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PREFACE

This text is designed for a one-semester course on electronics. Its primary audience is
second-year physics students, but it can include students from other disciplines or levels who
understand elementary notions of circuits and complex numbers. Most physics programs,
especially those in liberal arts colleges, can afford only a one-semester course in electronics.
Electronics is a vital part of a curriculum because it trains students in a basic skill of
experimentation. With this knowledge, students can design circuits to manipulate electronic
signals or drive mechanical devices. An electronics course also gives students a basic
understanding of the inner workings of electronics instruments. Thus, an electronics course
prepares students for advanced laboratories and, ultimately, experimental research.
Because of the nature of the topic, the course must have a huge hands-on component.
Electronics is learned by experience. At Colgate University, we have been teaching a course
that meets two days a week, with a one-hour lecture followed by a two- to three-hour lab.
In the lab, students build circuits that closely follow the topic of the class. We have put special
effort into making those labs instructive but at the same time interesting, empowering, and
fun. We made a special effort to introduce transducers in the labs, highlighting applications.
Today’s students live around black boxes, mostly ignorant of the circuits that lie within
them. Our recent experience tells us that students find the discovery of how those boxes
work, or even the task of building them, extremely interesting, rewarding, and useful. Thus,
we can use this “revelation’’ as a way to motivate students to learn electronics.
Instructors who adopt this text may have labs in place and may not have use for the labs in
this book. However, the experiments listed may give instructors ideas to renew or modify the
labs in place. In addition to the normal curricular plan, we devote two weeks in the middle
of the semester and two weeks at the end of the semester to unscripted projects, in which
students design the device of their choice. This is where students learn tremendously and

vii
viii PREFACE

enjoy the experience. Their ambition to build the device of their choice pushes them to invest
much energy and time, and along the way, they learn invaluable aspects of building devices,
such as creating new designs and troubleshooting. In the first project, students do mostly
digital work (more on this choice below), but they still use a little bit of analog, because
they need switches or pushbuttons for digital inputs and light-emitting diodes (LED) for
digital outputs. In the second project, students do mostly analog work, but they can combine
analog and digital electronics. Whatever the case, students end up doing amazing projects.
Some of the analog projects can be combined with real computers, but this is an aspect that
we do not cover here. If lab PCs have interface cards, the projects will be more powerful. A
word of caution from experience: Make sure that the project does not become a computer
project. Although knowing programming is not that bad of a goal these days, it is not the
objective of this course.
The text is divided into two parts: digital and analog. In each part, we cover the essential
components needed to understand and design circuits with discrete components. We cover
the digital part first. This may seem like heresy to some instructors, but I urge them to re-
consider the concept. Covering digital first makes sense because digital electronics focuses
mostly on logic. The topic is not as intellectually demanding as analog. Besides a few rules
of thumb for wiring, students have little need to know about the currents that flow through
the gates or even the analog circuits that make up those gates. Later in the semester, after
covering the analog part, the class revisits the details of gates. The digital part is demand-
ing on wiring practices, but not on conceptual understanding. This way, students get early
exposure to demanding circuits and are forced to embrace systematic wiring practices. By
the time students reach analog, they no longer have trouble wiring and powering circuits. It
makes sense to cover analog after digital because students end with the understanding of the
complexity and importance of analog. Otherwise, students would get the wrong message:
Since analog is not needed to do digital, it is unnecessary altogether. An instructor who
strongly disagrees with this strategy could swap the two parts without major logistic com-
plications, but he or she would have to continue to emphasize analog concepts throughout
the digital part.
The content of this text borrows ideas on the organization of topics from two classics
in the field: Digital Design, by M. Morris Mano, and The Art of Electronics, by Paul
Horowitz and Winfield Hill. The chapters are designed so that they take an integral number of
days. Labs may also extend one day, and in digital, several labs build upon the circuit
of the previous lab. The topics of the specific chapters go as follows. The first chapter,
“The Basics,’’ reviews the fundamentals of electricity and electrical components. It brings
the student, especially the nonphysics major, up to speed with the physics and basics of
electric circuits. The second chapter, “Introduction to Digital Electronics,’’ covers digital
signals and electronic gates. It is followed by two chapters on combinational logic, namely
“Combinational Logic’’ and “Advanced Combinational Devices.’’ They are followed by a
chapter titled “Sequential Logic,’’ which emphasizes counting circuits, and an important
application in memory. Throughout this part, we include tables of integrated circuits that are
useful for designing circuits. A rack of ICs of various types is vital in an electronics lab. The
lab exercises use a “logic board,’’ which is a homemade or commercial box with switches
that generate input states, and LEDs to display output states. Appendix A gives the details of
this device and its construction. Some versions of these boards are commercially available.
If time permits, the instructor may consider other adventures, such as microcontrollers
and interfacing using Labview, but such endeavors are specialized to particular equipment
for which there is no uniform agreement. Instead of attempting a partial or incomplete
description, we do not cover those at all.
 PREFACE ix

