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Contents
Preface xiii New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research 43
About the Authors XIX Culture and Social Psychology 43
Special Tips for Students xxi Social Neuroscience 44
Ethical Issues in Social Psychology 45
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 Summary 48 • Test Yourself 49

Defining Social Psychology 3

TRY IT! Conflicting Social Influences 4 3 Social Cognition: How We Think
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, About the Social World 51
and Common Sense 4 On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 53
Ho\,• Social Psychology Differs From Its People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic
Closest Cousins 5 Thinking With Schemas 53
TRY IT! Social Situations and Shyness 7 Whlch Schen1as Do We Use? Accessibility
The Power of the Situation 9 and Priming 55
Underestin1ating the Po\,•er of the Situation 10 Making Our Schemas Con1e True: The
The Importance of Construal 11 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 57
#trending What's in a Name? 14 #trending Do You Believe in Astrology? 59
Where Construa ls Come Fron1: Basic Hun1an Motives 15 Types of Automatic Thlnking 61
The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good Auton1atic Goal Pursuit 61
About Ourselves 16 Auton1atic Thinking and Metaphors About the
SUFFERING AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION Body and the Mind 62
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental
to Be Accurate 17 Heuristics 63
HOW EASILY DOES IT COME TO MIND? THE AVAILABILITY
Why Study Social Psychology? 19 HEURISTIC • HOW SIMILAR IS A TO B? THE
Summary 20 • Test Yourself 21 REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC •
PERSONALITY TESTS AND THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC

2 Methodology: How Social TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz 68

Psychologists Do Research 23 Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 69
Cultural Determinants of Schemas 70
Socia l Psychology: An Empirical Science 24 Holistic Versus Analytic Thlnking 70
TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What's Your Prediction? 25
Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking 72
Fom1ulating Hypotheses and Theories 26 Controlled Thinking and Free Will 73
INSPIRATION FROM PREVIOUS THEORIES AND RESEARCH •
HYPOTHESES BASED ON PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS
TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend's) Future? 74
Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning 75
Research Designs 27
Improving Human Thinking 76
The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 28
ETHNOGRAPHY • ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS • LIMITS OF TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason? 77
THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD Watson Revisited 78
The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 29 Summary 80 • Test Yourself 81
SURVEYS • LIMITS OF THE CORRELATIONAL
METHOD: CORRELATION DOES NOT EOUAL CAUSATION

TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the 4 Social Perception: How We Come to
Difference 33 Understand Other People 83
The Experin1ental Method: Ans\,•ering
Nonverbal Conm1unication 85
Causal Questions 34
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES •
TRY IT! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 86
INTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS • EXTERNAL VALIDITY Facial Expressions of Emotion 86
IN EXPERIMENTS • FIELD EXPERIMENTS • REPLICATIONS EVOLUTION AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS • WHY IS
AND META-ANALYSIS DECODING SOMETIMES DIFFICULT?
#trending Correlation Does Not Equal Causation 41 Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal
BASIC VERSUS APPLIED RESEARCH Con1munication 89
vii
viii Contents

First Impressions: Quick But Long-lasting 91

#trending First Impressions Formed Online 92
6 Cognitive Dissonance and the
Need to Protect Our Self-Esteem 149
The Lingering Influence of lnitial
lmpressions 93 The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Protecting
Causal Attribution: Ansv,ering the "Why" Question 96 Our Self-Esteem 150
The Nature of the Attribution Process 97 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions 153
The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External DISTORTING OUR LIKES AND DISLIKES • THE
PERMANENCE OF THE DECISION • CREATING THE
Attributions 98
ILLUSION OF IRREVOCABILITY
The Fundamental Attribution Error: People
as Personality Psychologists 100 The Justification of Effort 155
THE ROLE OF PERCEPTUAL SALIENCE IN THE Counterattitudinal Behavior 157
FUNDAMENTAL ATIRIBUTION ERROR • THE TWO-STEP COUNTERATIITUDINAL BEHAVIOR TOWARD CONSEQUENTIAL
ATTRIBUTION PROCESS ISSUES • THE BEN FRANKLIN EFFECT: JUSTIFYING ACTS
OF KINDNESS • DEHUMANIZING THE ENEMY: JUSTIFYING
Self-Serving Attributions 106
CRUELTY
The "Bias Blind Spot" 107
TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 161
Culture and Social Perception 110 JUSTIFYING OUR OWN IMMORAL ACTS
Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking 110 Avoiding Ten1ptations 163
SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE EVIDENCE
The Hypocrisy Paradigm 165
Cultural Differences in the Fundamental
Dissonance Across Cultures 166
Attribution Error 112
Culture and Other Attributional Biases 113 Advances and Extensions of Cogrutive Dissonance
Theory 167
Summary 115 • Test Yourself 117
Self-Affim1ation Theory 167
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves TRY IT! Values Affirmation Writing Exercise 169
in a Social Context 119 Dissonance in Close Relationships: Self-Evaluation
Maintenance Theory 169
The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept 120 Some Concluding Thoughts on Dissonance and
Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 122 Self-Esteem 172
TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and #trend ing Politics and Cognitive Dissonance 172
Interdependence 123 Overcoming Dissonance 174
Functions of the Self 124 Narcissism and the Dangers of Too Muell
Self-Knowledge 125 Self-Esteem 174
Knowing Ourselves Through lntrospection 125 TRY IT! Measuring Your Narcissism 175
FOCUSING ON THE SELF: SELF-AWARENESS THEORY
Summary 178 • Test Yourself 179
TRY IT! Measure Your Private
Self-Consciousness 127
JUDGING WHY WE FEEL THE WAY WE 00: TELLING
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change:
MORE THAN WE CAN KNOW Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 181
Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our The Nature and Origin of Attitudes 183
Own Behavior 128 Where Do Attitudes Come Fron1? 183
SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY • UNDERSTANDING OUR
COGNITIVELY BASED ATIITUDES • AFFECTIVELY BASED
EMOTIONS: THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTION •
ATIITUDES
FINDING THE WRONG CAUSE: MISATIRIBUTION OF
AROUSAL • INTRINSIC VERSUS EXTRINSIC TRY IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 186
MOTIVATION • MIND-SETS AND MOTIVATION BEHAVIORALLY BASED ATTITUDES

#trending Growth Mindset in the Classroom 137 Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes 187
Using Other People to Kno\,• Ourselves 137 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 188
KNOWING OURSELVES BY COMPARING OURSELVES Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors 189
TO OTHERS • KNOWING OURSELVES BY ADOPTING
OTHER PEOPLE'S VIEWS
Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 189
SPECIFIC ATIITUDES • SUBJECTIVE NORMS •
Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 141 PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL
Impression Management: All the World's #trending Predicting Environmentally Friendly Action 191
a Stage 143 How Do Attitudes Change? 192
Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping 144 Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior:
Culture, ln1pression Management, and Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited 193
Self-Enhancement 145 Persuasive Communications and Attitude
Summary 146 • Test Yourself 147 Change 193
 Contents ix

THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES TO Other Tactics of Social Influence 245
PERSUASION • THE MOTIVATION TO PAY ATTENTION
TO THE ARGUMENTS • THE ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION
Obedience to Authority 248
TO THE ARGUMENTS • HOW TO ACHIEVE LONG-LASTING The Milgram Study 249
ATTITUDE CHANGE The Role of Nom1ative Social Influence 252
En1otion and Attitude Change 199 The Role of Informational Social Influence 253
FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS • EMOTIONS AS Other Reasons Why We Obey 254
A HEURISTIC • EMOTION AND DIFFERENT TYPES
ADHERING TO THE WRONG NORM • SELF·
OF ATTITUDES
JUSTIFICATION • THE LOSS OF PERSONAL
Attitude Change and the Body 201 RESPONSIBILITY

The Power of Advertising 203 The Obedience Studies, Then and No\v 256
Ho\<\' Advertising Works 204 Summary 258 • Test Yourself 260
Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 204
DEBUNKING THE CLAIMS ABOUT SUBLIMINAL
ADVERTISING • LABORATORY EVIDENCE FOR
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social
SUBLIMINAL INFLUENCE Groups 262
TRY IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes 206 What Is a Group? 264
Advertising and Culture 207 Why Do People Join Groups? 264
Resisting Pers uasive Messages 208 The Con1position and Functions of Groups 265
Attitude Inoculation 209 SOCIAL NORMS • SOCIAL ROLES • GROUP
Being Alert to Product Placement 209 COHESIVENESS • GROUP DIVERSITY

Resisting Peer Pressure 210 #trending Diversity Research and the Affirmative
When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Action Controversy 268
Reactance Theory 211 Ind ividual Behavior in a Group Setting 269
Summary 213 • Test Yourself 214 Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others
Energizes Us 269
8 Conformity and Obedience: SIMPLE VERSUS DIFFICULT TASKS • AROUSAL AND THE
DOMINANT RESPONSE • WHY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS
Influencing Behavior 216 CAUSES AROUSAL

Conformity: When and Why 218 Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others
Informa tional Social Influence: The Need to Kno\,v Relaxes Us 272
What's "Right" 221 Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing:
The Importance of Being Accurate 223 Who Slacks Off the Most? 273
Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Cro\,•d 274
When lnfom1ational Confom1ity Backfires 224
DEINDIVIDUATION MAKES PEOPLE FEEL LESS
When Will People Conform to Infom1ational ACCOUNTABLE • DEINDIVIDUATION INCREASES
Social InfJ uence? 226 OBEDIENCE TO GROUP NORMS • DEINDIVIDUATION
WHEN THE SllUATION IS AMBIGUOUS • WHEN THE ONLINE
SITUATION IS A CRISIS • WHEN OTHER PEOl'I..E ARE EXPERTS
Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads
Normative Socia l Influence: The Need to Be Accepted 228
Better Than One? 277
Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch
Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit
Line-Judgment Studies 230
Good Problem Solving 277
The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited 233 FAILURE TO SHARE UNIQUE INFORMATION •
The Consequences of Resisting Normative GROUPTHINK: MANY HEADS, ONE MIND
Social InfJ uence 235 Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 281
TRY IT! Unmasking Normative Social Influence Leadership in Groups 282
by Breaking the Rules 236 LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY • LEADERSHIP STYLES •

