Fostering Mathematical Thinking in Higher Institution: Use of Problem-Based Learning.

NORAINI IDRIS University Of Malaya

Abstrak
Kebolehan dalam menyelesaikan sHattl masalah Matematik bergantung kepada tahap pemikiran seseorang pelajar. Dalam proses pe1!.yelesaian berasaskan masalah dalam Matematik, pelajar harus mampu berfikir untuk memahami masalah Matematik, merancang penyelesaian, menyesaikan dan mengaitkan masalt:zh yang sedang dihadapi dengan pengalaman dan pengetahuan yang telah dan sedang dilalui. Penyelesaian berasaskan IT/asalah berupqya menunjukkan perhubungan antara fakta, konsep ata teori dalam Matematik,. algoritma dan masalah dalam kehidupan sebanan. Oleb yang demikian, kemahiran me'!.Yelesaikan masalah dalam Matematik memangpenting dan hams dipupuk terutama dlka/angan pelqjar yang sedang menuntut di institut pengo/ian tilrggi. DalaJt/ artikel ini, penulis akan berkongsi tentang pendekatan penyee/esaian berasaskan masalah dapat meningkatkan rasa ingin tahu tentang Matematik dalam pembelajaran di institusi pengajian tinggi..

Introduction Problem-based learning is an important technique of learning Mathematics, and this method continues to receive significant attention in higher institution mathematics and mathematics education. To achieve change in mathematical thinking in higher institutions, we ought rather look carefully at the environment in which students learn and the system of ideas, which that environment represents. A problem can be defined as any situation in which some information is known and other information is needed. The problem might be something that gives rise to doubt or uncertainty, something that is hard to understand, a difficult task or question, or an inquiry that starts from

Issues in Education, Volume 25, 2002

118 given conditions to investigate facts or principles. Problem-based learning can be considered as the process of applying existing knowledge to a new or unfamiliar situation in order to gain new knowledge. Thus, problem-based learning can help students to realize that the knowledge they have already gained can be applied to new situations, and that this process can lead them to gain new knowledge. When problem-based learning is used as a teaching strategy, the emphasis should be on student learning about the subject, rather than simply learning to solve problems. The reason that this point is being stressed is that if we simply teach students how to solve problems they may learn very little other than the sequence of steps they need to follow in order to solve a particular type of problem. This is not an effective way to help students learn because there is considerable research evidence that students who are taught to solve problems with a " meanends" approach can do so "with very little knowledge acquisition" (Owen & Sweller, 1985, p.273). Some of this research also suggested that if you restructure problems to replace an emphasis on students exploring all aspects of the problem (rather than finding "the answer") they are more likely to develop an understanding of the principles and concepts embodied in the problem. However, students must learn how to work in small groups in order to learn about the subject matter in that way. The choice of problems will have a very significant impact on what students can learn about Mathematics by attempting to solve the problems. There is some evidence that a poor choice of problems can actually inhibit student learning (Owen & Sweller, 1985 ). By studying the literature on the teaching Mathematics via problem-based learning, it is possible to learn a lot about how problems can be used as a strategy for teaching other input such as subject content, thinking skills and metacognition. An important reason for having students solve problems is to help them gain insights that will enable them to understand the subject matter and to look at it from different perspectives. Therefore, the

Masalah Pendidikan, Jilid 25, 2002

119 most appropriate times for us to use problem-based learning as a teaching strategy are: (i) to help students gain a deep understanding of the subject matter,

rather than just remembering bits of it ( Vernon & Blake,1993); (ii) to develop students' thinking and reasoning skills-that is, their ability

to analyse situations, to apply their existing knowledge to new situations, to recognise the difference between facts and opinions, and to make objective judgements; (iii) to develop students' problem-solving skills - that is, their ability to

assess and respond to new situations; (iv ) (v) to tty to intellectually challenge our students; to encourage students to take greater responsibility for their own

learning; (vi) to understand the relationship between what students are study ing

and the real world ( or the relationship between theory and practice); (vii) to make students' learning experiences varied and interesting; (viii) to help students to become competent in information-seeking skills (Vernon & Blake, 1993; Albanese & Mitchell,1993); and (ix) to help students view the instructor as a resource who can help them

solve problems, rather than only as a source of test answers (Aspy, Aspy & Quimby, 1993). Establishing an Appropriate Learning Climate We cannot expect students to learn through problem-based learning unless we create and maintain an appropriate learning climate. Teaching and learning in the University are inextricably and elaborately linked. Most of the university management agree that one approach to imIssues in Education Volume 25, 2002