The analog part starts with the chapter “AC Signals.’’ It covers a more sophisticated
analysis of circuits than the first chapter and centers on the use of complex numbers for
defining signals and impedances. We find this advantageous and practical. To complement
this, we include a short introduction to complex numbers. It ends with an important concept
to students: Thevenin equivalent circuits. Throughout, this part reduces circuits to single-
loop modules, building up the concepts of input and output impedance. We follow with the
chapter “Filters and the Frequency Domain,’’ where the role of frequency and frequency
response comes to the surface. The use of multiple filter stages underscores the role of
source and load impedance. At the end of this chapter, we insert a section on Fourier Series.
This is important because electronics’ processing of signals can be understood easily at the
single frequency level. Therefore, knowing the decomposition of a complex signal into its
frequency spectrum is vital in understanding the frequency response of a circuit. This part
can be skipped if the curriculum already contains Fourier series. The chapter that follows,
“Diodes,’’ starts with a physical explanation of semiconductors that gives the student an
intuitive and informed basic understanding of the physics of these materials. It emphasizes
nonlinear responses and the use of the load line, and ends with an application on the design
of power supplies, among other diode tricks. The chapter titled “Transistors,’’ covers both
bipolar-junction and field-effect transistors. Because operational amplifiers are much better
suited for signal conditioning, we do not cover in detail some of the traditional circuits on
biasing the transistor. Increasingly, modern devices use field-effect transistors instead of
bipolar transistors, so we give both nearly equal coverage and focus on power drivers,
followers, and current sources. These are applications that even operational amplifiers
cannot deliver and in which transistors have rightful place. The final part of analog is the
experimenters delight: “Operational Amplifiers.’’ We give ample coverage to numerous
circuits, plus we use them to smuggle in other interesting topics, such as comparators
and feedback. We wrap up with a chapter that interfaces digital and analog signals and
transducers, in “Connecting Digital to Analog and to the World.’’
At the end of most chapters is a section titled “Lab Projects’’ that contains many
interesting circuits that have been proven to work well for instruction. Many of them
have interesting twists that make the experience a fun one. I like to follow this motto:
“Let the kids have fun.’’ If they do, they will learn electronics. Our tests also have a practi-
cal component. When students work in groups there is a danger that they are passive and let
their partner(s) do valuable laboratory know-how. To force them to be active participants,
we test them individually on building simple circuits. The final section of each chapter is
titled “Practicum Test.’’ It gives questions that we have often asked on simple aspects of the
lab that students should know. This includes powering components and diagnosing signals
with the oscilloscope. The goal is for each student be able to do every task and not leave
any activity, and know-how, to his or her partner.
I owe immense gratitude to Joseph Amato. Together we designed this course almost
20 years ago. His prolific expertise and creativity led to the design of a number of lab
experiences described in this text. I also want to thank Wes Walters for selling me the idea
of covering digital before analog; Dave Glenar, Ken Segall, and Steve Slivan for ideas for
labs and problems; Juan Burciaga and Danielle Solomon for useful suggestions and edits;
Timothy Kidd, M.K. Kim, Bryan Suits, Christos Velissaris and other anonymous reviewers
of the drafts of this book for their valuable advice; and Samantha and Daniel Galvez for
helping Dad with aspects of this project.