When Will People Conform to Normative THE RIGHT PERSON IN THE RIGHT SITUATION • GENDER
AND LEADERSHIP • CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP
Social Influence? 236
WHEN THE GROUP IS IMPORTANT • WHEN ONE HAS Conflict and Cooperation 286
NO ALLIES IN THE GROUP • WHEN THE GROUP'S Social Dilemmas 287
CULTURE IS COLLECTIVISTIC
TRY IT! The Prisoner's Dilemma 288
#trending Social Norms and Bigotry 239 INCREASING COOPERATION IN THE PRISONER'S
Minority Influence: When the Fe\,' Influence the Many 240 DILEMMA

Conformity Tactics 241 Using Threats to Resolve Conflict 289

The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 241 EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION

Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the Negotiation and Bargaining 291
"Boomerang Effect" 244 Summary 293 • Test Yourself 294
x Contents

Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior:

10 A ttraction and Rela tionships: From When Will People Help? 349
Initial Impressions to Long-Term Environment: Rural Versus Urban 349
Intimacy 296 Residential Mobility 350
What Predicts Attraction? 298 The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 351
The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 298 NOTICING AN EVENT • INTERPRETING THE EVENT

Similarity 300 AS AN EMERGENCY • ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY •

KNOWING HOW TO HELP • DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT
OPINIONS AND PERSONALITY • INTERESTS AND
THE HELP
EXPERIENCES • APPEARANCE • GENETICS • SOME
FINAL COMMENTS ABOUT SIMILARITY Diffusion of Responsibility in Cyberspace 356
#trending "Hook-Up Culture" and Today's Youth 302 Effects of the Media: Video Gan1es and Music Lyrics 357
Reciprocal Liking 302 How Can Hel p ing Be Increased? 358
Physical Attractiveness 303 Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders
WHAT IS ATIRACTIVE? • CULTURAL STANDARDS Will Intervene 358
OF BEAUTY • THE POWER OF FAMILIARITY • Increasing Volunteerism 360
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ATIRACTIVE PEOPLE
Summary 361 • Test Yourself 363
Evolution and Mate Selection 307
EVOLUTION AND SEX DIFFERENCES • ALTERNATE
PERSPECTIVES ON SEX DIFFERENCES
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other
Peop le? Can We Prevent It? 365
Making Connections in the D igital World 311
Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era 311 Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Op tional? 366
The Promise and Pitfalls of Meeting People Online 312 The Evolutionary View 367
AGGRESSION IN OTHER ANIMALS
Love and C lose Relationships 314
Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 315 Culture and Aggression 369
CHANGES IN AGGRESSION ACROSS TIME AND
TRY IT! Passionate Love Scale 316 CULTURES • CULTURES OF HONOR
Culture and Love 317 Gender and Aggression 371
Attachn1ent Styles in Intimate Relationships 318 PHYSICAL AGGRESSION • RELATIONAL AGGRESSION
Your Body and Brain in Love 320 Leaming to Behave Aggressively 373
Assessing Relationships: Satisfaction and Some Physiological Influences 375
Breaking U p 322 THE EFFECTS Cf' ALCOHOL • THE EFFECTS Cf' PAIN AND HEAT
Theories of Relationship Satisfaction 322 Social Situations and Aggression 377
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY • EQUITY THEORY
Frustration and Aggression 377
The Process and Experience of Breaking Up 327 Provocation and Reciprocation 379
Summary 330 • Test Yourself 331 TRY IT! Insults and Aggression 380
Weapons as Aggressive Cues 380
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Putting the Elements Together: The Case of
People H elp? 333 Sexual Assault 381
Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: MOTIVATIONS FOR RAPE • SEXUAL SCRIPTS AND
THE PROBLEM OF CONSENT
Why Do Peop le Help? 334
Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 335 Violence and the Media 383
KIN SELECTION • THE RECIPROCITY NORM Studying the Effects of Media Violence 384
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES • LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
TRY IT! The Dictator Game 336
GROUP SELECTION The Problen1 of Determining Cause and Effect 386
Social Exchange: The Costs and Re\,•ards of Helping 337 How to Decrease Aggression 389
Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 338 Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 389
USING PUNISHMENT ON VIOLENT ADULTS
Personal Qualities and Prosocial Beh avior: Why
Can We Release Anger by Indulging It? 390
Do Some People Help More Than Others? 342
THE EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE ACTS ON SUBSEQUENT
Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 342 AGGRESSION • BLAMING THE VICTIM OF OUR
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 343 AGGRESSION
TRY IT! Empathic Concern 344 What Are We Supposed to Do \,•ith Our Anger? 392
Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior 345 VENTING VERSUS SELF-AWARENESS

Religion and Prosocial Behavior 346 TRAINING IN COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

SKILLS
#trending Helping Across the Political Divide 347
TRY IT! Controlling Your Anger 393
The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 347
GETIING APOLOGIES RIGHT • COUNTERING
EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: FEEL GOOD, DO GOOD •
DEHUMANIZATION BY BUILDING EMPATHY
FEEL BAD, DO GOOD
 Contents xi

#trending "Re-accommodation": The United Inducing Hypocrisy 450

Airlines Debacle 395 Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes 452
Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle 396 Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle 454
Summary 398 • Test Yourself 401 What Makes People Happy? 454
SATISFYING RELATIONSHIPS • FLOW: BECOMING
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, ENGAGED IN SOMETHING YOU ENJOY • ACCUMULATE
EXPERIENCES, NOT THINGS • HELPING OTHERS
and Cures 402
TRY IT! Applying the Research to Your Own Life 456
Defining Prejudice 403
Do People Kno\,• What Makes Them Happy? 457
The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 404
Summary 458 • Test Yourself 459
ARE POSITIVE STEREOTYPES GOOD?

TRY IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 406

The Affective Component: Emotions 408 Social Psychology in Action 2
The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 409 Social Psychology and Health 461
T RY IT! Identifying Your Prejudices 409 Stress and Human Hea lth 462
INSTITUTIONALIZED DISCRIMINATION • EVERYDAY
Resilience 463
DISCRIMINATION • FROM PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION
Effects of Negative Life Events 464
Detecting Hidden Prejudices 414
LIMITS OF STRESS INVENTORIES
Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices 414
TRY IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 465
Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 415
Perceived Stress and Health 466
The Effects of Prejudice on the Victin1 417 Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived
The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 417 Control 467
Social Identity Threat 419 INCREASING PERCEIVED CONTROL IN NURSING HOMES •
Causes of Prejudice 421 DISEASE, CONTROL, AND WELL-BEING

Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules 421 Coping v,ith Stress 472

#trending Everyday Discrimination in Gender Differences in Coping \,•ith Stress 472

Professional Sports 423 Social Support: Getting Help from Others 473
Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 423 TRY IT! Social Support 474
ETHNOCENTRISM • IN-GROUP BIAS • OUT-GROUP Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events 475
HOMOGENEITY • BLAMING THE VICTIM • JUSTIFYING
FEELINGS OF ENTITLEMENT AND SUPERIORITY
Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior 476
Summary 478 • Test Yourself 479
Realistic Conflict Theory 427
Reducing Prejudice 429
The Contact Hypothesis 430 Social Psychology in Action 3
WHERE CONTACT CAN GO WRONG Social Psychology and the Law 481
Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw
Eyewitness Testimony 483
Classroon1 433
WHY DOES JIGSAW WORK?
Why Are Eye\,•itnesses Often Wrong? 483
ENCODING • STORAGE • RETRIEVAL
TRY IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study 435
THE GRADUAL SPREAD OF COOPERATIVE AND
Judging Whether Eye\vitnesses Are Mistaken 488
INTERDEPENDENT LEARNING RESPONDING QUICKLY • POST-IDENTIFICATION FEEDBACK

Summary 437 • Test Yourself 439 TRY IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 491
The Recovered Men1ory Debate 491
Social Psychology in Action 1 Juries: Group Processes in Action 494
Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Ho\v Jurors Process Information during the Trial 494
Sustainable and Happy Future 440 Confessions: Are They Ahvays What They Seem? 495
Deliberations in the Jury Room 497
Applied Research in Social Psychology 443
Summary 498 • Test Yourself 499
Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 444
ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS • Glossary 501
POTENTIAL RISKS OF SOCIAL INTERVENTIONS

