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 ROWE
CROSSAN
MAURER
ROUSE
S T R AT E G I C A N A LY S I S
NINTH EDITION

S T R AT E G I C
A N A LY S I S
AND A C T I O N

ACTIONAND
ISBN: 978-0-13-337029-4
EDITION
NINTH

www.pearsonhighered.com 9 780133 370294 MARY M. CROSSAN • MICHAEL J. ROUSE

W. GLENN ROWE • CARA C. MAURER
 5 Environment Analysis: The Strategy–Environment Linkage 88
Conducting Environment Analysis 88
Step 1: Focus the Environment Analysis 88
Performance Assessment as a Focusing Tool 90
The Strategic Proposal as a Focusing Tool 91
Jantzen Technologies: A Case Study 91
The Profit Model as a Focusing Tool 93
Defining the Right Time Horizon 95
Minimizing the Risks of Focus 96
Step 2: Test the Strategy–Environment Linkage 98
Demand 99
Supply 102
Competition 103
Government 105
First Check for Fit or Recycle 108
Step 3: Forecast Performance 109
Step 4: Rank against Other Proposals 110
Summary 110
Notes 111

6 Resource Analysis: The Strategy–Resource Linkage 112

The Nature of Resources 112
Other Characterizations of Resources 114
Resources and Competitive Advantage 116
The Dual Role of Resources 119
The Constraining Role of Resources 119
The Driving Role of Resources 120
Resource Analysis 120
Step 1: Identify Resource Requirements 123
Step 2: Test the Strategy–Resource Linkage 123
Recycling 126
Step 3: Develop Gap-Closing Analysis 126
Step 4: Move to the Next Step in the Diamond-E Analysis 128
Dynamic Resources 128
Resources and the Scope of the Firm 129
Summary 129
Notes 130

7 Management Preference Analysis: The Strategy–Management

Preference Linkage 132
Value Creation, Capture, and Distribution 132
Reconciling Stakeholder Interests 133
Corporate Governance 134
Corporate Social Responsibility 137

Contents vii

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 Management as a Key Stakeholder 138
Inconsistency between Proposed and Preferred Strategy 138
Inconsistency between Preferred Strategy and Other Realities 139
The Role of Management Preferences 140
The Roots of Strategic Preference 141
Personal Attributes 141
Character 142
Competencies 143
Job Context 146
Frozen Preference 147
Implications 149
Matching Preferences and Strategy 149
Step 1: Identify the Required Management Preferences 151
Step 2: Test the Strategy–Preferences Linkage 152
Step 3: Develop Gap-Closing Analysis 152
Framing the Gap-Closing Issues—Individual Managers 153
Gap-Closing Actions and Risks—Individual Managers 154
Framing the Gap-Closing Issues—Groups of Managers 155
Management Preferences and Competitive Analysis 157
Summary 158
Notes 159

8 Strategy and Organization 161

Organizational Capabilities 163
Behaviour 166
Culture 167
Step 1: Identify Required Organizational Capabilities 169
Step 2: Identify Capability Gaps 171
Step 3: Develop New Organizational Capabilities 172
Organization Structure 173
Functional Structure 173
Product Organization 175
Geographic Structure 176
Matrix 178
Cellular 178
Strategic Alliances 180
Choosing a Structure 181
Management Processes 182
Decision-Making Processes 182
Operating Processes 184
Performance Assessment and Reward Processes 185
Leadership Behaviour 186
Do You Have the Right Leaders? 187
Using All Three Leverage Points 188
Step 4: Assess Feasibility 188

viii Contents

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 Summary 190
Notes 191

9 Strategic Choice 193

Strategy as a Dynamic Process 194
Setting Direction 194
Focusing Effort 194
Defining the Organization 194
Providing Consistency 194
Strategy as Planning 196
Strategy as Learning 199
Cognitive Biases 200
Organizational Learning and Strategic Renewal 203
Reconciling the Tensions in Strategic Renewal 205
Leadership for Strategic Renewal 207
The Practical Matter of Strategic Choice at a Point of Time 209
Summary 211
Notes 211

10 Implementing Strategy: Change Agenda and Starting

Conditions 214
Types of Strategic Change 215
Strategic Decline 216
Leadership Style 217
Implementing Strategic Change 218
The Change Plan 219
Change Agenda 220
Analysis of Starting Conditions 220
Need for Change: The Crisis Curve 221
Crisis Change 223
Anticipatory Change 225
Reactive Change 227
Organizational Readiness for Change 229
Target Group Identification 229
Target Group Readiness 230
Personal Readiness for Change 232
The View From Below 234
Summary 235
Notes 235

11 Implementing Strategy: Guidelines and Action 238

Establishing Guidelines for Action 238
Priority Objectives 238
Behavioural versus Non-Behavioural Objectives 239

Contents ix

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 Action Priorities 240
Adopters and Resistors 241
Picking Starting Points for Action 244
Focus versus Scope 245
Leadership Style 246
Directive Leadership 246
The Participative Style 248
Pace 249
Implementing Pace Decisions 250
Generic Guidelines 250
Crisis Change 251
Anticipatory Change 252
Reactive Change 255
Creating an Action Plan 257
Monitoring Performance 258
Summary 259
Notes 259

Index 262

x Contents

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 Preface

This book was written to complement case analysis in university and company strategic
management courses. It takes the point of view of the general manager and presents a con-
sistent, operational approach to analyzing and acting on strategic problems. Our intent
is to introduce you to the breadth of material in strategic management, yet enable you to
apply it in a decision-making process. In doing so, we venture beyond current strategic
management texts to help reconcile the diversity, breadth, and complexity of the field.
As we point out in Chapter 1, general managers run businesses and other types of
organizations, and, while their responsibility may be for a small business, a not-for-profit,
public sector, or large corporation, they face the common challenge of guiding their orga-
nizations to success in competitive environments. The aim of this book is to develop the
basic general management skills required to understand a business organization, sense the
opportunities and problems that it faces, deal effectively with strategic decisions, and to
set in place the people, structures, and operations to implement those decisions. We
refer to this as the general management perspective and, as we describe in Chapter 1, it
applies to any person in the organization, not just the general manager. Having a general
management perspective requires a disposition to lead, and therefore having a general
management perspective is consistent with concepts such as strategic leadership and
cross-enterprise leadership.
In preparing the text materials, we have concentrated on analytic concepts that con-
tribute to a practical understanding of specific strategic issues and to the translation of this
understanding into personal action. Further, we have linked these discrete concepts into
a comprehensive framework—the Diamond-E framework—to ensure that the whole of
the situation facing the business is appreciated and that priorities are set for both analysis
and action.
We have made two assumptions about our readers. First, we have assumed that
they are engaged in trying to solve strategic problems—as students of business doing
case analyses or field projects, or as managers on the job. Application and practice are
the prime vehicles for understanding the power and limitations of the concepts in this
text and, more importantly, for developing general management skills. Second, we have
assumed that our readers possess a basic understanding of the background disciplines and
functional areas of business, such as the financial analysis and marketing skills provided
in early courses in university business programs.

APPROACH
The point of view we take on strategic issues is that of a general manager. We assume
that you are willing to share this perspective—to see yourself as responsible for the over-
all direction and success of an organization or business unit. As a general manager, you
must think in comprehensive terms of the total problem you are dealing with, taking
into account the full breadth of its meaning and consequences for the business. Partial

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 analyses from a specialist or a functional perspective may be helpful, but they do not meet
the general manager’s need for the best overall approach to a situation. In addition to the
broad issues of direction, you must worry about the specific steps of execution—about
closing the gaps between strategic choice and practical, personal action. Again, the rec-
ommendations of a consultant or staff specialist may be useful, but their advice will usually
address only the directional aspects of the general manager’s concerns. In short, we ask
you to step into a particularly challenging position in which you must think of problems
in terms of a total business, set priorities, and plan for tangible, practical action.
Three threads weave their way through the fabric of the text: value, advantage, and
globalization. General managers are fundamentally charged with the responsibility of
guiding their organizations to create and capture value with an eye to how that value is
distributed among various stakeholders, including shareholders. Our perspective is that
organizations are mechanisms invented by society to generate value that individuals can-
not generate on their own. The value that organizations generate takes many forms (e.g.,
profit, jobs, self-actualization, goods, and services), and different organizations generate
different types of value. All organizations, however, must generate value—that is the
reason they exist.
Organizational growth or even survivability depends not merely on the generation of
value; businesses must also have comparative or competitive advantage. Why should cus-
tomers buy your valuable product or service rather than another firm’s? As a general man-
ager, you must ensure that your value-generating organization has competitive advantages.
Thirdly, today’s environments are global. Very few industries are not impacted in
some meaningful way by global forces. We deal with some specific issues related to global
diversification strategies, but a basic assumption that we hold, and that we encourage you
to consider as a general manager, is that globalization is no longer a separate, optional
consideration. Globalization is a fundamental element for strategic analysis and action.
Understanding that the role of the general manager has changed in recent years,
we have chosen to underscore this change with the term “Cross-Enterprise Leadership.”
We summarized these changes, and the distinctions between the general manager and
the Cross-Enterprise Leader in an Ivey Business Journal article. There, we concluded that
the forces of globalization, rapid change, and time-based competition had redefined the
role of the general manager and that organizations, as single entities controlling their own
fate, had been supplanted by networks and alliances of enterprises.