E.J. “Kiko” Galvez

CONTENTS

Preface vii

1 The Basics 1
1.1 Foreword: Welcome to Electronics! 1
1.2 Charge and Potential 2
1.3 Capacitors 4
1.4 Electrical Current 6
1.5 Resistors 7
1.6 Magnetic Devices 12
1.6.1 Magnetic Fields and Coils 12
1.6.2 Inductors 14
1.7 Power 15
1.8 Circuits 16
1.8.1 Equivalent Resistances 16
1.8.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws 18
1.8.3 Voltage Dividers 19
1.8.4 Multiloop Circuits 21
1.8.5 Transient Circuits 22
1.9 Abstractions and Symbol Jargon 27
1.10 Problems 28
1.11 Lab Projects 34
1.11.1 An Application of the Voltage Divider: A Darkness Sensor 34
1.11.2 Delayed Switch 34
xi
xii CONTENTS

1.11.3 RC Circuit as an Integrator and Differentiator 35

1.11.4 Practicum Test 36

PART I DIGITAL 37

2 Introduction to Digital Electronics 39

2.1 Number Systems 41
2.1.1 Number-System Conversions 42
2.1.2 Arithmetic Operations 43
2.2 Codes 44
2.3 Signed Numbers 45
2.4 Binary Functions 46
2.4.1 Fundamental Gates 46
2.4.2 Universal Gates 48
2.4.3 Specialty Gates 49
2.4.4 Utilitarian Gates 51
2.4.5 Matrix Representation 52
2.5 Logic Families 54
2.6 IC Wirings 56
2.7 Problems 58
2.8 Lab Projects 62
2.8.1 Serial Transmission of ASCII-Coded Characters 62
2.8.2 Practicum Test 64

3 Combinational Logic 65
3.1 Boolean Algebra 66
3.2 Theorems 66
3.3 NAND-Gate Implementation 67
3.4 Representation of Boolean Functions 68
3.4.1 Analytical 68
3.4.2 Tabular 68
3.4.3 Graphical 69
3.5 Simplification of Functions 69
3.5.1 Algebraic 69
3.5.2 Graphical 70
3.6 Karnaugh Maps 71
3.6.1 Minterms 71
3.6.2 Two-Variable Map 72
3.6.3 Three-Variable Map 75
3.6.4 Four-Variable Map 76
3.6.5 Don’t Care Conditions 77
3.7 More Than Four Variables 79
3.7.1 Three-Dimensional Karnaugh Maps 79
3.7.2 Brute–Force Logic 79
3.8 Wrap-Up 79
3.9 Wiring Digest: Open Collector/Drain Outputs 79
3.10 Problems 81
3.11 Lab Projects 86
 CONTENTS xiii

3.11.1 The TTL Half Adder: Design and Construction 86

3.11.2 The Arithmetic Logical Unit 89
3.11.3 Practicum Test 89

4 Advanced Combinational Devices 91

4.1 Pragmatic Designing 91
4.2 Adders 92
4.3 Decoders 94
4.4 Demultiplexers 98
4.5 Encoders 99
4.6 Multiplexers 100
4.7 Problems 103
4.8 Lab Projects 104
4.8.1 Multiplexing 104

5 Sequential Logic 107

5.1 Definitions 108
5.2 Flip-Flops 109
5.3 D Flip-Flop 111
5.4 Edge-Trigger 112
5.5 JK and T Flip-Flops 114
5.6 Applications of Flip-Flops 115
5.6.1 Latch or Register 115
5.6.2 Frequency Divider 116
5.6.3 Switch Debouncers 116
5.6.4 Counters 118
5.7 Shift Registers 123
5.8 Multivibrators 124
5.9 Memory 125
5.9.1 Memory Cell 125
5.9.2 Memory ICs 126
5.9.3 Memory Addressing 127
5.9.4 Memory Access 129
5.10 Epilogue to Digital: Digital I/O 130
5.10.1 Application: Digital Input from Switches 131
5.10.2 Application: Digital Output to Lights 132
5.11 Problems 134
5.12 Lab Projects 141
5.12.1 Sequential Circuits 141
5.12.2 Memory Access 143
5.12.3 Practicum Test 145

PART II ANALOG 147

6 AC Signals 149
6.1 AC Circuits 150
6.1.1 Representation of AC Signals 150
xiv CONTENTS

6.1.2 Capacitor in an AC Circuit 153

6.1.3 Inductor in an AC Circuit 154
6.1.4 Complex Numbers 155
6.1.5 Redefinition of Reactances 157
6.1.6 Generalized Ohm’s Law 158
6.1.7 Dissipated Power 159
6.1.8 Worked Example 160
6.2 Equivalent Circuits 162
6.2.1 Thevenin’s Theorem 162
6.2.2 Norton’s Theorem 162
6.3 Circuit Loading 163
6.3.1 Maximizing Signal Transfer 164
6.3.2 Maximizing Power Transfer 164
6.4 Problems 166
6.5 Lab Projects 170
6.5.1 Circuits and Thevenin 170
6.5.2 AC Signals 171
6.5.3 Diagnosing AC Signals 171
6.5.4 Impedance Matching 172
6.5.5 Practicum Test 173

