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FOR INFORMATION:

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 Copyright © 2018 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in Canada.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Levine, Laura E., author. | Munsch, Joyce, author.

Title: Child development : an active learning approach / Laura E. Levine, Emerita

Central Connecticut State University, Joyce Munsch, Emerita, California

State University, Northridge.

Description: Third edition. | Los Angeles : SAGE, [2017] | Includes bibliographical

references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016034251 | ISBN 978-1-5063-3069-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Child psychology. | Child development.

Classification: LCC BF721 .L5225 2017 | DDC 155.4—dc23 LC record available at

https://lccn.loc.gov/2016034251

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Acquisitions Editor: Lara Parra

Development Editor: Cheri Dellelo

Associate Editor: Lucy Berbeo

eLearning Editor: Morgan Shannon

Editorial Assistant: Zachary Valladon

Production Editor: Olivia Weber-Stenis

Copy Editor: Gretchen Treadwell

Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.

Proofreader: Sally Jaskold

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Indexer: Michael Ferreira

Cover Designer: Gail Buschman

Marketing Manager: Katherine Hepburn

10
Brief Contents
Preface
About the Authors
PART I. UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT: WHY AND HOW
WE STUDY CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
1. Issues and Themes in Child Development
2. Theories of Development
3. How We Study Development
PART II. BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS AND PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
4. How Children Develop: Nature Through Nurture
5. Prenatal Development, the Newborn, and the Transition to
Parenthood
6. Physical Development: The Brain and the Body
PART III. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
7. Theories of Cognitive Development
8. Intelligence and Academic Achievement
9. Language Development
PART IV. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
10. Emotional Development and Attachment
11. Identity: The Self, Gender, and Moral Development
12. Social Development: Social Cognition and Peer
Relationships
PART V. CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT
13. Families
14. Activities, Media, and the Natural World
15. Health, Well-Being, and Resilience
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index

11
Detailed Contents
Preface
About the Authors
PART I. UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT: WHY AND HOW
WE STUDY CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
1. Issues and Themes in Child Development
Why Study Child Development?
Understanding the Process of Development
Using Our Knowledge of Child Development
Parents and Family Members
Child Development Professionals
ACTIVE LEARNING: How Much Do You Know
About Careers in Child Development?
Policymakers
ACTIVE LEARNING: Social Policy Affecting
Children and Adolescents
Understanding How Development Happens
Domains of Development
Ages and Stages
Themes in the Field of Child Development
Nature and Nurture
Continuous Versus Stagelike Development
Stability Versus Change
Individual Differences
The Role of the Child in Development
Positive Psychology
Integrating Themes and Issues
Contexts of Development
Family
School
Community
Culture
ACTIVE LEARNING: Cultural Competence and
Grief
Being a Smart Consumer of Information About
Development
Knowing Your Sources
ACTIVE LEARNING: Evaluating Information on the

12
 Web
Becoming a Critical Thinker
Guarding Against Generalizations
Avoiding Perceptual Bias
ACTIVE LEARNING: Testing Your Knowledge of
Child Development
Getting the Most From Your Textbook
2. Theories of Development
Test your Knowledge
Basic Principles and Applications
Why Theories of Development Are Important
How Do Developmental Theories Differ?
How Does Change Happen?
Why Does Change Happen?
Theories of Child and Adolescent Development
Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
ACTIVE LEARNING: Comparing Psychoanalytic
Theories
Modern Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory
Learning Theories
John B. Watson and Classical Conditioning
ACTIVE LEARNING: Understanding the Process of
Classical Conditioning
Modern Applications of Classical Conditioning
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
ACTIVE LEARNING: Reward Yourself!
Modern Applications of Operant Conditioning
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory
Modern Applications of Social Cognitive Theory
Theories of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Modern Applications of Piaget’s Theory
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Modern Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
Information Processing
Modern Applications of Information Processing
Evolutionary Theories
Ethology
ACTIVE LEARNING: Rough-and-Tumble Play

13
 Sociobiology
Modern Applications of Evolutionary Theory
Ecological Theory
ACTIVE LEARNING: Examples of Ecological
Systems
Modern Applications of Ecological Theory
Dynamic Systems Theory
Modern Applications of Dynamic Systems
Theory
Overview and Historical Context of Theories
Journey of Research: Theories in Historical and
Cultural Context
The Impact of Biology and Culture on Child Development
Theory and Research
Neuropsychology and Behavioral Genetics
Developmental Theory in a Cultural Context
3. How We Study Development
Test your Knowledge
The Scientific Method
Basic and Applied Research
Developing Hypotheses
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Forming a Hypothesis
Operationalizing Concepts
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Operationalizing Concepts
Reliability and Validity
Sampling and Representative Samples
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Sampling
Methods and Measures
Observations
ACTIVE LEARNING: Observation or Interpretation?
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Doing Observational
Research
Self-Report Measures
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Children’s Eyewitness
Testimony
Standardized Tests
Physiological Measures
Archival Records