Social Psychology to the Rescue 446 References 507

Using Social Psychology to Aclueve a Sustainable Future 447 Credits 545
Conveying and Changing Social Norms 447
Name Index 549
TRY IT! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 448
Keeping Track of Consumption 449 Subject Index 568
Introducing a Little Competitiveness 450
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
h en we began writing this book, our overriding
goal was to capture the excitement of social psy-
ch ology. We have been p leased to hear, in man y
kind notes an d messages from professors and s tudents, that
we succeeded. One of ou r favorite responses was from a
studen t who said that the book was so in teresting that she
always saved it for last, to rewa rd herself for finishing h er
o ther work. With that one studen t, a t least, we succeeded in
making our book an enjoyable, fascin ating story, not a dry
report of facts and figures.
Th ere is always room for improvement, however, and
our goal in this, the tenth edition, is to make the field of
social psych ology an even better read. When we teach the
course, there is nothing more gratifying than seeing the
s leepy students in the back row sit up vvith in terest and
say, "Wow, I didn't know that! Now tllnt's in teresting." We
hope that s tudents who read ou r book w ill have tha t same
reaction.
What's New in This Edition?
First a word about wh a t has not ch an ged. As mentioned,
we have don e ou r best to tell the story of social psychol-
ogy in an en gaging way that w ill reson a te w ith stu dents.
We also h ave retained features that h elp studen ts lea rn
and re ta in th e materia l. As before, each chap ter begins
w ith lea rning objectives, whjch a re repea ted in th e sec-
tions of the chapter tha t a re most relevant to th em and in
th e ch apter-endin g su mmary. All major sections of every
chapte r end with review quizzes. Research shows th at
students learn material better when they are tested fre-
q uently; thus, these section q uizzes, as well as the test
q uestions at the end of every chapter, should be helpful
learnin g a ids. In the Revel version of the text, ins tructors
have th e option of assignin g these quizzes and giving
course credit for correct answers. Each chap ter a lso has
our Try It! fea ture that invites s tudents to apply wh at
th ey have learned to their own lives. Several of these Try
It! features h ave been updated.
We are p leased to add severa l new features to the
tenth ed ition th a t we believe w ill appeal to s tudents
and ma ke it even easier for th em to learn the materia l.
The first is called #Surviva lTips which are brief videos
recorded by studen ts who have taken a social psychol-
ogy class. Each one tells a personal story re laying how
th e student applied social psychology to better n aviga te
or "survive" a real s ituation in their lives. For example,
one video in Chap ter 9 tells the s tory of how a studen t
learned to avoid process loss in her s tudy groups. These
videos are in the Revel version of the text, placed along-
s ide th e relevan t concepts.
A secon d new featu re, ca lled #trendin g, is a b rief
ana lysis of a curren t event tha t illustrates a key p rinci-
ple in each ch apter. In Ch apter 11 on Prosocial Behavior,
for example, we describe an incident in which a White
den tist from Texas, in town for Dona ld Trump's inaugu-
ration, left a $450 tip for an African American wa itress.
Students a re asked to thin k abou t how concep ts in the
chap ter migh t help explain why the man acted so gen-
erous ly, such as Ba tson's empathy-altruism hypothesis.
Importan tly, th ese examp les will be updated frequen tly
in the Revel version of the text, such that s tudents w ill al-
ways be able to connect wha t they are reading to cu rrent,
real-world events.
Third, every chapter now begins w ith a feature called,
"What do YOU trunk?" where s tudents answer a survey
question designed to illustra te a concept in that ch apter. In
Chapter 6, for example, students are asked, "Have you ever
joined a group that required you to do something humili-
ating or dangerous in order to gain membership?" In the
Revel version of the text, s tudents get immediate feedback
on h ow o ther s tudents h ave answered (23°/o said yes to this
question ). Then, at the end of the chapter, there is a w riting
exercise tied to the survey question that instructors can as-
sign if they wish. In Chapter 6, for example, the question
is, "How does justification of effort h elp explain wh y haz-
ing and initiation rites are common across so many d ifferent
group types?"
Lastly, we h ave expanded a feature tha t proved to be
very popular with users of the Revel version of the previ-
ous edition, namely v ideos tha t recreate classic experiments
in social psych ology. These videos, recorded exclus ively for
this book, give students a vivid and contemporary look at
h ow an experiment was done and what it found.
And, of cou rse, we have upda ted the tenth edition s ub-
stantially, vv ith numerous references to new research. Here
is a sampling of the new research that is covered:
• Chapter 1: This chapter contains updated examples,
a new Try It!, and a new section on the role of bio-
logical approaches and evolution ary theory in social
psych ology.
• Ch apter 2: A signa ture of our book continues to be a
readable, s tudent-friend ly ch apter on resea rch methods
in social psychology. This chapter has been updated
xiii
xiv Preface
for the ten th edition with new references and examples
and a discussion of the replication debate in social
psychology.
• Chapter 3, "Social Cognition: How We Think Abou t
the Social World ," has been upda ted with more than
40 new references. There is a new section on the p lan-
ning fallacy and d iscussions of recent research find-
ings, such as a study on counterfactual thinking and
people's belief in God.
• Chapter 4, "Social Perception: How We Come to
Und ers tand Other People," now includes several new
features, including a new opening drawing on the Black
Mirror television series, an in teractive photo ga llery on
using first impressions to your ad van tage, a discussion
of cross-cu ltural attitudes regarding karma and beliefs
in a just world , and a reorganized discussion of Kelley's
covariation model.
• Chapter 5, "The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a
Social Con text," has been updated with more than 35
new references. The chapter headings h ave also been
reorganized into three major sections, which should
make the material clearer to stud ents. There is a new
opening example about children raised by animals and
how they might have influenced their sense of self.
Lastly, the section on self-esteem has been upda ted and
moved to Ch apter 6.
• Chapter 6, "Cognitive Disson ance and the Need to
Protect Our Self-Esteem," is one of the most exten-
sively revised chapters in this edition. This chap·
ter has a lways been a signature of the book; we are
the only text to devote an entire chapter to cogni·
tive dissonan ce theory an d self-esteem maintenance.
We p roudly retain this chapter in our ten th ed ition,
continuing to p resen t classic work in cogni tive disso-
nance in a highly readable manner w ith compelling
examples designed to d raw students in. At the same
time we h ave updated the chapter, adding a major
new section on advances and extensions of dissonance
theory that includes discussions of self-affirmation
theory an d self-eva luation mainten ance theory. There
is also a section on n arcissism and self-esteem, wh ich
prev ious ly appeared in Chapter 5. Lastly the chapter
has two new Try It! exercises tha t studen ts will enj oy:
In on e they complete a va lues affirmation writing ex-
ercise, and in an other they can take a sh ort version of
the Narcissistic Personali ty Inventory and get feed -
back on their score.
• Chapter 7, "Attitudes and Attitude Change:
Influencing Thoughts an d Feelings," includes a new
opening story, new examples from Election 2016 in
th e discussion of affectively based attitudes, and new
discussion of how implicit versus exp lici t attitudes
can vary in p redicting outcomes when it comes to
evaluation of job resumes based on applican t name.
A new in teractive feature is also included to explain
the formula for persuasion according to the Ya le
Attitude Change app roach.
• Chapte r 8, "Conformity and Obedience: Influencing
Behavior," n ow opens with a more positive focus on
socia l influence, in the form of Pete Fra tes an d the
ALS ice bucket cha llenge. We have add ed a discus-
s ion of the proliferation of "fake news" in the section
on informationa l social influen ce. The chapte r a lso
features a new interactive video d emonstrating s tu-
dents employing var ious social influence techniques
an d added discussion of contemporary criticism of
Milgram's research.
• Chapter 9, "Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups,"
now opens with an analysis of p roblematic group deci-
sion making and stra tegizing in Hilary Clinton's 2016
campaign team. We have also added coverage of recent
research on combating the p roblematic effects on deindi-
viduation online and group polarization via social media
feeds. The chapter also includes expanded and updated
discussion of the prisoner's dilemma and a new photo
gallery regarding resource dilemmas.
• Chapter 10, "Attraction and Relationships: From
Initial Impressions to Long-Term Intimacy," has
a new title to better reflect the balanced focus be -
tween initia l a ttraction and relationship trajectory I
satisfaction . A new interactive p h oto gallery exp lores
the relationship between mere exposure and liking,
and a new inte ractive v id eo illustra tes th e ma tching
h ypoth esis in attraction. We have added coverage
(includ ing an in teractive figure) of Sternberg's
triangular theory of love and have reorganized and
upda ted the concluding section on relationship
satisfaction and b reaking up.
• In Chapter 11, "Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People
Help?" includes more than 30 new references, expanded
discussions of empathy and altruism and volunteerism,
and a revised discussion of religion and p rosocial
behavior.
• Chapter 12, "Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other
People? Can We Preven t It?," has significan t conten t
updates in addition to covering new research. Our
discussion of testosterone and aggression is more nu-
an ced, disentangling some aspects of gen der and h or-
mones and in troducing the o ther sex h ormone related
to aggression, estradiol. We also in troduce and evalu-
a te two formal evolution ar y theories of aggression:
the challenge hypothesis and d ual-hormone theory.
We also streamlined the section on sexual assault
to make this importan t section clearer. Overall, the