7 Filters and the Frequency Domain 175

7.1 RC Filters 176
7.2 High-Pass Filters 177
7.3 Low-Pass Filter 179
7.4 Cascading Filters 180
7.5 Important Considerations for Filter Design 183
7.5.1 f vs. ω 183
7.5.2 Determining ωc 183
7.6 Transformer 183
7.7 Resonant Circuits and Band-Pass Filters 184
7.8 Higher-Order Filters 187
7.9 Fourier Series 188
7.10 Problems 192
7.11 Lab Projects 194
7.11.1 Filters 195
7.11.2 Application: Audio Filter 196
7.11.3 Fourier Analysis 196
7.11.4 Practicum Test 198

8 Diodes 199
8.1 Physics of Semiconductors 200
8.1.1 Structure 200
8.1.2 Energetics 201
8.1.3 Compounds 202
8.1.4 Doping 202
8.1.5 The p–n Junction 204
 CONTENTS xv

8.2 Diodes 204

8.3 Designing Diode Circuits 206
8.3.1 Load Line Method 206
8.3.2 “Quick and Dirty’’ Circuit Design for Diodes 208
8.4 Diode Fauna 208
8.4.1 LED and Laser Diode 208
8.4.2 Photoconductor Photodiodes 209
8.4.3 Photovoltaic (Solar) Cells 210
8.4.4 Zener Diode 212
8.4.5 More Diodes 213
8.5 Diode Applications 213
8.5.1 Rectification 213
8.5.2 Clipping 216
8.5.3 Diode Clamping 217
8.5.4 Peak Detector 217
8.5.5 Voltage Multipliers 218
8.5.6 Zener Regulator 219
8.5.7 Touch Sensors 220
8.6 Problems 221
8.7 Lab Projects 226
8.7.1 I–V Curve 226
8.7.2 Diode Clamp 226
8.7.3 Make-and-Take LED Flasher 226
8.7.4 Application: A Regulated Power Supply 227
8.7.5 Zener Diode Circuits 228
8.7.6 Solar Cells 229
8.7.7 Practicum Test 229

9 Transistors 231
9.1 The Bipolar-Junction Transistor 232
9.1.1 Operation of the BJT 234
9.1.2 The Transistor Switch 236
9.1.3 The Emitter Follower 236
9.1.4 Current Source 240
9.1.5 The Voltage Amplifier 241
9.1.6 Biasing the Transistor 242
9.2 Field-Effect Transistors 243
9.2.1 Inside the FET 243
9.2.2 Operation of the FET 244
9.2.3 The MOSFET Switch 247
9.2.4 Current Sources 247
9.2.5 Variable Resistors 248
9.3 Problems 249
9.4 Lab Projects 254
9.4.1 BJT Transistors 254
9.4.2 FET 258
9.4.3 Practicum Test 259
xvi CONTENTS

10 Operational Amplifiers 261

10.1 Negative Feedback 262
10.2 Closed-Loop Circuits 265
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 265
10.2.2 Follower 266
10.2.3 Inverting Amplifier 268
10.2.4 Summing Amplifier 269
10.2.5 Differential Amplifier 270
10.2.6 Current Source 270
10.2.7 Current-to-Voltage Converter 272
10.2.8 Integrator 273
10.2.9 Differentiator 274
10.2.10 Impedance Transformer 275
10.2.11 Complex Feedback and the “Mystery Circuit’’ 276
10.2.12 Active Filters 276
10.2.13 Sample and Hold 278
10.2.14 Voltage Regulators 278
10.2.15 Feedback Digest 279
10.3 Open-Loop Circuits 280
10.3.1 Peak Detector 280
10.3.2 Comparator 280
10.3.3 LM555 Timer 282
10.3.4 Relaxation Oscillators 284
10.4 Real Op-Amps 285
10.4.1 Voltage Gain 285
10.4.2 Slew Rate 286
10.4.3 Common-Mode Gain 287
10.4.4 Input Impedance 288
10.4.5 Output Impedance 288
10.4.6 Output Current 288
10.4.7 Input Bias Current 289
10.4.8 Input Offset Voltage 290
10.4.9 Power Supply Voltage 291
10.5 Problems 291
10.6 Lab Projects 295
10.6.1 The Inverting Amplifier 295
10.6.2 Noninverting Amplifier 296
10.6.3 Mystery Circuit 297
10.6.4 Servo and a Constant-Illumination Controller 297
10.6.5 Real Op-Amps 299
10.6.6 Practicum Test 301

