Important English Grammar

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN ENGLISH
Tenses in English
Present Tenses
Present Simple
[Subject + V1 + (object)] Positive
[Subject + Aux + not + V1+ (object)] Negative
[WH/Aux + subject + V1 + (object)?] Question
 The present simple expresses a fact, which is always true, or true for along time.
Ex: He comes from Australia.
Ex: She doesn't work in ANZ bank.
Ex: Are you a businessman?
 It also expresses a habit
Ex: I get up at 7 o'clock am.
Ex: I don't do exercise at the morning.
Ex: Do you come from Singapore?
Present Continuous
[Subject + to be + V + ing + (object)] Positive
[Subject + to be + not + V + ing + (object)] Negative
[WH/be + be/subject + V + ing + (object)?] Question
 The present continuous describes an activity happening now and temporary activity.
Ex: She's wearing jeans.
Ex: She is not wearing jeans.
Ex: What is she wearing?
 It also describes an activity in the near future.
Ex: I'm playing tennis this afternoon.
Ex: John is seeing her girlfriend tonight.
o Most verbs just add –ing
Wear  wearing cook  cookinghold  holding
o If the infinitive ends in –e drop the –e
Write  writing smile  smilingtake  taking
o When a one-syllable verb has one vowel and ends in a consonant, double the
consonants
Sit  sitting get  getting run  running
Present Perfect
[Subject + have + Past participle] Positive
[Subject + haven't + Past participle] Negative
[How long + have + subject + Past participle] Question
 It expresses an action, which began in the past and still continues.
Ex: We've lived in the same house for twenty-five years.
Ex: How long have you known each other?
1 LANGUAGE COMMENTARY
TENG CHANNA
Ex: I haven't gone to Cambodia for four year.
 It expresses an experience that happened at some time in one's life. The action is in
the past and finished, but the effects of the action are still left.
Ex: How many times has he been married? (In his life)
Ex: I've been to the United States. (I still remember)
Ex: She hasn't gone in Australia. (She's at somewhere else)
 It expresses a past action that has a present result. The action is usually in the recent
past.
Ex: I've lost my wallet. (I haven't got in now)
Ex: The taxi hasn't arrived. (We're still waiting for it.)
Ex: What have you done to your lip? (It's bleeding.)
Note: Be careful with been and gone.
Ex: He's been to America. (Experience, he isn't there now)
Ex: She's gone to America. (Present result, she's there now)
Present Perfect Continuous

[Subject + have + been + V + ing] Positive
[Subject + haven't + been + V + ing] Negative
[How long + have + Subject + been + V + ing] Question
 The Present Perfect Continuous expresses an activity which began in the past and is
still continue now.
Ex: I've been learning English for six years.
Ex: How long have you been working here?
Ex: She hasn't been working there.
 The Present Perfect Continuous expresses a past activity which has cause a present
result.
Ex: I've been working all day. (I'm tired now.)
Ex: Have you been crying? (Your eyes are red.)
Ex: Roger hasn't been cutting the grass. (I can't smell it.)
Past Tenses
Past Simple
[Subject + V2 + (object)] Positive
[Subject + did/aux + not + V1+ (object)] Negative
[WH + did/aux + subject + V1 + (object)?] Question
 The past simple expresses a past action that is finished.
 The form of thee past simple is the same in all persons. (First, second, and third)
o The normal rule is to add –ed. If the verb ends on –e add –d
Work  worked love  loved
Ex: I worked ten hours last week.
Ex: I didn't work ten hours last week.
Ex: Did you work ten hours last week?
o If the verb has only one syllable and one vowel and one consonant double the
consonant.
Stop  stopped plan  planned
Ex: The bus stopped here yesterday.
TENG CHANNA
o Verbs that end in a consonant + -y change to –ied
Study  studied carry  carried
Ex: Last month, John studied Macroeconomic.
o Except for some regular verbs
Put  put cut  cut hit  hitshut  shut

Ex: He cut his finger last week.
o Auxiliary verbs
Be  was / were Will  would
Can  could should  shall
Have  had may  might
Do  did
Past Continuous
[Subject + Was/were + V + ing] Positive
[Subject + Was/were + not + V + ing] Negative
[WH + was/were + subject + V + ing] Question
 To express an activity in progress before, and probably after, a particular time in the
past.
Ex: I walked past you house last night. There was an awful lot of noise. What
were you doing?
Ex: At 7.00 this morning, I was having breakfast.
 To describe a situation or activity during a period in the past.
Ex: Jan looked lonely. She was wearing a green cotton dress. Her eyes were
shining in the light of the candles that were burning nearby.
 To express an incomplete activity in the past in order to contrast.
Ex: When the phone rang, I was having a bath.
Ex: We were playing tennis when it started to rain.
 The past simple is usually used to express a repeated past habit or situation.
Ex: I went out with Jack for years.
But the Past Continuous can be used if the repeated habit becomes a longer
'setting' for
something.
Ex: I was going out with Jack when I first met Harry.
Past Perfect
[Subject + had + Past participle] Positive
[Subject + had + not + Past participle] Negative
[WH + had + (subject) + Past participle] Question
 The Past Perfect is used to look back to a time in the past and refer to an action that
happen before then.
Ex: When I got home, I found that someone had broken into my flat and had
stolen my stereo.
Ex: I didn't want to go to the cinema with the others because I'd seen the film
before.
 Notice the difference between the following sentences.
Ex: When I got to the party, Peter went home.
(=After I arrived, Peter left.)
Ex: When I got to the party, Peter had gone home.
TENG CHANNA
(=Before I arrived, Peter left.)
Future Forms
Future Continuous
 The Future Continuous expresses an activity that will be in progress before and after
a time in the future.
Ex: Don't phone at 8.00. We'll be having supper.
Ex: This time morning I'll be flying to New York.

 The Future Continuous is used to refer to a future event that will happen in the
natural course of events. This use in uncolored by ideas such as intention, decision,
arrangement, or willingness. As time goes by, this event will occur.
Ex: Don't worry about our guests. They'll be arriving any minute now.
Ex: We'll be going right back to the football after the break. (said on television)
Future Perfect
 The Future Perfect refer to an action that will be complete before a definite time in
the future. It is not a very common verb form.
Ex: I'll have done all my work by this evening.
The Passive
+ -ed (past participle)

 The past participle of regular verbs ends in –ed. There are many common irregular
verbs.
Present Passive
Positive and negative
Ex: English is spoken all over the world.
Ex: Nokia phone are made in China.
Ex: My children aren't helped with their homework.
Ex: Coffee isn't grown in England.
Question
Ex: Where is ice grown?
Ex: Are cars made in your country?
Past Passive
Ex: My car was stolen last night.
Ex: The animals were frightened by a loud noise.
Ex: He wasn't injured in the accident.
Ex: John wasn't kidnapped by anyone.
Question
Ex: How was the window broken?
TENG CHANNA
Ex: Were the plants watered last night?
Present Perfect Passive

Ex: I've been robbed!
Ex: Randonal has been produced in French.
Ex: They haven't been invited to the party.