chapter narrative n ow emphasizes the con vergen t
evidence for th e role of impulsivity in aggression
across b iological and psychological evidence.
• In Chapter 13, "Prejudice: Causes, Consequences,
and Cures," has undergone a major organizational
and conten t u pdate. We generalized th e discussion
of prejudice from the strong focus on Black-White
and male-female relations to relate more generally
to other e thnic, gender, and stigmatized identities.
Nonetheless, we maintain an importan t dialog on
anti-Blackness, including a d iscussion of police shoot-
ings and activ ist groups. We expanded the discussion
of emotions as a core component of prejudice, throu gh
which we included more physiological research on
prejudice in to the ch apter. Und er the ways to reduce
prejudice, we have exten ded th e discussion of inter-
group con tact to teach studen ts about indirect contact,
and we have streamlined the d iscussion of the jigsaw
classroom. The entire chapter was upda ted with new
examples from recent popula r culture an d in teractive
components in Revel.
• Social Psychology in Action chapters- "Using Social
Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy
Future," "Social Psychology and Hea lth," and "Social
Psychology and the Law"- have been updated w ith
many references to new research, but remain shorter
chapters. When we teach the cou rse, we find tha t stu-
dents are excited to lea rn abou t these applied a reas.
At the same time, we recognize that some instructors
have difficulty fitting the ch apters into their courses.
As with the p revious edition, ou r approach remains to
maintain a shortened length for the applied ch apters to
make it easy to integra te these chapters in to different
parts of the course in whatever fashion an instructor
deems best. SPAl, "Using Social Psychology to Achieve
a Sustainable and Happy Future," includes an u pdated
opening example abou t the effects of climate change
and new examples of ways in which students can both
act in sustainable ways and maximize their well-being.
In SPA2, "Social Psychology and Health," we updated
coverage on perceived con trol interventions among
nursing home residents and included a new interactive
on coping with s tress. SPA3, "Social Psychology an d
Law," has a new v ideo abou t attention al blindness and
an interactive feature on best p ractices in eyewitness
identification p rocedures.
Revel for Social Psychology
RevelTM
When students are engaged deeply, they lea rn more ef-
fectively and perform better in their courses. This simp le
Preface xv
fact inspired the creation of Revel: an interactive learning
environment designed for the way today's students read ,
think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educa tors and
stu dents nationwid e, Revel is the newest, fu lly digital way
to deliver respected Pearson conten t. Revel enlivens cou rse
content with media interactives and assessments- icluding
an in teractive figure) of ntegrated directly within the au-
thors' narrative-that p rovide opportunities for students
to read abou t and p ractice course material in tandem. This
irnmersive educationa l technology boosts student engage-
ment, which leads to better understanding of concepts and
improved performance throughou t the course.
Learn More about Revel
h ttp:/ /www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/
Rather than simp ly offering opportunities to read
about and stud y social psychology, Revel facilitates
deep, engaging interactions w ith the concepts that mat-
ter most. By p roviding opportunities to improve skills
in analyzing and in terp retin g sou rces of psychological
evidence, for example, Revel engages students directly
and immediately, which leads to a better understanding
of course material. A wealth of student and instructor
resources and in teractive materia ls can be found within
Revel. Some of our favorites are mentioned in the infor-
mation that follows.
For more information about all the tools and resou rces
in Revel and access to your own Revel account for Social
Psychology, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/ revel.
Instructor Resources
We know that instructors are "tou r guides" for their stu-
dents, leading them throu gh the exciting world of social
psychology in the classroom. As such, we have invested
tremendous effort in the creation of a world-class collection
of instructor resou rces that will support p rofessors in their
mission to teach the best course possible.
Coauthor Sam Sommers gu ided the creation of this
supplements package, which has been reviewed and up·
dated for the tenth ed ition. Here are the highlights of the
supplements we are pleased to provide:
PRESENTATION TOOLS AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Social Psychology PowerPoint Collection (0134700732)
The PowerPoints provide an active forma t for pre-
senting concepts from each chapte r and incorpo-
ra ting relevant figures an d tables. Instructors can
choose from three PowerPoint presentations: a lec-
ture p resen tation set tha t h igh lights major topics
from th e chapters, a highly visual lecture p resenta -
tion set with embedded videos, or a PowerPoint
collection of the complete art files from the tex t. The
xvi Preface
PowerPoint files can be downloaded from www
.pearsonhighered.com.
• Ins tructor's Resource Manual (0134700694) The
Instructor's Manua l includes key terms, lecture ideas,
teaching tips, suggested readings, chapter ou tlines,
studen t p rojects an d research assignments, Try It! exer-
cises, critical-thinking topics and discussion questions,
and a media resource guide. It h as been updated for
the tenth edition with hyperlinks to ease facilita tion of
navigation within the Instructor's Resource Manual.
ASSESS MENT RESO URCES
• Tes t Bank (0134700740) Each of the more than 2,000
questions in this test bank is page-referenced to the text
and categorized by topic an d skill level. Each question
in the test bank was reviewed by several instructors
to ensure that we are providing you with the best and
most accu rate content in the industry.
• MyTest Test Bank (0134677897) This Web-based test-
generating software p rovides ins tructors "best in class"
features in an easy-to-use program. Create tests and
easily select questions with drag-and-drop or poin t-
and-click functionality. Add or modify test questions
using the built-in Question Editor, and p rin t tests in a
variety of formats. The program comes w ith full techni-
cal support.
Acknowledgments
Elliot Aronson is delighted to acknowledge the collabora-
tion of Ca rol Tavris. He would also like to acknow ledge the
con tribu tions of his best friend (who also happens to be his
wife of 60 years), Vera Aronson. Vera, as usual, provided in-
spiration for his ideas and acted as the sounding board for
and s upportive critic of many of his semiformed notions,
helping to mold them into more sensible analyses.
Tim Wilson would like to thank his gradua te mentor,
Richard E. Nisbett, who nu rtured his interest in the field
and showed him the continuity between social psychologi-
cal research and everyday life. He also thanks the many stu-
dents who have taken his course in social psychology over
the years, for asking fascin ating questions and p roviding
wonderful examples of social psychological phen omena in
their everyday lives. Lastly, he thanks the many graduate
stud en ts with whom he has h ad the p rivilege of working
for joining him in the ever-fascinating discovery of new so-
cia l psychological p h enomena.
Sam Sommers would like to acknowledge, first and fore-
most, the Sommers ladies, Marilyn, Abigail, and Sophia, for
being patient with round-the-clock revision sessions, for tol-
erating the constantly expanding mass of papers and books
on the floor of the study (he promises to clean them up before
work starts on the eleventh edition), and for frequently pro-
vjding excellent real-life examples that illustrate social psy-
chological concepts. He also gives special thanks to all of his
teachers of social psychology, for introd ucing him to the field,
for continued support, and for serving as role models as in-
structors, mentors, researchers, and writers.
No book can be written and p u blished without the
h elp of many people working with the authors behind the
scenes, and our book is no exception. We need to give a
spooal thanks to Elizabeth Page-Gould for her tremendous
h elp in rev ising two of the chapters. Her d eep knowledge
of social psychology and wond erful writing style contrib-
uted greatly to this edition. We wou ld also like to thank the
many colleagues who read one or more chapte rs of this edi-
tion and of p revious editions of the book.
Reviewers of the Tenth Edition
Jim Allen, State University of New York, College at Geneseo;
Kathryn Anderson, 011r Llldy of the Lake University; Anila
Bhagavatula, California State University- Long Beach; Amy
Bradshaw-Hoppock, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical Universiti;;
Ngoc Bui, University of La Verne; Bernardo Carducci, Indiana
Universiti; Southeast; Alex Czopp, Western Washington
Universiti;; Keith Davis, University of South Carolina;
Michael Dud ley, So11then1 Illinois Universiti; Edwardsville;
Heid i Eng lish, College of the Siskiyo11s; Joe Ferrari, DePau/
University; Christine Floether, Centenary College; Krista
Forrest, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Allen Gorman,
Radford University; Jerry Green, Tarrant Counti; College;
Dana Greene, University of North Caro/inn; Donnell Griffin,
Davidson County Comm11nity College; Lisa Harrison,
California State University, Sacramento; Gina Hoover, Ohio
State Universiti;; Jeffrey Huntsinger, Loyola Universiti;
Chicago; Alisha Janowsky, Universiti; of Central Florida;
Bethany Johnson, Universiti; of Nebraska- Omaha; Deborah
Jones, Columbia University; Suzanne Kieffer, University of
Hou.ston; Marvin Lee, Tennessee State University; Alexandra
Luong, University of Minnesota Duluth; Robyn Mallett,
Loyola University Chicago; Brian Meier, Getti;sburg College;
Andrea Mercurio, Boston University; Lori Nelson, Universiti;
of Iowa; Darren Petronella, Nassau Communiti; College;
Jennifer Rivers, Elms College; Kari Terzino, Des Moines Area
Community College; T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University; Angela
Walker, Quinnipiac University; Chrysalis Wright, Universiti;
of Central Florida; Garry Zaslow, Nassau Community College;
Jie Zh ang, Universiti; at Buffalo
Reviewers of Past Editions
Jeffrey B. Adams, Saint Michael's College; Bill Ad ler,
Collin County Community College; John R. Aiello, R11tgers
University; Charles A. Alexan der, Rock Va/lei; College;
Sowmya Anan d, Ohio State University; Nathan Arbuckle,