Whereas general management focused on integrating the various functions within an

organization, the business imperative today requires an approach—Cross-Enterprise
Leadership—that can create, capture and distribute value across a network of
companies, not just within a company. Second, these networks, which we call
enterprises, are complex and dynamic, and must be able to respond as a whole to
the emergent challenges that are continually presented. Third, no one leader can
“manage” the enterprise, and therefore leadership needs to be distributed. Finally,
these changes require an approach to leadership over-and-above that possessed by
traditional business leaders. At its core, Cross-Enterprise Leadership recognizes that
managers operate in a complex world in which the boundaries of organizations are
fluid and dynamic, cutting across functional designations, departments, business
units, companies, geography and cultures.1

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 That value is created cross-enterprise is demonstrated by Coca-Cola and Nestlé,
who are competitors in bottled water and several beverage categories around the world.
But in North America, Coca-Cola is the primary distributor for Nestlé’s Nestea product.
Toshiba reduces its shipping costs by having UPS undertake repairs of Toshiba prod-
ucts, and Singapore-based Flextronics undertakes design and manufacturing services for
companies in the automotive, industrial, medical, and technology sectors. Health care
networks have become a necessary means to deliver on health care needs. While we take
the organization as the primary focus, our perspective acknowledges that the boundaries
of the organization are often blurry, and models of strategy need the flexibility to take
this into account.
For the purpose of this book, we will retain the term “general manager”; however,
our view of the role of the general manager has changed, and these changes are reflected
in the materials presented. The choice and presentation of material in the book have
been guided by experience and practical utility. Our aim has been to provide useful tools
organized into one consistent and comprehensive framework. Our intent is to present the
diversity and complexity of the field but distill it so that it can be applied in a decision-
making process. Additional readings are suggested, where appropriate, at the end of chap-
ters for those who wish to explore specific subjects in greater depth.
Throughout the book, we have frequently used examples to make the connection
between the concepts, which have to be somewhat general for flexibility and breadth of
application, and specific strategic issues. As you read, you might find it useful to think
of examples from your own experience and test the applicability of the concepts against
them.

ORGANIZATION
The book is organized according to a general pattern: problem identification to analysis to
decision to execution. This is a natural, logical sequence and is effective for the cumula-
tive presentation of concepts. But we do not mean to imply that actual strategic problems
can be dealt with in such a neat, serial fashion. On the contrary, most strategic problems
require an iterative approach, in which the analysis moves back and forth between choice
and action. This point will become evident as you read through the book. Its immediate
application, however, is that you should not expect to find business situations, or case
problems describing them, that neatly conform to the flow of the text.
Throughout the book we use the terms business, organization, and firm interchange-
ably. Whether considering a not-for-profit or for-profit organization, a small entrepre-
neurial firm or a large multi-national, a public or private sector enterprise, the concepts
apply to all types of organizations. If there is a particular distinction to be made for a
specific type of organization, such as a not-for-profit, we will flag it. However, these
instances will be rare as the fundamentals of strategy apply to all types of organizations
in all geographic contexts.
There are 11 chapters in the book. Chapters 1 and 2 position the concept of strategy
as a crucial general management tool and then provide an operational understanding and
definition of it. Chapter 3 introduces the Diamond-E framework and the fundamental
logic of strategic analysis. Chapters 4 through 8 elaborate on the processes of analysis by

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 working through the individual components of the Diamond-E framework with a view to
building a comprehensive position on strategic needs and priorities. Chapter 9 discusses
the dynamic nature of strategy, providing a transition to Chapters 10 and 11, which
concentrate on developing personal action plans to move from the analytic results to the
implementation of strategic changes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR USE

At the outset, we suggest that you read Chapters 1 through 3 thoroughly. This will pro-
vide a perspective for your thinking and a basic framework for your analysis. Skim the rest
of the book so that you know where to turn as specific circumstances dictate.
As you deal with problems, use the book selectively. Try to work back and forth
between the problem that you are addressing and the relevant parts of the book. Use the
concepts to check your analysis and, as necessary, to expand it. Common sense is very
important here. Do not try to force the concepts and procedures on a problem; instead
use them to enrich the analysis.
Study the book after you have spent some time working on strategic problems. At
that point, you will more readily appreciate the general analytical approach and see the
applicability of particular concepts. From then on, the building of skills in strategic analy-
sis and action is a matter of practice and more practice. Remember, you are dealing with
the most complex problems in business. Good luck!

NEW TO THIS EDITION

The first edition of this book was published in 1986. In revising it for this ninth edition,
we have updated both the examples and recent theory that support the practical and user-
friendly aspects of the eighth edition.
Many of the changes in theory and practice in recent years have been toward frag-
mentation of concepts and pitting one approach against another. We have found this to
be counter-productive. For example, emphasizing a dynamic approach to strategy does not
negate the importance of understanding strategic positioning at a point in time. Thus,
in this edition, we have tried to make connections between concepts that have become
increasingly fragmented or polarized.
Throughout the many editions, our consistent aim has been to increase the relevance
of the materials for solving general management problems in the field or in the form of
written cases.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our primary acknowledgment goes to Nick Fry and Peter Killing, who launched
the first edition in 1986 and who continued as authors through the years into their
retirement. They provided a vision and platform that has stood the test of time in
its ability to anticipate and adapt to changes in both research and practice. Indeed,
virtually all advances in the field of strategy have been easily accommodated within

xiv Preface

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 the approach they imagined. We are grateful for their leadership in resisting some
early moves in academia and practice away from a general management perspective to
treating strategy as a technical competence. The shortcomings of that approach are
apparent—strategy and leadership are tightly intertwined. We are grateful that as Nick
and Peter have retired from the book, Cara Maurer and Glenn Rowe have joined the
author team.
We have been fortunate to work for many years in institutions that value good
teaching and professional relevance. These cultural attributes have been developed and
reinforced by many people. In all editions, we have benefited from the new ideas and
continuing support of our colleagues in the university and in the private sector. We
would particularly like to acknowledge our immediate colleagues at the Ivey Business
School and at IMD who, over the years, have included professors Jay Anand, Tima
Bansal, Paul Beamish, Oana Branzei, Laurence Capron, the late Harold Crookell, Jim
Dowd, Tony Frost, Michael Geringer, Louis Hébert, Gerald Higgins, Amy Hillman,
Bryan Hong, Ariff Kachra, Mike Levenhagen, Peter Lorange, Pat MacDonald, Alan
Morrison, Eric Morse, Charlene Nicholls-Nixon, Tom Poynter, Paul Strebel, Don Thain,
Stewart Thornhill, Jean-Philippe Vergne, Rod White, Mark Zbaracki, Laurina Zhang,
and Charlene Zietsma.
We are also extremely grateful to the following reviewers for their comments and
suggestions: Wael Ramadan, Sheridan College; Natalie Slawinski, Memorial University
of Newfoundland; Jianyun Tang, Memorial University of Newfoundland; Bob Thompson,
Seneca College.
We are indebted to our publisher, Pearson Canada, and, in particular, Kathleen
McGill, Madhu Ranadive, and Alanna Ferguson for their help in producing and promoting
this book. At Ivey, we are obliged to Nicole Haney for her tremendous organizational and
administrative support.
Mary M. Crossan,
Michael J. Rouse,
Cara C. Maurer,
W. Glenn Rowe
London, Ontario

SUPPLEMENTS
Test Item File (ISBN 978-0-13-430808-1)
This test bank in Microsoft Word format includes over 300 questions. There are
approximately 55 questions per chapter, including multiple choice and true/false. The
Test Item File is available for download from a password-protected section of Pearson
Canada’s online catalogue. Navigate to your book’s catalogue page to view a list of
those supplements that are available. See your local sales representative for details
and access.