Question
Ex: How many times have you hurt playing football?
Ex: Has my car been repaired?
Will
Ex: David will be sent to jail next month.
Ex: Michel won't be punished coz he is innocent.
Ex: Will the children be sent to a new school?
Narrative Tenses
Past simple – uses
 To refer to a sequence of completed events.
Ex: I went across and stood under this sort of tree.
 To refer to habitual or repeated past actions.
Ex: I cycled to work every day last week.
 To refer to unreal events in the present or future.
Ex: It’s high time we had something to eat.
Ex: I’d rather you didn’t criticize me.
Past continuous – uses

 To refer to a background situation.
Ex: I was settling in well and getting on with my new colleagues...
 To refer to a past action in progress when something specific happened.
Ex: As I was walking home, I tripped and fell over.
Past perfect – uses

 To clarify a sequences of events in the past.
Ex: I arrived at the station, went to the waiting room, and started to read the book
I’d bought that morning.
 To explain a past action.
Ex: I’d left my keys at work so I couldn’t get into the house.
Ex: I was exhausted because I’d been running for two hours.
 In report speech
Ex: He said he’d tried to phone me the day before. (‘I tried to phone you
yesterday.’)
 As part of conditional structure.
Ex: If I hadn’t missed my train, I wouldn’t have felt so worried. (Third
conditional)
TENG CHANNA
Conditionals In English
The Conditional
a. Zero Conditional – uses
Something that is always true or that happen regularly in certain situations.
Ex: If you heat ice, it melts.
Ex: If I go on a long journey, I read or listen to music.
b. First Conditional – uses

- Something possible or likely in the future.
Ex: If it’s sunny, we will go for a picnic.
- Warnings, threats, or promises.
Ex: If you don’t work a bit harder, they won’t renew your contract.
- Instructions.
Ex: If you need any help, give me a ring.
Note: In conversation the word if can be left out.
Ex: You want to get into the club – you’ll have to queue up like everyone else.
- Sometime the sentence starts with an imperative form or the verb and the two
clauses are linked with and. This is often used for warnings or threats.
Ex: Do that again and you’ll be in trouble.
c. Second Conditional – uses

- Something possible but improbable in the future.
Ex: You wouldn’t enjoy the film if you saw it.
- Something hypothetical, unreal, or impossible.
Ex: If you don’t live so far away, I’d come and see you more often.
Ex: If I were ten years younger, I’d marry you.
Note: In second conditional sentences, we can use was or were. Were is rather more
formal.
Ex: If he were/was here, I’m sure he’d known what to do.
- Advice.
Ex: If I were you, I’d say nothing about it to anyone.
d. Third Conditional – uses

- Something imaginary in the past.
Ex: If I hadn’t gone to that meeting, we wouldn’t have met.
TENG CHANNA
Ex: You have enjoyed the play if you hadn’t fallen asleep.
Note: Inversion is an alternative to the if clause in third conditionals.
Ex: Had I known you weren’t coming, I wouldn’t have bought so much food. (= if
I had known)
e. Mixed Conditional – uses

- Mixed conditionals relate a past event to something in the present or future, and can
mix second or third conditionals structures.
Ex: If I’d bought a better computer, I would be able to work more quickly.
Ex: I’d be going on holiday next week, if I hadn’t had that accident.
Ex: If we were still living in the city, we wouldn’t have seen all this.
- First and third conditional structures can also be mixed.
Ex: If you’re so clever, you wouldn’t have locked your keys in the car.
f. Other conjunctions used in conditional sentences

- Other conjunctions can be used in stead of if.
“as long as = on condition that”
Ex: I’ll be quite happy as long as you don’t spend too much money.
Ex: You can borrow the car as long as you fill in up with petrol regularly.
“provided/providing (that) = on condition that”
Ex: She can come with us provided (that) she doesn’t mind sleeping in the tent.
Ex: You can stay in our flat while we’re away providing (that) you keep in
clean.
“Suppose/supposing = if/what if”
Ex: Supposing/suppose we get held up, what will we do?
Ex: Suppose/supposing we got held up, what would we do?
“unless = except if/if not”
Ex: Unless we’re quick, we’ll miss the train.
Ex: I wouldn’t set out in the snow, unless I was sure I wouldn’t get stuck.
Note: But for = if something hadn’t happened.
Ex: We’d have got here on time but for the heavy traffic. But for the fact that
the road was flooded, we’d have been here two hours ago.
Reported Speech
Reported Speech
a. Basic rules
 If the reporting verb is in the past, the direct speech verb often moves back in time.
Ex: ‘I love you.’ – She said she loved me.
Ex: ‘I’ll help you tidy the house.’ – He said he’d (he would) help me tidy the
house.
 If the reporting verb is in the present, the direct speech does not have to change when
it is reported. You can choose whether to change the tense or not.
Ex: ‘I still love you.’ – She says she still loves me.
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 The original verb tense does not change if we want o emphasize that what was said
by the speaker is still true or relevant.
Ex: ‘I still love you.’ – She said she still loves me.
Ex: ‘We’re going on holiday tomorrow.’ – They said they are going on holiday
tomorrow.
 The word order in reported questions is the same as for statement. The subject and
verb are not inverted.
Ex: ‘How much do you love me?’ – I asked her how much she loved me.
Ex: ‘Are you going on holiday tomorrow?’ – I asked them if they were going
on holiday tomorrow.
 Commands are reported with verb + object + to + infinitive.
Ex: ‘Stop!’ – She told/ordered him to stop.
Ex: ‘Slow down’ – They told him to slow down.

 Most modal verbs change in reported speech.
Ex: ‘We may go to Spain in the summer.’ – She said they might go to Spain in
the summer.
Ex: ‘Can I help you get the picnic ready?’ – She asked if she could help me get
the picnic ready.
Ex: ‘I must go and see the dentist.’ – He said he had to go and see the dentist.
Ex: ‘I should go now or I’ll be late’ – She said she should/ought to go or she
would be late.
b. Other changes
 Pronouns may change.
Ex: ‘You can go.’ – She said I could go.
 Time reference may change.
Ex: ‘I wasn’t paid last month.’ – He said he hadn’t been paid the previous
month.
 Place references may changes.
Ex: ‘You can’t park here.’ – They said I couldn’t park there.
 Determiners changes.
Ex: ‘Have you heard this fantastic news?’ – She asked if I’d heard the/that
fantastic news.
c. Say, Tell
 Say and tell are different; tell needs a direct object.
Ex: ‘She said she loved me.’ – She told me she loved me.
 These verbs also need a direct object, and are usually followed by to + infinitive.
advise ask beg command forbid instruct persuade
request urge warn
d. Other reporting verbs

 There are many reporting verbs which can be used instead of say, tell, or ask. They
are useful because they provide an interpretation of the speaker’s intention.
Ex: ‘Yes, I can come.’ – He confirmed (that) he could come.
Ex: ‘I think it’ll rain this evening.’ – He predicted (that) it would rain that
evening.
agree announce argue believe claim complain decided
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deny doubt emphasize hope imaging
imply inquire
insist report think wonder
 When we report negative words or thoughts, we can make the reporting verb
negative.
Ex: ‘I’m sure you wouldn’t enjoy the film.’ – She didn’t think I’d enjoy the
film.
e. Suggest
 As a reporting verb suggest can be used indifferent ways.
Ex: He suggested finding a hotel.
Ex: He suggested (that) we found a hotel.
Ex: He suggested (that) we should find a hotel.
Ex: He suggested (that) we find a hotel.
Note: It is not correct to say: ‘He suggested to find a hotel.’
TENG CHANNA
As and Like
As and Like
a. as – uses
 To refer to status, function, or occupation.
Ex: As the director, she has a responsibility to the staff.
Ex: My brother is working as a nurse in a London hospital.
Ex: It’s really a sofa, but you could use it as a bed.
 In comparative expressions.
Ex: He’s nearly as tall as me.
Ex: That’s not as expensive as my last car.
 To mean because.
Ex: As I’m not at work today, could you e-mail me any important information?
 To mean at the same time or while.
Ex: As I opened the door, I realised this was my last chance.
b. like – uses
 To make comparisons.
Ex: Even though she’s been a teacher here for nearly five years, she behaves like a
student.
Ex: Like most people, my son left home when he was 18.
 To mean similar to.
Ex: Everyone says I’m like my grandfather, even though I look like my
grandmother.
Note: To refer to differences we can use the opposite, unlike.
Ex: Unlike most of the people I know, I dislike football.
c. as ( as if ) or like
 Sometime it’s possible to use as or like:
Ex: I haven’t changed my mind. I feel exactly as/like I did yesterday. (= the same
way as)
Ex: You look as if/like you need a good sleep. (‘Like’ is informal)
Used to and Would
Used to and Would

a. used to and would
 Used to and would refer to habitual or repeated past actions. We often choose to use
them (instead of the past simple) when we are looking back nostalgically at the past.
TENG CHANNA
Ex: We used to get up at six o’clock, wash in cold water and be out of the house
by 6:30.
Ex: At 6:30 we’d leave the house. We wouldn’t get back till seven at the evening.
b. used to – uses
 Used to refers to the habitual past actions that no longer happen.
Ex: I used to walk everywhere. Now I drive like everyone else.
 or to actions that didn’t happen in the past but do now.
Ex: You didn’t use to smoke, did you?
c. would – uses
 Would can refer to habitual past actions.
Ex: Early on Christmas day the whole family would get up early and go to
church.
Ex: We’d open our present as soon as we got home.
Note:
- Here would is the past form of will used to refer to typical or habitual behavior.
Ex: Often if I get home late, I’ll have a shower, watch TV and go straight to bed.
- In the same way used to can be thought of as the past form of Present simple to refer
to habitual behavior.
Ex: I used to eat out twice a week. Now I eat at home most of the time.
d. Past states
 Used to but not would can also refer to past states as well as actions.
Ex: I used to (Not would) have perfect eyesight, now I have to wear glasses for
reading.
Ex: He used to (Not would) be slim and fit. Just look at him now!
e. be/get used to + -ing

