Teach your course your wa y: Your course is unique. Whether you'd like to build your
own auto-graded assignments, foster student engagement during class, or give students
anytime, anywhere access, Mastering gives you the flexibility to easi ly create your
course to fit your needs.
• With Leaming Catalytics, you'll hear from every student when it mailers most.
You pose a variety of questions that help students recall ideas, apply concepts, and
develop critical-thinking skills. Your students respond using their own smartphones,
tablets, or laptops. You can monitor responses with real-time analytics and find out
what your students do--and don't- understand. Then you can adjust your teach-
ing accordingly and even facilitate peer-to-peer learning, helping students stay
motivated and engaged.
 PREFACE v ii

KEY FEATURES OF UNIVERSITY PHYSICS

• A QR cod e at the beginning of the new Guided Practice section in each chapter allows
(!).!
. ·'(!.)
(. '
students 10 use a mobile phone to access the Study Area of Mastering Physics, where
they can watch interactive videos of a physics professor giving a relevant physics dem-
onstration (Video Tutor Demonstrations) or showing a narrated and animated worked
~:t
(!)~ ~ :_.,.
Example (Video Tutor Solutions). All videos also play directly through links within the
Pearson eText.
• End-of-chapter Bridging Problems provide a transition between the single-concept
Examples and the more chal lenging end-of-chapter problems. Each Bridging Problem
poses a difficult, multiconcept problem that typically incorporates physics from earlier
chapters. The Solution Guide that follows each problem provides questions and hints
that help students approach and solve challenging problems with confidence.
• Deep and extensive problem sets cover a wide range of difficulty (with blue dots to in-
dicate relative difficulty level) and exercise both physical understanding and problem-
solving expertise. Many problems are based on complex real-life situations.
• This textbook offers more Examples and Conceptual Examples than most other lead-
ing calculus-based textbooks, allowing students to explore problem-solving challenges
that are not addressed in other textbooks.
• A research-based problem-solving approach (Identify, Set Up, Execu te, Evaluate)
is used in every Example as well as in the Problem-Solving Strategies, in the Bridging
Problems, and throughout the Instructor's Solutions Manual and the Study Guide. This
consistent approach teaches students to tackle problems thoughtfully rather than cut-
ting straight to the math.
• Problem-Solving Strategies coach students in how to approach specific types of problems.
• The figures use a simplified graphical style to focus on the physics of a situation, and
they incorporate blue explanatory annotations. Both techniques have been demon-
strated to have a strong positive effect on learning.
• Many figures that illustrate Example solutions take the form of black-and-white pencil
sketches, which directly represent what a student should draw in solving such problems
themselves.
• The popular Caution paragraphs focus on typical misconceptions and student
problem areas.
• End-of-section Test Your Understanding questions let students check their grasp of
the material and use a multiple-choice or ranking-task format to probe for common
misconceptions. Answers are now provided immediately after the question in order to
encourage students to try them.
• Visual Summa ries at the end of each chapter present the key ideas in words, equations,
and thumbnai l pictures, helping students review more effectively.
Masteringrn is the teaching and learning platform that empowers you 10 reach every
student. By combining trusted author content with digital tools developed to engage
students and emulate the office-hour experience, Mastering personalizes learning and
improves results for each student. Now providing a fully integrated experience, the eText
is linked 10 every problem within Mastering for seamless integration among homework
problems, practice problems, the textbook, worked examples, and more.
Reach every student with Mastering
• Teach your course your wa y: Your course is unique. Whether you'd like to build your
own auto-graded assignments, foster student engagement during class, or give students
anytime, anywhere access, Mastering gives you the flexibility to easi ly create your
course to fit your needs.
• With Leaming Catalytics, you'll hear from every student when it mailers most.
You pose a variety of questions that help students recall ideas, apply concepts, and
develop critical-thinking skills. Your students respond using their own smartphones,
tablets, or laptops. You can monitor responses with real-time analytics and find out
what your students do--and don't- understand. Then you can adjust your teach-
ing accordingly and even facilitate peer-to-peer learning, helping students stay
motivated and engaged.
viii PREFACE