Preface xv

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 Learning Solutions Managers
Pearson’s Learning Solutions Managers work with faculty and campus course designers to
ensure that Pearson technology products, assessment tools, and online course materials
are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly qualified team is dedicated to helping
schools take full advantage of a wide range of educational resources, by assisting in the
integration of a variety of instructional materials and media formats. Your local Pearson
Canada sales representative can provide you with more details on this service program.

Notes
1. Crossan, M., Olivera, F. “Cross-Enterprise Leadership: A New Approach for the 21st
Century,” Ivey Business Journal, May June, 2006.

xvi Preface

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 Chapter 1
A General Management Perspective

A general manager is someone who has responsibility for all functional facets of the busi-
ness. General managers run businesses and organizations of all kinds, such as for-profit
businesses and public sector and not-for-profit organizations.1 A fundamental challenge
facing general managers today stems from the fact that the external environment in which
their organization operates—which includes current customers, potential customers, com-
petitors, technological innovation, government, suppliers, global forces, and so on—is
changing so rapidly that the firm, with its finite resources and limited organizational capa-
bilities, is hard pressed to keep up. Keep up it must, however, because in a rapidly chang-
ing environment, sticking with yesterday’s strategy, no matter how successful it may have
been, is often a recipe for tomorrow’s disaster.
Although the general manager holds a particular position in the organization, any
individual in a functional position can also have a general management perspective, and
we argue that having one will assist employees throughout the organization. A general
management perspective means having the capacity to understand and to appreciate issues
facing individuals who are placed in the specific role of a general manager. Often, strategic
decisions require difficult trade-offs. To the degree that employees understand why deci-
sions have been made and what needs to be done, personal performance and organizational
performance will be enhanced. A general management perspective also helps you to iden-
tify relevant data, information, and knowledge that are important to strategic analysis and
action. Strategic decisions need to draw on the collective intelligence of the workforce.
We view having a general management perspective as consistent with having a stra-
tegic leadership perspective or cross-enterprise leadership perspective. Strategy requires
both the disposition to lead and the capacity to manage across the enterprise. Yet the
general manager does not act in isolation. Throughout the text we refer to the general
manager, with the intention of including all persons seeking to develop a general manage-
ment perspective.

THE JOB OF THE GENERAL MANAGER

The job of the general manager is to create, capture, and appropriately distribute value for
the enterprise. As a general manager you need to recognize emerging opportunities and chal-
lenges, prepare a response, and ensure the success of whatever plan of action you decide upon.

M01_CROS0294_09_SE_C01.indd 1 28/09/15 4:16 PM

 By way of example, consider the rapidly changing competitive situation in the con-
sumer smartphone industry over the last few years. This is an industry that has grown
rapidly and undergone rapid innovation. BlackBerry, a company that had a dominant
position in the enterprise smartphone market, entered the consumer smartphone market
to increase its revenues and market share. As an early entrant in the industry it initially
had good success capturing higher market share each year. But this came at the cost of
reduced margins, which the co-CEO at the time, Jim Balsillie, described as a deliberate
strategy of a “land grab.” He knew they would sacrifice margins for several years, but felt
that they needed to sacrifice financial performance to claim space in the segment as a
basis for future growth.2
While BlackBerry’s smartphone devices offered a superior email experience, the
release of Apple’s iPhone in 2007 started chipping away at BlackBerry’s market share. By
the second quarter of 2011, Apple had achieved the top position in the smartphone space,
while BlackBerry was in fourth place, with a market share that had declined over the
previous year. What was even more worrisome was the fact that BlackBerry was behind
the curve in its response to Apple’s release of the iPad, and when BlackBerry did release
a competitive product, the market response was tepid and disparaging due to high defect
rates and insufficient functionality. What had gone wrong? How could a company that
had held a leading position in the enterprise smartphone market come up so short in
the consumer segment? Many analysts pinned the failure to BlackBerry’s capabilities and
resources that, while finely honed to understand and lead the enterprise market, did not
seem to understand the needs of the consumer market; BlackBerry was therefore slow to
react to changes in the market, let alone lead it.
After establishing a long-term direction and creating the strategy, the general manager’s
work is not done. In fact, the most difficult part is just beginning. While BlackBerry’s co-CEOs
established long-term direction and created the strategy early on, not enough was done to
develop the capability to allow the organization to provide leadership in both the enter-
prise and consumer market. Capabilities that were deemed superior in BlackBerry’s highly
protected enterprise market were inadequate in the far-more-competitive consumer market.
Further, BlackBerry lacked many capabilities required for success in consumer products.
This example illustrates three of the fundamental components of the general
manager’s job: setting direction, creating strategy, and implementing change. One further
crucial aspect of the job, shown in Figure 1.1, is assessing performance—both current and
longer term. Without a good feel for how well the organization is performing at any point
in time, a general manager could get the other three components of the job very wrong.
Emphasizing lofty but distant goals when the company may not survive the coming year
could lead to disaster; acting as if there is a crisis when a slower pace of change would be
more appropriate can be just as damaging.
A competent general manager will perform all four of these tasks. The tasks will not
be addressed sequentially or in isolation from each other, but as a continuously changing
mix of activities. The double-headed arrows in Figure 1.1 are intended to convey this
interconnectedness.

2 Chapter 1 A General Management Perspective

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 Setting Direction
vision
mission
values

Assessing Creating Strategy

General
Performance determining the way
Manager
today and tomorrow forward

Implementing
Change
making it happen

Figure 1.1 The Job of the General Manager

The primary focus of this book is on the processes and tools you will need for creat-
ing strategy and managing strategic change. Before you embark on the strategy-making
process you need to make sure that you know your starting position, which means that you
need a solid assessment of current performance. You also need a high-level view of what
you are trying to achieve, which will be captured in your vision, mission, and values. In
the remainder of this chapter we address these topics.

ASSESSING PERFORMANCE
We begin with a discussion of performance assessment because the general manager who
is not skilled at this task will have great difficulty with other aspects of the job. Many
corporate tragedies are rooted in the fact that senior managers had a false idea of how
well their organization was performing. Take, for example, McDonald’s, which in 2003
announced its first-ever quarterly loss since becoming a public company in 1965. As a
franchisor, McDonald’s collects royalties that amount to four percent of sales. However,
it is also a real estate company that owns the land and buildings of many of its franchised
locations, with rental income amounting to about 10 percent of sales. McDonald’s focused
on rental income from real estate, which prompted expansive growth. At the same time,
McDonald’s lost sight of deteriorating measures of performance such as same-store sales,
which had been stagnant for a decade, and customer service, where it had ranked last in
the fast-food industry since 1994. To turn things around, management had to reverse its
strategy by dramatically reducing the number of store openings worldwide and, instead,
focus its attention on attracting more customers to existing stores. The results were

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 Table 1.1 Typical Measures of Operating Performance
Profitability Financial Position Market Performance
• Profit margins • Leverage ratios (debt/equity, • Absolute level and
(gross and operating) interest coverage) growth rate in sales
• Key expense ratios • Liquidity ratios (units, revenue) • Market share
• Return on equity, • Activity ratios (e.g., asset and • New products as %
assets inventory turnover) of sales
• Economic value added

impressive. In 2010, McDonald’s had achieved growth in same-store sales for eight con-
secutive years. From 2003 to 2010, revenues increased by 40 percent and net income more
than tripled. By 2015 performance was lagging expectations and once again management
reviewed avenues for improvement including a restructuring intended to make them more
nimble and responsive to competition.
There are many approaches to take to size up performance, and each industry
and company will have its own metrics based on key performance drivers. For a useful
approach to creating multiple performance measures, see Robert Kaplan and David
Norton’s “Balanced Scorecard.”3 Our assessment of organizational performance is based
on two sets of measures: operating performance and organizational health. Operating perfor-
mance includes the “hard” or more quantitative measures of financial and market perfor-
mance. Some typical measures of operating performance are included in Table 1.1. In any
given situation some of these measures may be more important than others. Whatever
your circumstances, beware of relying on only a single measure of operating performance,
or on solely internal measures.
Measures of organizational health are generally “softer” and more qualitative than those
of operating performance, and include such things as management and worker enthusiasm,
the ability to work across boundaries, the ability of the organization to learn, employee
satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and supplier relationships.4 These and other factors are
described in Table 1.2. Again, you might put more emphasis on some of these factors than
others as you are assessing the health of your organization, but here, too, we recommend
that you focus on more than a single measure, and assess how these factors change over time.
The danger that many senior management teams face is that they think they know
where the business stands in terms of organizational health, when often they do not.
This could be due to several reasons: negative feedback to upper-level managers may be
implicitly or explicitly discouraged; middle managers may choose to filter out information
before it reaches the upper echelons; or senior managers may simply not listen well. One
response used by many firms has been to conduct anonymous employee surveys on a large
scale to try to get a realistic assessment of these measures. Another method is to obtain
360-degree feedback from staff on members of the senior management team. We are aware
of one CEO who did this and who discovered that he was not a very good listener.