Ohio Stnte University; Art Aron, Stnte Universiti; of Ne1u
York, Stony Brook; Danny Axsom, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute nnd State University; Joan W. Baily, Jersey Citi; State
College; Norma Baker, Belmont University; Austin Baldwin,
Universiti; of Iowa; John Bargh, Ne1u York University;
William A. Ba rnard, University of Northen1 Colorado; Doris
G. Bazziru, Appalnchinn State University; Arthur Beaman,
University of Kentuckt;; Gordon Bear, Ramapo College; Susan
E. Beers, Sweet Brinr College; Ka thy L. Bell, University of
North Carolina at Greensboro; Leon ard Berkowitz, University
of Wisconsin- Madison; Ellen S. Berscheid, University of
Minnesota; John Bickford, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst; Thomas Blass, University of Maryland; C.
George Boeree, Shippensburg Universiti;; Lisa M. Bohon,
California State University, Sncrnmento; Jenrufer Bosson, The
Universiti; of Oklahoma; Chante C. Boyd, Carnegie Mellon
Universiti;; Peter J. Brady, Clark State CommuniflJ College;
Kosha Bramesfeld, Pennsylvania Stnte Universiti;; Kelly
A. Brennan, University of Texns, Austin; Richard W. Brislin,
Enst-West Center of the University of Hawaii; Jeff Bryson,
San Diego State University; Melissa Burkley, Oklahoma State
Universiti;; Amy Bush, University of Houston; Amber Bush
Amspoker, Universiti; of Houston; Brad Bushman, lawa State
Universiti;; Thomas P. Cafferty, Universiti; of South Cnrolinn,
Columbia; Melissa A. Cahoon, Wright State University;
Frank Calabrese, Community College of Philadelphia; Michael
Caruso, University of Toledo; N icholas Christenfeld,
Universiti; of Califoniin, San Diego; Margaret S. Clark,
Carnegie Mellon Universiti;; Russell D. Clark, III, University
of North Texas; Susan D. Clayton, Allegheny College;
Megan Clegg-Kraynok, West Virginia University; Brian M.
Cohen, University of Texns, San Antonio; Florette Cohen,
Rutgers Universiti;; Jack Cohen, Camden Counti; College;
Steven G. Cole, Texas Christian University; Eric J. Cooley,
Western Oregon State University; Diana Cordova, Yale
University; Traci Cra ig, University of Idaho; Jack Croxton,
State University of Ne1u York, Fredonia; Keith E. Davis,
University of South Cnrolinn, Colu111bia; Mary Ellen Dello
Stritto, Ball State Universiti;; Dorothee Dietrich, Ha111line
Universiti;; Kate Dockery, Universiti; of Florida; Susann
Doyle, Gainesville College; Steve Duck, University of [own;
Michael G. Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville;
Karen G. Duffy, Stnte University of New York, Geneseo; Va lerie
Eastman, Drury College; Tami Eggleston, McKendree College;
Timothy Elliot, Universiti; of Alnbamn- Binningham; Steve L.
Ellyson, Youngstown Stnte University; Cin dy Elrod, Georgia
State University; Kadimah Elson, Universiti; ofCalifoniia, Snn
Diego/Grossmont College; Rebecca S. Fahrlan der, University
of Nebraska nt Omaha; Alan Feingold, Yale University;
Edward Fernandes, East Cnrolinn Universiti;; Phil Finney,
Southeast Missouri State Universiti;; Susan Fiske, University
of Massachusetts; Robin Franck, Southwesten1 College; Denise
Frank, Ramapo College of Ne1u Jersey; Timothy M. Franz,
Preface xvii
St. John Fisher College; William Rick Fry, Youngstown Stnte
University; Russell Geen, Universiti; of Missouri; Glenn
Geher, Stnte Universiti; of Ne1u York nt New Pnltz; David
Gersh, Houston Community College; Frederick X. Gibbons,
[own State University; Cyn thia Gilliland, Louisinnn Stnte
University; Genaro Gonza lez, University of Texas; Jessica
Gonza lez, Ohio State University; Sara Gorchoff, Universiti;
of Cnlifornin, Berkeley; Beverly Gray, Youngsto1un Stnte
University; Gordon Hammerle, Adrian College; H. Anna
Han, Ohio State Universiti;; Judith Harackiewicz, Universiti;
of Wisconsin- Madison; Elaine Hatfield, University of Hawaii,
Mnnon; Vicki S. Helgeson, Carnegie Mellon Universiti;; Joyce
Hemphill, Cnzenovin College; Tracy B. Henley, Mississippi
State University; Ed Hirt, Indiana University; Harold
Hunziker Jr., Coniing CommuniflJ College; David E. Hyatt,
University ofWisconsin- Oshkosh; Mari ta Ingleh art, Un iversiti;
of Michigan; Carl Kallgren, Behrend College, Pennsylvania
State University, Erie; Steph en Kilianski, Rutgers Universiti;;
Bill Klein, Colby College; James D. Johnson, University of
North Carolina, Wilmington; Lee Jussim, Rutgers Universiti;;
Stephen Kilianski, Rutgers University; Fredrick Koenig,
Tulane University; Alan Lambert, Washington UniversiflJ,
St. Louis; Emmett Lampkin, Kirk1uook Community College;
Elizabeth C. Lanthier, Northern Virginia Co111muniflJ
College; Pa tricia Laser, Bucks County Community College; G.
Darnel Lassiter, Ohio University; Dianne Leader, Georgia
Institute of Technology; John Lu, Concordia Universiti;;
Stephanie Madon, [own State Universiti;; John Ma larkey,
Wilmington College; Andrew Mamon, SI. Mary's Universiti;
of Minnesota; Allen R. McConnell, Michigan Stnte Universiti;;
Adam Meade, North Carolina State Universiti;; Joann M.
Montepare, Tufts University; Richard Morelan d, Universiti;
of Pittsburgh; Dave Na lbone, Purdue Universiti;- Calumet;
Carrie Nance, Stetson University; Todd D. Nelson, Michigan
State University; Elaine Nocks, Furman University; Matylda
Osika, Universiti; of Houston; Cheri Pa rks, Colorado Christian
University; W. Gerrod Pa rrott, Georgetawn University; David
Peterson, Mount Senario College; Mary Pritcha rd, Boise Stnte
University; Cynthia K. S. Reed, Tarrant County College; Dan
Richard, Universiti; of North Florida; Neal Roese, Universiti;
of Illinois; Darrin L. Rogers, Ohio State Universiti;; Joan
Rollins, Rhode Island College; Pau l Rose, Southern Illinois
University Edwardsville; Lee D. Ross, Stanford Universiti;;
Alex Rothman, University of Minnesota; M. Susan Row ley,
Champlain College; Delia Saenz, Arizona State Universiti;;
Brad Sagarin, Northern Illinois University; Fred Sanborn,
North Carolina Wesleyan College; Conrue Schick, Bloomsburg
University; Norbert Schwartz, University of Michigan;
Gretch en Sechris t, University at Buffalo; Richard C.
Sherman, Miami University of Ohio; Paul Silv ia, Universiti;
of North Carolina at Greensboro; Randolph A. Smith, Ouachita
Baptist University; Linda Solomon, Mnry111ount Mnnl1nttan
College; Janice Steil, Adelphi University; Ja kob Steinberg,
xviii Preface
Fairleigh Dickinson University; Mark Stewart, American
River College; Lori Stone, University of Texas at Austin;
JoNell Strough, West Virginia University; T. Ga le Thompson,
Bethany College; Scott Tindale, Loyola University of Chicago;
David M. Tom, Columbus State Community College; David
Trafimow, Ne1u Mexico State University; Ruth Wa rner, St.
Louis University; Anne Weiher, Metropolitan State College
of Denver; Gary L. Wells, Iawa State University; Jackie
White, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Paul L.
Wienir, Westen, Michigan University; Kipling D. Williams,
Universiti; of Toledo; Tama ra Williams, Hampton University;
Paul Windschitl, University of Iowa; Mike Witmer, Skagit
Valley College; Gvven Wittenbaum, Michigan State University;
William Douglas Woody, Universiti; of Northern Colorado;
Clare Zaborowski, San Jacinto College; William H . Zachry,
Universiti; of Tennessee- Martin; Leah Zinner, University of
Wisconsin- Madison
We also thank the wonderful editorial staff of Pearson
for their expertise and profession alism, including Dickson
Musslewhite (Ed itorial Director), Cecilia Turner (Con ten t
Producer), Chris topher Brown (Executive Product
Ma rketing Man ager), Louis Fierro (Editoria l Assistant),
an d Angel Chavez (Project Manager). We would especially
like to thank Thomas Finn (Developmen tal Edito r), who
provided expert guidance w ith constan t good ch eer and
insight even throu gh barrages of e-mail exchanges and a t-
tachments, and Amber Chow (Portfolio Manager), whose
smart vision for the book, and commitment to making it as
good as it can be, h ave truly made a difference. Finally, we
thank Mary Falcon, bu t for whom we never would have
begun this p roject.
Thank you for inv iting us into your classroom. We wel-
come you r suggestions, and we would be delighted to hear
you r comments abou t this book.
Elliot Aronson
elliot@cats.ucsc.edu
Tim Wilson
tdw@virginia.edu
Sam Sommers
sam.sommers@tufts.edu
About the Authors
Elliot Aronson
When I was a kid, we were the only Jew ish family in a v ir-
u len tly anti-Semitic neighborhood . I had to go to Hebrew
sch ool every day, la te in the afternoon. Being the only
youngster in my neighborhood going to Hebrew school
made me an easy ta rget for some of the older neighborhood
toughs. On my way h ome from Hebrew sch ool, after da rk,
I was frequently waylaid and roughed up by roving gangs
sh ou ting anti-Semitic epithets.
I have a v ivid memory of sitting on a cu rb after one
of these beatings, nursing a bloody nose or a split lip, feel-
ing very sorry for myself an d won dering how these kids
could hate me so much when they d idn' t even know me. I
thought abou t whether those kids were taugh t to hate Jews
o r whether, somehow, they vvere born that way. I wondered
if their hatred could be changed- if they got to know me
better, would they h ate me less? I specu lated about my own
character. What would I have done if the shoe were on the
o ther foot- that is, if I were bigger an d stronger than they,
would I be capable of beating them up for no good reason?
I didn't realize it at the time, of course, but eventually I
discovered that these were p rofound questions. And some
30 yea rs later, as an experimenta l social psychologist, I had
the great good fortune to be in a position to answer some of
those questions and to in vent techniques to redu ce the kind
of p rejudice that had claimed me as a victim.
Elliot Aronson is Professor Emeritus at the University of
Califoniia nt Santa Cruz and one of the most renowned social psi;-
clwlogists in the 1110rld. In 2002, he tuns chosen as one of the 100
most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century. Dr. Aron.son
is the only person in the 120-year history of the American Psycho-
logical Association to l1ave received all three of its major awards:
for distinguished tvriting, distinguished teaching, nnd distin-
guished research. Mnny other professional societies have honored
his research and teaching ns well. These include the American
Association for the Advance111ent of Science, tvhich gave him its
highest l1onor, the Distinguished Scientific Research award; the
American Council for the Advance111ent and Support of Educa-
tion, 1vl1ich named l1im Professor of the Year of 1989; the Society
for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, which awarded him
the Gordon Allport prize for his contributions to the reduction of
prejudice among racial nnd ethnic groups; and the William fames
Atvard from the Association for Psychological Science. In 1992,
he was named n Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences. A collection of papers and tributes by his former students
and colleagues, The Scientist and the Humanist, celebrates his
contributions to social psychological theon; nnd its application to
real-world problems. Dr. Aronson's own recent books for general
audiences include Mista kes Were Made (bu t not by ME), with
Carol Tnvris, nnd a memoir, Not by Chance Alone: My Life as
a Social Psychologist.
Tim Wilson
One day when I was 8, a couple of older kids rode up on
their bikes to share some big news: They had d iscovered an
abandoned h ouse down a country road. "It's really neat,"
they sa id. "We broke a window and nobody cared !" My
friend and I hopped onto ou r bikes to investiga te. We had
n o trou ble finding the h ouse-there it was, sitting off by
itself, with a big, jagged hole in a first-floor window. We
got off of our bikes and looked a round. My friend foun d a
baseball-sized rock lying on the ground and threw a per-
fect strike through another firs t-floor wind ow. There was
some thing exhilarating about the smash-an d-ting le of sh at-
tering glass, especially when we knew there was nothing
wrong with what we were d oing. After a ll, the house was
abandoned, wasn't it? We b roke nearly every wind ow in
the house and then climbed through one of the first-floor
wind ows to look around.
It was then tha t we realized something was te rribly
wrong. Th e house certainly did not look aband oned. There
were pictu res on the wall, nice furniture, books in shelves.
We went home feeling frightened and confused. We soon
learned tha t the house was the h ome of an eld erly cou ple
who were avvay on vacation. Even tually, my pa rents dis-
covered what we h ad d one and paid a subs tan tial sum to
repair the wind ows. For years, I pondered this inciden t:
Why did I d o such a terrible thing? Was I a bad kid? I didn't
think so, an d neither d id my parents. How, then, could a
good kid do such a bad thing? Even though the neighbor-
h ood kids sa id the house was aban doned, wh y cou ldn't my
frien d and I see the clear signs tha t someone lived there?
How crucial was it that my frien d was there and threw
the first rock? Althou gh I didn' t know it at the time, these
reflections touched on several classic social psych ologica l
issues, such as wh ether only bad people do bad things,
whether the social situation can be powerfu l enough to
ma ke good people d o bad things, and the way in which
ou r expectations abou t an event can make it difficu lt to see
it as it really is. Fortunately, my ca reer as a vandal ended
with this one incident. It did , however, mark the beginning
of my fascination with basic questions abou t how people
und erstand themselves and the social world- questions I
contin ue to investigate to this day.
xix
xx About the Authors