• Expanded alternative problem sets, with hundreds of vetted problems from pre-
vious editions of the book, provide additional problem-solving practice and offer
instructors more options when creating assignments.
• Empower each learner: Each student learns at a different pace. Personalized learning,
including adaptive tools and wrong-answer feedback, pinpoints the precise areas where
each student needs practice and gives all students the support they need- when and
where they need it- to be successful.
• Interactive Pre-lecture Videos provide an introduction to key topics with embed-
ded assessment to help students prepare before lecture and to help professors iden-
tify student misconceptions.
• NEW! Quantitative Pre-lecture Videos now complement the conceptual Inter-
active Pre-lecture Videos designed to expose students to concepts before class
and help them learn how problems for a specific concept are worked.
• NEW! Direct Measurement Videos are short videos that show real situations of physi-
cal phenomena. Grids, rulers, and frame counters appear as overlays, helping students to
make precise measurements of quantities such as position and time. Students !hen apply
these quantities along with physics concepts to solve problems and answer questions
about the motion of the objects in the video. The problems are assignable in Mastering
Physics and can be used to replace or supplement traditional word problems; they can
also serve as open-ended questions to help develop problem-solving skills.
• NEW! Dynamic Study Modules help students study effectively- and at their own
pace. How? By keeping them motivated and engaged. The assignable modules rely
on the latest research in cognitive science, using methods- such as adaptivity, gami-
fication, and intermiuent rewards- to stimulate learning and improve retention.
Each module poses a series of questions about a course topic. These question sets
adapt to each student's performance and offer personalized, targeted feedback to
help students master key concepts.
• NEW! The Physics Primer relies on videos, hints, and feedback to refresh students'
math skills in the context of physics and prepares them for success in the course.
These tutorials can be assigned before the course begins or throughout the course as
just-in-time remediation. They ensure that students practice and maintain their math
skills, while tying together mathematical operations and physics analysis.
• Deliver trusted content: We partner with highly respected authors to develop interactive
content and course-specific resources that keep students on track and engaged.
• Video Tutor Demonstrations and Video Tutor Solutions tie directly to relevant
content in the textbook and can be accessed through Mastering Physics, via the eText,
or from QR codes in the textbook.
• Video Tutor Solutions (VTSs) for every worked example in the book walk stu-
dents through the problem-solv ing process, providing a virtual teaching assistant
on a round-the-clock basis.
• Video Tutor Demonstrations (VTDs) feature "pause-and-predict" demonstra-
tions of key physics concepts and incorporate assessment to engage students in
understanding key concepts. New VTDs build on the existing collection, adding
new topics for a more robust set of demonstrations.
• NEW! Enhanced end-of-chapter questions provide expanded remediation built
into each question when and where students need it. Remediation includes scaf-
folded support, links to hints, links to appropriate sections of the eText, links from
the eText to Mastering Physics, Video Tutor Solutions, math remediation, and
wrong-answer feedback for homework assignments. Half of all end-of-chapter prob-
lems now have wrong-answer feedback and links to the eText.
• NEW! Key Example Variation Problems, assignable in Mastering Physics, build
in difficulty by changing scenarios, swapping the knowns and unknowns, and add-
ing complexity and/or steps of reasoning to provide the most helpful range of related
problems that use the same basic approach to find their solutions.
• NEW! Bridging Problems are now assignable in Mastering Physics, thus pro-
viding students with additional practice in moving from single-concept worked
examples to multi-concept homework problems.
 PREFACE ix

• Improve student r esults: Usage statistics show that when you teach with Mastering,
student performance improves. That's why instructors have chosen Ma~tering for over
15 years, touch ing the lives of more than 20 mil lion students.

INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE
University Physics with Modem Physics, Fifteenth Edition, provides an integrated teaching
and learning package of support material for students and instructors.

NOTE: For convenience, instructor supplements can be downloaded from the Instructor
Resources area of Mastering Physics.

Supplement Print
Mastering Physics
with Pearson eText
(ISBN 0135180678)
Instructor's Solutions
Manual
( ISBN Ot35275881)
Instructor's Resource
Materials
Student's Study
Guide/Solutions
Manual
Volume 1 (Chs t- 20)
( ISBN Ot35216958)
Volume 2 (Chs 2 1- 37)
( ISBN Ot3521694X)
Volume 3 (Chs 37-44)
( ISBN Ot3559202X)
Ins tructor
or Student
Online Supplemeut Description
Instructor This product features all of the
and Student resources of Mastering Physics
Supplement in addition to Pearson eText
2.0. Available on smartphones
and tablets, Pearson eText
2.0 comprises the full text,
including videos and other
rich media.
.I Instructor This comprehensive solutions
Supplement manual contains complete
solutions to all end-of-chapter
questions and problems.
.I Instructor All art, photos, and tables
Supplement from the book are avail-
able in JPEG fom1a1 and as
modifiable PowerPointsTM.
In addition, instructors can
access lecture outlines as
well as "clicker" questions
in PowerPoint fonnat; edit-
able content for key features,
including key equations and
Problem-Solving Strategies;
and the TestGen test bank.
Student This combination srudy
Supplement guide and solutions manual
reinforces the textbook's
research-based problem-
solving approach (Identify,
Set Up, Evaluate, Execute).
The solutions manual contains
solutions to most of the odd-
numbered problems in the text,
and the srudy guide provides
a chapter-by-chapter review
of key concepts and equations
as well as additional example
problems with solutions .
PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the hundreds of reviewers and colleagues who have offered valuable
comments and suggestions over the life of this textbook The continuing success of University
Physics is due in large measure to their contributions.