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 Table 1.2 Typical Measures of Organizational Health
Enthusiasm Boundaries Problem Solving Learning Sustainability
How Do individuals Are problem Does the Can the pace
enthusiastic identify areas identified organization at which
are managers with narrow and dealt with learn from its people are
and employees sub-groups or hidden and experiences? working be
about their or with the ignored? From others’ sustained?
work? organization experiences?
as a whole?

It is also important to recognize that the drivers of performance for any company or
industry are often interrelated in important ways, with both key leading and lagging indi-
cators. For example, a fast-food chain developed a causal model that proposed the drivers
of strategic success. They found that selection and staffing choices impacted employee sat-
isfaction, which in turn affected the value that employees were able to add to the business.
Employee value-added service affected customer satisfaction, which affected customer
buying behaviour, profitability, and overall shareholder value.5

Using the Performance Matrix

We use the performance matrix to classify operating performance and organizational health
as roughly positive or negative and ask three questions: (1) where was your business three
years ago, (2) where is it today, and (3) in which direction is it currently moving? Our main
emphasis is on the current position of the business, but a discussion of this naturally leads
to consideration of where the business has been and which way it is moving. In Figure 1.2
we have illustrated the hypothetical case of a business that has moved from Quadrant 2
(Q2) through Q4 and is currently in Q3, hoping to move upward to Q1.

Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1

+ complacent desired
Organizational Health

organization state
three years
ago tomorrow?

today
troubled
– crisis
organization

Quadrant 4 Quadrant 3
– +
Operating Performance
Figure 1.2 The Performance Matrix (with illustrative example)

Assessing Performance 5

M01_CROS0294_09_SE_C01.indd 5 28/09/15 4:16 PM

 Clearly, the desired state is Quadrant 1, in which operating performance and orga-
nizational health are both positive. If your analysis suggests that your business is in this
quadrant, and you expect it to stay there, your strategy review will probably be a question
of fine tuning, and perhaps taking a farther-than-usual look into the future. But do not
take the strategy assessment process lightly. You need to ensure that you have placed your-
self in this quadrant as a result of thorough analysis, not complacency or wishful thinking.
The picture in Quadrant 2, on the other hand, may be of an inward-looking and
self-satisfied organization where people enjoy their work but collectively are performing
inadequately in terms of market and financial standards. There may be recognition by a
few that there is a need to change, but getting a meaningful strategic review underway
may be difficult, as currently happy employees will not want to face the prospect of mak-
ing uncomfortable changes to improve operating performance.
In Quadrant 3 the business is achieving its operating objectives at the expense of
organizational health. This may arise because management has applied pressure to obtain
short-term profits, often via downsizing, without upgrading the skills of their people.
Management also may have given little thought to the processes by which work should be
done. It is a classic case of doing the same work with fewer people, and everyone burns out.
Quadrant 4 represents a clear-cut problem situation in which immediate and com-
prehensive action is necessary. It may well be a crisis; if so, strategic analysis had better be
fast. Shortcuts may have to be taken, but our hope is that if your firm is in crisis a quick
look through this book will at least help you decide where to start, and which parts of the
strategy creation process will quickly yield the most value to you and your business team.
In later chapters we will discuss other perspectives on performance. In Chapter 5,
for example, we will ask you to predict the likely performance of your business if it con-
tinues with its existing strategy; this is your “base case” scenario. In the last two chapters
of the book, which deal with the management of change, we will discuss the crisis curve
concept, which involves tracing the past, current, and projected future performance of a
business to determine the urgency for change.
We now turn to another task of the general manager that needs to be considered before
we turn to strategic analysis: that of establishing the overall direction for the business.

SETTING DIRECTION: VISION, MISSION, VALUES

Organizations need a strong sense of direction—a vision—to bring coherence to the many
strategic and operating decisions that managers at all levels are constantly called upon
to make. There are three basic reasons for starting strategic analysis with work on vision-
ing. The first is to resolve confusion over the purpose of the business: why it exists. For
example, visioning is often most visibly used in family-owned companies, when disagree-
ments arise among the family shareholders over such issues as dividend income or family
employment. Other examples are found in newly privatized enterprises that now have to
decide on fundamental objectives and whom they are to serve. All organizations need a
clear sense of what and who they are.

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 The second reason for developing or changing a company’s vision is to revitalize it.
In 2007 Apple dropped “Computer” from its name, signalling a shift to make Macs a hub
in a networked world of digital devices. Fortune magazine described CEO Steve Jobs as
having

… exercised his increasing power with the facility of a jujitsu master. Consider: He
elbowed aside the likes of Sony to change the dynamics of consumer electronics with
the iPod. He persuaded the music industry, the television networks, and Hollywood to
let him show them how to distribute their wares in the Digital Age with the iTunes
Music Store. He employed the arch austerity of his hugely successful Apple Stores to
give the big-box boys a lesson in high-margin, high-touch retailing. And this year, at
the height of his creative and promotional powers, Jobs orchestrated Apple’s over-the-
top entry into the cellular telephone business with the iPhone, a lozenge of glass and
aluminum encasing a do-everything digital device.6

Finally, you might decide to prepare a mission statement when your business is oper-
ating reasonably well, and you think that creating one may help to reinforce your existing
informal “sense of vision.” You could also see it as a public relations exercise that helps
better present the business to shareholders, customers, or regulators.
The challenge in developing a vision is to simultaneously raise people’s sights,
give them direction, and stay realistic. While it usually helps to formalize agreements
about vision, mission, and values in an explicit mission statement, the existence of a
formal statement may actually mean very little; the critical factor is whether the vision
has permeated the organization. Achieving a powerful sense of mission depends very
heavily on the day-to-day decisions and actions of an organization’s leaders. People
look to actions, not words, for guidance. If a purpose like “to be the best and most
successful company in the airline business” is to have real motivating power and direc-
tional meaning, then the actions of senior management in everything from investment
decisions for aircraft to the budgets for cleaning cabins had better be consistent with
that vision.
There are many frameworks and references on the subject of vision, mission, and
values. A list of references is provided at the end of this chapter. One pair of research-
ers, James Collins and Jerry Porras, studied highly successful companies and found that
what they had in common was an enduring set of core values and purpose, unique to
each company, that remain fixed even though their business strategies evolved over
time.7
The Collins and Porras framework is a good example since it is based on solid
research, yet provides a practical approach for applying the concepts. Collins and Porras
state that “at the broadest level, vision consists of two major components—a Guiding
Philosophy that, in the context of expected future environments, leads to a Tangible
Image.”8
In the Collins and Porras framework, the guiding philosophy includes the core pur-
pose and core values of the organization. The core purpose and core values need to be

S e t t i n g D i r e c t i o n : V i s i o n , M i s s i o n , Va l u e s 7

M01_CROS0294_09_SE_C01.indd 7 28/09/15 4:16 PM

 translated into a tangible image in the form of a mission and a vivid description of that
mission. Whereas environmental analysis plays a pivotal role in the case of strategy, in
the case of vision it plays more of a moderating role in translating purpose into mission.
Aspiration plays a stronger role with vision such that there is a fine line between the
possible and impossible. Although Collins and Porras advocate that strategic analysis
should be done after the vision and mission-setting process, this is rarely the case. The
practical matter is that vision and strategy operate in tandem as we discuss later in this
chapter.