11 Connecting Digital to Analog and to the World 303

11.1 TTL Gates 304
11.1.1 Totem-Pole Output 305
11.1.2 Modified Totem-Pole Output 306
11.1.3 Tristate Output 306
11.2 CMOS Gates 307
 CONTENTS xvii

11.3 Interfacing 308

11.3.1 Analog Driving Digital 308
11.3.2 Digital Driving Analog 309
11.3.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 310
11.4 Interfacing the World 314
11.5 Problems 315
11.6 Lab Projects 318
11.6.1 Stepper Motor 318
11.6.2 Connecting to the Analog World 319

Appendix A Logic Board 321

Appendix B If the Circuit Does Not Work 323

B.1 Design 323
B.2 The Obvious 324
B.3 Placement 324
B.4 Pins 324
B.5 Breadboards 324
B.5.1 Past the Obvious 324
B.5.2 Digital Circuits 324
B.5.3 Analog Circuits 325
B.6 Abusive Power 325
B.7 Stuck 325
B.8 Done! 325

Appendix C Curve Tracer 327

C.1 I–V Curves for Diodes 327
C.2 I–V Curves for Transistors 328

Index 331
CHAPTER 1

THE BASICS

Contents
1.1 Foreword: Welcome to Electronics! 1
1.2 Charge and Potential 2
1.3 Capacitors 4
1.4 Electrical Current 6
1.5 Resistors 7
1.6 Magnetic Devices 12
1.7 Power 15
1.8 Circuits 16
1.9 Abstractions and Symbol Jargon 27
1.10 Problems 28
1.11 Lab Projects 34

1.1 FOREWORD: WELCOME TO ELECTRONICS!

This book is primarily geared for physics students, but nonphysics students with some basic
physics and math can understand it. Our focus is not physics. We cover the fundamental
1
2 THE BASICS

physics to provide a foundation, but our primary concern is the electronic devices. The
good news is that you will learn how some of those black boxes with glitzy lights work
and, going beyond that, how to build some of your own boxes. You will discover that the
most complicated machines—computers—are as logical as the gears in a bike. Often in this
book, we do not approach the subjects as precisely as physicists treat other subjects. For
example, using 10 percent accuracies or even factors of 2 for device parameters is usually
fine in electronics. Electronics also involves a lot of details, so do not get overwhelmed.
Experience will help you distinguish the important details from the less important ones, but
still be prepared to take in a lot!
Electronics should be learned from the ground up. Although one can easily go a long
way in electronics by knowing some fundamental concepts and understanding how the
devices work, a solid foundation in electricity and magnetism is important for an in-depth
understanding. The goal of this chapter is to cover the underlying physics, in case the reader
lacks a previous foundation in electricity and magnetism. Because electronics is closer to
engineering than physics, we are interested less in learning the underlying physical laws as
ends in themselves, and more on understanding devices and how they work. Take this course
also as an opportunity to learn that every device is based on important physical principles.
Knowing those principles will give you an increasing edge in mastering electronics.
We start with fundamental concepts and work our way to devices. As we gain some
speed, we will move into elementary circuits.

1.2 CHARGE AND POTENTIAL

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that is responsible for most of its structure
as we know it. Taking central stage in our electronic world is nature’s premier fundamental
particle: ηλκτρoν. If you have taken enough physics, you will read electron. It is the
Greek’s name for amber, as the ancient Greeks recognized the curious (electrical) properties
of amber. Not only do we take for granted the existence of electrons, which are in everything
we see and touch (ourselves included), but we “feel’’ their presence directly with the jolt of
static electricity that we get on a dry day. Electrons are simple: They have a mass, and, for
the most part, they behave as point particles. Despite trying to find a dimension to them,
we have been unsuccessful. Electrons do not always behave like particles: Sometimes they
behave as waves. When they do so, people studying them have to figure out not only what
the electrons are doing, but what they really are.
Electrons’most important property is their charge. For some fateful reason that originated
with the cleverness and wit of Benjamin Franklin, the charge of the electron is labeled
as negative. The electron has one unit of elementary charge, which is qe = −e, where
e = 1.6 × 10−19 C, with C being the SI unit of the electrical charge, the Coulomb. This
value is quite precise and is deemed fundamental by physicists. Do not bother trying to
discern the meaning of “fundamental’’—it is a physicist’s way of saying, “It is what it is
and we do not know why.’’ A beautiful story of experimentation involves the measurement
of the electronic charge by Robert Millikan. Electrons also have spin, which is at the root of
many interesting phenomena, such as magnetism. However, for all purposes that concern
us, electrons are simple and have a definite charge.
Atoms have a nucleus that has a charge of the opposite sign: positive. The nucleus is
formed by two particles: protons and neutrons. The only exception is the most abundant
isotope in the universe, hydrogen, which has only one proton as a nucleus. Protons have a
charge, qp = +e, and neutrons have no charge qn = 0. Note that the magnitude of the charge
 CHARGE AND POTENTIAL 3