 In these two expressions used to means accustomed to. It is followed by –ing.
Ex: At first it was difficult but now I’m quite used to getting up early.
Ex: I expect I’ll get used to live so near the town center, but at the moments it
seems very noisy.
Sentence Structure
Sentence Structure
There are three main types of sentences:

a. Simple sentence
 These consist of a single clause with one main verb.
Ex: 5,000 people applied for the job.
b. Compound sentences
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 These consist at least two clauses which make sense on their own. They are
independent of each other. Clauses in compound sentences cab be joined by these
conjunctions: and (then), but, either/or, neither/nor, or, so, yet.
Ex: The radio crackled and then (it) went quiet.
Ex: The castaways have to be as self-sufficient as possible, so they grow their own
vegetables and keep farm animals.
c. Complex sentences
 These consist of more than one clause. One of these is the main clause; other(s) are
dependent on (or subordinate to) the main clause.
Ex: He worked as a spy until the mid-1950s when, realizing that the authorities
suspected him, he fled to the West.
 This sentence has three clauses.
Ex: He worked as a spy until the mid-1950s = main clause
when he fled to the West. = dependent clause
realizing that the authorities suspected him = dependent clause
d. Subordinate clause in complex sentences

 There are many kinds of subordinate or dependent clauses in complex sentences.
- Conditional clauses.
Ex: If they choose to join us, we should welcome them.
- Relative clauses.
Ex: Firemen who attended the blaze praised her for her bravery.
- Adverbial clauses.
Ex: When he was what he’d done, he apologized immediately.
Ex: As he knew everyone there, he felt quite confident.
- Infinitive clauses.
Ex: To make up for his mistake, he took everyone to the theatre.
- Clauses introduced by a participle.
Ex: Seeing me on the television news, he thought I must have done
something terrible.
Discourse Markers
Discourse Markers
Introduction
Discourse markers link one idea to another in speech or writing. They clarify the relationship
between these ideas for listeners or readers.
Ex: I’d fed up with this dreadful weather, so I can’t wait for the summer. Having said that,
I’m not keep on very hot weather.
a. Adding information
as well as as if that wasn’t enough another thins is Furthermore
furthermore* in addition (to that) moreover* on top of that
what’s more (* very formal)
TENG CHANNA
Ex: Liz must have gone out in a hurry. She didn’t wash up, left the light on and,
on top of that, she forgot to lock the door.
 In any case and besides add a final conclusive argument.
Ex: It’s got a horrible taste and it’s expensive and in any case/besides you’re too
young to drink alcohol.
b. Balancing contrasting (not contradictory) ideas

Ex: I really like action films full of adventure and drama, whereas/while my
boyfriend prefers romantic films.
 On the other hand is used between sentences.

Ex: We could take our American friends to London. On the other hand it could
take ages to get there.
c. Changing the subject

 By the way and incidentally introduce something new.
Ex: By the way/Incidentally, your CD arrived this morning.
 Anyway and anyhow are used to end one idea and show that the next idea is more
important.
Ex: I’ve had a bad time since the accident. I was off work for three months and for
most of that time I watched TV. Anyway, that’s all over now – I’m going back to
work on Monday.
d. Concluding/summing up
In conclusion In short To sum up
Ex: To sum up, I’d say that this has been a very useful experience.
e. Pointing out a contrast

All the same Despite this Even so However
In spite of this Mind you Still
Ex: She said she’d been in all day. However, when I tried to phone her there was
no reply.
Ex: She said she was feeling find. When I saw her, however, she looked dreadful.
I can’t say I really enjoyed my last job. Still/All the same, I’ll miss the people I
worked with.
Ex: The price of cars has gone up recently. Mind you, it doesn’t matter to me –
I’ve got a company car.
Ex: I realize I haven’t got much chance of getting the job. Even so I’m not going
to give up hope yet.
f. Giving examples
Ex: There are lots of ways of keeping fit like, for example/for instance, running,
swimming, or cycling.
g. Logical consequence
As a result Consequently Therefore So
Ex: My new shoes fell apart the first time I wore them. So I took them straight
back to the shop.
TENG CHANNA
h. Making something clear
I mean That’s to say What I mean is... What I’m trying to say is...
In other words
Ex: I’m afraid we’re going to have to let you go. In other words you’ve lost your
job.
i. Showing your attitude

Frankly To be frank Quite honestly To be honest
Ex: I’m fed up with the politicians. To be honest I don’t think it’s worth voting
any more.
j. Structuring and sequencing

First of all Firstly (thirdly, etc.) In the first place Lastly
Finally To start/begin with For one (another) thing
Ex: There are a number of points I’d like to make. To begin with, I don’t
understand why we need another supermarket in the town – we’re got three
already. For another thing, what effect is the new shop going to have on the
traffic situation?
All, Both, Either, Neither, None
All, Both, Either, Neither, None
a. All, Both
 All and both are followed by plural verbs.
Ex: All/Both the children are going swimming in this afternoon.
Ex: All/Both of the children are going swimming this afternoon.
Ex: The children/They are all/both are going swimming this afternoon.
Ex: All/Both of them are going swimming this afternoon.
b. Either, Neither
 Either and neither refer to one of two people
A. Have you seen either of my parents?
B. No, I haven’t seen either of them. / No, I’ve seen neither of them.
A. Have you thought of being a postman or a bus driver?
B. Yes, either job would suit me. / No, neither job appeals to me.
Ex: There’s room for either Jo or you, but not for both of you.
Ex: Neither my uncle nor my aunt could read.
Note: Although either and neither are singular words, in everyday speech they are often
used with plural verbs.
Ex: Is / Are either of you coming to my party on Friday?
Ex: Neither of my brothers is / are married.
TENG CHANNA
Ex: Do / Does either of you two want another coffee?
c. None
 None means not one.
Ex: None of my friends likes / like football.
A. Where is the coffee? / Have you got any apples?
B. There’s none left. / There are none left.
Note: None can be used with a singular or a plural verb.
Modal Verbs
Should, Ought to, Must, Have to, Need to

These verbs all express different types of obligation.
a. Should – uses
 Suggestions and advice.
Ex: You look really tired – you should get more sleep.
 Obligation and duty.
Ex: Society really should do more to look after old people.
 Rules and regulation.
Ex: Food should not be eaten in classrooms.
b. Ought to – uses
 Advice.
Ex: You ought to shop smoking – it’s very bad for your health.
 Obligation and duty.
Ex: I ought to stop smoking, but it’s too difficult.
Ex: We ought to report the break-in to the police.
Note: Should often expresses the person view of the speaker; ought to usually expresses
a more external obligation which the speaker cannot influence.
c. Must – uses
 Strong advice, obligation, or duty.
Ex: You must see that film – it’s fantastic.
Ex: I must finish writing this letter tonight.
d. Have to – uses
 Obligation, duty, rules, and regulations.
Ex: I have to attend the meeting every Monday morning at 9.30.
Ex: We have to pay our fees by next Monday – otherwise we won’t be allowed on
the course.
TENG CHANNA
Note: Must and have to are sometimes interchangeable but there is a basic difference:
must expresses the speaker’s view; have to expresses external obligation of the speaker
can not influence.
Note: Mustn’t and don’t have to have completely different meanings.
Ex: You mustn’t go out tonight. = This is not permitted.
Ex: You don’t have to go out tonight. = It isn’t necessary to go out – it’s your
choice.
e. Need to – uses
 Necessity.
Ex: Everyone needs to take regular exercise.
f. Need to – forms
 There are two negative forms of need. They have the same meaning.
Ex: You don’t need to come. = You needn’t come.
 In the past need has two forms which different meanings.
Ex: I didn’t need to come. (I didn’t come because it wasn’t necessary.)
Ex: I needn’t have come. (I came the despite the fact that it wasn’t necessary.)
g. Other expressions of obligation