Guiding Philosophy
The guiding philosophy has two elements, the core purpose and the core values. The core
values are the starting point for the guiding philosophy.
Values Values represent the basic beliefs that govern individual and group behaviour
in an organization. These may be brief and highly abstract, or much more detailed and
specific. Coca-cola talks about spreading optimism and happiness, providing a refreshing
experience, making a difference, and adding value. They aspire to achieve this by their
seven rules:Leadership, Collaboration, Integrity, Accountability, Passion, Diversity and
Quality. While many organizations may share these types of values, the expression and
application can be quite different. For example, when it comes to the value of collabora-
tion Coca-Cola focuses on being able to “leverage collective genius” and they want their
leadership to have “the courage to shape a better future”.9
Of course, the real test is whether a company lives its values. For example, Starbucks
has a set of values that include providing a great work environment and embracing
diversity. Starbucks backs up its values by treating its associates better than the industry
standard. This can be seen in the employee stock plan, benefits, a first-class working envi-
ronment, heavy investment in training, and other practices.
It is not surprising that Starbucks demonstrates these values since they are strongly
held by its CEO, Howard Schultz. Schultz was deeply affected by the experiences of his
father, whom he has described as a broken-down blue collar worker who was not valued
or respected by his employers, and became very bitter as a result. Schultz was commit-
ted to ensuring that Starbucks would be a different kind of company that would not
leave anyone behind.10 Having witnessed the financial stress on his family when his
father was unemployed with a broken ankle and no medical benefits, Schultz is commit-
ted to treat all employees with respect and dignity. As a result, thousands of part-time
Starbucks workers have full medical benefits. The proof of the values is that Schultz is
not willing to compromise. Although his profit margins are lower than other fast-food
or restaurant businesses, Schultz says that it is the price you have to pay for doing busi-
ness his way.
By achieving these goals, Starbucks has proved that it is different from many
other companies. Creating a values list that looks good is not so difficult; living up

8 Chapter 1 A General Management Perspective

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Don Raffaele si fece innanzi, senza però abbandonare il fucile.
— Noi, — disse, — siamo qui venuti per vedere la Città dell’Oro.
— La Città dell’Oro appartiene ai figli del sole e nessun straniero,
pena la morte, può vederla, — rispose l’indiano.
— Noi abbiamo intrapreso un lungo viaggio per vederla.
— Chi ti ha chiamato?
— Nessuno, ma noi vogliamo accertarci dell’esistenza di Manoa.
— Per condurre qui, più tardi, altri uomini bianchi e distruggerla?
— No, perchè noi quando l’avremo veduta ripartiremo senza fare
alcun male ai suoi abitanti, nè più mai ritorneremo, — disse don
Raffaele.
— E credi tu che gli Eperomerii possano prestar fede alle parole
degli uomini bianchi? — rispose l’indiano con amarezza. — I nostri
avi hanno conservata una tradizione: un tempo, lontano da questi
luoghi, al di là delle grandi montagne del sud, al di là d’un grande
fiume venti volte più largo del Venituari, prosperava un potente
impero, quello dei figli del Sole, quello degli Inchi. Un giorno, dai
mari ove il sole tramonta, sbarcarono degli uomini che avevano la
pelle bianca come te e la barba come te, e misero, coi tradimenti, a
ferro ed a fuoco quel vasto impero. I nostri avi solo poterono sfuggire
alla strage, abbandonando la patria e qui celandosi. Come vuoi ora
che io creda alle tue promesse?... Uomini bianchi, tornate alla
savana tremante, imbarcatevi e ritornate alle vostre terre o noi vi
daremo battaglia e vi distruggeremo tutti!...
In quell’istante si udirono le prime note del flauto di Yaruri. Era una
marcia precipitosa, energica, che scuoteva le fibre. L’esercito dei
serpenti si svegliò di colpo e si mise in moto come spinto innanzi da
una forza misteriosa, strisciando e balzando. Moveva dritto verso la
barricata dinanzi alla quale stavano gli Eperomerii.
L’indiano che fino allora aveva parlato, udendo quei suoni trasalì e
gettò all’intorno uno sguardo smarrito. Solo allora s’accorse della
marcia dei serpenti. Emise un grido di furore e senza attendere la
risposta di don Raffaele fuggì a precipizio verso i compagni, i quali
già stavano ritirandosi rapidamente sotto la foresta.
Yaruri si era messo in marcia a fianco dei formidabili battaglioni,
precipitando la sua misteriosa marcia. Don Raffaele ed i suoi
compagni gli si erano messi dietro stringendo le armi, pronti a
servirsene alla prima resistenza degli indiani.
Questi però pareva che non avessero più voglia di contrastare il
passo agli stranieri. Spaventati da quel numero immenso di serpenti
velenosi, continuavano a ritirarsi, lanciando di tratto in tratto qualche
freccia inoffensiva.
Un colpo di fucile sparato da Alonzo, li decise ad affrettare la fuga.
Oramai pareva che più nulla dovesse arrestare il cammino degli
uomini bianchi e dell’incantatore; l’entrata nella famosa Città dell’Oro
sembrava facile e certa. A poco a poco però la foresta si diradava e
ben presto i viaggiatori si trovarono dinanzi ad una prateria coperta
di erbe alte più di quattro piedi e perfettamente secche. All’estremità
di quella pianura, a meno di due miglia, si rizzava la grande
montagna e sui fianchi di quella si vedevano bande d’indiani armati,
che parevano pronte a opporsi alla marcia degli invasori.
— Il nemico! — gridò Alonzo, arrestandosi.
Yaruri, sempre suonando, fece cenno di tirare innanzi. I serpenti,
attirati, affascinati da quella marcia che non s’arrestava un solo
istante, avevano già abbandonata la foresta e s’avanzavano
attraverso le erbe della pianura.
Gl’indiani, vedendo gli uomini bianchi continuare la marcia,
emettevano spaventevoli vociferazioni e si udivano a scagliare
maledizioni contro Yaruri chiamandolo traditore, ma questi non se ne
preoccupava e continuava a suonare con maggior lena.
D’improvviso però s’arrestò e parve che fiutasse l’aria con viva
apprensione.
Un grido di furore gli irruppe dalle labbra e scagliò lungi da sè il
flauto, incrociando rabbiosamente le braccia.
— Cosa fai, Yaruri? — chiesero don Raffaele ed i suoi compagni.
— Siamo vinti, — rispose l’indiano con voce rauca.
— Vinti!... Ed i tuoi serpenti?...
— Fra pochi minuti saranno tutti estinti.
— Ma perchè?....
— Guardate!....
Delle colonne di fumo s’alzavano vorticosamente alle estremità della
prateria e un acuto odore di bruciaticcio invadeva rapidamente la
pianura. Ben presto si videro scintillare delle gigantesche cortine di
fuoco le quali si dilatavano con incredibile celerità.
— Hanno dato fuoco alle erbe! — esclamò Alonzo.
— E fra pochi minuti i miei serpenti si arrostiranno tutti, — disse
Yaruri. — Fuggiamo, o siamo perduti!...
— Ma non possiamo tentare nulla? — chiese don Raffaele, con
rabbia.
— Nulla, padrone: cerchiamo di riguadagnare la savana tremante.
Le fiamme s’avanzavano con grande celerità trovando dovunque
combustibile. Si udivano le erbe a sibilare, a crepitare e si vedevano
contorcersi, mentre in aria volteggiavano immense colonne di
scintille. I serpenti, conscii del pericolo, fuggivano da tutte le parti
emettendo fischi di collera, cercando di raggiungere la foresta
protettrice. Già le prime falangi, raggiunte dal fuoco, s’arrostivano
spandendo all’intorno un puzzo nauseante.
Yaruri ed i tre bianchi retrocedevano correndo, facendo sforzi
sovrumani per non farsi raggiungere dai rettili più agili, i quali
balzavano come se avessero le zampe. La temperatura cominciava
a diventare ardente e sopra ai fuggiaschi cadevano miriadi di scintille
e nubi di cenere caldissima. Le loro provviste di polvere
minacciavano di saltare in aria. Come se quell’incendio non
bastasse, gl’indiani avevano abbandonata la montagna e si udivano
a vociferare al di là delle erbe ardenti.
— Presto, presto! — gridava don Raffaele. — Bisogna raggiungere
la foresta prima degli indiani.
Non avevano da percorrere che seicento metri, ma anche dinanzi a
loro le erbe cominciavano a prendere fuoco. Le scintille che
cadevano in tutte le direzioni, causavano altri incendi.
La loro ritirata si cangiò allora in una fuga disperata. Non correvano
più in gruppo serrato, ma dispersi per giungere più presto ai primi
alberi.
Finalmente, facendo un ultimo sforzo, giunsero alla foresta, ma non
si arrestarono e proseguirono la corsa in direzione della savana
tremante. Ormai non si poteva più forzare il passaggio da quel lato,
con tutti quegli indiani che avevano alle calcagna e che parevano
risoluti ad esterminarli.
Era quasi sera quando don Raffaele, sfinito, giungeva sulle rive della
savana tremante.
Si volse per vedere se i suoi compagni lo avevano seguito.
Alonzo correva sparando di quando in quando dei colpi di fucile; il
dottore, che non si reggeva quasi più sulle gambe, si trascinava
innanzi penosamente, ma Yaruri era scomparso.
— Dov’è l’indiano? — chiese don Raffaele ad Alonzo.
— Non lo so, — rispose questi.
— Ma non era dietro di te?
— Quando entrammo nel bosco l’avevo a fianco, ma poi rimase
indietro.
— Un indiano! Corrono ben più di noi quei figli dei boschi.
— Che sia stato ucciso?
— Non ho udito alcun grido, — disse Velasco.
— Mille tuoni!... Yaruri!... Yaruri!...
Gli risposero le urla degli Eperomerii, i quali ormai si erano lanciati
attraverso la foresta.
— Non pensiamo a lui, don Raffaele, — disse il dottore. — Lo
ritroveremo più tardi. Se vi preme la pelle imbarchiamoci.
— Andiamo!...
Il canotto era ancora arenato sulla sponda. Con una spinta poderosa
lo lanciarono in acqua, vi balzarono dentro e s’allontanarono
arrancando disperatamente. Già erano lontani duecento metri e
stavano fiancheggiando un isolotto roccioso di pochi metri di
estensione, coperto da alcuni cespugli di legno cannone, quando
Alonzo emise un grido di terrore.
— Ti ha ferito qualche freccia? — chiese don Raffaele, impallidendo.
— No.... affondiamo!...
Il piantatore si chinò e vide che il fondo del canotto era già coperto
d’un palmo d’acqua.
— È stato guastato! — esclamò. — Mille tuoni!... Presto, approdiamo
a quell’isolotto o le sabbie della savana tremante c’inghiottiranno!
Con pochi colpi di remo approdarono e si misero in salvo fra i
cespugli. Il canotto, già mezzo pieno d’acqua, poco dopo affondava,
scomparendo fra quei pantani senza fondo.
Gl’indiani giungevano allora sulle sponde della savana, agitando le
loro armi e mandando alte grida di gioia.
Erano tre o quattrocento, ma pareva che non avessero alcuna
intenzione di offendere gli stranieri, almeno pel momento, poichè
nessuna freccia fu lanciata.
— Siamo in un brutto impiccio, — disse il piantatore. — Comincio a
credere che per noi la Città dell’Oro sia perduta.
— Ed anche la nostra pelle, — aggiunse Alonzo. — Chi ci leverà da
quest’isolotto, ora che non possediamo più il canotto e che siamo
circondati da sabbie mobili?... Eppure io avevo sperato di giungere a
Manoa senza fastidi, con quell’esercito di rettili.
— Dovevamo aspettarci una simile sorpresa, — disse il dottore. —
So che gl’indiani di queste regioni usavano lasciar crescere le erbe
intorno ai loro villaggi, per respingere gli stranieri col fuoco. Quando
gli Spagnuoli condotti dai luogotenenti di Barreo cercarono
d’inoltrarsi attraverso queste regioni per scoprire l’Eldorado, furono
respinti cogl’incendi, e trecento di quei conquistatori morirono
soffocati ed abbruciati nella vallata di Maccureguary. So che quando
Barreo in persona tentò l’impresa fu costretto a retrocedere, poichè
le tribù degli Inarcuacari, dei Pariagotti e degli Iranaquari, alleati
degli Eperomerii, avevano lasciato crescere le erbe tre anni per
incendiarle.
— Ma Yaruri dove sarà? — chiese Alonzo. — Se fosse qua, quel
diavolo d’indiano saprebbe forse trovare un mezzo per liberarci.
— Quell’uomo, visto che la partita era perduta, si sarà nascosto per
cercar di sorprendere il suo avversario e ucciderlo a tradimento, —
rispose don Raffaele. — Un indiano affronta la morte senza esitare,
pur di vendicarsi.
— Ma noi, cosa faremo ora? Fra ventiquattro o quarant’otto ore la
fame ci costringerà alla resa, poichè abbiamo perdute tutte le nostre
provviste.
— Chissà! — disse il piantatore.
— Cosa speri, cugino?
— Penso agli indiani che ci precedevano e mi domando perchè ci
risparmiavano, mentre cercavano di uccidere Yaruri. Vedremo!...
forse gli Eperomerii non desiderano la nostra morte.
 XXIII.
Il tempio del sole.