of the protons is exactly the same as that of the electron; nature as we know it would not
exist if the charges of electrons and protons did not have the exact same magnitude. The
properties of matter rely on the exact electrical neutrality of atoms. Protons and neutrons
are made of quarks, each of which has a fractional charge: The up quark has a charge
qu = +( 23 )e and the down quark has a charge qd = −( 13 )e. This way, a proton is made of
two ups and one down, and the neutron consists of one up and two downs. Yet for all
the fascinating consequences of the existence of quarks, we never see them by themselves
because of a strong attractive force that increases with distance. So for all practical purposes,
protons and neutrons are whole particles.
Atoms are neutral, but the electrons buzzing around the nucleus follow special rules
of behavior dictated by quantum mechanics. We say “buzzing around’’ because we know
they go around the nucleus, but we do not know exactly how. We cannot find out in a
deterministic classical way how they move (such as describing nice ellipses). Instead we
can only know where they are likely to be, probabilistically; for all we know they can
move around in whichever way they please. However, one thing is certain: electrons buzz
around always experiencing an attractive force with the positive nucleus and a repulsive
force with fellow electrons. Within the nucleus protons still repel each other due to electric
forces, but at the short distances within nuclei they are attracted to each other by the stronger
nuclear force.
The nucleus is small—100,000 times smaller than the outlying orbits of the electrons
in atoms. Atoms are symmetrically neutral when left alone, but when they are pushed
against each other the electrons rearrange and atoms are no longer neutrally symmetric:
The sides facing each other are more positive on average, and the sides facing away are
more negative. A strong repulsion ensues, preventing atoms from getting too close to each
other. As a result, matter is mostly made of empty space: Atoms are held away from each
other at distances comparable to the sizes of the outer orbits of the electrons, which are
point particles, with a tiny nucleus located somewhere inside. This is why neutrons can go
a long way through matter without stopping. Electrons’ strong interaction with light, an
electromagnetic disturbance, makes matter mostly opaque to light (with noted exceptions,
such as glass), but electrical forces make matter seem solid when in actuality it is not.
Another property of atoms is that electrons can leave their home atoms to join foreign
atoms and make ions (atoms with a net charge). When we rub a plastic (such as a comb
or pen) with our sweater on a dry day, we end up with a negatively charged plastic and
a positively charged sweater. Electrons from the sweater jump to the plastic when we
rub the two together. By applying clever techniques, we can use this effect to charge
objects deliberately. Other charged objects in the vicinity then experience forces and react
accordingly. Although the concept of force is a useful one to conceptually understand
what is happening, it is not convenient for a quantifying the events. It is more practical
to use energy arguments: If two objects have the same charge, then as they get close to
each other their electrical potential energy increases. If we let them go, they will repel each
other, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy and going to places where the
potential energy is lower (of course, energy must be conserved).
If we have a charged object in a fixed position and place another charge in its vicinity,
then the latter will have a positive potential energy and experience repulsion if it has the
same sign as the charge of the fixed object; if it has a charge of the opposite sign, or negative
potential energy, it will experience attraction. Thus, the potential energy depends on the
charge of the two objects. To separate cause from effect, we define the concept of electric
potential, or voltage. Electric potential is the electrical potential energy per unit charge.
To get the potential energy of an object with a charge q at a point with potential V , we use
4 THE BASICS

this relationship:
U = qV (1.1)

The units of potential are volts (V).