 We use had better (not) + infinitive to give advice or say an action would be a good
idea. Unlike should and ought to, had better can only refer to the future.
Ex: You’d better to check the flight times before you set off.
Ex: I’d better not get to work late again this week.
 To be (not) supposed to + infinitive is used to talk about a duty to do something, or a
rule or law.
Ex: I’m supposed to be at work today, but I’m not feeling well.
Ex: You’re not supposed to drive more than 90 Kph on this road.
 To be (not) meant to + infinitive means to be expected to do something.
Ex: You know what the doctor said. You’re meant to stay in bed.
Ex: Haven’t you seen the notice? You’re not meant to smoke here.
Determiners
Determiners
a. Some – meanings
 An indefinite number or quantity of.
Ex: There are some people standing in the road.
 A proportion of (not all).
Ex: Some of my friends are a lot older than me.
 Approximately.
Ex: Some 200,000 protesters marched through the city center.
Note: this use of some only applies to large/approximate number.
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b. Any – meanings
 An indefinite number or quantity of.
Ex: There aren’t any potatoes – I’ll have to buy some more.
 It doesn’t matter which one/ones.
Ex: I’d be grateful for any help you can give me.]
Ex: He doesn’t eat meat, but he likes any vegetables.
c. Every
Ex: Every student is expected to pass the exam.
Note: every/any
Ex: Every competitor will win the prize.
(All the runners will get a prize – whenever they finish.)
Ex: Any runner could win the race – they’re all good athletes.
(All the runners have an equal chance – but only one can come first.)
Note: every/all
Ex: Every child is an individual. (singular)
Ex: All children are individuals. (plural)
d. No
Ex: He’s got no friends.
Ex: the postman has just been but there’s no post for you.
Ex: No visa is required.
Note: No is more emphatic and more formal than negative verb + any/a
e. Few/a few – little/a little – differences in meaning

 Few and little have a negative meaning, and mean not many or not much.
Ex: He’s just moved to London but he knows (very) few people there.
Ex: We get on well but we’ve got little in common.
 A few and a little have a positive meaning, and mean some.
Ex: He’s moved to London and he knows a few people already.
Ex: We’ve only just met and already we’ve found that we’ve got a little in
common.
-ing forms
-ing forms
Here are some of the many uses of –ing forms.
a. Part of a continuous verb form

Ex: You’re wasting your time.
b. As an adjective
Ex: That book was so boring that I couldn’t finish it.
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c. As a noun
Ex: Fishing is one of the country’s most popular sports.
d. After certain verbs

Ex: Do you deny stealing my car?
e. After prepositions
Ex: I can’t pass my old house without remembering all the happy time I had
there.
f. In certain clauses
 As an alternative to a reason clause.
Ex: Feeling ashamed of what I’d done, I rang my wife and told her everything.
(Because I felt ashamed...)
 As an alternative to a time clause.
Ex: Having seen the queue of cars, I turned round and went another way. (As
soon as I saw...)
 As an alternative to a result clause.
Ex: The river overflowed its banks, causing serious flooding. (...and so caused...)
 As an alternative to a relative clause.
Ex: There’s someone climbing that tree. (...someone who is climbing...)
g. verb + preposition + -ing form

Ex: I thought I would never succeed in passing my driving test.
Other common verbs like this
admit to agree with apologize for believe in depend on feel like
insist on object to put up with rely on think of
Verbs with about

Complain about worry about, etc.
h. verb + object + preposition + -ing form

Ex: They accused him of shoplifting.
Other common verbs like this
blame someone for congratulate someone for discourage
someone from
forgive someone for prevent someone from stop someone from
thank someone for use something for
i. adjective + preposition + -ing form

Ex: He’s incapable of saying anything sensible.
Ex: Who’s responsible for collecting the money?
Other adjectives + prepositions
afraid of ashamed of aware of bored with different from
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famous for fed up with fond of good or bad at guilty of
happy about interested in keep on pleased about sorry about
wrong about
Ability and Possibility
Ability and Possibility

a. Physical abilities or learned skills
 Can, could, and be able to are used to refer to abilities and skills.
Ex: Birds can sleep while they’re flying.
Ex: I can’t sleep if there’s a lot of noise.
Ex: I couldn’t walk till I was nearly two.
 Be able to is used for all tenses.
Ex: I’ve been able to play the piano since I was seven.
Ex: If she trains hard, she’ll be able to run in the marathon next year.
Ex: If he’d been able to speak, he could have told us exactly what happened.
 The affirmative could is used to refer to general abilities in the past but not specific
abilities.
Ex: When I was younger I could sleep anywhere. (general)
Ex: I couldn’t get to sleep last night. I was worried about a problem at work. After
a lot of tossing and turning, I managed to get/succeeded in getting to sleep at 4
o’clock. (specific: on one occasion)
b. Possibilities
 Can and could can also refer to potential or possibility.
Ex: Autumn can be very wet in the British Isles.
Ex: When I started smoking you could buy a packet of cigarettes for less than a
pound. (Also it was possible to...)
Ex: You’d better answer the phone – it could be something important. (Also it
may/might...)
c. Other uses of can and could

 Permission.
Ex: you can’t buy alcohol until you’re 18.
Ex: Can/Could I be excused, please? I have an urgent appointment.
 Asking, offering, inviting.
Ex: Can/Could you tell me the time please?
Ex: Can/Could I give you a lift to the airport?
Ex: Can you come to our village festival at the weekend?
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Indefinite Pronounce
Indefinite Pronounce
Indefinite pronouns
People someone somebody anyone anybody
everyone
everybody no one nobody
Things something anything everything nothing
Places somewhere anywhere everywhere nowhere
a. someone (somebody), something, and somewhere

 These mean a particular person, thing, or place and are used in affirmative statements
and some questions.
Ex: I’ve got something to tell you.
Ex: I heard someone on the radio explaining how they learned English.
Ex: Is there somewhere we can meet?
b. anyone (anybody), anything, and anywhere

 These mean a person, thing, or place but not a particular person, thing, or place, and
are used in negative statements and most questions.
Ex: Has anyone seen Nick’s guitar?
Ex: I haven’t got anything to say.
Ex: I haven’t got anywhere to hide.
c. anyone, anything, and anywhere in affirmative statements

 In affirmative statements these mean a person, thing, or place – it doesn’t matter
who/which thing or place.
Ex: Anyone can learn to ride a horse – it just takes time and practice.
Ex: I can eat anything if I’m hungry enough.
Ex: We can go anywhere you like – it really doesn’t mater to me.
Note: The difference between someone and anyone and something and anything is
similar to the difference between some and any.
d. no one (nobody), nothing, and nowhere

 These mean not one person, thing, or place, and are used with singular affirmative
verbs.
Ex: I know nobody who enjoys going to the dentist.
Ex: Nothing succeeds like success.
Ex: There’s nowhere to hide.
e. everyone (everybody), everything, and everywhere

 These mean every individual person, thing, and place, and are used with singular
verbs.
Ex: Everyone I know was at the party.
Ex: You’ve taught me everything I know.
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Ex: Everywhere seems to be busier than it was ten years ago.
f. Indefinite pronouns – uses

 Followed by adjectives.
Ex: Did you meet anyone interesting at the party?
Ex: No one new has arrived since you left.
Ex: There’s something wrong with the car. It won’t start.
 Followed by to + infinitive.
Ex: I’m bored. I’ve got nothing to do.
Ex: Can you think of anywhere to go this evening?
 As the object of a reduced relative clause.
Ex: Everything I read reminds me of her. (= everything that I read)
Ex: I’d like to tell you a story about someone I met at holyday last year. (=
someone that I met)
Punctuation Marks
Punctuation Marks
 Full Stop ( . ) = a mark that shows at the end of the sentence or the short form of a word.
Ex: I’m a teacher.
 ,
Comma ( ) = a mark that used in writing or printing to show a short pause or to separate
things in the list.
Ex: I want to buy two pens, two rulers, and two books.
 Question mark ( ? ) = a mark that is used at the end of the question.
Ex: Could you do me a favor?
 Apostrophe ( ‘ ) = a mark that is used in writing to show the numbers or letters have been
left out or possession.
Ex: I know that it is Dara’s book. Ex: I know that it’s Dara’s book.
 Quotation Mark ( ‘ ’ ) or ( “ ” ) = one of a pair of marks that are used in writing to show
that you are recording what someone has said.
Ex: “Cambodia and Thailand will a meeting for negotiation next week.” said Hun
Sen the prime minister.
 ;
Semicolon ( ) = a mark used to separate different parts of a sentence or list.
Ex: Dara’s performance is improving now; however, he is like fell for gaining re-
contract.
 Exclamation Mark ( ! ) = a mark that you write after a sentence or word that expresses
.
surprise, anger or exciting
Ex: How stupid you are!
 Dash ( – ) = a line used in writing to separate two closely related parts of a sentence .
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 Hyphen ( - ) = a short written or printed line that joins words or syllables.

Ex: The Company is planning to re-advertise at the end of this month.
 :
Colon ( ) = a sign that is used in writing and in printing to introduce and explanation,
example, quotation etc.
Ex: I’ll show you three things such as: car, house and jewels.
 Parenthesis ( ) = if you say something in parenthesis, you say while you are talking about
something else in order to add information or explain something.
Ex: I didn’t go to Ratanakiri last month. (Negative form)
 Slash ( / ) = an oblique stroke used between alternatives, in fractions and rations, or between
separate elements of a text.
 Bracket [ ] { } < > = the pair of signs that used for enclosing information, words or figures
and separate them from the surrounding context.
 Asterisk (*) = a mark that is used especially to show something interesting or important and
used in text as a pointer to an annotation or footnote.
Affix Chart
Prefixes Function/ Suffixes Function/
Meaning Meaning
un- non- in- anti- -er -ist -ant -ian -
mal- ary “Doer”
Negative
a- mis- mis- dis- -ent Noun
anti-
uni- multi- mono- -en -ate -ify -ize
semi-
Quantity Verb
bi- poly- tri- equi-
pan-
en- be- Verb -ance -ship -ity -
pre- intra- / intro- ness
inter- extra- / Position -hood -ion -age -
Noun
extro- post- ment
super- sub- sur- epi- -dom -ism -ence
Relationship
hypo- hyper- para-
ex- ab- in- / im- -able -al -less -en -
trans- ful
Movement Adjective
pro- de- se- re- ad- -ous -y -ary -ish -
ive -ic
syn- contra- co- -ly -wise
With or Against Adverb
-ward
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Inflectional Suffix Example Grammatical function

past tence or
-ed explored
past participle
-en hidden past participle
progressive form or
-ing planning
present participle
-s continues third person singular verb
-s explosions plural
-‘s prosecutor’s possessive marker
-er larger comparative
-est largest superlative
Other Suffixes Example Meaning/Referring

-ary -ery -ory -ry secretary/stationary/forestry/
place
chemistry
Verb: Transitive and Intransitive

Most verbs in English belong to either of two types: intransitive verbs or transitive verbs.
Intransitive Verbs
 An intransitive verb does not have an object. You can use it without having to add any more
words to the sentence. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:
Ex: Something’s happening.
Ex: I’ll wait.
Ex: It doesn’t matter.
 You can add other words to these sentences in order to show meanings such as time, place,
or manner, but these words do not have to be there for the sentence to make sense.
Ex: Something’s happening in the street.
Ex: I’ll wait for a few minutes.
Ex: It doesn’t matter at all.
 Other intransitive verbs include appear, come, go, smile, lie, and rise.
Note: Intransitive verbs can not be used in the passive. Don’t say “it was happened.” or “they
were died.” Say: it happened or they died.
Transitive Verbs
 A transitive verb must have an object. Without the object, the sentence does not make sense.
The object of the verb is usually a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun. Here are some
examples of transitive verbs:
Ex: She bought that dress in Tokyo. Not She bought in Tokyo.
Ex: Did you find the key? Not Did you find?
Ex: I really like him. Not I really like.
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 Sometimes the object is a clause which begins + (that). For example:

Ex: I wish she would stop smoking. or I wish that she would stop smoking.
 Sometimes the object is a whole sentence. For example:
Ex: “it’s time to go home.” he said.
 Other transitive verbs include make, use, need, thank, enjoy, keep, and carry.
Verbs that can be transitive or intransitive

 Several verbs can be used in a transitive or intransitive way. Here are some examples of
verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:
Ex: There’s no need to shout. [Intransitive]
Someone shouted my name. [Transitive]
Ex: Where do you want to meet? [Intransitive]
I’ll meet you outside the school. [Transitive]
Ex: I’m sorry. I don’t understand. [Intransitive]
She doesn’t understand his explanation. [Transitive]
 The intransitive uses are very similar to the transitive ones, except that the object been left
out.
Other Verbs
 Some verbs can be followed by an adjective or adjective phrase. Here are some examples of
these verbs:
Ex: You seem tired.
Ex: It all sound very interesting.
Ex: Was he angry?
Active and Passive

In the sentence The dog chased the cat, the verb (chased) is active. If you turn it
around, and say The cat was chased by the dog, the verb (was chased) is passive. You form
the passive by using the verb be and the past participle of the main verb. For example, the
passive of attack is be attacked, the passive of pay is be paid, and the passive of see is be
seen. You can only use the passive with transitive verbs.
When to use an active verb

 You use an active verb when you want to say that the subject of a sentence does something.
For example:
Ex: She opens the window.
When to use a passive verb

 You use a passive verb when you want to say that something happens to the subject of the
sentence. For example:
Ex: President Kennedy was killed in 1963.
 You often use a passive verb when talking about the history of something. For example:
Ex: The bridge was built in the 19th century.
Ex: The company was established in 1826.
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 In these cases, it is much more natural to use the passive than to find a vague, active way of
expressing the sentence (such as Someone built this bridge in the 19th century.).
 You often use a passive verb when you are writing about science, or when you are saying
how things are made. For example:
Ex: Hydrogen and Oxygen can be easily mixed in this way.
Ex: Paper is made from wood.

 If you used an active verb here, you would have to say who does the action –information
which is not known or not important.
 If you want to say who does the action of the verb in a passive sentence, use by and then say
who does it.
Ex: President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald in 1963.
Ex: The bridge was designed by Brunel.
Changing active to passive

There are three things you need to do in order to change an active sentence into a passive
one.
 Move the subject of the active verb to the end of the sentence, and put by in front of it.
 Move the object of the active verb to the front of the sentence, so that it becomes the passive
subject.
 Change the verb from active to passive. You do this by adding a form of the auxiliary verb
be and the past participle of the main verb.
Subje Verb Objec

ct chased t
The -the
Subje Verb by...

ct was by the
The chased dog
The Passive with Get

You can also make a passive using get instead of be. This kind of passive is very common
in conversation. Do not use it in formal writing. You often use this kind of passive to say that
something happened suddenly to someone.
Ex: I got sacked by my film. OR I was sacked by my film.
Ex: He got hit by a car. OR He was hit by a car.
 You can also use the passive with get when you want to suggest that an action is more
forceful or more important to you.
Ex: I get paid on Tuesday. OR I am paid on Tuesday.
Ex: We often get asked this question. OR We are often asked this question.
Comparison
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Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

 If you want to compare two things, you use the comparative form of an adjective. For
example the comparative form of big is bigger, and the comparative form of interesting is
more interesting.
Ex: Your car is bigger than mine.
Ex: His new book is more interesting than his last one.
 If you want to say that one thing is bigger, faster, more interesting etc than all the others of a
group of things, you use the superlative form of an adjective. For example, the superlative
form of big is biggest, and the superlative form of interesting is the most interesting.
Ex: It’s the fastest motorcycle in the world.