La notte era discesa sulla immensa savana tremante.

Don Raffaele ed i suoi compagni, seduti sulla sponda dell’isolotto,
coi fucili a portata delle mani, vegliavano assiduamente temendo, da
un istante all’altro, un vigoroso assalto. Tutti e tre erano pensierosi
ed invano si torturavano il cervello per uscire da quella situazione
che ormai consideravano disperata.
Sulle rive della savana accampavano gl’indiani seduti attorno a
grandi fuochi. Non facevano dimostrazioni ostili, ma sorvegliavano
rigorosamente gli uomini bianchi per impedire a loro la fuga.
Parecchi canotti erano venuti dalle sponde opposte di quella palude,
ma rimanevano immobili dinanzi agli alberi della fitta foresta. Eppure
sarebbe stato così facile a quei quattro o cinquecento uomini,
prendere d’assalto quell’isolotto che non offriva agli assediati alcuna
ritirata.
La notte trascorse in un continuo allarme, ma senza offese. Pareva
che gli indiani non avessero alcuna premura d’impadronirsi di quei
nemici che avevano cercato di violare il segreto secolare della Città
dell’Oro.
All’alba la situazione degli assediati non era cambiata, anzi era
peggiorata, poichè non avendo mangiato dal giorno innanzi,
cominciavano già a provare gli stimoli della fame.
— Orsù, — disse Alonzo. — Bisogna prendere una risoluzione.
— E quale? — chiese don Raffaele.
— Cerchiamo di scendere a trattative.
— Cogl’indiani?
— Non vedo altra via migliore.
— Non ce n’è bisogno, — disse il dottore.
— Perchè?
— S’avvicina un parlamentario.
Infatti un canotto si era staccato dalla sponda ed un indiano, privo
d’armi, quello istesso che il giorno precedente li aveva invitati a
partire, remava verso l’isolotto.
— Che venga ad offrirci la pace? — chiese Alonzo.
— Lo sapremo presto, — rispose don Raffaele. — Tuttavia non
lasciate le armi e preparatevi a servirvene.
L’indiano, attraversato rapidamente quel tratto di savana, sbarcò
sull’isolotto, dicendo:
— Gli uomini bianchi non abbiano timore.
— Cosa vuoi? — chiese don Raffaele, facendosi innanzi col fucile in
mano.
— Che mi ascolti.
— Parla.
— Gli uomini bianchi non hanno più scampo; la savana tremante li
circonda, non posseggono più il canotto che noi prima avevamo
guastato e sulla sponda vi sono cinquecento uomini risoluti a
difendere il sentiero che conduce alla Città dell’Oro.
— Lo sappiamo, — rispose il piantatore, — ma gli uomini bianchi
hanno ancora le loro armi potenti e possono uccidere molti uomini
prima di morire.
— Ne uccideranno cento, duecento, ma poi soccomberanno. Vi offro
dei patti.
— Quali sono?
— Di arrendervi e vi prometto salva la vita.
— Allora lasciaci ritornare al nostro paese.
— Deciderà Yopi.
— Dov’è questo Yopi?
— A Manoa.
— Noi lo aspetteremo.
L’indiano aggrottò la fronte.
— I discendenti degli Inchi, i figli del Sole, non sono i servi degli
uomini bianchi, — rispose con fierezza. — Tu parli come un
padrone, mentre sei nostro prigioniero.
— Non ancora.
— La fame ti costringerà ad arrenderti.
— Mille tuoni!... Ma cosa pretendi tu?
— Le vostre armi, innanzi a tutto.
— E poi?...
— Che vi lasciate trasportare in un luogo isolato.
— Per ucciderci con maggior comodità?
— Giuro su Pachacamac [10], nostro dio supremo, che voi avrete
salva la vita.
— Anche Yaruri?
— Il traditore?... Mai!... Chi tradisce il segreto della Città dell’Oro
deve morire, e Yaruri morrà.
— È caduto nelle vostre mani? — chiese il piantatore con
commozione.
— Lo saprai più tardi. Orsù, gli uomini bianchi si decidano o li
estermineremo.
— Accordami cinque minuti.
Poi volgendosi verso i suoi compagni, disse:
— Cosa mi consigliate di fare?
— Arrendiamoci, — rispose il dottore. — Forse non oseranno
ucciderci.
— E non si potrebbe fucilare quest’indiano ed impadronirsi del suo
canotto? — disse Alonzo.
— E poi avremo addosso quei trenta o quaranta canotti che vedi
presso la sponda e due o trecento uomini. Resistere a simile assalto
sarebbe una pazzia.
— Arrendiamoci, don Raffaele, — ripetè Velasco. Forse potremo
vedere la Città dell’Oro.
— Sia, — disse il piantatore.
— E Yaruri? — chiese Alonzo.
— Cercheremo di ottenere la sua grazia.
Poi volgendosi verso l’indiano che era rimasto impassibile come una
statua di porfido, disse:
— Ecco le nostre armi: ci mettiamo nelle mani di Yopi, ma contiamo
sul tuo giuramento.
— Gli Eperomerii non giurano invano.
Un istante dopo don Raffaele ed i suoi compagni salivano nel
canotto e sbarcavano fra gl’indiani affollati sulla sponda della
savana.
Nessun grido di trionfo accolse la loro resa. Furono presi, coricati
entro tre amache sospese a tre lunghe pertiche sostenute da dodici
robusti indiani e trasportati attraverso la foresta con grande rapidità.
Avevan loro lasciate libere le braccia e le gambe, ma quei quattro o
cinquecento indiani li seguivano da vicino, portando con loro le
lancie e le cerbottane.
Tre ore dopo quella turba si arrestava dinanzi ad un grandioso
fabbricato di pietra, perfettamente rettangolare, sostenuto all’ingiro
da ventiquattro colonne adorne di lamine d’oro e col tetto coperto da
lastre d’egual metallo, le quali scintillavano sotto i raggi del sole.
Don Raffaele ed i suoi compagni furono fatti scendere e rinchiusi in
una grande sala colle pareti pure di pietra e che riceveva la luce da
due spaziose finestre, ma aperte a venti piedi dal suolo.
L’unico ornamento che si vedesse, era l’immagine del sole formato
da un grande disco d’oro con i raggi d’argento, collocato all’estremità
della sala, di fronte alla porta d’ingresso.
— Voi rimarrete qui fino a che Yopi avrà deciso sulla vostra sorte, —
disse l’indiano a cui si erano arresi. — Non temete nulla e riposate
tranquilli.
Poi tutti gl’indiani uscirono chiudendo e sprangando la porta.
— Dove ci hanno condotti? — chiese Alonzo, che non si era ancora
rimesso dal suo sbalordimento.
— In un tempio dedicato al sole, credo, — rispose il dottore, che
contemplava tranquillamente l’immagine dell’astro diurno. — A
quanto pare, questi indiani hanno conservato l’antica religione dei
Peruviani.
— Ma intanto ci lasciano morire di fame, dottore.
— Spero che si ricorderanno di noi.
— E tarderà molto quel signor Yopi, a decidersi sulla nostra sorte? Io
comincio a non vederci più chiaro in tutte queste avventure.
— Ditemi, Velasco, — disse don Raffaele, che da qualche istante
pareva tormentato da un pensiero. — Gli Inchi offrivano sacrifici