14
 Case Studies
Ethnography
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Measures
Replication of Results
How Research Is Designed
Experimental Research Designs: Identifying the
Causes of Behavior
ACTIVE LEARNING: Experimental Research Design
Natural or “Quasi” Experiments
Correlational Designs
ACTIVE LEARNING: Positive and Negative
Correlations
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Scientific Method—
Research Designs
Developmental Designs
Longitudinal Research
Cross-Sectional Research
Sequential Research
Microgenetic Research
Interpreting and Communicating the Results of a
Study
Ethics in Research With Children and Adolescents
PART II. BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS AND PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
4. How Children Develop: Nature Through Nurture
Test your Knowledge
The Study of Genetics and Behavior
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The History of Research
on Genetics
Molecular Genetics: Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
Mendelian Inheritance: Dominant and Recessive
Genes
ACTIVE LEARNING: Understanding the Inheritance
of Tay-Sachs Disease
One Behavior, Many Genes; One Gene, Many Effects
Genetic Disorders
Single Gene Disorders
Chromosome Disorders
Multifactorial Inheritance Disorders
Genetic Counseling and Testing

15
 ACTIVE LEARNING: Assessing Genetic Risk
Ethical Considerations in Genetic Testing
Treatment of Genetic Disorders
Behavioral Genetics
Studies of Adopted Children
Studies Comparing Identical and Fraternal Twins
Studies of Identical Twins Reared Apart
ACTIVE LEARNING: Concordance Rates
The Interaction of Genes and Environment
How the Environment Shapes Gene Expression
Canalization
Behavioral Epigenetics
Complexities in the Study of Gene-Environment
Interaction
How Genes Shape the Environment
5. Prenatal Development, the Newborn, and the Transition to
Parenthood
Test your Knowledge
Prenatal Development
The Three Stages of Prenatal Development
The Germinal Stage (Conception to 2 Weeks)
The Embryonic Stage (2 Weeks to 2 Months)
The Fetal Stage (Week 9 to Birth)
ACTIVE LEARNING: Old Wives’ Tale or Scientific
Fact?
Health and Risks in Pregnancy
Three Trimesters of Pregnancy
Miscarriage
Maternal Health and Well-Being
Maternal Diet
Exercise
Teratogens
Alcohol
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Understanding the
Effects of Alcohol on a Pregnancy
Tobacco
Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drugs
ACTIVE LEARNING: Safety of Medications During
Pregnancy
Illegal Drugs
Diseases

16
 Maternal Stress
Environmental Toxins
The Birth Experience
Labor and Delivery
First Stage: Early and Active Labor
Second Stage: Pushing
Third Stage: Delivering the Placenta
Birthing Options
The Newborn
The Baby’s Birth Experience
Infant States
Mirror Neurons
Risks to the Newborn’s Health and Well-Being
Prematurity and Low Birth Weight
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: From Child Hatchery to
Modern NICU
Infant Mortality
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Abusive Head Trauma and Shaken Baby Syndrome
The Transition to Parenthood
Becoming a Mother
Becoming a Father
Becoming a Family
ACTIVE LEARNING: Easing the Transition to
Parenthood
6. Physical Development: The Brain and the Body
Test your Knowledge
Brain Development
ACTIVE LEARNING: Brain and Body
Structures of the Brain
Developmental Processes
Neurons and Synaptic Connections
Plasticity of the Brain
Myelination of Neurons
Brain Development Through Childhood and
Adolescence
Disorders Related to Brain Development
Cerebral Palsy
Autism Spectrum Disorder
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Searching for the Cause
of Autism Spectrum Disorder