Ex: What’s the most delicious food you’re ever eaten?
Choose the right form of the Adjective

 If the adjective is one syllable long, you add -er or -est to it, sometimes making a change in
the spelling.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
Tall Taller Tallest
Big Bigger Biggest
Nice Nicer Nicest
 If the adjective is three or more syllables long, you add the words more or most before it.
Ex: That’s a more interesting question.
Ex: Kim’s question was the most interesting one.
Ex: The new trains are more comfortable than the old ones.
Ex: That’s the most comfortable bed I’ve ever slept in.
 Most adjectives with two syllables use more and most to form the comparative and
superlative, but some two-syllable adjectives have –er / -est endings and some two-syllable
adjectives use both methods.
 The –er / -est endings are possible with adjectives ending in -y, -ow, -le, -er, -ure. Don’t
forget that with adjectives that end in -y, the -y changes to -i.
Happy Happier Happiest
Gentle Gentler Gentlest
Narrow Narrower Narrowest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
 You keep this pattern even in the cases where you can add un- to a two-syllable adjective.
Ex: unhappier/unhappiest
 Proper and eager do not follow this rule: you can use only more/most with them.
 You use more/most with all other two-syllable adjectives.
Ex: more/most active more/most useful more/most recent
Adjectives that do not follow the normal rules

 Not all adjectives follow the normal rules. Some adjectives have completely irregular forms.
The most common ones are:
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
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 Words which are formed from a verb, and which end in -ing, -ed, or other past forms,
always use more/most, no matter how many syllables they have.
Ex: His latest film is even more boring than his previous ones.
Ex: She was more shocked than I was.
Comparing two things which are the same

 If you want to say that two things are the same size, the same height etc, you can say that
one thing is as big as the other, as tall as the other etc.
Ex: She’s as tall as her sister.
Ex: Do you think this summer will be as hot as last summer?
Comparing two things which are not the same

 If you want to say that two things are not the same size, the same height etc, you can say that
one thing is not as big as the other, not as tall as the other etc.
Ex: The meal wasn’t as good as the last meal I had there.
Ex: I’m not as fat as him. OR I’m not as fat as he is.
Ex: London is not as expensive as some other European cities.
 You can use less ... than to mean the same thing as not as ... as, but you usually use it with
adjectives that have two or more syllables, for example less expensive, less important.
Ex: Value for money is less important than quality and reliability.
Note: Don’t use less with short adjectives such as good, old etc.
 You can leave out the second as and the noun after it, if you have already mentioned or
suggested the second thing that you are comparing.
Ex: The material looks like silk, but it’s not as expensive. (="not" as expensive as silk)
 Similarly, you can also leave out the than part of the comparison when you are using less, if
you have already mentioned or suggested the second thing that you are comparing.
Ex: I prefer the old Hollywood movies. They’re much less violent. (="than" modern
films)
Ex: The buses are less crowded after 10 o’clock. (="than" they are before 10 o’clock)
 If you want to say that one type of thing is less expensive, less important etc than all other
things of the same type, you can say that it is the least expensive, the least important etc.
Ex: People usually choose the least expensive brand.
Note: Don’t use least with short adjectives such as good, old etc.
Nouns: Countable and Uncountable
Countable Nouns
 A noun is ‘countable’ if you can think of it as one of several separate units, for example
book, egg, or horse. As the name suggests, countable nouns can actually be counted.
Uncountable Nouns
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 A noun is ‘uncountable’ if you cannot think of it as one of several separate units, but only as
a single idea or substance, for example butter, music, or advice. These nouns are sometimes
called ‘mass’ nouns. They cannot be counted.
Grammatical differences
There are some important grammatical differences in the way you use countable and uncountable
nouns.
1. You can use a countable noun in the singular or in the plural, for example book/books,
egg/eggs, horse/horses, ticket/tickets, university/universities. Don’t try to use uncountable
nouns in the plural. Don’t say butters, musics, advices, informations, furnitures. It is a
common mistake to use an uncountable noun in the plural.
Ex: You should listen to his advice. NOT You should listen to his advices.
2. You can use a countable noun with a or an: for example a book, an egg, a horse, a ticket, a
university. Don’t use a or an with uncountable nouns. Don’t say a butter, a music, an
advice, an information, a furniture. It is a common mistake to use a or an with an
uncountable noun.
Ex: I like listening to music. NOT I like listening to a music.

3. You can use an uncountable noun with quantity words such as some and any : some butter,
any music. If you want to use these words with countable nouns, you must put the nouns
into the plural, and say some tickets, any eggs.
Ex: She bought some books. NOT She bought some book.
4. You can only use the quantity expressions much, how much, or a little with uncountable
nouns. With countable nouns, you have to use many, how many, or a few.
Uncountable Countable
I don’t have much money. He doesn’t have many friends.
How much time do you have? How many records do you have?
There is a little butter in the fridge There are a few rooms still available.
5. You can use an uncountable noun on its own without such words as the, some, or any.
Ex: She doesn’t eat meat.
Ex: If you need advice, don’t be afraid to ask.
 You cannot use a countable noun in the singular in this way - only in the plural.
Ex: I like reading books. NOT I like reading book.
Ex: Computers are always causing problems. NOT Computers are always causing
problem.
Nouns which can be Countable or Uncountable

 You can use some nouns in either a countable or an uncountable way, depending on their
meaning. The following pairs of sentences show how the meaning can change: in each case
there is a countable noun in the first sentence and an uncountable noun in the second.
Ex: Would you like a cake? (="one" of several cakes which someone can take to eat)
Ex: Do you like chocolate cake? (="a" type of food)
 Most abstract nouns, such as love, anger, knowledge, intelligence, or freedom, are always
uncountable. But some abstract nouns can also be used in a countable way.
Uncountable Countable
They did it with difficulty. They’ve had a lot of difficulties.
Her voice sounded full of doubt. I have my doubts about whether he’s the right
person for the job.
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TENG CHANNA
Preposition and Prepositional Phrases

Preposition
 A preposition is a word that relates a noun or pronoun that appears with it to another word
in the sentence.
 Prepositions make it possible to show relationships between words. The relationship shown
may involve, for example, location, direction, time, cause, or possession.
The following chart lists some of the most common English prepositions
Frequently Used Prepositions

about behind down off till
above below during on to
across beneath except onto toward
after beside for opposite under
against besides from out underneath
along between in outside until
amid beyond inside over up
among but into past upon
around by like since with
at concerning near through within
before despite of throughout without
Although most prepositions are single words, a few prepositions are made up of two or
three words. These
prepositions are called Compound Prepositions.
Compound Prepositions
according to because of in place of next to
ahead of by means of in regard to on account of
apart from in addition to in spite of out of
aside from in back of instead of owing to
as of in front of in view of prior to
Examples:
Location: The shampoo bottle on the shelf was almost empty.
Direction: The snail crept along the bottom of the fish tank.
Time: The bats flew erratically during the evening.
Cause: The tree fell on account of the wind.
Possession: Leaves from the tree littered the lawn in front on our house.
Prepositional Phrases
 Prepositional are always part of a group of words called a Prepositional phrase.
 A prepositional phrase is a group of words that includes a preposition and a noun or
pronoun.
 The noun or pronoun with a preposition is called the object of the preposition. Objects may
have one or more modifiers. A prepositional phrase may also have more than one object.
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Ex: The terrified rabbit slipped between the fence posts and ran to safety.
Ex: Cars and trucks steamed across the bridge during the rush hour.
Note: A prepositional phrase usually is only two or three words long; it can, however, be much
longer. Length depends on the number of modifiers before the object of the preposition, the
number of objects, and the length of the preposition itself.
Examples: - in a community
- in a small agricultural community
- because of her temper and irritability
- because of her terribly vicious, totally unpredictable temper and general
irritability
Prepositions in time expressions

At In No preposition
at six o’clock in the morning/afternoon/evening today
at midnight in December yesterday
at Christmas in summer tomorrow
as the weekend in 1995 the day after tomorrow
On in two week’s time the day before yesterday
on Sunday last night
on Monday morning last week
on Christmas day two weeks ago
on January 18 next month
yesterday evening
tomorrow evening
this evening
tonight
Conjunctions
Unlike prepositions, which show relationship between words, Conjunctions make
direct connection between words. A conjunction is a word used to connect other
words or groups of words.
Different kinds of Conjunctions