120 proving teaching and learning in the University involve concentrating on various instructional techniques, such as how to give a lecture, how to use a computer, organize laboratory classes, or manage a small group discussion (Noraini,2000). A Learner-Centred Environment based on constructivist rather than a behaviorist view of learning is essential to PBL. It is assumed that students actively construct their own understanding of understanding of skills and knowledge rather than having it delivered to them by the lecturer. Lessons should emphasize both a deep understanding of learning process and skill performance, rather than focusing on the performance of the skill alone. PBL acknowledges the social nature of learning with high levels of interaction between the lecturer and students and between students themselves. Teaching needs involve the creating of a situation for teacher and student interaction to encourage student learning, and building up student confidence. Engaging students in their learning and development is a key whereby students can improve their problem-solving skill by working in pairs or cooperative groups. This is particularly important if you are taking a constructivist approach to teaching ( Yackel, Cobb, Wood, & Merkel,1990) so that our main aim is to help students build their own understanding of the subject, rather than simply accept pieces of knowledge that we present to them. When we allow our students to work in pairs it encourages them to develop explanations that are meaningful to someone else, and to try to interpret the developing ideas of their partners. Duren and Cherrington (1992) suggested that the main advantage of co-operative learning groups is that they give students the opportunity to talk aloud, challenge and defend a point of view, and focus on the problem-based learning processes rather than the answer alone. They also claimed that students who work cooperative to master problem-solving strategies are better able to remember and apply those strategies than students who work independently. To foster good working relationships between the students, the following should be considered:
Masalah Pendidikan, Jilid 25, 2002

121 (i) pair high-ability students with average-ability students, (ii) pair low-ability students with average-ability students, (iii) provide each pair with just one set of materials (if they are needed); and (tv) encourage each pair to reach a consensus before offering a solution to the problem. When students are solving problems, encourage them to suggest hypotheses that lead to the generalization of the solution to other similar problems. Bledsoe (1989) suggested a very entertaining way of doing this, and illustrates one method of using problems to motivate students to expand their subject matter knowledge. In general, the instructor should: (i) ment, (ii) praise students for their contributions, particularly if they indicate that the students are using innovative approaches, (iii) encourage students to develop logical arguments to support their hypotheses; and (iv) help students to feel comfortable about attempting to explain why their generalization is true or attempting to find a counter example to disprove another student's generalization. Students may feel more comfortable sharing their ideas in small groups (rather than with the whole class), at least until they develop the confidence to state and defend their ideas and approaches used in pro blem-based learning. accept all hypotheses students offer without making value judge-

Issues in Education, Volume 25,2002

122

Developing Students' Thinking Skills

In using problem based learning as an effective teaching strategy, the instructor might first have to spend time helping students to become effective thinkers. There is considerable literature available on how each students think ( e.g., de Baron & Sternberg, 1987; Fogarty, 1991; Bellanca & Forgaty, 1991; Knight, 1992; Langhrehr, 1993; Mead & Scharmann, 1994). One of the difficulties in teaching students to think is that "we do not have a simple language as a control system for our thinking" (de Bono, 1985, p.201). De Bono suggests the "six thinking hats" technique as a solution to this problem, so that students can be taught to make deliberate choice about the type of thinking they use, and that they have a simple language for discussing their thinking processes. If we do not favour de Bono's approach, we might at least like to try to identify some of the core thinking skills that students will need in order to solve problems. The following list of thinking skills might help the instructor to plan ways to enhance students' thinking (and the instructor thinking as well).

Focusing skills. Students will not be able to solve problems unless they can focus their thinking on specific issues and temporarily ignore other things. For example, you might ask them to concentrate on generating alternative solutions before they start to evaluate these solutions. The most important aspects of these skills are:
(i) the ability to define exactly what the problem is; (ii) the ability to describe the required outcome; and (iii) the ability to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information.

Information-gathering skills. (For all but simplest of problems, students will need to gather information (beyond that which the instructor provides). The minimum requirements for student are:)
Masalah Pendidikan, Jilid 25, 2002

123 (i) the ability to identify what information is needed; (ii) the ability to formulate questions to guide information gathering; and (iii) the ability to gather information by observation or by an appropriate form of research.

Organising skills. While students are gathering information to enable them to solve a problem, they must be able to organize that information into a form that will enable them to interpret the information and put it to best use. They will at least need to be able to:
(i) lighted; compare information so that similarities and differences are high-

(ii) classify, categorise or arrange things on the basis of their attributes or characteristics (or some other criteria), so that the information is more readilv assimilated; and
(iii) represent information in new forms (such as arranging information in a table or using a diagram to represent information contained in text).

Analysing and inter grating skills. Once information has been gathered and organized, it needs to be placed within an overall conceptual framework. This process of analysis and intergration into existing knowledge structures depends on students' ability to identify key elements and relationship between the various pieces of information they have gathered. They will at last need to be able to:
(i) identify the main ideas in the information; (ii) suggest some possible relationships between components of that information (so that these types of formal analysis might be fruitful);
Issues in Education, Volume 25,2002

124 (iii) use appropriate methods to identify important elements, relationships and patterns in the information (particularly cause and effect relationship); (iv) identify errors in the facts, logic, calculations or procedures in the given information; and (v) modify their existing knowledge structures to accommodate the new information.