17
 Schizophrenia
Development of the Senses
Vision
Hearing
Smell
Taste
Touch
Cross-Modal Transfer of Perception
ACTIVE LEARNING: How Toys Stimulate Babies’
Senses
Body Growth and Changes
Changing Bodily Proportions
ACTIVE LEARNING: Head-to-Body Proportions
ACTIVE LEARNING: Your Growth in Childhood
Teeth
Sexual Development
The Timing of Puberty
ACTIVE LEARNING: Timing of Puberty
Risks of Sexual Maturation: Pregnancy and STDs
Teen pregnancy
STIs and STDs
Motor Development
Infant Reflexes
Development of Motor Skills
Myelination of Motor Neurons
Motor Development in Older Children
Body Awareness
ACTIVE LEARNING: Developing Body Awareness
Motor Disability: Developmental Coordination
Disorder
Nutrition
Breast-Feeding
Healthy Eating
ACTIVE LEARNING: School Lunches
Malnourishment
Obesity and Being Overweight
Eating Disorders
PART III. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
7. Theories of Cognitive Development
Test your Knowledge
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

18
 ACTIVE LEARNING: Organizing by Cognitive
Schema
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
ACTIVE LEARNING: Testing Object Permanence
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
Intuitive thought
Egocentrism
Conservation
ACTIVE LEARNING: Conservation
Stage of Concrete Operations (7 to 12 Years)
Stage of Formal Operations (12 Years and Older)
ACTIVE LEARNING: Formal Operations
Adolescent egocentrism
Is Formal Operations the Final Stage?
Critique of Piaget’s Work
Ages and Stages
How Universal Is Cognitive Change?
Theory of Core Knowledge
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Is Object Permanence
Learned or Innate?
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive
Development
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
Private Speech
Information Processing
Attention
Attention in Infancy
Attention in Childhood
Attention in Adolescence
ACTIVE LEARNING: Studying and Distractions
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Memory
Memory in Infancy
Infantile amnesia
Memory in Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Working Memory
Encoding processes and information processing
speed
ACTIVE LEARNING: Encoding Processes

19
 Knowledge base
False memories
ACTIVE LEARNING: Creating False Memories
Memory in Adolescence
Executive Function
Executive Function in Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Executive Function: Head-
Shoulders-Knees-Toes
Executive Function During Adolescence
Metacognition
ACTIVE LEARNING: Metacognition
Comparing Four Theories of Cognitive Development
8. Intelligence and Academic Achievement
Test your Knowledge
Defining and Assessing Intelligence
Defining Intelligence
ACTIVE LEARNING: Defining Intelligence
Measuring Intelligence
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The History of
Intelligence Tests
Standardized Testing and Alternative Testing
Methods
Infant Intelligence
The Nature-Nurture Controversy and Intelligence
Neuroscience and Intelligence
IQ Scores and Academic Achievement
Alternative Views of Intelligence
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
ACTIVE LEARNING: Applying Multiple
Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Variations in Intellectual Ability
Intellectual Disability
Specific Learning Disorder
Giftedness
Creativity and Intelligence
ACTIVE LEARNING: Creativity Tests
Academic Achievement: Learning in the School Context
Classroom Environment
ACTIVE LEARNING: Teacher-Heroes in Movies and
Real Life

20
 Student-Teacher Ratios
Ability Grouping
Grade Retention
School Dropouts and High School Graduates
College-Bound Students
Group Differences in Academic Achievement
Gender and Academic Achievement
Boys’ Academic Achievement
Girls and the STEM Fields
ACTIVE LEARNING: Implicit Associations Test
Single-Gender Classrooms
Ethnic, Racial, and Cultural Influences on School
Achievement
The Impact of Poverty on Academic Achievement
9. Language Development
Test your Knowledge
Aspects of Language
Language and the Brain
Theories of Language Development
Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory
Nativism
Interactionism
Cognitive Processing Theory: Statistical Learning
Stages of Language Development
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Is There a Critical
Period for Language Learning?
Prenatal Development
Infants’ Preverbal Communication
Crying
Cooing
Babbling
Preverbal Perception of Language
How Adults Foster Language Development
Shared Attention, Gestures, and Sign Language
Child-Directed Speech
SES and Language Development
Toddlers’ Development of Words and Sentences
Growth of Vocabulary
ACTIVE LEARNING: Using Linguistic Constraints
Creating Sentences
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Impact of Word Order