umani al Sole?
— No, don Raffaele. Nelle grandi solennità uccidevano delle pecore
o delle vigogne, dei lama, e mai uomini.
— Nemmeno i nemici fatti prigioni in guerra?
— No.
— Mi levate un grande peso che mi opprimeva, Velasco. Cominciavo
a temere che avessero intenzione di offrire la nostra vita al Sole.
— Non abbiate questo timore: gli antichi Peruviani non erano cattivi,
tutt’altro.
— Ma cosa vorrà fare di noi Yopi?
— Non saprei dirvelo.
— Che situazione poco allegra, Velasco!
— Non disperiamo, don Raffaele.
— Zitti! — disse Alonzo.
Aveva udito delle voci presso la porta. Poco dopo le sbarre vennero
levate ed entrarono due indiani, portando due grandi ceste di foglie
intrecciate, contenenti gran numero di quelle mezze zucche seccate
chiamate cui, ricolme di varie specie di radici, di frutta e di liquidi.
Deposero i canestri a terra, fecero un inchino dinanzi agli uomini
bianchi piegando un ginocchio, poi se ne andarono senza aver
pronunciata una sola parola.
— La colazione viene in buon punto, — disse Alonzo. — Il mio
ventre è perfettamente vuoto.
— Vediamo cosa hanno recato, — disse il dottore, gettando uno
sguardo sui canestri. — Diamine!... Un vero pasto d’antichi
Peruviani!... Questi indiani, a quanto sembra, non solo hanno
conservata la religione primitiva degli Inchi, ma anche le abitudini di
quei figli del Sole. Ecco qui una minestra di quinea, molto in uso nel
Perù tre secoli or sono.
— Cos’è questa quinea? — chiese don Raffaele.
— Una specie di miglio che produce il chenopodio, una pianta le cui
foglie si mangiavano avidamente da quei popoli e che si dice fossero
tenere e di buon sapore.
— E questo cui cosa contiene, mio erudito amico? — chiese il
piantatore.
— Sono larvi, specie di piselli, ma come ben vedete, più grossi dei
nostri ed anche migliori. Quelle pallottoline polpose, grosse come un
pollice ed arrostite, sono papa e servivano di pane agli Inchi; quelle
piccole radici, che sono seccate al sole e che sono più dolci dello
zucchero, si chiamano toca e quelle patate rosse, gialle, nere e
bianche, che hanno ognuna un sapore differente, si chiamano upicu.
— E questi tuberi?
— Sono cuchuchu, specie di tartufi e quelli altri sono inchi e hanno il
sapore delle mandorle, ma crudi producono un forte mal di capo e
cotti sono invece sanissimi.
— E questi liquidi?
— Birra di maiz.
— E quei due uomini, chi sono? — chiese Alonzo.
Il dottore e don Raffaele alzarono il capo. Due indiani erano
silenziosamente entrati da una porta laterale e si erano fermati
dinanzi ai prigionieri colle braccia incrociate sul petto ed il sorriso
sulle labbra.
Don Raffaele balzò in piedi emettendo un grido di stupore, poi
lanciandosi verso di loro colle pugna chiuse, esclamò:
— Tu Manco!... Tu Huayna!...
— Noi, padrone, — risposero i due indiani, senza muoversi.
— E venite a vendicarvi della vostra schiavitù?
— No, padrone; veniamo per dirti che noi abbiamo ottenuto da Yopi
la tua grazia.
— Ah!...
— Ma chi sono quei due indiani? — chiesero Alonzo ed il dottore,
stupiti.
— Volete saperlo? — disse don Raffaele. — Sono i due indiani che
ci precedevano e che ci affondarono la scialuppa.
— Ma come li conosci, cugino?
— Sono i due schiavi fuggiti dalla piantagione.
— È vero, padrone, — risposero i due indiani.
— Il mio sospetto era vero! — esclamò il dottore. — Quel grido udito
sulla terrazza, l’avevo sempre negli orecchi.
— Siete voi adunque che ci avete suscitati tutti quegli ostacoli, per
impedirci di giungere alla Città dell’Oro? — chiese Alonzo.
— Sì, — rispose Manco. — Agli uomini bianchi è proibito inoltrarsi
nelle terre abitate dai discendenti dei figli del Sole e noi volevamo
arrestarvi, ma senza farvi male. Avremmo potuto uccidervi a colpi di
fucile più di venti volte, e come vedete, vi abbiamo sempre
risparmiati.
— Ma conoscevi Yaruri? — chiese don Raffaele.
— Sì, padrone.
— Spiegati.
— Noi siamo due Eperomerii come Yopi. Il vostro amico viaggiatore,
che ci fece schiavi, ci aveva sorpresi alla foce del Tipapu mentre noi
cacciavamo i manati (lamantini). La sera che vi vedemmo tornare
alla piantagione in compagnia di Yaruri, ci nacque il sospetto che
quell’uomo volesse tradire il secolare segreto della Città dell’Oro e ci
inerpicammo fino alla terrazza, nascondendoci fra le piante
rampicanti. Nessuna delle vostre parole ci sfuggì e fu in quel
momento che Huayna, sdegnato per l’infame tradimento, non potè
trattenere quel grido di rabbia che tanto vi sorprese. Prendemmo
subito la nostra decisione. Nei vostri magazzini c’impadronimmo di
due fucili, salimmo in uno dei vostri più rapidi canotti munito di una
piccola vela e non veduti prendemmo il largo per fermarvi e per
avvertire la nostra tribù del pericolo che correva. Due volte
tentammo di abbattere il traditore, ma un genio malefico lo
proteggeva. Quando vi arrestammo alla seconda cateratta,
fuggimmo per avvertire Yopi e la nostra tribù e quelle alleate si
prepararono alla difesa.
— Ma perchè ci avete risparmiati? — chiese don Raffaele.
— Perchè durante la nostra schiavitù mai abbiamo avuto a dolerci di
te, padrone, — disse Manco con nobiltà.
— Grazie, — rispose il piantatore con voce commossa. — Ma Yaruri
che persona è?
— Un ambizioso che odiava Yopi mortalmente, perchè questi era
stato eletto capo supremo della tribù dei figli del Sole.
— E dov’è ora Yaruri?
— Nelle nostre mani.
— Dove l’avete preso?
— Nella foresta, mentre strisciava fra le piante per guadagnare
Manoa e pugnalare a tradimento Yopi.
— E cosa ne farete di quell’uomo?
— I traditori meritano la morte: i caimani dello stagno nero lo
attendono.
— E se io vi promettessi di condurlo con me e non lasciarlo più mai
rivedere questi luoghi?
— È impossibile concedertelo. Yopi lo ha condannato e Yaruri morrà.
— E noi? Verremo uccisi?
— No; domani i piaye interrogheranno le viscere dell’agnello nero
durante la festa di Raynù, ma Yopi ha detto a loro che voi non
dovete morire e lo obbediranno.
— Ma dove si farà questa festa?
— In questo tempio che è dedicato al sole.
— E ci lascierà ritornare al nostro paese liberi?
— Si, poichè noi così abbiamo voluto, in compenso della nostra
fedeltà.
— Grazie, miei buoni amici, — disse don Raffaele, tendendo a loro
le mani. — Ma la Città dell’Oro non potremo vederla noi?
— Forse, dall’alto della montagna. Addio padrone: a domani.
 XXIV.
Il supplizio del traditore.