In English three main kinds of conjunctions connect words: Coordinating conjunctions,
Correlative conjunctions, and Subordinating conjunctions. Sometimes a kind of adverb,
the conjunctive adverb, is also considered as conjunction.
Coordinating Conjunctions
 The seven coordinating conjunctions are used to connect similar parts of speech or groups of
words of equal grammatical weight.
Coordinating Conjunctions
and but for nor or so
TENG CHANNA
yet
FANBOYS
Examples:
With nouns and pronouns: - John and I decided to attend the lecture although we were
late.
With verbs: - Our dog whined and scratched at the door because it wanted to get
into the house.
With adjectives: - The meat was well done, tender, yet tasteless.
With adverbs: - The student responded quickly but incorrectly.
With prepositional phrases: - Remember to take this medicine three times a day before
meals or after meals.
With subordinate ideas: - The agency said that jobs were available but that qualified
personnel to fill them were not.
With complete ideas: - He seemed distressed, so we discussed his problem.
Correlative Conjunctions
 Working in pairs, the five correlative conjunctions join elements of equal grammatical
weight in sentences in much the same manner as coordinating conjunctions do.
Correlative Conjunctions
both ... and either ... or neither ... nor not only ... but
also whether ... or
Examples:
With noun: - Both the employers and the employees agreed on the terms
With nouns and pronouns: - The teacher asked whether Jim or I cheated on the test.
With adjectives: - The rain was not only heavy but also cold.
With prepositional phrases: - The guilt was shared not only by him but also by us.
Complete ideas: - Neither did the swelling go down nor did the pain subside.
Subordinating Conjunctions
 Subordinating conjunctions join two completed ideas by making one of the ideas
subordinate to or dependent upon the other.
Subordinating Conjunctions
after because lest till
although before now that unless
as even if provided until
as if even though since when
as long as how so that whenever
as much as if than where
as soon as inasmuch as that wherever
asthough in order that though while
 The subordinate idea in a sentence always begins with a subordinating conjunction and
makes up what is known as a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause may either follow or
precede the main idea in a sentence.
Example:
TENG CHANNA
Although the fumigator sprayed, the termites remained.
The referees watched carefully lest they miss a key play.
 When trying to identify subordinating conjunctions, remember that some of these
conjunctions can also function as preposition or adverbs. After, before, since, till and until
often act as prepositions; after, before, when, and where often act as adverbs.
Example:
Subordinating conjunction: - After the billboards were removed, the area’s natural
beauty was restored.
Preposition: - The main course was served after the salad.
Adverb: - The parade began at noon and ended an hour after.
Conjunctive Adverbs
 Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs used as conjunctions to connect complete ideas. They are
often used as transitions, creating bridges between different ideas by showing comparison,
contrasts, results, and other relationships.
Conjunctive adverbs
accordingly finally nevertheless
again furthermore otherwise
also however then
besides indeed therefore
consequently moreover thus
Note: The punctuation that is used before and after the conjunctive adverbs in the following
examples:
Example:
They doctor did help my back problem; however, I still experience occasional pain.
The earthquake damaged the wall structure. Moreover, it broke some water pipe.
My cold grew worse. I, nevertheless, kept drinking iced water.
Dependent and Independent Clauses

Clauses, like phrases, are groups of related words, but unlike phrases, they have a subject
and a verb.
A clause is a group of words with it own subject and verb.
Examples:
- After the mayor cut the ribbon [Dependent clause]
- The employee told her boss a blatant lie. [Independent clause]
 Types of Clauses
There are two kinds of clauses: dependent and independent clauses.
Independent Clauses
TENG CHANNA
 An independent clause has a subject and a verb and can stand by itself as a complete
sentence.
An independent clause = Subject + verb (+
complement)
Examples:
- The agile squirrel scampered up to the top of the tall tree.
- My arms ached, but I continued to swim more laps.
- When the holiday season begins, the stores are jammed with frantic shoppers.
Dependent Clauses
 A dependent clause (a subordinate clause), although it has a subject and a verb, cannot
stand by itself as a sentence; it is only part of a sentence.
A dependent clause = Subordinator + subject + verb
(+complement)
Examples:
- ... where you can inhale the fragrance of the abundant wild flowers
- ... because the garden is weeded regularly
Clause Connectors
 Three groups of words are used to connect clauses in
order to form different kinds of sentences. They are
subordinators (subordinating conjunctions),
coordinators (coordinating conjunctions), and
conjunctive adverbs.
Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions)
after before than whenever who
although even though though where whom
as how unless wherever
as if if until whether
as soon as since what which
because so that when while
Coordinators (Coordinating conjunctions)

There are only seven coordinators, which you can remember
by the phrase
FANBOYS: for, an, nor, but, or, yet, and so
Conjunctive Adverbs
accordingly hence likewise nonetheless for example
besides however meanwhile otherwise in addition
consequently indeed moreover therefore in contrast
furthermore instead thus nevertheless on the other hand
TENG CHANNA
Examples:
- The professor, who is a world-renowned expert on medieval history, lectured today on
the construction of castles during this period. (who -- subordinator)
- Tracy saw an automobile accident on Tuesday, and now she is driving more carefully.
(and -- coordinator)
- Latin is sometimes called a “dead” language; nevertheless, its value in understanding
the English language should not be discounted. (nevertheless -- conjunctive adverb)
Gerunds and Gerund Phrases
Gerunds
 Verbs ending in –ing can be used as nouns called gerunds.
 A gerund is a form of a verb that acts as a noun.
Examples:
- Swallowing hurt my sore throat.
- The man’s crime was counterfeiting.
The Function of Gerunds in Sentences
As nouns, gerunds can function in sentences in the same capacities as any other nouns. The
following chart illustrates some of these roles.
Some uses of Gerunds in Sentence
Functions Examples
As a subject - Striking is considered a revolutionary tactic in some
countries.
As a direct object - The librarian began cataloging the newest books.
As an indirect object - His performance gives acting a bad time.
As a predicate nominative - His most annoying habit is interrupting.
As an object of a preposition - After three hours, Steve was tired of studying.
As a appositive - Kim has developed her gift, singing, exceptionally
yet.
Note: When you name something and then immediately rename it to give further
information, you are using an appositive. An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed next to
another noun or pronoun to identify, rename, or explain it.
Note: To avoid confusing verbs, participles, and gerunds, which all can end in –ing, check
the word’s use in the sentence.
Examples:
Verb phrase: - Bob has been yawning since he attended the lecture.
Participle: - The yawning student looked at the clock on the classroom wall from time
to time.
Gerund: - Yawning is a sign of boredom, tiredness, and sleepiness.
Gerund Phrases
 A gerund with modifiers or a complement is called a gerund phrase.
TENG CHANNA
 A gerund phrase is a gerund with modifiers or a complement, all action together as a noun.
Gerund Phrases
In the following chart, notice the variety of different kinds of modifiers and complements
that a gerund phrase can contain.
Gerund Phrase
With adjectives - His loud, persistent yawning disrupted the
meeting.
With an adjective - Worrying about the deadline prevented the writer
phrase from sleeping.
With an adverb - I estimated the cost by calculating quickly.
With an adverb phrase - The park prohibits walking on the grass.
With a direct object - Reproducing copies grows more expensive each
year.
With indirect and direct - Mr. Roberts suggested writing them a letter lf
apology.
Note about gerunds and possessive pronouns.