21
 Language Development in Early Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Collecting a Language Sample
ACTIVE LEARNING: Private Speech
Language Development in Middle Childhood
ACTIVE LEARNING: Metalinguistic Awareness
The Language of Teenagers
Literacy: Reading and Writing
Reading
Emergent Literacy
ACTIVE LEARNING: Using Dialogic Reading
Learning to Read in School
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: What’s the Best Way to
Learn to Read?
Writing Skills
Bilingualism and Bilingual Education
Growing Up Bilingual
Bilingual Education
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Bilingual Education—
Sink or Swim?
Culture, Identity, and Bilingualism
Language Disorders
Communication Disorders
Autism Spectrum Disorder
ACTIVE LEARNING: Observing Conversation Skills
Dyslexia: A Language-Based Learning Disorder
PART IV. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
10. Emotional Development and Attachment
Test your Knowledge
Emotions: Universality and Difference
What Is Emotion?
ACTIVE LEARNING: Why We Use Emoticons and
Emoji
Development of Emotions: The Role of Self and
Others
Social Referencing
Empathy
ACTIVE LEARNING: Empathy and Sympathy
Self-Conscious Emotions
ACTIVE LEARNING: Shame and Guilt
Temperament
Measuring Temperament

22
 Stability of Temperament
ACTIVE LEARNING: Temperament
Regulation of Emotions and Self-Control
Self-Control and Self-Regulation
Effortful Control and Delay of Gratification
ACTIVE LEARNING: How Do Children Resist
Temptation?
Long-Term Outcomes of Self-Control
Normal Emotions and Emotional Problems
Fear and Anxiety
Sadness and Depression
Anger and Aggression
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
(DMDD)
Conduct Disorder
The Development of Secure Attachment
ACTIVE LEARNING: Experiencing a Sense of
Secure Attachment
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The History of the Study
of Attachment
The Development of Attachment: Bowlby’s Stages
Preattachment (Birth to 6 Weeks)
Attachment in the Making (6 Weeks to 6-8
Months)
Clear-Cut Attachment (6-8 Months to 18
Months–2 Years)
Goal-Corrected Partnership (18 Months On)
Security of Attachment
Attachment as a Relationship
The Role of the Mother
The Role of the Father
The Role of the Infant
All Together Now
ACTIVE LEARNING: Educating Parents
Attachment to Nonparental Caregivers
The Biology of Attachment
Attachment and Culture
Attachment Beyond Infancy
Long-Term Outcomes of Infant Attachment
Attachment in Childhood and Adolescence

23
 ACTIVE LEARNING: Romantic Attachment Styles
Attachment Disorders
Causes of Attachment Disorder
Prevention and Treatment of Attachment Disorders
11. Identity: The Self, Gender, and Moral Development
Test your Knowledge
Development of the Self-Concept
Self-Concept and Culture
The Self in Infants and Toddlers
Mirror Self-Recognition
Use of Pronouns
Visual Perspective-Taking
Possessiveness
The Self in Preschoolers
The Self in School-Age Children
The Self in Adolescents
Marcia’s Identity Statuses
Adolescent Rites of Passage
ACTIVE LEARNING: Rites of Passage
Development of Self-Esteem
ACTIVE LEARNING: The Difference Between Self-
Concept and Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem During Childhood
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: The Self-Esteem
Movement
Self-Esteem During Adolescence
Media, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem
Gender Identity
Theories of Gender Development
Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theories
Cognitive Developmental Theory
ACTIVE LEARNING: Kohlberg’s Cognitive
Developmental Theory of Gender Development
Gender Schema Theory
Gender Self-Socialization Model
ACTIVE LEARNING: Going Against Gender
Stereotypes
Identity in Lesbian Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender
(LGBT) Children and Teens
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual [LGB] Children and
Teens

24
 ACTIVE LEARNING: The Heterosexual
Questionnaire
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Explanations for
Homosexuality
Transgender, Transsexual, and Gender
Nonconforming Children and Teens
Ethnic and Racial Identity
Moral Identity
The Role of the Environment
The Role of Cognitive Development
JOURNEY OF RESEARCH: Kohlberg’s Life History
and His Theory
Gender Differences in Moral Thought
Cultural Differences in Moral Thought
Moral Thought and Moral Action
Social Domain Theory
The Role of Emotional Development
The Role of Innate Processes
Promoting Moral Development
12. Social Development: Social Cognition and Peer
Relationships
Test your Knowledge
Social Cognition: Theory of Mind
ACTIVE LEARNING: Mind Reading and
Mindblindness
ACTIVE LEARNING: False Beliefs
Peer Relationships in Infancy and Early Childhood
Infants and Toddlers: From Parent to Peer
Preschoolers and The Role of Play
ACTIVE LEARNING: What Is Play?
Physical Development
Emotional Development
Social Development
ACTIVE LEARNING: Parten’s Stages of Social Play
Cognitive Development
Playgrounds That Accommodate Children (and
Adults) With Disabilities
Peer Relationships in Middle Childhood
School-Age Children and Friendships
ACTIVE LEARNING: Rejection Sensitivity
Gender and Play

25
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