Tim Wilson did his 11ndergrndunte tvork at Willin111s College h ad watched was of an actor, and in some versions of the
and Hn111pshire College and received his PhD from the University study h e mentioned having a girlfriend. In other versions,
of Michigan. C11rrently Sherrell f. Aston Professor of Psychology h e mentioned a boyfriend. Wha t the researchers were actu-
at the University of Virginia, he fins published n11111ero11s articles a lly stud ying was h ow this social ca tegory information of
in the nrens of introspection, attitude change, self-knowledge, and sexua l orientation wou ld influence pa rticipan ts' attitudes
affective forecasting, ns tvell as n recent book, Redirect: The Sur- about the interaction.
prising New Science of Psychological Change. His research And then she took ou t a tape measure.
has received the support of the National Science Fo11ndntion and The tape measu re was to gauge h ow close to my pa rt·
the National Institute for Mental Health. He hns been elected n er 's ch air I had p laced my own chair, the hypothesis being
ttvice to the Executive Board of the SociehJ for Experi111ental So- that discomfort with a gay partner might manifest in terms
cial Psychology and is a Fellow in the A111erican Psychological of participants placing their ch airs farther away. Greater
SociehJ and the Society for PersonalihJ and Social Psychologtj. In comfort with or affirtity for the partner was predicted to
2009, he tvas named a Fellow of the A111erican Acnde111y of Arts lead to more desire for proximity.
and Sciences. In 2015 he received the William James Fellows And a t that, I was h ooked. The little voice in my head
Atvard fro111 the Association for Psychological Science. Wilson h ad grovvn from a whisper to a full-throated yell that this
has taught the Introduction to Social PsychologtJ co11rse nt the was a field I could get excited about. Firs t of a ll, the re-
University of Virginia for more thnn 30 years. In 2001 he tvns searchers had tricked me. That, alone, I thought was, for
awarded the University of Virginia All-UniversihJ 011tstnnd· lack of a better word, cool. But more important, they had
ing Teaching Atvnrd, and in 2010 wns awarded the University of done so in the effort to get me an d my fellow participants
Virginia Disting11ished Scientist Atvard. to revea l something about our attitudes, p referen ces, and
tendencies tha t we never would have admitted to (or per-
h aps even would have been aware of) h ad they just asked
Sam Sommers us directly. Here was a fascinating ly crea tive research de-
I went to college to major in Eng lish. I only found myself in sign, being used in the effort to study what struck me as an
an Intro to Psychology course as a second-semester fresh- incredibly important social issue.
man because, well, it just seemed like the kin d of thing you Like I said, I was hooked. And I look forward to help·
d id as a second-semester freshman. It was when we got to ing to introduce you to this field that caught me by surp rise
the social psychology section of the course tha t a little voice back when I was a student and con tinues to intrigue and
in my head s tarting whispering something along the Imes inspire me to this d ay.
of, Hey, yo11've gotta admit this is prethJ good st11ff It's n lot like Sn111 So111111ers earned his BA from Willin111s College nnd his
the conversations you hnve with your friends about daily life, but PhD fro111 the University of Michigan. Since 2003 he hns been a
tvith scientific dnta. faculty 111e111ber in the Depnrtnient of PsychologtJ nt Tufts Uni·
As part of the class, we h ad the opportunity to partici- versity in Medford, Massachusetts. His research examines is-
pa te in research s tudies for cou rse credit. So one day I found sues related to stereotyping, prejudice, and group diversity, with
myself in an interaction s tudy in which I was going to work n partic11/nr interest in hotv these processes play out in the legal
on solving problems with a partner. I walked in and it was do111ain. He has tvon multiple teaching awards at Tufts, includ-
clear tha t the other guy had arrived earlier- his coat and ing the Ler111an-Ne11bauer Prize for 011tstnnding Teaching and
bag were a lready hanging on the back of a cha ir. I was led to Advising and the Gerald R. Gill Professor of the Yenr Award. He
another, sma ller room and sh own a video of my soon-to-be was also ind11cted into the Tufts Hall of Diversity for his efforts
partner. Then I was given a series of written questions abou t to promote nn incl11sive cli111nte on campus for nll students. He
my perceptions of him, my expectations for our upcoming hns testified as an expert tvitness on issues related to racial bins,
session together, and so forth. Finally, I walked back into the j11ry decision 111aking, and eyewitness 111emory in cri111inal trial
main area. The experimenter h anded me a chair and told proceedings in eight states. He /ins tvritten two general audience
me to put it down anywhere next to my partner's cha ir, and books related to social psychologtJ: Situations Matter: Under-
that she wou ld go get him (he, too, was p resumably com- s tanding How Context Transforms Your World (2011) and
p leting written questionnaires in a priva te room). This Is Your Brain on Sports: The Science of Un derdogs,
So I did. I put my chair down, took a seat, and waited. the Value of Riva lry, an d What We Can Learn from the
Then the experimenter returned , bu t sh e was alon e. She T-shirt Cannon (2016). He is nlso co-a11thor of Invitation to
told me the study was over. There was n o other participant; Psychology (7th edition), along with Carole Wnde, Carol Tavris,
there would be no p roblem solving in pairs. The video I nnd Lisn Shin.
Special Tips for Students
/ / Th ere is then creative reading as well as crea-
tive w riting," said Ra lp h Wa ldo Emerson in
1837, and that aptly sums up wha t you need to
know to be a proficien t studen t: Be an active, creative con-
sumer of information. How do you accomp lish tha t feat?
Actually, it's not difficult. Like everything else in life, it jus t
takes some vvork-some clever, well-planned, p u rposeful
work. Here are some suggestions abou t h ow to do it.
Get to Know the Textbook
Believe it or n ot, in writing this book, we thought carefu lly
abou t the organization and s tructure of each chapter. Things
are presented as they are for a reason, and that reason is to
help you learn the materia l in the best way possible. Here
are some tips on what to look for in each chapter.
Key terms are in boldface type in the text s o that you'll
n otice them. We define the terms in the text, and tha t defi-
nition appears again in the margin. These marginal defini-
tions are there to help you ou t if later in the chapter you
forget wh at something means. The marginal definitions are
quick and easy to fin d. You can also look up key te rms in
the alphabetical Glossary at the en d of this textbook.
Make sure you notice the h eadings and s ubheadings. The
headings are the s keleton that holds a chapter together. They
link together like vertebrae. If you ever feel lost, look back to
the p revious heading and the headings before it- this will
give you the "big picture" of where the chapter is going. It
shou ld also help you see the connections between sections.
The summary at the end of each chapter is a succinct short-
hand presentation of the chapter information. You should read
it and make sure there are no surprises when you do so. If any-
thing in the summary doesn't ring a bell, go back to the chap-
ter and reread that section. Most important, remember that the
summary is intentionally brief, whereas your understanding
of the material should be full and complete. Use the summary
as a study aid before your exams. When you read it over, ev-
erything should be familiar. When you have that wonderful
feeling of knowing more than is in the summary, you'll know
that you are ready to take the exam.
Be sure to do the Try It! exercises. They will make concepts
from social psychology concrete and help you see how they
can be applied to your own life. Some of the Try It! exercises
replicate social psych ology experimen ts. Others reproduce
self-report sca les so you can see where you stand in relation
to o ther people. Still others are short quizzes that illustrate
social psychological concepts.
Watch the videos. Our carefully curated collection of in-
terviews, news clips, and research study reenactments is
designed to enhance, and help you better understand, the
concepts you're reading. If you can see the concept in ac-
tion, it's likely to sink in a little deeper.
Just Say No to the Couch
Potato Within
Because social psychology is abou t everyday life, you might
lull you rself into believing that the material is a ll common
sense. Don't be fooled. The ma terial presented in this book
is more complicated than it might seem. Therefore, we want
to emph asize that the best way to lea rn it is to work with it
in an active, n ot passive, fashion. You can't just read a chap-
ter once and expect it to stick with you. You have to go over
the material, wrestle with it, make your ovvn connections to
it, question it, think abou t it, in teract with it. Actively work-
ing with materia l makes it memorable an d makes it you r
own. Because it's a safe bet that someone is going to ask you
about this material later and you're going to have to p ull it
out of memory, do what you can to get it into memory n ow.
Here are some techniques to use:
• Go ahead and highlight lines in the text- you can do
so in Revel by clicking and d ragging the cursor over
a sentence; you can even choose you r own color, and
add a n ote! If you highligh t important points, you will
remember those important points bette r and can scroll
back through them later.
• Read the ch apter before the applicable class lecture, not
afterward. This way, you' ll get more out of the lecture,
which will likely introduce new ma terial in ad dition to
what is in the chapter. The ch apter will give you the big
picture, as well as a lot of detail. The lecture will en-
han ce that information and help you p u t it all together.
If you h aven't read the chapter first, you may not un-
derstand some of the points made in the lecture or real-
ize which points are most important.
• Here's a good way to study material: Write ou t a key
concept or a stud y in your own words, withou t look-
ing at the book or your notes. Or say it out loud to
yourself- again in your own words, with you r eyes
xxi
xxii Special Tips for Students
closed. Can you do it? How good was your version?
Did you omit anything important? Did you get stuck
at some point, unable to remember wha t comes next? If
so, you now know tha t you need to go over that infor-
mation in more detail. You can also study with some-
on e else, describing theories and studies to each o ther
and seeing if you're ma king sense.
• If you have troub le remembering the results of an im-
portant study, try drawing your own version of a graph
of the findings (you can use our da ta graphs for an idea
of h ow to p roceed). You will probably find that you
remember the research results mu ch better in pictorial
form than in words. Draw the information a few times
and it will stay with you.
• Remember, the more you work with the material, the
better you will learn and remember it. Write it in your
own words, talk about it, explain it to o thers, or d raw
visual representations of it.
• Last bu t not least, remember tha t this material is a
lot of fun. You h aven't even started reading the book
yet, bu t we think you're going to like it. In particu-
lar, you'll see how much socia l psychology has to tell
you abou t you r real, everyday life. As this course p ro-
gresses, you mjght want to remin d you rself to observe
the events of your daily life with new eyes- the eyes
of a social psychologist- and try to apply wha t you
a re learning to the behavior of friends, acquaintances,
s trangers, an d, yes, even you rself. In each chapter you
will see how other students h ave done this in brief
v ideos called #Su rv ivalTips. Ma ke sure you use the
Try It! exercises. You w ill fin d ou t how much social
psychology can h elp us un derstand ou r lives. When
you read the news, think about wh at social psychol-
ogy has to say about curren t events and behav iors; we
believe you will find that you r understan ding of daily
life is rich er. If you n otice a news a rticle that you think
is an especially good example of "social psychology
in action," p lease sen d it to us, with a full reference to
where you foun d it an d on wh at page. If we decide to
use it in the next edition of this book, we'll list you r
n ame in the Acknowledgments.
We realize that 10 years from now you may not re-
member a ll the facts, theories, and names you learn n ow.
Although we hope you w ill remember some of them, our
main goal is for you to take with you in to your future a
great man y of the broad social psychological concepts p re-
sented h erein- and, perhaps more important, a critica l and
scien tific way of thinking. If you open you rself to social
psych ology's magic, we believe it will enrich the way you
look at the world and the way you live in it.
Chapter 1
Introducing Social
Psychology

Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives

Defining Social Psychology Where Construals Come From: Basic Human
LO 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from Motives
other disciplines. LO 1 .3 Explain what happens when people's need to feel
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common good about themselves conflicts with their need to
Sense be accurate.
How Social Psychology Differs From Its Closest The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About
Cousins Ourselves
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate
The Power of the Situation
LO 1 .2 Summarize why it matters ho,v people explain and Why Study Social Psychology?
interpret events, as well as their own and others' LO 1.4 Explain why the study of social psychology is
behavior. important.
Underestimating the Power of the Situation
The Importance of Construal

1
2 Chapter 1

WHAT DO YOU TH INK?

Do you consider yourself good at predicting how people around you will behave and
react under different circumstances?

Yes
No

It is a p leasure to be your tour guides as we ta ke you on a jou rney through the world of
social psychology. As we embark on this journey, ou r h ope is to convey our excitemen t
abou t social psychology- what it is and why it matters. Not only do we, the authors,
enjoy teaching this stuff (which we've been doing, combined, for more than 100 years),
we also love contributing to the growth and development of this field. In addition to
being teachers, each of us is a scien tist who has con tribu ted to the know ledge base that
ma kes up our discipline. Thus, n ot only are we leading this tour, we also helped crea te
some of its attractions. We will travel to fascinating and exotic places like prejudice,
love, p ropaganda, education, conformity, aggression, compassion ... all the rich variety
and su rprise of human social life. Ready? OK, let's go!
Let's begin with a few examples of the heroic, touching, tragic, and puzzling
things that people do:
• Jorge Munoz is a school bus driver during the day but works a differen t "job" at
night Feeding the hungry. When h e gets h ome from his last school bus run, he
an d his family cook meals for dozens of people using donated food and their own
money. They then serve the food to people down on their luck who line up at a
s treet comer in Queens, New York. Over a 4-year period Munoz has fed more than
70,000 people. Why does he do it? "When they smile," Munoz says, "That's the
way I get paid." (http: / /www.karmatube.org/videos.php?id =1606)
• Kristen h as known Martin for 2 months an d feels tha t she is madly in love with
him. "We're soul mates!" she tells h er best friend. "He's the one!" "What are you
thinking?" says the best friend. "He's completely wrong for you! He's as d ifferent
from you as can be-different background, religion, politics; you even like differ-
ent movies." "I'm not worried," says Kristen. "Opposites attract. I know that's
true; I read it on Wikiped ia!"
• Janine and h er bro ther Oscar are arguing about fraternities. Janine's college
didn't have any, but Oscar is at a la rge sta te university in the Midwest, where he
h as joined Alph a Beta. He wen t through a severe and scary hazing ritual to join,
an d Janine cannot understand why he loves these gu ys so much. "They ma ke
the p ledges do such stupid stuff," she says. "They hu miliate you and force you
to get sick drunk and p ractica lly freeze to dea th in the m idd le of the night. How
can you possibly be h appy living there?" "You don' t get it," Oscar replies." Alpha
Beta is the best of all fra ternities. My frat brothers jus t seem more fun than most
o ther guys."
• Abraham Biggs Jr., age 19, had been posting to an online discussion board for
2 years. Unhappy about his future and that a relationship had en ded, Biggs an·
n ounced on camera tha t he was going to commit suicide. He took an overdose
of drugs an d linked to a live video feed from his bedroom. None of his hun·
d reds of observers called the police for more than 10 hours; some egged him on.
Paramedics reached him too late, and Biggs died.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Nature readers
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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eBook.

Title: Nature readers

Sea-side and way-side. No. 3

Author: Julia McNair Wright

Illustrator: C. S. King

Release date: November 5, 2023 [eBook #72044]

Language: English

Original publication: Boston: D. C. Heath & Co, 1888

Credits: Carla Foust and The Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATURE

READERS ***
FRONTISPIECE
 Nature Readers.
SEA-SIDE AND WAY-SIDE.
No. 3.
BY

JULIA McNAIR WRIGHT.

“And if ever the way grew long,

And his strength began to fail,
She sang a more beautiful song,
And she told a more wonderful tale.”

Longfellow’s “Birthday Poem to Agassiz.”

Illustrated by C. S. King.

BOSTON, U.S.A.,
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS.
1894.
 Copyright, 1888,
By Julia McNair Wright.

Norwood Press:
J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith.
Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
 PREFACE.
In presenting a third volume of the Nature Readers to the children of
our land, and to their parents and teachers, I feel it both a duty and a
delight to thank those who have so cordially and sympathetically
welcomed a new departure in School-Book Literature.
I have not sought to model these Readers upon any pattern
previously set, but to make them the outcome of what I have
learned, by observation, of the receptive and retentive powers of
children.
I desired to impart useful and needful knowledge, in a fashion which
should not be burdensome, and which should strongly impress
young minds.
I have had no hobby of book-making, nor of style to follow. My one
idea has been to benefit the child, and to that end I have directed my
whole effort.
I sing an old song when I say, that we are a nervous race, and our
children are more intensely nervous than their parents. The antidote
for this nervousness, and its consequent train of disasters, is to be
found in the open air, in healthful out-of-door exercise, in the serene
calm of nature, in the peaceful joys which the investigation of nature
affords us.
If we can open wide the gates of “the fairy-land of science,”—if we
can bring the child near to the heart of nature,—if we can absorb his
hours of leisure, and many of his hours of brain-work, in the study of
nature out of doors, we shall have done much toward making him
robust in body, sound in mind, cheerful of disposition, and useful in
the future.
THE AUTHOR
 TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS.
Once more we are going out together by the Sea-side and the Way-
side. We shall now learn more of our Great Mother, the Earth, and of
her many children.
Once I read a tale of a queen, who gave all that she had to her
youngest son, and ordered all his brothers and sisters to be his
servants. I did not think that that was fair.
But something very like this has happened to us in this world. We
human beings are the last and youngest of living things, and yet all
the rest serve us, and are for our use. In this book I shall tell you the
secret of this. I shall tell you of the flowers and trees; they are the
earth’s eldest children. I shall tell you how they have taken insects
and birds for their partners, and have gone into business, to feed the
world.
We shall look at those pretty partners in their work and play.
The birds have some lovely stories to tell us in their songs.
And then, we shall put on some new spectacles, and look into the
brooks, and ponds, and into the rivers and seas, and see the Fin
Family, which feel so safe, hiding deep down in the waters.
And when you have learned a little of the wonderful way in which all
the parts of the world fit together, and work together, I want you to
think how wise and good is the great God who made all.
J. M. N. W.
 CONTENTS.
Lesson PAGE
I.The Great Mother 1
II.The Earth’s Eldest Child 5
III.A Look at a Plant 10
IV.A Year in a Plant’s Life 17
V.The Growth of Plants 23
VI. The Food of Plants 30
VII.Seeds and Leaves 35
VIII.The Color of Plants 43
IX. The Motion of Plants 49
X.Plants and their Partners 56
XI. Air, Water, and Sand Plants 66
XII.Plants that eat Animals 72
XIII.Weather Prophet Plants 79
XIV.Plant Clocks 84
XV.The School Cabinet 90
XVI.The Old Man of the Meadow 99
XVII.The Life of the Old Man of the Meadow 105
XVIII. The Robber Cousin 110
XIX.The Merry Cousins 117
XX.A Queer Cricket 123
XXI.Other Hoppers 127
XXII.A Real Live Fairy 132
XXIII. The Child of the Day 138
XXIV. Life among Snow and Roses 143
XXV.Joseph’s Coat 149
XXVI.Cousin Moth 154
XXVII.The Child of the Night 160
XXVIII.The Bird 166
 XXIX.Beaks and Claws 172
XXX.Tree, Ground, and Water Birds 178
XXXI.On the Wing 186
XXXII.Nest Building 193
XXXIII.The Bird at Home 200
XXXIV.Birds of Song 207
XXXV.The Other Partner 211
XXXVI.A Brigade of Birds 217
XXXVII.The Birds in the Woods 223
XXXVIII.The Birds in the House 230
XXXIX.The Lost Birds 235
XL.The Fin Family 239
XLI.Outside and Inside 245
XLII.Where they Live 252
XLIII.How they Behave 257
XLIV.Fry and School 262
XLV.Scales and Teeth 267
XLVI.Big and Little Brothers 274
 “NOTHING LEFT HIM.”