You should always use the possessive form of a personal pronoun in front of a gerund.
Examples:
Incorrect: - We never listen to him boasting.
Correct: - We never listen to his boasting.
Helping Verbs
Often a single verb is formed from as many as four words. Helping verbs may be added to a
verb to make a verb phrase.
 Helping Verbs are verbs that can be added to another verb to make a single verb phrase.
Recognizing Helping Verbs:

Any of the many forms of be as well as some other verbs can be used as helping verbs.
- Any of the be verbs
- May, might, must = 3 m’s
- Do, does, did = 3 d’s
- Have, has, had = 3 h’s
- Can, could
Shall, should = 3 pairs
Will, would
An easy way to remember other helping verbs besides the forms of be is to remember the
sentence: “Mother dread having pairs (+ baby)”
Mothers = may, must, might
TENG CHANNA
Dread = do, does, did
Having = has, have, had
Pair = can/could, shall/should, will/would
Baby = be
Examples:
- The fields should have been plowed a week ago.
- Before anyone joins this sorority, she must have an outstanding academic record.
- There will be no electricity this morning because the power lines are down.
- You may be served with a subpoena if you do not cooperate fully with the authorities.
- Scientists have discovered many interesting facts about bats.
Note:
- Helping verbs, also known as Auxiliary verbs or Auxiliaries, add meaning to other verbs.
Some helping verbs change the time expressed by the key verb. Others are used to indicate
obligation, possibility, ability, or permission.
- Verb phrase are often interrupted by other words. To find the complete verb in a sentence,
locate the key (main) verb first; then, check for helping verbs that may precede it.
Examples:
Interrupted verb phrase: - Instead of talking, I should definitely be studying now
Uninterrupted verb phrase: - A person in Navy with the rank of fleet admiral has
attained five stars.
Action Verbs and Linking Verbs

Action Verbs, as their name suggests, express either physical or mental action – that is,
what someone or something does, did, or will do. Linking Verbs serve a more passive
function, expressing a condition. Verbs used as linking verbs may also used simply to show
that something exists.
Action Verbs
 An action verb tells what action someone or something is performing.
Examples:
- The flag flutters in the breeze. (physical action)
- I considered my decision carefully. (mental action)
Linking Vers
 A linking verb connects its subject with a word generally found near the end of the sentence.
Examples:
TENG CHANNA
- An oral recommendation should be sufficient. (linking verb)
- The hinges sounded rusty as I pulled the door open. (linking verb)
 Most often, the forms of be will function as linking verbs and express the condition of the
subject. Other verbs can also function as linking verbs.
Other Linking Verbs

appear feel look seem sound taste
become grow remain smell stay turn
 Some of these verbs may also act as action – not linking – verbs. To determine whether the
word is function as an action verb or as a linking verb, insert am, are, or is in place of the
verb. If the substitute makes sense while connecting tow words, the original verb is a
linking verb.
Examples;
- The candidate appeared confident during the campaign. (linking verb)
- The cat appeared from behind the woodshed. (action verb)
Appositive and Appositive Phrases

To appose means “to place near or next to.” Appositives or Appositive phrases are words
placed next to noun and pronoun to provide additional information.
Appositives
 When you name something and then immediately rename it to give further information, you
are using an appositive.
 An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed next to another noun or pronoun to identify,
rename, or explain it.
Examples:
- His favourite flowers, snapdragons, grew everywhere in the garden. (set off by
commas  nonrestrictive/nonessential)
- The film “Titanic” was so popular among many moviegoers that they saw it twice.
(not set off by commas  restrictive/essential)
Appositive Phrases
 When an appositive is accompanied by one or more modifiers, it forms an appositive
phrase.
 An appositive phrase is a noun or pronoun with modifiers placed next to a noun or pronoun
or to add information and details.
 The modifiers in an appositive phrase can be adjectives, adjective phrases, or other words
that function as adjectives.
Examples:
- The horrible smoke, a blend of burnt rubber and industrial fumes, made her choke.
- The yak, a long-haired wild ox, is found in Tibet.
TENG CHANNA
 Appositives and Appositive phrases can accompany nouns or pronouns occupying any part
within a sentence.
Examples:
With a subject: - Some villagers, the old-timers, prefer the traditional
lifestyle.
With a direct object: - Tom learned a new safety measure, a technique for saving
people from choking.
With an indirect object: - The man gave his wife, his partner for ten years, a
beautiful diamond ring on her birthday.
With an objective complement: - She was elected president, the company’s highest
position.
With a predicate nominative: - Our new car is a Toyota Landcruiser, a Japanese
four-wheel drive.
With an object of a - They went to Cambodia, the land of Angkor Wat in
Southeast Asia.
Note: When appositives or appositive phrases are used to combine sentences, they help to
eliminate unnecessary
words.
Example: - Vermont is a state with breathtaking scenery. It has brilliant foliage in the fall.
Combined: - Vermont, a state with breathtaking scenery, has brilliant
foliage in the fall.
 Sometimes an appositive phrase may begin with the word not. Its effect is to set up a sharp
contrast.
Ex: He spoke of the good old days, not the bad old days.
Articles A/An and The

 The indefinite article a or an is used with singular, countable nouns to refer to a thing or an
idea for the first time.
Ex: We have a cat and a dog.
Ex: There’s a supermarket in Adam Street.
 The definite article the is used with singular and plural, countable and uncountable nouns
when both the speaker and the listener know the thing or idea already.
Ex: We have a cat and a dog. The cat is old, but the dog is just a puppy.
Ex: I’m going to the supermarket. Do you want anything? (We both know which
supermarket)
Indefinite articles
We use a/an to refer to singular countable which is indefinite. Either we don’t know which
one, or it doesn’t matter which one.
 The indefinite article is used:
- with professions.
Ex: I’m a teacher.
Ex: She’s an architect.
TENG CHANNA
- with some expressions of quantity.
Ex: a pair of a little a couple of a few
- in exclamations with what + a count noun.
Ex: What a lovely day!
Ex: What a pity!
Definite article
We use the before a singular or plural noun, when both the speaker and the listener know
which noun is being referred to.
 The definite article is used:
- before seas, rivers, hotels, pubs, theatres, museums, and newspaper.
Ex: the Atlantic the British Museum the times the Ritz
- if there is only one of something.

Ex: the sun the Queen the Government
- with superlative adjectives.
Ex: He’s the richest man in the world
Ex: Jane’s the oldest in the class.
No article
 There is no article:
- before plural and uncountable nouns when talking about things in general.
Ex: I like potatoes.
Ex: Milk is good for you.
- before countries, towns, streets, languages, magazines, meals, airports, stations, and
mountains.
Ex: I had lunch with John.
Ex: I bought Cosmopolitan at Paddington Station.
- before some places and with some forms of transport.
at home in/to bed at/to work at/to school/university
by bus by plane by car by train on foot
- in exclamation with what + an uncountable noun.
Ex: What beautiful weather!
Ex: What loud music!
Note: In the phrase go home, there is no article and no preposition.
Ex: I went home early. NOT I went to home.
TENG CHANNA

Important English Grammar

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Important English Grammar

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IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN ENGLISH

Present Perfect Continuous

Put  put cut  cut hit  hitshut  shut

Ex: This time morning I'll be flying to New York.

+ -ed (past participle)

Present Perfect Passive

Ex: They haven't been invited to the party.

Past continuous – uses

Past perfect – uses

b. First Conditional – uses

c. Second Conditional – uses

d. Third Conditional – uses

e. Mixed Conditional – uses

f. Other conjunctions used in conditional sentences

Ex: ‘Slow down’ – They told him to slow down.

d. Other reporting verbs

Used to and Would

Used to and Would

e. be/get used to + -ing

There are three main types of sentences:

d. Subordinate clause in complex sentences

b. Balancing contrasting (not contradictory) ideas

 On the other hand is used between sentences.

c. Changing the subject

e. Pointing out a contrast

i. Showing your attitude

j. Structuring and sequencing

All, Both, Either, Neither, None

All, Both, Either, Neither, None

Should, Ought to, Must, Have to, Need to

g. Other expressions of obligation

e. Few/a few – little/a little – differences in meaning

a. Part of a continuous verb form

d. After certain verbs

g. verb + preposition + -ing form

Verbs with about

h. verb + object + preposition + -ing form

i. adjective + preposition + -ing form

Ability and Possibility

Ability and Possibility

c. Other uses of can and could

a. someone (somebody), something, and somewhere

b. anyone (anybody), anything, and anywhere

c. anyone, anything, and anywhere in affirmative statements

d. no one (nobody), nothing, and nowhere

e. everyone (everybody), everything, and everywhere

f. Indefinite pronouns – uses

 Hyphen ( - ) = a short written or printed line that joins words or syllables.

Inflectional Suffix Example Grammatical function

Other Suffixes Example Meaning/Referring

Verb: Transitive and Intransitive

 Sometimes the object is a clause which begins + (that). For example:

Verbs that can be transitive or intransitive

Active and Passive

When to use an active verb

When to use a passive verb

Ex: Paper is made from wood.

Changing active to passive

Subje Verb Objec

Subje Verb by...

The Passive with Get

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Ex: It’s the fastest motorcycle in the world.

Choose the right form of the Adjective