Miah Adel (U. of Arkansas at Pine Bluff), Edward Adelson (Ohio State U.), Julie Alexander
(Camosun C.), Ralph Alexander (U. of Missouri at Rolla), J. G. Anden;on, R. S. Anderson, Wayne
Anderson (Sacramento City C.), Sanjeev Arora (Fort Valley State U.), Alex Azima (Lansing Comm.
C.), Dilip Balamore (Nassau Comm. C.), Harold Bale (U. of North Dakota), Arun Bans il
(Northeastern U.), John Barach (Vanderbilt U.), J . D. Bamen, H. H. Barschall, Albert Bartlett (U. of
Colorado), Marshall Bartlen (Hollins U.), Paul Baum (CUNY, Queens C.), Frederick Becchetti (U.
of Michigan), B. Beden;on, David Bennum (U. of Nevada, Reno), Lev I. Berger (San Diego State
U.), Angela Biselli (Faitfteld U.), Robert Boeke (William Rainey Harper C.), Bram Boroson
(Cla}~On State U.), S . Borowil2, A. C. Braden, James Brooks (Boston U.), Nicholas E. Brown
(California Polytechnic State U., San Luis Obispo), Tony Buffa (California Polytechnic State U., San
Luis Obispo), Shane Bums (Colorado C.), A. Capecelatro, Michael Cardamone (Pennsylvania State
U.), Duane Cannony (Purdue U.), Troy Carter (UCLA), P. Catranides, John Cerne (SUNY at
Buffalo), Shini l Cho (La Roche C.), Tim Chupp (U. of Michigan), Roger Clapp (U. of South
Florida), William M. Cloud (Eastern lllinois U.), Leonard Cohen (Drexel U.), W. R. Coker (U. of
Texas, Austin), Malcolm D. Cole (U. of Missouri at Rolla), H. Conrad, David Cook (Lawrence U.),
Gayl Cook (U. of Colorado), Hans Courant (U. of Minnesota), Carl Covano (Arizona State U.),
Bruce A. Craver (U. of Dayton), Larry Curtis (U. of Toledo), Jai Dahiya (Southeast Missouri State
U.), Dedra Demaree (Georgetown U.), Steve Detweiler (U. of Florida), George Dixon (Oklahoma
State U.), Steve Drasco (Grinnell C.), Donald S. Duncan, Boyd Edwards (West Virginia U.), Robert
Eisenstein (Carnegie Mellon U.), Amy Emerson Missoum (Virginia Institute of Technology), Olena
Erhardt (Richland C.), William Faissler (Northeastern U.), Gregory Falabella (Wagner C.), William
Fasnacht (U.S. Naval Academy), Paul Feldker (St. Louis Comm. C.), Carlos Figueroa (Cabrillo C.),
L. H. Fisher, Nei l Fletcher (Florida State U.), Allen Flora (Hood C.), Robert Folk, Peter Fong
(Emory U.), A. Lewis Ford (Texas A&M U.), D. Frantszog, James R. Gaines (Ohio State U.),
Solomon Gartenhaus (Purdue U.), Ron Gautreau (New Jersey Institute of Technology), J . David
Gavenda (U. of Texas, Austin), Dennis Gay (U. of North Florida), Elizabeth George (Winenberg U.),
James Gerhart (U. of Washington), N. S . Gingrich, J. L. Glathart, S . Goodwin, Rich Gottfried
(Frederick Comm. C.), Walter S. Gray (U. of Michigan), Paul Gresser (U. of Maryland), Benjamin
Grinstein (UC, San Diego), Howard Grotch (Pennsylvania State U.), John Gruber (San Jose State
U.), Graham D. GuL'>Che (U.S. Naval Academy), Michael J . Harrison (Michigan State U.), Harold
Hart (Western Illinois U.), Howard Hayden (U. of Connecticut), Carl Helrich (Goshen C.), Andrew
Hirsch (Purdue U.), Linda Hirst (UC, Merced), Laurent Hodges (Iowa State U.), C. D. Hodgman,
Elizabeth Holden (U. of Wisconsin, Planeville), Michael Hones (Vi llanova U.), Keith Honey (West
Virginia Institute of Technology), Gregory Hood (Tidewater Comm. C.), John Hubisz (North
Carolina State U.), Eric Hudson (Pennsylvania State U.), M. Jona, Bob Jacobsen (UC, Berkeley),
John Jaszczak (Michigan Technical U.), Alvin Jenkins (North Carolina State U.), Charles Johnson
(South Georgia State C.), Robert P. Johnson (UC, Santa Cruz), Lorella Jones (U. of lllinois), Manoj
Kaplinghat (UC, Irvine), John Karchek (GMI Engineering & Management Institute), Thomas Keil
(Worcester Polytechnic Institute), Robert Kraemer (Carnegie Mellon U.), Jean P. Krisch (U. of
Michigan), Robert A. Kromhout, Andrew Kunz (Marquette U.), Charles Lane (Berry C.), Stewart
Langton (U. of Victoria), Thomas N. Lawrence (Texas State U.), Robert J. Lee, Alfred Leimer
(Rensselaer Polytechnic U.), Frederic Liebrand (Walla Walla U.), Gerald P. Lie12 (DePaul U.),
Gordon Lind (Utah State U.), S. Livingston (U. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee), Jorge Lopez (U. of
Texas, El Paso), Elihu Lubkin (U. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee), Robert Luke (Boise State U.), David
Lynch (Iowa State U.), Michael Lysak (San Bernardino Valley C.), Jeffrey Mallow (Loyola U.),
Robert Mania (Kentucky State U.), Robert Marchina (U. of Memphis), David Markowil2 (U. of
Connecticut), Philip Matheson (Utah Valley U.), R. J. Maurer, Oren Maxwell (Florida International
U.), Joseph L. McCauley (U. of Houston), T. K. McCubbin, Jr. (Pennsylvania State U.), Charles
McFarland (U. of Missouri at Rolla), James Mcguire (Tulane U.), Lawrence Mcintyre (U. of
Arizona), Fredric Messing (Carnegie Mellon U.), Thomas Meyer (Texas A&M U.), Andre Mirabelli
(St. Peter's C., New Jersey), Herbert Muether (SUNY, Stony Brook), Jack Munsee (California State
U., Long Beach), Lorenzo Narducci (Drexel U.), Van E. Neie (Purdue U.), Forrest Newman
(Sacramento City C.), David A. Nordling (U.S. Naval Academy), Benedict Oh (Pennsylvania State
U.), L. 0 . Olsen, Michael Oninger (Missouri Western State U.), Russell Palma (Minnesota State U.,
Mankato), Jim Pannell (DeVry Institute of Technology), Neeti Parashar (Purdue U., Calumet), W. F.
Parks (U. of Missouri), Robert Paulson (California State U., Chico), Jerry Peacher (U. of Missouri at
Rolla), Arnold Perlmuner (U. of Miami), Lennart Peten;on (U. of Florida), R. J. Peterson (U. of
 PREFACE xi