Sea-side and Way-side.

 LESSON I.
THE GREAT MOTHER.
“What are you doing?” I asked a boy to-day.
“Only digging in the dirt,” he said.
“And what is that in your little cart?”
“Nothing but dirt.”
“And what is this that you call dirt?”
He did not reply. An older boy, who had read more, said: “Dirt is the
top crust of the ball, called the earth, on which we live.”
“Very good. Now my lad, what is dirt worth?”
The boy who was digging said: “Ho! Dirt is worth nothing.”
“Suppose that I could take away from you all that you get from the
earth. What would you have left?”
“Many things,” said the little boy.
“Well,” said the older boy, “we should have no fruit, nor vegetables,
for these come from the ground. We should have no bread. Wheat
grows from the ground. No sugar, for sugar is made of beets and
sugar-cane.”
“And,” I said, “you would have no milk, butter, or cheese. For the
cows must eat grass and other plants, from which to make milk.”
“That is so,” said the big boy. “And, since it is so, you may say we
should have no meat. The animals must eat plants, of some kind, or
they could not live and grow.”
The boy who was digging now looked at the dirt with more respect.
“So you would lose all your food. For food is animal or vegetable,
and so comes from the dirt. Let us see about your clothes. You
would lose all cotton and linen clothes. For cotton and flax grow out
of the ground. You would lose all silk, woollen, and leather, clothes.
The silk-worms, sheep, and other animals feed on plants that grow in
the dirt. You must lose your straw hats also. Straw is the stem of a
plant.”
“I should have my house,” said the boy who was digging.
“Let us see about that. Your house is made of stone, brick, or wood,
plaster, paint. All these things come from the earth. Bricks are clay,
burned. Wood grew in the ground as trees. Plaster is lime, sand, and
so on; these come from the earth. The paint is made of oil and
ground minerals. We get these minerals from the earth. If I could
take from you all you have from the earth, you would have no house,
nor food, nor clothes. You must go and sit out-of-doors, in a very sad
state.”
“At least,” said the boy, “I should have my little iron shovel, and my
little iron cart.”
“No, you would not,” said the big boy. “Iron is dug out of the earth.
You would have no stove, no knives, no such things as pots, and
pans, to cook in! Ha! ha! ha!”
“I have a box full of pennies,” said the small boy, “and dimes, and
gold dollars; I would buy more things.”
“All your money will be gone with the rest of your losses. The
pennies, dimes, dollars, are made of metals. Metals come from rocks
that are found in the earth,” I said. “Also, all the dishes in your house
are made of clay and metal. You would have to lose them. All your
furniture is of wood, metal, and leather, you would have to lose that.
But you would soon starve without food. So it makes little matter
what else you lose.”
“I should sit on the sea-shore, and catch fish to eat!” cried the small
boy.
“You must then catch them without hook, net, or line. But let us begin
on the fish, and take away all that feed on sea plants. Next let us
take away all that feed on fish that have fed on plant-life. Soon you
will be in a sad way for fish to catch.”
“So all that we have comes from the earth?”
“Yes. The earth is a great treasure box, out of which come all things
which we see about us. It is for this reason that we say, ‘Mother
Earth.’ In old times people said the earth was the great mother of all
things. So do not speak with scorn of that dirt, which is ‘the earth’s
top-crust.’ What would you have without it?
“What would you be without it? Your flesh, blood, bones, are built up
of what you eat and drink. If all the things that come out of the earth
were taken from you, you would soon perish.
“Just now you found that you would have no house to live in, and no
clothes to wear. So, soon your mind and soul would have no body-
house to live in; no flesh-clothes to wear. Every part of you, except
the mind and soul part, comes from the earth.
“When we look at the earth that which we first notice is the plant, or
vegetable. By plants we mean the trees, grasses, and other things,
which grow out of the soil. Plants are Mother Earth’s first children.
“Beside the plants which grow in the soil, there are plants which are
called air-plants, because they grow in the air. Also there are plants
which grow in water. These are called water, or aquatic plants.”
We will now have some lessons on plant-life.
 LESSON II.
THE EARTH’S ELDEST CHILD.
Perhaps you have looked at the books of some of the elder pupils in
your school. Did you see one marked “Botany”? Did you see in it
pictures of flowers, and parts of flowers? Botany is the study of
plants.
These lessons in your Nature Reader are not to teach you botany.
They are only to tell you some of the curious things about plants.
When you read these lessons, you will like plants, not only because
they are so very pretty and useful, but because of the wonders of the
plant-world.
I shall tell you some of the secrets of the wonder-world of plants.
Then I hope you will wish to find out more of the secrets for
yourselves.
I once asked Tom, “What is a plant?”
“A plant!” cried Tom, “oh, a plant is—a potato, a turnip;” and off he
went, quite satisfied with his answer.
He was content, because he knew so little. If he had known more,
his answer would not have suited him so well.
You will get a peep at the wonders of plant-life from this little story. I
said to a class of girls, who had studied botany for a year: “What is a
plant? I will give you half an hour to find an answer that will suit you.”
One girl said in a hurry: “A plant is not a living thing!”
“O you silly girl!” cried all the rest. “A plant grows. Only living things
can grow. Why do you say ‘a living tree,’ and ‘a dead tree,’ if plants
are not living things? Did you never see a plant dying or dead?”
“A plant,” said another, “is a living thing that does not breathe.”
“Oh, but it does breathe. It breathes air.”
“A plant is a living thing that eats only minerals.”
“Ah! but some plants eat little bugs, and meat.”
“A plant is a living thing that does not move.”
“It does move! Does not the vine climb up the tree, or by the side of
the house? Do not some flowers turn each day to follow the path of
the sun? Does not the wild ivy run over the ground? Then there is a
plant in the desert that moves to find water. It gets loose from the
sand. It bends up into a circle or wheel. Then the wind rolls it along,
until it reaches a moist place where it can live. There it roots again.”
“A plant is a living thing without blood.”
“Its sap, or juice, is its blood. It serves the plant as blood serves
man. The sap is as much the blood of the plant as the white fluid in
the jelly-fish, the insect, or the barnacle, is blood for them.[1] All
animals do not have thick, red blood.”
“A plant is a thing that does not sleep,” said one girl.
“Yes, but plants do sleep. We learned that once.”
“A plant is a living thing, without feelings.”
“Some of them seem to have feeling. They move or shrink when you
touch them. A star-fish, as he breaks himself up, does not seem to
have more feeling than a plant.”
“Let us say,” said one, “that a plant is a live thing, that grows in the
soil.”
“But there are plants that grow only in air, or in water, or in other
plants. There are plenty of plants that grow in bread, cheese, milk,
and preserves.”[2]
Finally they said: “A plant is a living thing, generally rooted in the
earth, and growing from a seed, or something like a seed. A plant
has no brain, and no nerves.”
Their teacher told them that the great point about a plant is, that the
plant eats minerals and turns them into other substances. Animals
get most of the mineral food that they eat from the plants, after the
plants have made it over.
Now, from what this class said, you have learned some of the
curious things about plants. Plants live, breathe, grow, move, eat,
drink, and sleep.
More than this, I shall show you how plants serve for clocks. Plants
also can tell you about the weather, whether it will be wet or dry.
And the plants have gone into business, and have partners. The
birds and insects are the plant’s partners. The plants live, and grow,
and go into business, just to make other plants. But the end of the
business is, that the world is fed.
Do you now think that you should like to learn about plants? Here
are a few facts to begin with.
Plants are so different in size that they are among the largest and
the smallest things in the world. The great trees in California are so
large that a hundred people can stand upon one stump. They are as
tall as the tallest towers in the world. Twenty men on horses can ride
into the hollow of one tree. Other very great trees are found in other
parts of the world.[3] The largest trees are in Australia and California.
In other places there are also very big trees. In New Jersey I once
saw a large, hollow tree, in which a goat lived. He was a big goat. He
jumped about and slept inside the tree. When the children called him
he came out to draw their cart. In another hollow tree I saw a very
nice play-house.
While some plants are so large, others are very small. There is a
little pond weed, which, root and all, is not so big as a grain of rice.
Other plants are as small as pin heads. Others are so small that you
cannot see them without a microscope.
Plants differ as much in age as in size. Some grow and die in a few
hours, or a day. Others live only a year. Some trees are said to live
three thousand years.
There are plants that have flowers, and plants that never have any
flowers. There are plants that grow from the outside in, other plants
grow from the inside out.[4] If you like plants, and some day study
Botany, you will find out about all these things.

FOOTNOTES:
[1] See Nature Reader, No. 2, on these subjects.
[2] That which we call mould upon such substances is a form of
vegetable life.
[3] The oldest and largest known tree is a chestnut at the foot of
Mount Etna. The trunk is 212 feet in girth.
[4] Gray’s “How Plants Grow,” pp. 41, 42, will here aid the teacher.
 LESSON III.
A LOOK AT A PLANT.
Plants are divided into two great classes. One class contains all
plants with flowers. The other class contains plants that have no
flowers. The plants with flowers are the ones which you like best.
They are of the most interest to you. Besides this, they are the
easiest to learn about.
A piece of moss is a flowerless plant.
What you call a “simple bit of moss,”
would be harder to learn about than a
whole garden full of lilies and roses.
The plants with flowers are the most
perfect plants. They are also the most
beautiful, and the most useful. A perfect
plant has six parts for you to notice: 1,
the root; 2, the stem; 3, leaves; 4,
blossoms (the blossom is made of
several parts); 5, a bag or box for
seeds; 6, seeds.
Here are all those parts shown in our
picture of a pea-vine. You see our pea-
vine has something else. It has little
curly things with which to climb. They
are its hands for taking hold of objects.
They are leaves, buds, or twigs, that
have changed. They are now tendrils.
They grew slim, and long, and curly, as
the plant had need of them for climbing. A CHILD OF THE
GARDEN.