A battery is a device that uses a chemical process to create a separation of charges that
maintains a fixed potential. When it is connected to a circuit, it provides as many charges
as needed to maintain that voltage. Different batteries differ in their capacity to replenish
those charges. Cylindrical household batteries produce a potential of 1.5 V. Their ends are
clearly marked: The end with the bump is positive and the flat end is negative. They differ
in their ability to source charge, which goes in the order AAA, AA, C, and D. Traditional
one-time-use batteries are made of zinc-carbon (cheap) or alkaline (higher quality). Other
types of batteries produce other voltages. For example, flat, round lithium-iodide batteries
(CR 2016) output 3 V. This is only an incomplete list because of the huge variety of
technologies and battery outputs. Batteries play an important role in our lives today with
the widespread use of portable devices such as cell phones, iPods, and laptops. One-
time-use batteries lose their charge as the chemical reactions in them cause irreversible
changes in the battery. Once the charge-producing elements are transformed, they are no
longer useful. Rechargeable batteries, such as nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, and
lithium-ion batteries are increasingly replacing one-time-use batteries. Conversely, the
lead-acid batteries of cars have existed for a long time. In the recharging process, charges
are forced in the direction opposite to the direction they take when the battery is operating
normally. In doing so, they produce inverse chemical reactions that revert the chemical
elements of the battery to their original amounts. Some voltage supplies rely on the electric
utilities (for example, wall outlets). They use a different technology that we will examine in
detail later when we cover power rectification (Chapter 8—Diodes) and regulation (Chapter
10—Operational Amplifiers).
We need to cover one more concept in the physics of electricity: electric fields. This
mathematical concept assigns a vector to all points in space whenever charges are present
somewhere. The electric field E is the force-per-unit charge that a charged object will
experience at any given point. We can relate it to the potential the following way: Its
magnitude is the rate of change of the potential, and its direction is the direction in which
the potential is decreasing most rapidly (mathematically, the field is the gradient of the
potential). In one dimension, then, E = − dV dx (the minus sign indicates that the electric field
points in the direction where the potential is decreasing). The unit of electric field is V/m.
The force is the charge times the field: F = qE. Thus, if the potential in a region of space
varies from point to point, then that means that if we put a charge in that region, it will
experience a force. The strength and direction of the field are determined by how potential
varies with the spatial coordinates.

1.3 CAPACITORS

The first electrical component that we consider is the capacitor. The simplest capacitor
consists of two parallel metal plates of area A that are separated by a distance d . We charge
the capacitor by moving the charges from one plate to the other. As soon as each plate has
charges of opposite sign (see Figure 1.1), the plates will have a potential difference between
them,
q
V = (1.2)
C
 CAPACITORS 5

Here C is the capacitance, which depends on the geometry and composition of the device.
The units of capacitance are farads (F). This equation is normally derived in introductory
electricity and magnetism textbooks, so we do not repeat that here; suffice it to say that the
derivation involves building the potential energy by calculating the work required to move
the charges from one plate to the other.

Figure 1.1. A parallel-plate capacitor with a plate separation d and a charge q.

For the simple parallel-plate capacitor of our discussion

0 A
C= (1.3)
d

where 0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m is the permeability of vacuum. Most capacitors are a variation
of this simple design, so to increase the capacitance, we need to either increase the area of
the electrodes (plates) or decrease the distance between them. To get an idea of capacitance
values, consider two square metal plates 2.54 cm (1 inch) on the side separated by 1 mm.
The capacitance is 5.7 pF. Note that this is a very small value. If we set up the potential
between the plates to be 1.5 V, then the plates will have a charge of 8.6 pC .
The jolts that we get on a dry day involve quick transfers of charge through a spark.
Air breaks down in an electric field of 3 MV/m. The field must be strong enough to rip an
electron from an air molecule. For us to see a spark across our capacitor, we would need a
potential of 3,000 volts, which would mean putting a charge of 17 nC on its plates.
We can increase the capacitance of a capacitor by placing a dielectric of constant κ
between the electrodes. The capacitance with the dielectric is κC0 , where C0 is the capaci-
tance with vacuum between the plates. Typical values of κ are greater than 1 and can go as
high as about 20 (for Teflon, it is 2.1, and for mylar 3.1). The dielectric also helps increase
the potential at which the capacitor breaks down (for Teflon, it is about 60 MV/m, and for
mylar, it is about 170 MV/m).
The values of capacitors in a typical circuit fall in the range between pF and μF.
Prepackaged capacitors in this range differ in the way the two conductors and dielectric are
packaged. In film capacitors, the conductors and dielectric are rolled around each other; in
mica capacitors, flat conductor sheets are separated by mica sheets; and in disk capacitors,
a ceramic disk is placed between two conductor disks. Capacitances above 1 μF need a
significantly smaller value of d to be of a practical size. Electrolytic capacitors and tanta-
lum capacitors have a conductor surrounded by a conducting electrolyte. An oxide layer
coating the electrode serves as the dielectric. The small thickness of the insulating layer,
as low as a few nanometers and as high as a few micrometers, allows these capacitors to
achieve high capacitance values. However, in electrolytic capacitors one conductor has to
be positive relative to the other. Be sure to properly bias these capacitors when you use
them. Otherwise, the dielectric film gets decomposed by electrolysis, and when the thick-
ness reaches zero, you get a short (which can make a big bang, and cause a fire). Figure 1.2
shows the symbol for this type of capacitor.
Capacitors have wide uses in electronics. You will see many applications in this
course, ranging from their frequency-dependent response to AC signals to more specialized
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 Give diligent ear to my words, and thou shalt little regard ten
thousand words spoken by men.