Colorado, Boulder), R. Pinkston, Ronald Poling (U. ofMinneso1a), Yuri Popov (U. of Michigan), J. G.
Potter, C. W. Price (Millersville U.), Francis Prosser (U. of Kansas), Shelden H. Radin, Robeno
Ramos (Drexel U.), Michael Rappon (Anne Arundel Comm. C.), R. Resnick, James A. Richards, Jr.,
John S. Risley (Nonh Carolina S!a!e U.), Francese Roig (UC, San!a Barbara), T. L. Rokoske,
Richard Roth (Eastern Michigan U.), Carl Roner (U. ofWes1 Virginia), S. Clark Rowland (Andrews
U.), Rajarshi Roy (Georgia Institute o f Technology), Russell A. Roy (Santa Fe Comm. C.), Desi
Saludes (Hillsborough Comm. C.), Thomas Sandin (Nonh Carolina A&T S1a1e U.), Dhiraj Sardar
(U. of Texas, San Antonio), Tumer Sayman (Ea~1ern Michigan U.), Bruce Schunun (UC, Santa
Cruz), Melvin Schwanz (St. John's U.), F. A. Scou, L. W. Seagondollar, Paul Shand (U. of Northern
Iowa), Stan Shepherd (Pennsylvania State U.), Douglas Sherman (San Jose Staie U.), Bruce
Sherwood (Carnegie Mellon U.), Hugh Siefkin (Greenville C.), Christopher Sirola (U. of Southern
Mississippi), Tomasz Skwarnicki (Syracuse U.), C. P. Slichter, Jason Slinker (U. of Texas, Dallas),
Charles W. Smith (U. of Maine, Orono), Malcolm Smith (U. of Lowell), Ross Spencer (Brigham
Young U.), Julien Sprott (U. of Wisconsin), Victor S1anionis (Jona C.), James Sti!h (American
Institute o f Physics), Chuck Stone (Nonh Carolina A&T State U.), Edward Strother (Florida
Institute o f Technology), Conley Stutz (Bradley U.), Albert Stwenka (U.S. Merchant Marine
Academy), Kenneth Szpara-DeNisco (Harrisburg Area Comm. C.), Devki Talwar ( Indiana U. o f
Pennsylvania), Fiorella Terenzi (Florida International U.), Manin liersten (CUNY, City C.), David
Toot (Alfred U.), Greg Trayling (Rochester Institute of Technology), Somdev Tyagi (Drexel U.),
Matthew Vanneue (Saginaw Valley Slate U.), Eswara Venugopal (U. of Detroit, Mercy),
F. Verbrugge, Helmut Vogel (Carnegie Mellon U.), Aaron Warren (Purdue U., North Central), Roben
Webb (Texas A&M U.), Thomas Weber (Iowa Slate U.), M. Russell Wehr (Pennsylvania Slate U.),
Robert Weidman (Michigan Technical U.), Dan Whalen (UC, San Diego), LesterV. Whitney,
Thomas Wiggins (Pennsylvania State U.), Roby n Wi lde (Oregon Institute o f Technology), David
Willey (U. of Piusburgh, Johnstown), George Williams (U. of Utah), John Williams (Auburn U.),
Stanley Williams (Iowa State U.), Jack Willis, Suzanne Willis (Nonhem Illinois U.), Roben Wilson
(San Bernardino Valley C.), L. Wolfenstein, James Wood (Palm Beach Junior C.), Lowell Wood (U.
of Houston), R. E. Worley, D. H. Ziebell (Manatee Comm. C.), George 0. Zimmerman (Boston U.)