La festa di Raynù, che gli Inchi celebravano in onore del Sole, e che
gli abitanti della Città dell’Oro avevano conservata, i soli forse di
quella grande nazione ferocemente dispersa dai conquistatori
spagnuoli, era una delle più grandi, delle più pompose, delle più
magnifiche degli antichi Peruviani.
Scadeva nel solstizio boreale, quando cioè il sole, toccato già il
punto più lontano del Perù, muoveva a recargli ogni giorno crescente
luce e calore, infondendo nuova vita a tutta la natura.
Gl’Inchi la solennizzavano con un apparato sfarzoso, ma prima vi si
preparavano con un digiuno di tre giorni, durante i quali non era
permesso di accendere fuoco in nessuna casa, ma si accordava agli
abitanti di mangiare pochi grani di maiz crudo e di bere poche goccie
d’acqua.
L’imperatore, che in quel giorno faceva le funzioni di sommo
pontefice, prima dello spuntare del sole usciva dai suoi grandiosi
palazzi seguito da centinaia di curachi [11] coperti di abiti finissimi,
luccicanti di pagliuzze d’oro e di ricami d’argento e le teste adorne di
ghirlande d’oro massiccio e coperti di pelli di fiere o adorni d’ali di
condor, e da un numero infinito di soldati e di popolani
rappresentanti le diverse nazioni sottomesse all’impero.
Quell’immenso corteo si recava nella grande piazza di Cusco, —
allora questa era città capitale dell’impero, — ed attendeva, a piedi
nudi, il sorgere del sole. Appena il primo raggio appariva sulle alte
vette della Cordigliera, tutti cadevano in ginocchio con ambe le
braccia tese innanzi, per adorarlo, mandando baci e chiamandolo
dio e padre.
L’imperatore, solo fra tutti, s’alzava e tenendo in mano un vaso d’oro
pieno della bevanda ordinaria del paese, come primogenito del Sole
lo invitava a bere.
Ritenendosi accolta l’offerta e supponendo da parte dell’astro diurno
eguale invito, l’imperatore in altro vaso beveva qualche sorso,
dividendo poi il rimanente liquido fra gli altri principi del sangue, che
lo bevevano entro tazzine d’oro che poi portavano con loro a tale
scopo.
Dopo questa cerimonia l’imperatore ed i più grandi personaggi si
recavano nel tempio del sole ove vedevasi l’immagine dell’astro, di
gigantesche dimensioni, coi raggi d’oro e d’argento adorni di pietre
preziose e si deponevano dinanzi ad esso le offerte dei Curachi e
dei rappresentanti delle provincie, consistenti in piccoli animali d’oro
o d’argento od oggetti di maggior pregio.
I ministri del tempio intanto sacrificavano grande numero di agnelli e
interrogavano ansiosamente le viscere, il cuore ed i polmoni d’un
agnello nero, per conoscere se il sole era soddisfatto di tutti quegli
omaggi.
Se dopo ucciso l’animale i polmoni palpitavano ancora, se i condotti
d’aria erano ben gonfi dopo d’avervi soffiato dentro, la risposta era
affermativa. In caso contrario sacrificavano un montone, poi un’altra
pecora e se anche queste davano infausti segni, i peruviani
ritenevano che l’astro maggiore fosse malcontento di loro e si
preparasse a punirli.
In seguito si bruciava il cuore delle vittime, si accendeva il fuoco
sacro mediante un vasettino concavo d’un metallo lucidissimo, entro
il quale, riflettendosi i raggi come nel centro d’una lente,
accendevano del cotone ben asciutto, si cucinavano con quello tutti
gli animali uccisi e le carni venivano dispensate ai presenti.
La festa terminava con una distribuzione di pezzettini di pane, detto
caucu, preparati dalle sacerdotesse del tempio del Sole, in sfide a
chi più beveva ed in brindisi senza fine.....

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

L’indomani, prima dell’alba, don Raffaele ed i suoi compagni

venivano bruscamente svegliati da un concerto di flauti e di
tamburelli, accompagnato di quando in quando da vociferazioni
acutissime. Pareva che dinanzi al tempio del Sole si fossero
radunate parecchie migliaia di persone.
Don Raffaele ed Alonzo si erano svegliati in preda ad una viva
inquietudine, temendo che gl’indiani si preparassero ad assalirli,
malgrado le promesse di Manco e di Huayna. Il dottore però, che
sapeva di cosa trattavasi, si affrettò a tranquillarli.
— Non temete, — diss’egli. — Comincia la festa di Raynù e
gl’indiani si radunano per salutare l’astro che sta per comparire.
— Entreranno qui poi? — chiese Alonzo.
— Certamente, — rispose Velasco. — Verranno a sacrificare
l’agnello nero per interrogarne le viscere.
Il vocìo intanto continuava. Ad un tratto però cessò del tutto, ma
poco dopo si udirono echeggiare grida acute, mentre i flauti
suonavano furiosamente e i tamburelli precipitavano le battute.
— Il Sole è comparso, — disse il dottore, che porgeva attento
orecchio a quei diversi fragori.
Passarono ancora alcuni minuti di ansietà per don Raffaele e per
Alonzo, i quali non si sentivano del tutto tranquilli, poi le porte del
tempio s’aprirono e comparvero otto indiani adorni di penne
variopinte e di sottanini ricamati d’oro, portando un trono d’oro sul
quale sedeva un altro indiano recante in fronte la fascia rossa,
distintivo dei discendenti dei figli del Sole, e coperto d’una specie di
manto intessuto con pagliuzze d’oro. Aveva ai piedi dei calzari di
cotone rosso e sul petto portava, appesa ad una catenella,
l’immagine del Sole. Quell’uomo poteva avere trent’anni. Era alto di
statura, aveva la fronte spaziosa, i lineamenti molto più regolari dei
suoi compatrioti, gli sguardi intelligenti e la sua pelle era
leggermente abbronzata, ma con dei riflessi ramigni.
— Yopi forse? — chiese don Raffaele, guardando fisso l’indiano.
— È lui, — gli rispose una voce.
Si volse e si trovò presso a Manco.
— Non temete, padrone, — continuò l’ex schiavo. — Siete salvi.
Il re della Città dell’Oro discese dinanzi all’immagine del Sole
sospesa all’estremità del tempio, s’inginocchiò toccando colla fronte
le pietre del pavimento, poi le offerse un vaso d’oro, squisitamente
cesellato, mentre altri indiani, i più grandi dignitari di certo, offrivano
pietre preziose, smeraldi e turchine o figurine d’uccelli o di animali
d’oro massiccio.
Poi Yopi s’alzò e volgendosi verso i piaye che lo avevano seguito,
gridò:
— Si conduca l’agnello.
La folla che si assiepava nel tempio s’aprì e fu tratto innanzi un
grosso agnello, col pelame tutto nero.
I piaye volsero la testa dell’animale verso levante, poi uno di loro,
armatosi d’un coltello aguzzo e tagliente, gli aprì il fianco sinistro
levandogli rapidamente, secondo l’antico rito, le viscere, poi i
polmoni ed il cuore.
Le une erano uscite intatte, i secondi palpitavano ancora ed il terzo
non aveva alcun guasto: l’augurio non poteva essere migliore ed il
popolo salutò il felice annuncio con grida di gioia.
Allora Yopi, volgendosi verso gli uomini bianchi che si erano
aggruppati presso Manco, gridò:
— Il Sole vi protegge, o stranieri: voi non morrete.
Acceso il fuoco sacro e dispensato il caucu, Yopi fece sgombrare il
tempio e avvicinandosi a don Raffaele ed ai suoi compagni, disse: