Table of Contents

The Revolt of 1857........................................................................................................................... 3

Causes of the popular discontent against the British rule ........................................................................... 3
(Major Causes of the Revolt) ..................................................................................................................... 3
Adverse effect of the British rule ................................................................................................................................ 3
Religious interference ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Reforms ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Policies of the British ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Foreign Nature of the British Rule ............................................................................................................................. 7
Annexation of Awadh ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Immediate Cause ....................................................................................................................................................... 9

The Beginning and Spread of the Revolt .................................................................................................. 11

The Beginning of Revolt ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Spread of the Mutiny ............................................................................................................................................... 13
Mutiny to Rebellion ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Leaders .................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Spread of the Rebellion ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Repression ............................................................................................................................................................... 17

Reasons for the Failure of the Revolt ....................................................................................................... 20

Disunity Among Indians ........................................................................................................................................... 20
Weak Leadership of Emperor Bahadur Shah ............................................................................................................ 21
Poor Organisation and Planning .............................................................................................................................. 22
The absence of a forward-looking programme ........................................................................................................ 22
Weak Leadership ..................................................................................................................................................... 22

The Nature of the Revolt......................................................................................................................... 22

1857 Revolt: Through the Lens of British Records .................................................................................................... 22
Spontaneous or Planned .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Hindu-Muslim Unity ................................................................................................................................................ 23
Against the Symbols of Oppression .......................................................................................................................... 25
The search for Alternative Power............................................................................................................................. 25
National Struggle or Feudal Reaction? .................................................................................................................... 26
Elitist Movement or Popular Resistance? ................................................................................................................. 26

Significance of the Revolt........................................................................................................................ 27

Aftermath of the Revolt .......................................................................................................................... 27
Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 28
 Author: Vishwajeet Kawar
Protégé of PMF IAS

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 The Revolt of 1857

• The Revolt of 1857 began with a mutiny of the sepoys but soon engulfed wide regions and people.
Millions of peasants, artisans, and soldiers fought heroically for over a year, threatening the Company's
presence in India.
• Though it started with the sepoys’ mutiny, the Revolt of 1857 was much more than a mere product
of sepoy discontent. It was, in fact, a product of the accumulated grievances of the people against
the Company's administration.
• For more than a century, as the British had been steadily acquiring control of the country, popular
discontent and hatred against foreign rule had been growing among different sections of Indian
society. This discontent finally erupted into a massive popular revolt.
• The Revolt of 1857 came as the culmination of popular discontent with British policies and imperialist
exploitation. But it was no sudden occurrence; the discontent had been accumulating for a long time,
and many times, different sections of people revolted against the authorities.

Causes of the popular discontent against the British rule

(Major Causes of the Revolt)

Adverse effect of the British rule

• Over a hundred years of British rule affected the interests of almost all sections of society, such as
peasants, artisans, sepoys, local rulers, nawabs, taluqdars, traditional zamindars, religious leaders, and
tribals.

Rulers of native states (Nawabs or Rajas)

• Since the mid-18th century, the British devised various administrative policies and gradually reduced
the authority and honour of the native rulers.
• Residents had been stationed in many courts, the rulers' freedom was reduced, their armed forces
disbanded, and their revenues and territories were gradually taken away.
• The policy of annexation was directly responsible for making Nana Sahib, the Rani of Jhansi, and
Bahadur Shah their staunch enemies.

Nana Saheb

• Nana Saheb was the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II. He pleaded that he be given his
father's pension when the latter died. However, the Company, confident of its superiority and military
powers, refused to grant the pension.

Rani Lakshmibai
• Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the
kingdom after her husband's death. Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General, did not concede the
demand and annexed the state by applying the Doctrine of Lapse.

Nawab of Awadh

• Lord Dalhousie expelled the Nawab Wajid Ali Shah and annexed Awadh. Dalhousie's excuse for
annexing Avadh was that he wanted to free the people from the Nawabs' and Taluqdars' oppression.

Mughal Emperor

• From the beginning of the British rule in Bengal in 1765, the Company tried to reduce the authority
of the Mughal emperor. After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the Mughal emperor was reduced to
a mere pensioner of the Company. The British, not yet strong enough to claim sovereignty on their
own, kept the Mughal emperor on the throne as a puppet.
• In the 19th century, as the Company's authority increasing, the Company began a plan to bring the
Mughal dynasty to an end.
❖ The name of the Mughal king was removed from the coins minted by the Company.
❖ In 1849, Governor-General Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the
king's family would be shifted out of the Red Fort and given another place to reside in Delhi.
❖ In 1856, Governor-General Canning decided that Bahadur Shah Zafar would be the last Mughal
king, and after his death, none of his descendants would be recognised as kings. They would just
be called princes.

Peasants
• Under British rule, the peasants became progressively impoverished due to high revenue demand,
rigid revenue collection methods, overcrowding of land, and the commercialisation of agriculture.

Taluqdars
• During the first few decades of British rule in Bengal and Madras, the old zamindars suffered. By 1815,
nearly half of the zamindari of Bengal was transferred from the old zamindars to merchants and
other moneyed classes (landlords).
• After the annexation of Awadh, the British confiscated the estates of a majority of the taluqdars or
zamindars. These dispossessed taluqdars became the most dangerous opponents of British rule.

Artisans and Handicraftsmen

• Artisans and Handicraftsmen were impoverished during the British rule due to two reasons:
1. The British policy of one-way free trade discouraged Indian manufacturing and promoted British
goods.
 2. Indian rulers were the main customers of handicrafts. The gradual disappearance of Indian
rulers under British rule gave a big blow to artisans and handicraftsmen.

Religious Preachers
• The Indian rulers had supported the religious preachers. Displacement of these rulers by the
Company led to the sudden withdrawal of this patronage and the impoverishment of the religious
preachers.
• Religious preachers, pandits and maulavis, who felt that their entire future was threatened, played an
important role in spreading hatred against the foreign rule.

Sepoys
Military

• The Indian sepoys employed by the Company were dissatisfied with their pay, allowances, and
working conditions. In matters of payment, privileges, and promotions, Sepoys faced discrimination
in comparison to British soldiers:
➢ Even though a sepoy was as good a soldier as his British counterpart, he was paid much less.
➢ Indian sepoys could not rise higher than a subedar.
• The recent order stating that sepoys would not be given the foreign service allowance (batta) when
serving in Sindh or the Punjab increased their dissatisfaction with the British.

Religion
• Sepoys were affected by the general belief that the British were interfering in their religions and were
determined to convert Indians to Christianity. Their own experience predisposed them to such a belief.
• The Indians of those days were very strict in observing caste rules, etc. However, the military
authorities forbade the sepoys to wear caste and sectarian marks, beards, or turbans.
• In 1856, an Act was passed stating that every new person who took up employment in the Company's
army had to agree to serve overseas if required. This hurt the sepoys' sentiments as, in those days,
many people in the country believed that if they crossed the sea, they would lose their religion and
caste.
• In the beginning, the British allowed the sepoys to live according to the dictates of their caste and
religion. However, with the extension of British rule, this was no longer possible. The division based
on caste and religion was not conducive to the fighting unit. When British authorities tried to prevent
any caste segregation in the army, the sepoys began to feel that the British were determined to convert
Indians to Christianity.

General discontent of people

• Many sepoys were peasants and had families living in the villages. So, the anger of the peasants
quickly spread among the sepoys.
• The sepoys were part of Indian society, and therefore, they felt and suffered to some extent what other
Indians did. The Hopes, desires, and despairs of the other sections of society were reflected in them. If
their near and dear ones suffered from the destructive economic consequences of British rule, they,
in turn, felt this suffering.

History of sepoys' dissatisfaction

• The sepoys were dissatisfied and mutinied several times before the 1857 revolt.
• The dissatisfaction among the sepoys was so widespread that Fredrick Halliday, Lieutenant-Governor
of Bengal in 1858, remarked that the Bengal Army was "more or less mutinous, always on the verge
of revolt and certain to have mutinied at one time or another as soon as provocation might combine
with opportunity.
❖ 1764: A sepoy mutiny in Bengal
❖ 1806: A sepoy mutiny in Vellore
❖ 1824: The 47th Regiment of sepoys at Barrackpore were told to go to Burma by the sea route to
fight for the Company. As crossing the sea meant the loss of caste in those days, the sepoys
refused to follow the order, though they agreed to go by the land route. The Regiment was
disbanded, its unarmed men were fired upon by artillery, and the leaders of the sepoys were hanged.
❖ 1844: Seven battalions revolted on the question of salaries and battas.

Religious interference
• There was a general belief that the British were interfering in their religions and were determined to
convert Indians to Christianity. The activities of the Christian missionaries aggravated this
perception.
• The Christian missionaries tried to convert people and made violent and vulgar public attacks on
Hinduism and Islam. They openly ridiculed and denounced the long-cherished customs and traditions
of the people.
• In 1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier. This law allowed an Indian
who had converted to Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors.

Reforms
• The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed. Laws were passed to stop the practice of
sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows.
• Under the leadership of Governor General Lord William Bentinck, the British adopted policies aimed
at "reforming" Indian society by introducing Western education, ideas, and institutions.
• Many Indians believed that an alien Christian government had no right to interfere with their
religion. They began to feel that the British were destroying their religion, their social customs and their
traditional way of life.

Policies of the British

Economic Policy
• The economic exploitation of the country by the British and the destruction of its traditional economic
fabric led to the impoverishment of the peasants, artisans, handicraftsmen and traditional
zamindars.

Land Revenue Policies

• Due to the land revenue policies of the British, a large number of peasant proprietors lost their lands
to traders and moneylenders and found themselves hopelessly in debt.

System of Law and Administration

• The oppressive administration added dissatisfaction against the government.
➢ The common people were hard hit by the prevalence of corruption at the lower levels of
administration.
➢ The complex judicial system enabled the rich (moneylenders) to oppress the poor (peasants).

Foreign Nature of the British Rule

• The British remained perpetual foreigners in the country. They did not mix socially even with the
upper classes of Indians; instead, they had a feeling of racial superiority and treated Indians with
contempt and arrogance.
• The people of India were aware of the British's foreign character. They refused to recognise the British
as their benefactors and looked with suspicion upon every act of theirs.
• Thus, the people had a vague sort of anti-British feeling, which had been expressed even earlier than
the Revolt in numerous popular uprisings against the British.

Annexation of Awadh
• The British imposed the Subsidiary Alliance on Awadh in 1801. Under this alliance, the Nawab had to
disband his military force, allow the British to position their troops within the kingdom, and act in
accordance with the advice of the British Resident.
• Deprived of his armed forces, the Nawab became increasingly dependent on the British to maintain
law and order within the kingdom. He could no longer assert control over the rebellious chiefs and
taluqdars.
• The British annexed Awadh in 1856, accusing the Nawab of failing to control rebellious chiefs and
Taluqdars. As a result, Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was dethroned and exiled to Calcutta.
• The Annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie created disaffection in all the areas, particularly in
Awadh. The British government wrongly assumed that Wajid Ali Shah was an unpopular ruler. On the
contrary, he was widely loved, and when he left his beloved Lucknow, many followed him all the way
to Kanpur, singing songs of lament.
• The removal of the Nawab led to the dissolution of the court and its culture. Thus, musicians,
dancers, poets, artisans, cooks, retainers, administrative officials, and others lost their livelihoods.

Interconnected Grievances of Prince, Taluqdars, Peasants, and Sepoys in Awadh

• In Awadh, a chain of grievances connected the prince, taluqdars, peasants, and sepoys. Each of them
saw the British rule (firangi raj) as the downfall of their world, causing the loss of things they cherished
and respected.
• In Awadh, where resistance during 1857 was intense and long-lasting, the fighting was carried out
by taluqdars and their peasants. Many of these taluqdars were loyal to the Nawab of Awadh, and
they joined Begum Hazrat Mahal (the wife of the Nawab) in Lucknow to fight the British.

Taluqdars

• The annexation displaced not just the Nawab. It also dispossessed the taluqdars of the region.
• In Awadh, many estates and forts were owned by taluqdars, who, for many generations, had controlled
land and power in the countryside.
• Before the coming of the British, taluqdars maintained armed retainers and built forts. They enjoyed
a degree of autonomy as long as they accepted the suzerainty of the Nawab and paid the revenue
of their taluqs.
• The British were unwilling to tolerate the power of the taluqdars, so immediately after the annexation,
the taluqdars were disarmed and their forts destroyed.

Summary Settlement
• In 1856, the British introduced the Summary Settlement, which was based on the assumption that the
taluqdars were interlopers with no permanent stakes in the land: they had established their hold over
land through force and fraud.
• Under the Summary Settlement, the British confiscated the estates of most taluqdars or zamindars.
Figures show that in pre-British times, taluqdars held 67 per cent of the total number of villages in
Awadh; by the Summary Settlement, this number had fallen to 38 per cent.

Peasants
• In pre-British times, the taluqdars were oppressors, but many of them also appeared to be generous
father figures: They exacted various dues from the peasants but were often considerate in times of
need.
• Now, under the British, the peasant was directly exposed to overassessment of revenue and inflexible
methods of collection.
• In the past, the taluqdars used to provide loans to the peasants during festive times. They also
postponed revenue collection or reduced state revenue demand during times of hardship or crop
failure. However, now, there was no guarantee that the peasants will receive such aid from the taluqdars.

Sepoys
• The large majority of the sepoys of the Bengal Army were recruited from the Awadh and North
Western Provinces (eastern Uttar Pradesh). Awadh was called the "nursery of the Bengal Army."
• Dalhousie's annexation of Awadh angered the Company's sepoys. The annexation also adversely
affected their purses. They had to pay higher taxes on the land their families held in Awadh.
• Lacking an all-India feeling, these sepoys had helped the British conquer the rest of India. However,
they did possess regional and local patriotism and did not like that their home lands should come
under the foreigner's sway.

Other rulers

• The annexation of Avadh, along with the other annexations of Dalhousie, created panic among rulers
of the native states. They now discovered that their most grovelling loyalty to the British had failed
to satisfy their greed for territory.

[Mains Practice] Why was the revolt particularly widespread in Awadh? What prompted
the peasants, taluqdars and zamindars to join the revolt?

Immediate Cause
• By 1857, the stage was set for a mass upheaval, awaiting only a spark to ignite it. That spark came in
the form of greased cartridges.

Rumours of Greased Cartridges and Bone Dust in Atta

Greased Cartridges

• Henry Hardinge, the Governor-General of India, attempted to modernise the army and introduced
the Enfield rifle.
• The cartridges (bullets) of the Enfield rifle had to be bitten off before loading. They were covered
by grease, which was reportedly composed of pig and cow fat (beef).
• The sepoys believed that the biting of those bullets would corrupt their caste and religion. Hence,
they refused to drill using new cartridges.
Bone Dust in Atta

• There was also a rumour that the British had mixed the bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour sold
in the market. In towns and cantonments, sepoys and the common people refused to touch the atta.
• The rumours about the greased cartridges and mixing of bone dust in atta fuelled the suspicion that
the British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity. Many sepoys believed that the Government was
deliberately trying to destroy their religion, and the time had come to rebel.

Why did people believe in the rumours?

• Rumours circulate only when they resonate with people's deeper fears and suspicions. The rumours
in 1857 begin to make sense when seen in the context of the policies the British pursued from the late
1820s.
• After the 1820s, the British introduced Western education, ideas, and institutions. They established
laws to abolish customs like sati (1829) and permit the remarriage of Hindu widows.
• The British annexed the various Indian states and introduced their own system of administration,
their laws and their methods of land settlement and land revenue collection.
• It seemed to the people that all that they cherished and held sacred - from kings and socio-religious
customs to patterns of landholding and revenue payment- was being destroyed and replaced by a
more impersonal, alien and oppressive system. The activities of Christian missionaries aggravated this
perception. In such a situation of uncertainty, rumours spread with remarkable swiftness.

Prophecies

• The rumours and prophecies played an important role in the outbreak and spread of revolt.
• A prophecy predicted that British rule would end on the centenary of the Battle of Plassey,
occurring on 23 June 1857.
• Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, prophesied that the British rule would end soon.

Why Did the Sepoys Revolt?

• During a time when employment in companies was considered prestigious and provided economic
stability, the sepoys revolted. This was because having a job in a company wasn't enough to hold a
position in society - religion and caste were more powerful than any prestigious post.
• After returning from the Second Afghan War, many sepoys were outcast by the villagers who accused
them of not following the caste stipulations.

Confidence to overthrow the British rule

• People do not revolt simply because they desire to overthrow their rulers; they must also be confident
that they can do so successfully.
• The period of the growth of discontent among the people coincided with certain events which
shattered the general belief in the invincibility of British arms and encouraged the people to believe
that the days of the British regime were numbered.
• The British army suffered major reverses in:
1. The First Afghan War (1838-42)
2. The Punjab Wars (1845-49)
3. The Crimean War (1854-56): It was fought by an alliance of Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia
against Russia. It was the only major European conflict the Army engaged in between 1816 and
1914.
4. The Santhal rebellion (1855-56): The tribesmen of Bihar and Bengal rose up armed with axes and
bows, and arrows and revealed the potentialities of a popular uprising by temporarily sweeping
away British rule from their area.
• Though the British ultimately won these wars and suppressed the Santhal uprising, the disasters they
suffered in major battles revealed that the British army could be defeated by determined fighting, even
by an Asian army. In fact, the Indians made here a serious error of political judgment by
underestimating British strength. This error was to cost the rebels of 1857 dear.

[Prelims Practice] Which one of the following was NOT a cause of the Revolt of 1857?
a) The rumour that the British had mixed the bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour being sold in the
market
b) The prophecy that British rule would come to an end on the centenary of the Battle of Plassey on 23rd
June, 1857
c) Popular discontent with British rule
d) The prophecy that the end of British rule would lead to the end of the Kali Yuga and the return of
Ram Rajya
Answer: D

[Mains Practice - Opinions Explored] In addition to religious interference by the British,

what do you consider the single most significant factor contributing to the revolt of 1857?

The Beginning and Spread of the Revolt

The Beginning of Revolt

• On 10 May 1857, the sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut mutinied. The mutiny began in the lines
of the native infantry and spread very swiftly to the cavalry and then to the city.
• Even before the outbreak at Meerut, Mangat Pande, a young soldier, was hanged to death on 29
March for attacking his officer at Barrackpur.
• On 24 April, 90 men of the 3rd Native Cavalry refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges,
suspected of being coated with cow and pig fat. On 9 May, 85 sepoys were dismissed from service and
sentenced to ten years in jail for disobeying their officers. This sparked a general mutiny among the
Indian soldiers stationed at Meerut.
• The very next day, on 10 May, the sepoys released their imprisoned comrades and unfurled the banner
of revolt. The sepoys captured the guns and ammunition, killed their European officers and burned
the buildings and properties of the British. The sepoys also destroyed and plundered the government
buildings - the record office, jail, court, post office, treasury, etc.
• The ordinary people of the town and surrounding villages joined the sepoys.

Legitimacy to the Revolt

• The sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi in the early hours of the next morning.
• As news of the arrival of the sepoys spread, the regiments stationed in Delhi also rose in rebellion;
again, British officers were killed, arms and ammunition seized, and buildings set on fire.
• Triumphant soldiers gathered around the walls of the Red Fort where the Badshah lived, demanding
to meet him. The emperor, Bahadur Shah, was unwilling to challenge the mighty British power, but
the soldiers persisted. Surrounded by the sepoys, Bahadur Shah had no option but to comply.
• The rebellious soldiers proclaimed the aged and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar as the Emperor of
India (Shahenshah-e-Hindustan). This proclamation gave the rebellion a sense of legitimacy, as it
could now be carried on in the name of the Mughal emperor. With this single act, the sepoys had
transformed a mutiny of soldiers into a revolutionary war.
❖ The rebellious sepoys from all over the country automatically turned their steps towards Delhi.
❖ All Indian chiefs who participated in the Revolt proclaimed their loyalty to the Mughal Emperor.
• The Bahadur Shah wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and
organise a confederacy of Indian states to fight and replace British rule.
 Mutiny: a collective disobedience of rules and regulations within the armed forces
 Revolt: a rebellion of people against established authority and power. The terms 'revolt' and
'rebellion' can be used synonymously.
 In the context of the 1857 revolt, the term revolt refers primarily to the uprising of the civilian
population (peasants, zamindars, rajas, jagirdars), while the mutiny was of the sepoys.

Why did the rulers of smaller states join the rebellion?

• The Mughal dynasty had ruled over a very large part of the country. Most smaller rulers and chieftains
controlled different territories on behalf of the Mughal ruler.
• Threatened by the expansion of British rule, many of the smaller rulers felt that if the Mughal
emperor could rule again, they, too, would be able to rule their territories once more under Mughal
authority.

Spread of the Mutiny

• Through 12 and 13 May, North India remained quiet. Once word spread that Delhi had fallen to the
rebels and Bahadur Shah had blessed the rebellion, events moved swiftly. Almost every cantonment
in Bengal and a few in Bombay rose in revolt. Only the Madras army remained loyal.
• In many princely states, rulers remained loyal to their British overlord, but the soldiers revolted or
remained on the brink of revolt. Example:
❖ Sindhia of Gwalior supported the British, but over 20,000 of Gwalior's troops went to Tantia
Tope and the Rani of Jhansi to fight against the British.
❖ The Holkar of Indore supported the British, but many of Indore's troops rebelled and joined the
sepoys.

Mutiny to Rebellion
• Everywhere in Northern and Central India, the mutiny of the sepoys was followed by popular revolts
of the civilian population. This was particularly true for the North Western Provinces of Bengal
Presidency and Awadh, where the sepoys were recruited in large numbers by the Bengal army.
• After the sepoys had destroyed British authority, the common people rose up in arms, often fighting
with spears and axes, bows and arrows, lathis and scythes, and crude muskets.
• When ordinary people began joining the revolt, the rebellion against the British widened into an attack
on all those who were seen as allies of the British or local oppressors.
• In major towns like Lucknow, Kanpur and Bareilly, peasants and zamindars expressed their
grievances "by attacking the money-lenders and new zamindars who had displaced them from the
land. Peasants not only saw them as oppressors but also as allies of the British.
• In many places, peasants destroyed the money lenders' account books and records of debts. They
also attacked the British-established law courts, revenue offices (tehsils), revenue records, and thanas.
• The wide participation of the peasantry and artisans in the revolt gave it real strength and the
character of a popular revolt. There was a general defiance of all kinds of authority and hierarchy. The
mutiny in the sepoy ranks quickly became a rebellion.

Link between the sepoys and the rural world

• The large majority of the sepoys of the Bengal Army were recruited from the Awadh and North
Western Provinces (eastern Uttar Pradesh).
 • The changes that the families of the sepoys saw around them and the threats they perceived were
quickly transmitted to the sepoy lines. In turn, the fears of the sepoys about the new cartridge,
their grievances about leave, and racial abuse on the part of their white officers were communicated
back to the villages.
• This link between the sepoys and the rural world had important implications during the uprising.
When the sepoys defied their superior officers and took up arms, they were joined by their brethren
in the villages. Everywhere, peasants poured into towns and joined the soldiers and the ordinary
people of the towns in collective acts of rebellion.

Leaders
• To fight the British, leadership and organisation were required. These rebels sometimes turned to those
who had been leaders before the British conquest, such as nawabs, rajas (kings), ranis (queens),
taluqdars, zamindar, etc.
 One of the first acts of the sepoys of Meerut was to rush to Delhi and appeal to the old Mughal
emperor to accept the leadership of the revolt.
• However, traditional leaders were not always the leaders of the revolt. Sometimes, ordinary men
and women, religious leaders, and local leaders led the revolt.

Spread of the Rebellion

• The rebel forces greatly outnumbered the British and defeated them in several battles. This
convinced the people that British rule had collapsed for good and gave them the confidence to take
the plunge and join the rebellion. A situation of widespread rebellion developed in the Awadh region
in particular.
 On 6 August 1857, Lieutenant Colonel Tytler sent a telegram to his Commander-in-Chief
expressing the fear felt by the British: "Our men are cowed by the numbers opposed to them and
the endless fighting. Every village is held against us, and the zamindars have risen to oppose us."

Storm Centres of the Revolt

• Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, and Arrah (Bihar) became the storm centres of the revolt,
where mutinied regiments joined other troops. However, the rebels' first instinct was always to go to
Delhi, whether they were in Meerut, Kanpur, or Jhansi.

Delhi

• At Delhi, emperor Bahadur Shah held nominal and symbolic leadership, but the real command lay
with a Court of Soldiers headed by General Bakht Khan.
• Bakht Khan had led the revolt of the Bareilly troops and brought them to Delhi. After the British
occupation of Delhi in September 1857, he went to Lucknow and continued to fight the British until
he died in a battle on 13 May 1859.

Kanpur

• At Kanpur, the Revolt was led by Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II.
• With the help of the sepoys, Nana Sahib expelled the English from Kanpur and proclaimed himself the
Peshwa. Nana Sahib acknowledged Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India and declared himself his
Governor.
• Nana Sahib was greatly helped by Tantia Tope and Azimullah Khan:
❖ Tantia Tope, the general of Nana Saheb, fought on behalf of Nana Sahib from Bithur (a town in
the Kanpur district) and carried the chief burden of fighting.
❖ Azimullah Khan was a loyal servant of the Nana Sahib. He was chief advisor to the Nana Sahib,
whose role in the revolt was political rather than military.