In addition, I would like to !hank my past and present colleagues at UCSB, including Rob Geller,
Carl Gw inn, Al Nash, Elisabeth Nicol, and Francese Roig, for !heir wholehearted support and for many
helpful discussions. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my early teachers Willa Ramsay, Peter Zim-
mennan, William Little, Alan Schwettman, and Dirk Walecka for showing me what clear and engaging
physics teaching is all about, and to Stuart Johnson for inviting me to become a coauthor of University
Physics beginning wi!h the Ninth Edition. Special acknowledgments go out to Lewis Ford for !he
huge and essential 1ask of creating the revised end-of-chapter problem sets, and 10 Wayne Anderson,
who carefully reviewed all of !he new problems and solved !hem, and updated !he Instructor's Solu-
tions Manual. Thanks also go to Michael Faux, Elizabeth Holden, and Tom Sandin for their numerous
contributions to the end-of-chapter problems. I want 10 express special !hanks 10 !he editorial s1aff
at Pearson: to Jeanne Zalesl]' for her editorial vision; to Alice Houston for her keen eye and careful
development of !his edition; to Karen Karlin, Margot Otway, Joanna Dinsmore, and Jason Harlow for
!heir careful reading of !he page proofs; and 10 Martha Steele for keeping the editorial and production
pipelines flowing. Most of all, I want to express my gratitude and love 10 my wife, Caroline, to whom I
dedicate my contribution to !his book. Hey, Caroline, !he new edition's done at last- let's go flying!

PLEASE TELL ME WHAT YOU THINK!

I welcome communications from students and professors, especially concerning errors or
deficiencies that you find in this edition. The late Hugh Young and I have devoted a lot of
time and effort to writing the best book we know how to write, and I hope it will help as
you teach and learn physics. In tum, you can help me by lelling me know what still needs
to be improved! Please feel free to contact me either electronically or by ordinary mail.
Your comments will be greatly appreciated.
August 2018
Roger A. Freedman
Department of Physics
University of California, Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9530
airboy@physics.ucsb.edu
hllp://www.physics.ucsb.edu/-airboy/
Twiller: @RogerFreedman
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from any selected class of known causes? When Newton first
attempted to explain the motions of the moon by the force of gravity,
and failed because the measures to which he referred were
erroneous, would it have been philosophical in him, to insist that the
difference which he found ought to be overlooked, since otherwise
we should be compelled to go to causes other than those which we
usually witness in action? Or was there any praise due to those who
assumed the celestial forces to be the same with gravity, rather than
to those who assimilated them with any other known force, as
magnetism, till the calculation of the laws and amount of these
forces, from the celestial phenomena, had clearly sanctioned such
an identification? We are not to select a conclusion now well proved,
to persuade ourselves that it would have been wise to assume it
anterior to proof, and to attempt to philosophize in the method thus
recommended.

Again, the analogy of Astronomy has been referred to, as

confirming the assumption of perpetual uniformity. The analysis of
the heavenly motions, it has been said, supplies no trace of a
beginning, no promise of an end. But here, also, this analogy is
erroneously applied. Astronomy, as the science of cyclical motions,
has nothing in common with Geology. But look at Astronomy where
she has an analogy with Geology; consider our knowledge of the
heavens as a palætiological science;—as the study of a past
condition, from which the present is derived by causes acting in time.
Is there then no evidence of a beginning, or of a progress? What is
the import of the Nebular Hypothesis? A luminous matter is
condensing, solid bodies are forming, are arranging themselves into
systems of cyclical motion; in short, we have exactly what we are
told, on this analogy, we ought not to have;—the beginning of a
world. I will not, to justify this argument, maintain the truth of the
nebular hypothesis; but if geologists wish to borrow maxims of
philosophizing from astronomy, such speculations as have led to that
hypothesis must be their model.

Or, let them look at any of the other provinces of palætiological

speculation; at the history of states, of civilization, of languages. We
595 may assume some resemblance or connexion between the
principles which determined the progress of government, or of
society, or of literature, in the earliest ages, and those which now
operate; but who has speculated successfully, assuming an identity
of such causes? Where do we now find a language in the process of
formation, unfolding itself in inflexions, terminations, changes of
vowels by grammatical relations, such as characterize the oldest
known languages? Where do we see a nation, by its natural
faculties, inventing writing, or the arts of life, as we find them in the
most ancient civilized nations? We may assume hypothetically, that
man’s faculties develop themselves in these ways; but we see no
such effects produced by these faculties, in our own time, and now in
progress, without the influence of foreigners.

Is it not clear, in all these cases, that history does not exhibit a
series of cycles, the aggregate of which may be represented as a
uniform state, without indication of origin or termination? Does it not
rather seem evident that, in reality, the whole course of the world,
from the earliest to the present times, is but one cycle, yet
unfinished;—offering, indeed, no clear evidence of the mode of its
beginning; but still less entitling us to consider it as a repetition or
series of repetitions of what had gone before?

Thus we find, in the analogy of the sciences, no confirmation of

the doctrine of uniformity, as it has been maintained in Geology. Yet
we discern, in this analogy, no ground for resigning our hope, that
future researches, both in Geology and in other palætiological
sciences, may throw much additional light on the question of the
uniform or catastrophic progress of things, and on the earliest history
of the earth and of man. But when we see how wide and complex is
the range of speculation to which our analogy has referred us, we
may well be disposed to pause in our review of science;—to survey
from our present position the ground that we have passed over;—
and thus to collect, so far as we may, guidance and encouragement
to enable us to advance in the track which lies before us.

Before we quit the subject now under consideration, we may,

however, observe, that what the analogy of science really teaches
us, as the most promising means of promoting this science, is the
strenuous cultivation of the two subordinate sciences, Geological
Knowledge of Facts, and Geological Dynamics. These are the two
provinces of knowledge—corresponding to Phenomenal Astronomy,
and Mathematical Mechanics—which may lead on to the epoch of
the Newton of 596 geology. We may, indeed, readily believe that we
have much to do in both these departments. While so large a portion
of the globe is geologically unexplored;—while all the general views
which are to extend our classifications satisfactorily from one
hemisphere to another, from one zone to another, are still unformed;
while the organic fossils of the tropics are almost unknown, and their
general relation to the existing state of things has not even been
conjectured;—how can we expect to speculate rightly and securely,
respecting the history of the whole of our globe? And if Geological
Classification and Description are thus imperfect, the knowledge of
Geological Causes is still more so. As we have seen, the necessity
and the method of constructing a science of such causes, are only
just beginning to be perceived. Here, then, is the point where the
labors of geologists may be usefully applied; and not in premature
attempts to decide the widest and abstrusest questions which the
human mind can propose to itself.

It has been stated, 111 that when the Geological Society of London
was formed, their professed object was to multiply and record
observations, and patiently to await the result at some future time;
and their favorite maxim was, it is added, that the time was not yet
come for a General System of Geology. This was a wise and
philosophical temper, and a due appreciation of their position. And
even now, their task is not yet finished; their mission is not yet
accomplished. They have still much to do, in the way of collecting
Facts; and in entering upon the exact estimation of Causes, they
have only just thrown open the door of a vast Labyrinth, which it may
employ many generations to traverse, but which they must needs
explore, before they can penetrate to the Oracular Chamber of Truth.
111 Lyell, B. i. c. iv. p. 103.

~Additional material in the 3rd edition.~

I rejoice, on many accounts, to find myself arriving at the

termination of the task which I have attempted. One reason why I am
glad to close my history is, that in it I have been compelled,
especially in the latter part of my labors, to speak as a judge
respecting eminent philosophers whom I reverence as my Teachers
in those very sciences on which I have had to pronounce a
judgment;—if, indeed, even the appellation of Pupil be not too
presumptuous. But I doubt not that such men are as full of candor
and tolerance, as they are of knowledge and thought. And if they
deem, as I did, that such a history of 597 science ought to be
attempted, they will know that it was not only the historian’s privilege,
but his duty, to estimate the import and amount of the advances
which he had to narrate; and if they judge, as I trust they will, that the
attempt has been made with full integrity of intention and no want of
labor, they will look upon the inevitable imperfections of the
execution of my work with indulgence and hope.

There is another source of satisfaction in arriving at this point of

my labors. If, after our long wandering through the region of physical
science, we were left with minds unsatisfied and unraised, to ask,
“Whether this be all?”—our employment might well be deemed
weary and idle. If it appeared that all the vast labor and intense
thought which has passed under our review had produced nothing
but a barren Knowledge of the external world, or a few Arts
ministering merely to our gratification; or if it seemed that the
methods of arriving at truth, so successfully applied in these cases,
aid us not when we come to the higher aims and prospects of our
being;—this History might well be estimated as no less melancholy
and unprofitable than those which narrate the wars of states and the
wiles of statesmen. But such, I trust, is not the impression which our
survey has tended to produce. At various points, the researches
which we have followed out, have offered to lead us from matter to
mind, from the external to the internal world; and it was not because
the thread of investigation snapped in our hands, but rather because
we were resolved to confine ourselves, for the present, to the
material sciences, that we did not proceed onwards to subjects of a
closer interest. It will appear, also, I trust, that the most perfect
method of obtaining speculative truth,—that of which I have had to
relate the result,—is by no means confined to the least worthy
subjects; but that the Methods of learning what is really true, though
they must assume different aspects in cases where a mere
contemplation of external objects is concerned, and where our own
internal world of thought, feeling, and will, supplies the matter of our
speculations, have yet a unity and harmony throughout all the
possible employments of our minds. To be able to trace such
connexions as this, is the proper sequel, and would be the high
reward, of the labor which has been bestowed on the present work.
And if a persuasion of the reality of such connexions, and a
preparation for studying them, have been conveyed to the reader’s
mind while he has been accompanying me through our long survey,
his time may not have been employed on 598 these pages in vain.
However vague and hesitating and obscure may be such a
persuasion, it belongs, I doubt not, to the dawning of a better
Philosophy, which it may be my lot, perhaps, to develop more fully
hereafter, if permitted by that Superior Power to whom all sound
philosophy directs our thoughts.
ADDITIONS TO THE THIRD EDITION.
BOOK VIII.
ACOUSTICS.
 CHAPTER III.

Sound.

The Velocity of Sound in Water.

T HE Science of which the history is narrated in this Book has for

its objects, the minute Vibrations of the parts of bodies such as
those by which Sounds are produced, and the properties of Sounds.
The Vibrations of bodies are the result of a certain tension of their
structure which we term Elasticity. The Elasticity determines the rate
of Vibration: the rate of Vibration determines the audible note: the
Elasticity determines also the velocity with which the vibration travels
through the substance. These points of the subject, Elasticity, Rate
of Vibration, Velocity of Propagation, Audible Note, are connected in
each substance, and are different in different substances.

In the history of this Science, considered as tending to a

satisfactory general theory, the Problems which have obviously
offered themselves were, to explain the properties of Sounds by the
relations of their constituent vibrations; and to explain the existence
of vibrations by the elasticity of the substances in which they
occurred: as in Optics, philosophers have explained the
phenomenon of light and colors by the Undulatory Theory, and are
still engaged in explaining the requisite modulations by means of the
elasticity of the Ether. But the Undulatory Theory of Sound was seen
to be true at an early period of the Science: and the explanation, in a
general way at least, of all kinds of such undulations by means of the
elasticity of the vibrating substances has been performed by a series
of mathematicians of whom I have given an account in this Book.
Hence the points of the subject already mentioned (Elasticity,
Vibrations and their Propagations, 600 and Note), have a known
material dependence, and each may be employed in determining the
other: for instance, the Note may be employed in determining the
velocity of sound and the elasticity of the vibrating substance.

Chladni, 1 and the Webers, 2 had made valuable experimental

inquiries on such subjects. But more complete investigations of this
kind have been conducted with care and skill by M. Wertheim. 3 For
instance, he has determined the velocity with which sound travels in
water, by making an organ-pipe to sound by the passage of water
through it. This is a matter of some difficulty; for the mouthpiece of
an organ-pipe, if it be not properly and carefully constructed,
produces sounds of its own, which are not the genuine musical note
of the pipe. And though the note depends mainly upon the length of
the pipe, it depends also, in a small degree, on the breadth of the
pipe and the size of the mouthpiece.
1 Traité d’Acoustique, 1809.

2 Wellenlehre, 1852.

3 Mémoires de Physique Mécanique. Paris, 1848.

If the pipe were a mere line, the time of a vibration would be the
time in which a vibration travels from one end of the pipe to the
other; and thus the note for a given length (which is determined by
the time of vibration), is connected with the velocity of vibration. He
thus found that the velocity of a vibration along the pipe in sea-water
is 1157 mètres per second.

But M. Wertheim conceived that he had previously shown, by

general mathematical reasoning, that the velocity with which sound
travels in an unlimited expanse of any substance, is to the velocity
with which it travels along a pipe or linear strip of the same
substance as the square root of 3 to the square root of 2. Hence the
velocity of sound in sea-water would be 1454 mètres a second. The
velocity of sound in air is 332 mètres.

M. Wertheim also employed the vibrations of rods of steel and

other metals in order to determine their modulus of elasticity—that is,
the quantity which determines for each substance, the extent to
which, in virtue of its elasticity, it is compressed and expanded by
given pressures or tensions. For this purpose he caused the rod to
vibrate near to a tuning-fork of given pitch, so that both the rod and
the tuning-fork by their vibrations traced undulating curves on a
revolving disk. The curves traced by the two could be compared so
as to give their relative rate, and thus to determine the elasticity of
the substance.
BOOK IX.

PHYSICAL OPTICS.
 Photography.

I HAVE, at the end of Chapter xi., stated that the theory of which I
have endeavored to sketch the history professes to explain only
the phenomena of radiant visible light; and that though we know that
light has other properties—for instance, that it produces chemical
effects—these are not contemplated as included within the domain
of the theory. The chemical effects of light cannot as yet be included
in exact and general truths, such as those which constitute the
undulatory theory of radiant visible light. But though the present age
has not yet attained to a Science of the chemistry of Light, it has
been enriched with a most exquisite Art, which involves the
principles of such a science, and may hereafter be made the
instrument of bringing them into the view of the philosopher. I speak
of the Art of Photography, in which chemistry has discovered the
means of producing surfaces almost as sensitive to the modifications
of light as the most sensitive of organic textures, the retina of the
eye: and has given permanence to images which in the eye are only
momentary impressions. Hereafter, when the laws shall have been
theoretically established, which connect the chemical constitution of
bodies with the action of light upon them, the prominent names in the
Prelude to such an Epoch must be those who by their insight,
invention, and perseverance, discovered and carried to their present
marvellous perfection the processes of photographic Art:—Niepce
and Daguerre in France, and our own accomplished countryman, Mr.
Fox Talbot.

Fluorescence.
 As already remarked, it is not within the province of the undulatory
theory to explain the phenomena of the absorption of light which take
place in various ways when the light is transmitted through various
602 mediums. I have, at the end of Chapter iii., given the reasons
which prevent my assenting to the assertion of a special analysis of
light by absorption. In the same manner, with regard to other effects
produced by media upon light, it is sufficient for the defence of the
theory that it should be consistent with the possibility of the laws of
phenomena which are observed, not that it should explain those
laws; for they belong, apparently, to another province of philosophy.

Some of the optical properties of bodies which have recently

attracted notice appear to be of this kind. It was noticed by Sir John
Herschel, 4 that a certain liquid, sulphate of quinine, which is under
common circumstances colorless, exhibits in certain aspects and
under certain incidences of light, a beautiful celestial blue color. It
appeared that this color proceeded from the surface on which the
light first fell; and color thus produced Sir J. Herschel called epipolic
colors, and spoke of the light as epipolized. Sir David Brewster had
previously noted effects of color in transparent bodies which he
ascribed to internal dispersion: 5 and he conceived that the colors
observed by Sir J. Herschel were of the same class. Professor
Stokes 6 of Cambridge applied himself to the examination of these
phenomena, and was led to the conviction that they arise from a
power which certain bodies possess, of changing the color, and with
it, the refrangibility of the rays of light which fall upon them: and he
traced this property in various substances, into various remarkable
consequences. As this change of refrangibility always makes the
rays less refrangible, it was proposed to call it a degradation of the
light; or again, dependent emission, because the light is emitted in
the manner of self-luminous bodies, but only in dependence upon
the active rays, and so long as the body is under their influence. In
this respect it differs from phosphorescence, in which light is emitted
without such dependence. The phenomenon occurs in a
conspicuous and beautiful manner in certain kinds of fluor spar: and
the term fluorescence, suggested by Professor Stokes, has the
advantage of inserting no hypothesis, and will probably be found the
most generally acceptable. 7
4 Phil. Trans. 1845.

5 Edinb. Trans. 1833.

6 Phil. Trans. 1852 and 1854.

7 Phil. Trans. 1852.

It may be remarked that Professor Stokes rejects altogether the

doctrine that light of definite refrangibility may still be compound, and
maybe analysed by absorption. He says, “I have not overlooked the
remarkable effect of absorbing media in causing apparent changes
603 of color in a pure spectrum; but this I believe to be a subjective
phenomenon depending upon contrast.”
 CHAPTER XIII.

Undulatory Theory.

Direction of the Transverse Vibrations in Polarization.

I N the conclusion of Chapter xiii. I have stated that there is a point

in the undulatory theory which was regarded as left undecided by
Young and Fresnel, and on which the two different opinions have
been maintained by different mathematicians; namely, whether the
vibrations of polarized light are perpendicular to the plane of
polarization or in that plane. Professor Stokes of Cambridge has
attempted to solve this question in a manner which is, theoretically,
exceedingly ingenious, though it is difficult to make the requisite
experiments in a decisive manner. The method may be briefly
described.

If polarized light be diffracted (see Chap. xi. sect. 2), each ray will
be bent from its position, but will still be polarized. The original ray
and the diffracted ray, thus forming a broken line, may be supposed
to be connected at the angle by a universal joint (called a Hooke’s
Joint), such that when the original ray turns about its axis, the
diffracted ray also turns about its axis; as in the case of the long
handle of a telescope and the screw which is turned by it. Now if the
motion of the original ray round its axis be uniform, the motion of the
diffracted ray round its axis is not uniform: and hence if, in a series of
cases, the planes of polarization of the original ray differ by equal
angles, in the diffracted ray the planes of polarization will differ by
unequal angles. Then if vibrations be perpendicular to the plane of
polarization, the planes of polarization in the diffracted rays will be
crowded together in the neighborhood of the plane in which the
diffraction takes place, and will be more rarely distributed in the
neighborhood of the plane perpendicular to this, in which is the
diffracting thread or groove.

On making the experiment, Prof. Stokes conceived that he found,

in his experiments, such a crowding of the planes of diffracted
polarization towards the plane of diffraction; and thus he held that
the 604 hypothesis that the transverse vibrations which constitute
polarization are perpendicularly transverse to the plane of
polarization was confirmed. 8
8 Camb. Trans., vol. ix. part i. 1849.

But Mr. Holtzmann, 9 who, assenting to the reasoning, has made

the experiment in a somewhat different manner, has obtained an
opposite result; so that the point may be regarded as still doubtful.
9 Phil. Mag., Feb. 1857.

Final Disproof of the Emission Theory.

As I have stated in the History, we cannot properly say that there

ever was an Emission Theory of Light which was the rival of the
Undulatory Theory: for while the undulatory theory provided
explanations of new classes of phenomena as fast as they arose,
and exhibited a consilience of theories in these explanations, the
hypothesis of emitted particles required new machinery for every
new set of facts, and soon ceased to be capable even of expressing
the facts. The simple cases of the ordinary reflexion and refraction of
light were explained by Newton on the supposition that the
transmission of light is the motion of particles: and though his
explanation includes a somewhat harsh assumption (that a refracting
surface exercises an attractive force through a fixed finite space), the
authority of his great name gave it a sort of permanent notoriety, and
made it to be regarded as a standard point of comparison between a
supposed “Emission Theory” and the undulation theory. And the way
in which the theories were to be tested in this case was obvious: in
the Newtonian theory, the velocity of light is increased by the
refracting medium; in the undulatory theory, it is diminished. On the
former hypothesis the velocity of light in air and in water is as 3 to 4;
in the latter, as 4 to 3.

But the immense velocity of light made it appear impossible to

measure it, within the limits of any finite space which we can occupy
with refracting matter. The velocity of light is known from
astronomical phenomena;—from the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites,
by which it appears that light occupies 8 minutes in coming from the
sun to the earth; and from the aberration of light, by which its velocity
is shown to be 10,000 times the velocity of the earth in its orbit. Is it,
then, possible to make apparent so small a difference as that
between its passing through a few yards of air and of water?

Mr. Wheatstone, in 1831, invented a machine by which this could

605 be done. His object was to determine the velocity of the electric
shock. His apparatus consisted in a small mirror, turning with great
velocity about an axis which is in its own plane, like a coin spinning
on its edge. The velocity of spinning may be made so great, that an
object reflected shall change its place perceptibly after an almost
inconceivably small fraction of a second. The application of this
contrivance to measure the velocity of light, was, at the suggestion of
Arago, who had seen the times of the rival theories of light,
undertaken by younger men at Paris, his eyesight not allowing him to