Evaluating skills. Non-trivial problems rarely have a single answer or a single method and the merit or logic of ideas; and apply these criteria objectively as well as emotionally. Challenges to Create Problem-based Learning Environment
Guiding students into valid constructions of understanding takes a great deal of effort and practice. In the case of a university, teaching and learning and research are the "core business". The manpower of the future will have to be well-trained and multi-skilled, flexible and creative. Operating within the education and research environment, the university management must understand future trends and directions of education and research in order for them to reassess their roles and plan their strategies for action in readiness for achievement of the university's vision. Staff of several institutions of higher learning has no training in teaching in the classroom. Most of them are unaware about problem-based learning environment. But the question now is "Can universities create a Problem-based Learning environment?" Majority of the university management in the University of Malaya agree that they are working towards creating a problem-based learning environment, developing students' motivation and increasing students' critical thinking skills. They are also aware that students have changed, as students today are diverse in nature, in their learning abilities and learning styles. The University management needs to engage lecturers to organize the overall curriculum so that
Masalah Pendidikan, Jilid 25, 2002

125 course content responds to market demand, the emphasis of in-service training, specific duties and changes in institutional structure.

Moving into a Problem-based Learning Environment at the University of Malaya

Malaysia is blazing a trial into a high technology future with projects like the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) and aspiring to become a fully developed nation status by the year 2020. Increasingly, students are required to be proficient learners, aware of their own cognition and know what and when to select and use information available to enhance learning. Malaysia, like many other nations, is cognizant of the need to facilitate the education of smart learners capable of working competently with others in teams in an information technology environment and aware of their own learning and performance. We need to prepare students who know how to identify problems and find solutions, work in teams, communicate well, and know how to evaluate progress and learning. This construction process requires each learner to individually construct his own understanding of a concept by solving authentic problems. Most of the university management agree that this is based on interacting with an environment that includes other learners using the target activities in authentic situations. These sets of issues have been central to the ways in which the University of Malaya has been, and is, addressing changes to its culture so that its teaching and learning environment for all courses becomes a learner-centred environment.

Conclusion and Implication

Society at large needs citizens with skills in order to have a positive impact on social and political institutions and to plan for future generations. Regardless of what our vision may be, or how hard we work to bring it about, we can never reach it by using the same approaches we are using now. We can declare that we have reduce dropout rates in the universities by 25% before the turn of the century; but just trying
Issues in Education Volume 25, 2002

126 harder with the same methods we have already tried will never make this possible. Certainly, simply saying we will accomplish something will not bring it about. Management in universities must develop knowledge for themselves and for others in the organization; management must sustain passion for the vision and universities must become learning organizations in every way.

In building the capability of an organization and a problem-based learning environment, there is no substitute for organizational resolve, conviction, commitment, and clarity of intent. These create the need for learning and the collective will to learn.

Masalah Pendidikan, Jilid 25, 2002

127

References
Owen, E. & Sweller, J. (1985). What do students learn while solving mathematical problems? Journal of Educational PfYchology, 77(3), 272-84. Albanese, M. & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of the literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine, 68(1), 52-81. Aspy, D.N.,Aspy,C.B& Quimby, P.M. (1993). What doctors can teach teachers about problem-based learning. Educational Leadersbip, 50(7), 22-24. Bellanca,J.&Fogarty, R. (1991). Catch them thinking. Melbourne: Hawker Brownlow Education. Bledsoe, G.J. (1989). Hook your students on problem solving. Arithmetic Teacher, 37(4),16-20. De Bono, E. (1985).Six thinking hats. London: Penguin Books. Duren, P.E.& Chrerrington, A. (1992). The effects of cooperative group work versus independent practice on the learning of some problem-solving strategies. School Science and Mathematics, 92(2), 80-83. Fogarty, R. (1991). Keep them thinking. Melbourne: Hawker Brownlow Education. Knight, c.L.H. (1992). Teaching critical thinking in the social sciences. New Directions for Community Colleges, 20(1), 63-73. Noraini Idris (2000). Toward a learner-centred environment: Perceptions of Management. Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Improving University Teaching and Learning, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universitat, Frankfurt, Germany. Langrehr, J. (1993). Getting thinking into science questions. Australian Science Teachers Journal, 39(4), 33-37.
Issues in Education, Volume 25,2002

128 Vernon, nT. & Blake, R.L. (1993). Does problem-based learning work?A meta-analysis of evaluative research. Academic Medicine, 68(7), 550-563. Yackel, E., Cobb, P., Wood, T.& Merkel, G. (1990). Experience, problem solving, and discourse as central aspects of constructivism. Arithimetic Teacher, 38(4), 34-35.

Masalah Pendidikan, Jilid 25, 2002