Lucknow

• At Lucknow (the capital of Awadh), the revolt was led by the Begum Hazrat Mahal (the Begum of
Avadh), who had proclaimed her young son, Birjis Qadir, as the Nawab of Avadh.
• With the help of the sepoys in Lucknow and the zamindars and peasants of Avadh, the Begum
organised an all-out attack on the British.

Jhansi
• In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the
general of Nana Saheb.
• Rani Lakshmibai captured Gwalior with the help of Tantia Tope and her Afghan guards. Maharaja
Sindhia, loyal to the British, tried to fight against the Rani, but many of his troops sided with her.
Sindhia then sought refuge with the English in Agra.

Madhya Pradesh

• In the Mandla region of Madhya Pradesh, Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh raised and led an army
of four thousand against the British who had taken over the administration of her state.

Maharani Avantibai Lodhi

• Maharani Avantibai Lodhi was the queen of the Ramgarh (present-day Dindori) in Madhya
Pradesh. When the king fell ill, and her sons were still minors, she efficiently administered state affairs.
Then, the British appointed the administrator of the state administration.
• Amidst this, the king died, and the whole responsibility fell on the queen. Maharani Avantibai ordered
the state's farmers not to obey the British instructions.
Bareilly

• At Bareilly, the revolt was led by Khan Bahadur, the grandson of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, who was the
Nawab of Rohilkhand.
• Khan Bahadur formed his government in Bareilly, organised an army and fought against the British.

Bihar

• In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, a ruined and discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur
near Arrah (Bihar). Though nearly 80 years old, he was perhaps the most outstanding military leader
and strategist of the revolt.
• Kunwar Singh fought the British in Bihar and later joined Nana Sahib's forces. He also campaigned in
Avadh and Central India.

Local Leaders of the Revolt

Ahmadullah Shah

• Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, moved from village to village preaching jehad (religious
war) against the British and urging people to rebel. He moved in a palanquin, with drumbeaters in
front and followers at the rear. Hence, he was popularly called Danka Shah - the maulvi with the drum
(danka).
• Ahmadullah fought in the Battle of Chinhatin, where the British forces under Henry Lawrence were
defeated.

Battle of Chinhat
• The Battle of Chinhat was fought on 30 June 1857 between British forces and Indian rebels near
Chinhat (near Awad). The British forces led by the Chief Commissioner of Awadh, Sir Henry Lawrence,
were defeated by Indian rebels led by Barkat Ahmad.

[Prelims Practice] Which of the following statements about Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah, who
played an important part in the Revolt of 1857, is/are correct?
1. He was popularly known as Danka Shah or the Maulvi with a drum.
2. He fought the famous Battle of Chinhat.
3. He was killed by British troops under the command of Henry Lawrence.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 3
c) 2 and 3
d) 1 and 2
Ans
 wer: D

Shah Mal

• Shah Mal was an ordinary peasant from Baraut Pargana (earlier in Meerut) of Uttar Pradesh. He
mobilised the cultivators of the Chaurassee des (84 villages) against the British.
• The revolt against the British turned into a general rebellion against all signs of oppression and
injustice. Cultivators plundered the houses of moneylenders and traders, and displaced proprietors
took possession of the lands they had lost.
• Shah Mal's men destroyed the bridge of boats over the Yamuna in Baghpat and disrupted the English
lines of communication to Meerut. They sent supplies to the sepoys who had mutinied in Delhi.
• Shah Mal took over and transformed the bungalow of an English officer into a “hall of justice” where
he settled local disputes and delivered justice. He also set up an effective network of intelligence.
For a period, the people of the area felt that the British raj was over and their raj had come.

Repression
• The Company got scared by the big rebellion and decided to crush it hard. It brought reinforcements
from England and passed new laws to help them quell the insurgency.

Recapture of Delhi
• Like the rebels, the British recognised Delhi's symbolic value and began suppressing the revolt by
reconquering it. After the prolonged and bitter fighting, the British recaptured Delhi from the rebel
forces on 20 September 1857.
• The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was taken prisoner. The Royal Princes were captured
and butchered on the spot.
• The Emperor was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment. He and his wife, Begum Zinat
Mahal, were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon
jail in November 1862. Thus, the great House of the Mughals was finally and completely extinguished.
• However, the recapture of Delhi did not end the rebellion. The people continued to resist and fight
against the British. Over the next two years, the British defeated each of the major leaders of the
revolt one after another, ultimately ending the rebellion.

Rani Avantibai
• On March 20, 1858, Rani Avantibai chose to embrace death when surrounded by the British on all
sides.

Kunwar Singh
• Kunwar Singh defeated the British forces near Arrah. But had sustained a fatal wound in the fighting.
He died on 27 April 1858 in his ancestral house in the village of Jagdishpur.
Rani Lakshmibai
• Rani Lakshmibai died on the field of battle on 17 June 1858.

Tantia Tope
• Tantia Tope escaped to the jungles of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war with the
support of many tribal and peasant leaders. He was betrayed by a Zamindar friend and captured while
asleep. He was tried and hanged on 15 April 1859.

[UPSC 2006] With reference to the Revolt of the year 1857, who among the following was
betrayed by a friend, captured and put to death by the British?
a) Nana Sahib
b) Kunwar Singh
c) Khan Bahadur Khan
d) Tantia Tope
Answer: D

Begum Hazrat Mahal

• After the British recaptured Lucknow in March 1858, Begum Hazrat Mahal was compelled to hide
in Nepal.

Nana Sahib
• Nana Sahib was defeated at Kanpur. He escaped to Nepal in early 1859.

Rewards for Landlords

• During the revolt, the British employed various methods to quell the uprising. In addition to using
military force on a massive scale, the British also attempted to weaken the unity of the resistance.
• In large parts of present-day Uttar Pradesh, where big landholders and peasants had offered united
resistance, the British tried to break up the unity by promising to give back to the big landholders
their estates.
• The British announced that loyal landholders would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights
over their lands if they submitted to the British. This was done to divide the united resistance and
make it easier for the British to suppress the revolt. After this, many taluqdars of Awadh abandoned
the revolt and joined the British.

Important British Army Officers

• John Lawrence, Sir James Outram, John Nicholson, Sir Henry Havelock, Neil, Sir Colin Campbell, and
Sir Hugh Rose were the important British commanders who fought against the Indian rebels.

Kanpur
• Sir Hugh Wheeler surrendered to Nana Saheb at Kanpur on 27 June 1857.
• Colin Campbell defeated Tantia Tope at Kanpur in December 1857.

Lucknow

• Henry Lawrence was killed in a bomb blast during the siege of Lucknow.
• Colin Campbell recaptured Lucknow in March 1858.
 After the annexation of Awadh, Henry Lawrence was appointed as Chief Commissioner of Awadh.

Jhansi

• Rani Lakshmibai defended Jhansi against British troops when Sir Hugh Rose besieged Jhansi on 23
March 1858.
• Tatya Tope, who was sent to relieve Jhansi was defeated by Hugh Rose.
• Later, Rani Lakshmibai fled to Gwalior, where she, along with Tatiya Tope and Rao Sahib, joined the
Indian forces and captured Gwalior.
Centre Leaders of the Reasons for Participation in the British Officers
Rebels Revolt
Delhi Bahadur Shah The company reduced the
authority of the Mughal
emperor
Kanpur Nana Sahib The company refused to grant a • Sir Hugh Wheeler
pension to Nana Sahib surrendered to Nana Saheb
at Kanpur on 27 June 1857.
• Colin Campbell defeated
Tantia Tope at Kanpur in
December 1857.
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Annexation of Awadh • Henry Lawrence was killed
Mahal in a bomb blast during the
siege of Lucknow.
• Colin Campbell recaptured
Lucknow in March 1858.
Jhansi Rani Lakshmibai The company refused to accept • Rani Lakshmibai defended
her adopted son as the heir to Jhansi against British troops
the kingdom when Sir Hugh Rose
besieged Jhansi on 23 March
1858.
 • Tatya Tope, who was sent to
relieve Jhansi, was defeated
by Hugh Rose.
Madhya Rani Avantibai The company took over the
Pradesh Lodhi administration of the state
Bihar Kunwar Singh Ruined by the British policy
Bareilly Khan Bahadur

[UPSC 2005] Which one of the following territories was not affected by the Revolt of 1857?
a) Jhansi
b) Chittor
c) Jagdishpur
d) Lucknow
Answer: B

[Prelims Practice] Which one of the following towns was not a centre of the Revolt of 1857?
a) Ayodhya
b) Agra
c) Delhi
d) Kanpur
Answer: B

Reasons for the Failure of the Revolt

Disunity Among Indians

• The Revolt of 1857 could not encompass the entire country or all the groups and classes of Indian
society. Most rulers of the Indian states, big zamindars, big merchants, moneylenders, educated
Indians (intelligentsia), and the upper and middle classes did not support the revolt. Almost half of
Indian soldiers fought from the British side against their countrymen.

Rulers of Regional States

• Most rulers of the Indian states, fearful of British might, refused to join the revolt. Less than one per
cent of the chiefs of India joined the Revolt.
• The Sindhia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Nawab of Bhopal, the
rulers of Kashmir, the Ranas of Nepal, and many other ruling chiefs, and a large number of big
zamindars gave active help to the British in suppressing the Revolt.
• Had the rulers of Indian states supported the revolt, the sepoys could have fought much better.
Governor-General Canning later remarked that these rulers and chiefs acted as the breakwaters to
the storm which would have otherwise swept us in one great wave.

Taluqdars
• Even the taluqdars (big zamindars) of Avadh, who had joined the Revolt, abandoned it once the
Government assured them that their estates would be returned to them. This made it very difficult
for the peasants and soldiers of Avadh to sustain a prolonged guerrilla campaign.

Moneylenders and Big Merchants

• The moneylenders were the chief targets of the villagers' attack. Therefore, they were naturally
hostile to the Revolt.
• The big merchants of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras supported the British because their main profits
came from foreign trade and economic connections with the British merchants.

Educated Indians
• The educated Indians also did not support the Revolt. They were repelled by the rebels' appeals to
superstitions and their opposition to progressive social measures.
• The educated Indians wanted to end their country's backwardness. They mistakenly believed that
British rule would help them accomplish these modernisation tasks while the rebels would take the
country backwards.
• However, educated Indians were not anti-national or loyal to a foreign regime. They soon realised
that foreign rule was incapable of modernising the country and led a powerful national movement
against British rule.

Inevitability of Disunity
• Modern nationalism was not yet present in the mid-19th century, so the lack of unity among Indians
was perhaps unavoidable. At that time, patriotism was limited to love for one’s small locality, region,
or state. The concept of common all-India interests and the understanding that these interests bound
all Indians together had not yet emerged.

Weak Leadership of Emperor Bahadur Shah

• The following weaknesses of the Bahadur Shah created political weakness at the nerve centre of the
Revolt:
➢ Uncertainty about Sepoys and Self: Bahadur Shah was unsure about the intentions of the sepoys
and his own effectiveness as a leader in the revolt.
➢ Vacillation between Reign and Survival: Bahadur Shah vacillated between his desire to maintain
his reign as Emperor and the instinct to ensure his own survival in case of British suppression.
 ➢ Undermined by Queen Zeenat Mahal and Sons: Emperor's authority was weakened by Queen
Zeenat Mahal and his sons, who engaged in intrigues with the enemy, further destabilising his
leadership.
➢ Weak Personality, Old Age and lack of leadership qualities.

[Mains Practice – Unlocking Creativity] What measures would you have taken if you were
the Emperor of India during the revolt of 1857?

Poor Organisation and Planning

• Indian leaders were also poorly organised. The rebel units did not have a common plan of action,
or authoritative heads, or centralised leadership. The uprisings in different parts of the country were
completely uncoordinated.

The absence of a forward-looking programme

• The entire movement lacked a unified and forward-looking programme to be implemented after the
capture of power. The leaders were joined together by a common hatred for the alien rule but by
nothing else. Once they overthrew British power from an area, they did not know what sort of power to
create in its place.
• This absence of a modern and progressive programme enabled the reactionary princes and
zamindars to seize the levers of power of the revolutionary movement. Given that these feudal leaders
had previously failed to safeguard their independence, it was hardly to be expected that they would
now succeed in founding a new all-India State.

Weak Leadership
• Except for a few like the Rani of Jhansi, Kunwar Singh, and Maulvi Ahmadullah, most rebel leaders
didn't understand how important the Revolt was and didn't do much to support it.

Weak Military
• The Indian leaders lacked modern weapons and other materials of war. Most of them fought with
ancient weapons such as pikes and swords.

The Nature of the Revolt

1857 Revolt: Through the Lens of British Records

• Apart from a few proclamations and ishtahars (notifications), the rebels left no record that sheds
light on their perspective. Thus, attempts to reconstruct what happened in 1857 are heavily and
inevitably dependent on the British records.

Reasons for the lack of records/ accounts by the rebels

➢ As victors, the British recorded their own trials and tribulations as well as their heroism. The British
dismissed the rebels as a bunch of ungrateful and barbaric people.
➢ Most of the rebels were sepoys and ordinary people who were not literate and, hence, could not
record their version of events.
➢ As rebels worked illegally, they perhaps kept no records.
➢ Rebels were defeated and suppressed, and their version of events died with them.
➢ For years after the Revolt, the British suppressed any favourable mention of revolt and took strong
action against anyone who tried to present their side of the story.

Spontaneous or Planned
• It's unclear if the 1857 Revolt was spontaneous or planned, as the rebels left no records to provide
their perspective. Consequently, our understanding of the revolt heavily depends on British accounts,
which primarily reflect the viewpoints of British officials.
• Some historians and writers argue that the Revolt stemmed from a widespread and meticulously
planned conspiracy. They cite evidence such as the distribution of chapattis and red lotuses, along
with propaganda spread by wandering sanyasis, fakirs, and madaris.
• On the other hand, another group of writers vehemently refutes the notion of any deliberate
planning behind the Revolt. They highlight the absence of documents before or after the Revolt
suggesting an organised conspiracy and note the lack of witnesses supporting such claims.
• The truth may lie somewhere between these two extreme views. It seems likely that there was an
organised conspiracy to revolt, but the organisation had not progressed sufficiently when the Revolt
broke out accidentally.

Distribution of Chapattis
• There were reports from various parts of North India about the distribution of chapattis from one
village to another. A person would visit a village at night, give a chapatti to the village watchman,
ask him to make five more and distribute them to the next village, and so on.
• The meaning and purpose of this distribution were unclear then, and they still remain a mystery.
However, people interpreted it as a sign of upcoming unrest.

Hindu-Muslim Unity
• Throughout the revolt, Hindus and Muslims displayed remarkable unity. The following events show
the Hindu-Muslim unity during the revolt:
✓ After the mutiny at Meerut, the sepoys marched to Delhi and appealed to Bahadur Shah to
assume leadership of the revolt.
✓ All the rebels recognised Bahadur Shah, a Muslim, as their Emperor.
✓ Hindus and Muslims were equally well represented at all levels of the leadership.
 ✓ The Hindu and Muslim rebels and sepoys respected each other's sentiments. For example,
wherever the Revolt was successful, orders were immediately issued banning cow slaughter out of
respect for Hindu sentiments.
✓ The rebel proclamations in 1857 repeatedly appealed to all sections of the population,
irrespective of their caste and creed. The proclamation issued under the name of Bahadur Shah
appealed to the people to join the fight under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir.
• The events of 1857 clearly showed that the people and politics of India were not communal in medieval
times and before 1858.
• The role of Hindu-Muslim unity in the Revolt was indirectly acknowledged later by Aitchison, a senior
British official, when he bitterly complained: "In this instance, we could not play off the Mohammedans
against the Hindus".

The Azamgarh Proclamation (25 August 1857)

• The proclamation, issued under the name of Bahadur Shah, appealed to all the people to join the
fight under the standards of both Muhammad and Mahavir. The proclamation stressed that both
Hindus and Muslims suffered under British rule and urged them to unite to fight against the British.
• It was authored mostly by Firoz Shah, the grandson of Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II.
• The proclamation emphasised the inevitability of British defeat in India, urging all to abandon hope
in British rule and align with the Badshahi, or imperial government, to secure their interests.
• The proclamation also outlined the grievances of and promises for different groups:
1. Zamindars (Landowners): It denounces the exorbitant Jumas (revenue demands) imposed by
the British and the humiliation and impoverishment of zamindars through legal exploitation. It
promised lighter taxes and restoration of dignity under the Badshahi Government.
2. Merchants: The proclamation condemned British monopolisation of trade and taxation and
promised to liberate trade for native merchants and protect them from exploitation.
3. Public Servants: It criticised the lack of respect, low pay, and minimal influence of natives in
British civil and military services. It also highlighted that all the posts of dignity and high pay
were reserved for the British. It advocated for allegiance to the Badshahi Government and
promised better pay and higher posts.
4. Artisans: It highlighted the displacement of native artisans by European goods and pledges
employment opportunities and prosperity for artisans under the Badshahi Government.
5. Pundits, Fakirs, and Learned Persons: It called upon religious scholars to join the holy war
against the English, positioning them as guardians of Hindu and Muslim religions against
European aggression.
 [UPSC 2000] 'In this instance, we could not play of the Mohammedans against the Hindus'.
To which of the following events did this remark of Aitchison relate?
a) Revolt of 1857
b) Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
c) Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement
d) August Movement of 1942
Answer: A

[Prelims Practice] The Azamgarh Proclamation of August 25, 1857, stressed which one of
the following issues?
a) Hindu-Muslim divide
b) Support to the English Government
c) The return of the Badshahi
d) The imposition of heavy Jumas (revenue demand)
Answer: A

[Prelims Practice] Which one of the following statements about the Revolt of 1857 is
correct?
a) It was a Revolt carefully organised and planned by the Rajas, Nawabs and Taluqdars
b) Rumours and prophecies did not play any role in its outbreak and spread.
c) The rebel proclamations in 1857 repeatedly appealed to all sections of the population irrespective of
their caste and creed.
d) The British succeeded in quickly and easily controlling the rebels.
Answer: C

Against the Symbols of Oppression

• The rebels completely rejected everything associated with British rule. They attacked every aspect of
British rule.
• In many places, the rebellion against the British widened into an attack on all those who were seen as
allies of the British or local oppressors. Often, the rebels deliberately sought to humiliate the elites
of a city. In the villages, they burned account books and ransacked moneylenders' houses.
• This reflected an attempt to overturn traditional hierarchies and rebel against all oppressors. It
presents a glimpse of an alternative vision, perhaps of a more egalitarian society.
• However, such visions were not articulated in the proclamations, which sought to unify all social
groups in the fight against firangi raj.

The search for Alternative Power

• Once British rule had collapsed, the rebels in places like Delhi, Lucknow, and Kanpur tried to establish
some kind of authority and administration structure. This was short-lived, but the attempts show
that the rebel leadership wanted to restore the pre-British world of the 18th century.
• The leaders went back to the culture of the court. Appointments were made to various posts,
arrangements were made for the collection of land revenue and the payment of troops, and orders were
issued to stop loot and plunder.
• In all this, the rebels returned to the 18th century Mughal world.

National Struggle or Feudal Reaction?

• With the emergence of nationalist uprisings against the colonial government, the 1857 revolt came
to be seen as part of that struggle. The focus shifted from the greased cartridges to the British
oppressions.
• In his book "The Indian War of Independence," V.D. Savarkar referred to the 1857 revolt as a "war
of independence." However, several other works have argued against this interpretation.
❖ Some pointed out that the absence of a general plan of rebellion contradicts such a claim.
❖ Others argued that the leaders were not motivated by national sentiment and would have
hindered progress.
❖ Finally, some suggested that 1857 was not the start of a freedom movement but rather the final
struggles of an outdated aristocracy.
 Jawaharlal Nehru believed that the Revolt of 1857 was more than just a mutiny by Indian soldiers.
Although it started as a rebellion by Indian soldiers, it quickly spread and became a mass movement.
Nehru argued that the Revolt of 1857 was primarily a feudal uprising with some nationalistic
elements.

Elitist Movement or Popular Resistance?

• Some historians argue that during the revolt, the taluqdars were the main decision-makers, shaping
its course. They say in places like Aligarh, where powerful landowners held sway, the revolt was
restrained. But in areas like the Doab below Kanpur, where absentee landowners couldn't control
things, the revolt was more intense.
• However, others believe this view gives too much credit to the taluqdars and overlooks the role of
ordinary people. They point out that leadership came from various sources, not just landowners.
People like Shah Mal and Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah were also respected leaders. And even after some
taluqdars made peace with the British, many peasants continued to fight.
• In Awadh, both rich taluqdars and peasants joined forces in the revolt, united by common grievances.
This widespread participation shows that it was a popular uprising. In some areas, as much as three-
 quarters of the adult male population participated. The depth of the resistance is clear from the large
number of weapons seized from ordinary homes.

Significance of the Revolt

• Though the British won the war, the Revolt was not in vain. It is a glorious landmark in our history. It was
the first great struggle of the Indian people for freedom from British imperialism.
• The Revolt played an important role in bringing the Indian people together and imparting to them
the consciousness of belonging to one country. It paved the way for the rise of the modern national
movement.
• The heroic and patriotic struggle of 1857 left an unforgettable impression on the minds of the Indian
people. It served as a perennial source of inspiration in their later struggle for freedom.
• The revolt exposed the defects of the East India Company's administrative machinery and policies.
It forced the British to reorganise their administration in India and change their policies regarding
Indian society, government, and economy.

Aftermath of the Revolt

• The important changes the British introduced after the Revolt of 1857 are given below.

Transfer of the Power

• The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858. It transferred the powers of the East India Company
to the British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.
• A member of the British Cabinet was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible
for all matters related to the governance of India. He was given a council to advise him, called the India
Council.
• The Governor-General of India was given the title of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of
the Crown.
• Through these measures, the British government accepted direct responsibility for ruling India.

Policy Against Annexation

• All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future.
They were allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons.
• However, they were made to acknowledge the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. Thus,
the Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as subordinates of the British Crown.

Changes in Army
• The proportion of Indian soldiers in the army was reduced, and the number of European soldiers
was increased. Instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India and south India, more
were recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans.

Hostility towards Muslims

• The land and property of Muslims were confiscated on a large scale, and they were treated with
suspicion and hostility. The British believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way.

Indian Society
• The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.

Landlords
• Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their
lands.

Summary

• The Revolt of 1857 began with a mutiny of the sepoys but soon engulfed wide regions and people.
Millions of peasants, artisans, and soldiers fought heroically for over a year, threatening the
Company's presence in India.
• Though it started with the sepoys’ mutiny, the Revolt of 1857 was much more than a mere product of
sepoy discontent. It was, in fact, a product of the accumulated grievances of the people against the
Company's administration.

Major Causes of the Revolt

Adverse effect of the British rule

• Over a hundred years of British rule affected the interests of almost all sections of society, such as
peasants, artisans, sepoys, local rulers, nawabs, taluqdars, traditional zamindars, religious leaders, and
tribals. The discontent of these people finally erupted into a massive popular revolt.

Religious interference

• There was a general belief that the British were interfering in their religions and were determined to
convert Indians to Christianity. The activities of the Christian missionaries aggravated this perception.

Reforms

• The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed. Laws were passed to stop the practice of
sati and to encourage the remarriage of widows.
• Many Indians believed that the British were destroying their religion, their social customs and their
traditional way of life.
Foreign Nature of the British Rule

• The British remained perpetual foreigners in the country. The people of India were aware of the
British's foreign character. They refused to recognise the British as their benefactors and looked with
suspicion upon every act of theirs.

Annexation of Awadh

• The Annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie created disaffection in all the areas, particularly in Awadh.
In Awadh, a chain of grievances connected the prince, taluqdars, peasants, and sepoys. Each of them
saw the British rule (firangi raj) as the downfall of their world, causing the loss of things they cherished
and respected.

Immediate Cause

• The rumours about the greased cartridges and mixing of bone dust in atta fuelled the suspicion that
the British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity. Many sepoys believed that the Government was
deliberately trying to destroy their religion, and the time had come to rebel.

The Beginning of the Revolt

• On 10 May 1857, the sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut mutinied. The sepoys captured the guns
and ammunition, killed their European officers and burned the buildings and properties of the British.
• The sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi. The rebellious soldiers proclaimed the
Bahadur Shah Zafar as the Emperor of India (Shahenshah-e-Hindustan). This proclamation gave the
rebellion a sense of legitimacy.

Spread of the Mutiny

• The rebel forces greatly outnumbered the British and defeated them in several battles. This convinced
the people that British rule had collapsed for good and gave them the confidence to take the plunge
and join the rebellion.
• Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, and Arrah (Bihar) became the storm centres of the revolt,
where mutinied regiments joined other troops. However, the rebels' first instinct was always to go to
Delhi, whether in Meerut, Kanpur, or Jhansi.

Repression
• The Company got scared by the big rebellion and decided to crush it hard. It brought reinforcements
from England and passed new laws to help them quell the insurgency.
• During the revolt, the British employed various methods to quell the uprising. In addition to using
military force on a massive scale, the British also attempted to weaken the unity of the resistance. The
 British announced that loyal landholders would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights over
their lands if they submitted to the British.

Reasons for the Failure of the Revolt

➢ Disunity Among Indians
➢ Weak Leadership of Emperor Bahadur Shah
➢ Poor Organisation and Planning
➢ The absence of a forward-looking programme