*2. Christian. O Lord God, thou just judge, strong and patient,
thou who knowest the frailty and wickedness of man, be thou my
strength, and my whole trust, for my own conscience sufficeth me
not.

Thou knowest that which I know not, and therefore in every

reproof, I ought to have humbled myself, and to have borne meekly.

Vouchsafe mercifully to pardon me as often as I have failed

herein, and give me grace to bear it better hereafter.

For thy abundant mercy is more available to me for the obtaining

of pardon, than my fancied justice for my defence, since I cannot see
to the bottom of my conscience.

Although I know nothing by myself, yet I cannot hereby justify

myself: for without thy mercy no man living shall be justified in thy
sight.

C H A P T E R XXXIII.
Of eternity, and the shortness of this life.

MOST blessed mansion of the heavenly city! O most

O
Christian. clear day of eternity, which night obscureth not, but
the highest truth ever enlighteneth!

A day of continual joy, of perpetual quietness, and never

changing into a contrary state!
 O that that day would once appear, and all these temporal things
were at an end!

To the saints above it shineth with everlasting brightness; but to

those that are pilgrims upon earth, it appeareth only afar off, and
through a glass.

O good Jesus, when shall I stand to behold thee! When shall I

contemplate the glory of thy kingdom! When wilt thou be unto me all
in all!

O when shall I be with thee in thy kingdom, which thou hast

prepared for thy beloved from all eternity!

2. Comfort my banishment, assuage my sorrow; for my whole

desire sigheth after thee.

My God, be not far from me, depart not in thy wrath from thy
servant.

Cast forth thy lightning and disperse them; shoot out thine
arrows, and consume all the imaginations of the enemy.

Gather in, call home my senses unto thee, make me forget all the
things of this world:

Grant me to cast away speedily the imaginations of wickedness.

*Succour me, O thou, the everlasting truth, that no vanity may

move me.

*Come, heavenly sweetness, and let all impurity fly from thee.

Pardon me as often as I think upon any thing besides thee in

prayer.

I truly confess, that I am wont to be subject to many distractions.

 For oftentimes I am not there, where I stand or sit; but I am rather
there whither my thoughts carry me.

Where my thoughts are, there am I; there are often my thoughts

where my actions are.

But blessed is that man, that for thee, O Lord, dismisseth all
creatures, violently resisteth nature, and through fervour of spirit,
crucifieth the lusts of the flesh: that so with a serene conscience he
may offer pure prayer unto thee, and be meet to be admitted into the
angelical choirs, all earthly things both outwardly and inwardly being
excluded.

C H A P T E R XXXIV.
Of the desire of everlasting life, and how great rewards are
promised to those who fight valiantly.

ON, when thou perceivest the desire of everlasting bliss

S
Christ. given thee from above, open thy heart wide, and receive
this holy inspiration with thy whole soul.

Give most ardent thanks to the heavenly goodness, that dealeth

with thee so favourably, visiteth thee mercifully, stirreth thee up
fervently, sustaineth thee powerfully, lest through thine own weight
thou fall down to the things of earth.

Neither dost thou obtain this by thine own thought or endeavour,

but by the mere condescension of heavenly grace:

To the end that thou mayst make a farther progress in holiness

and humility, and prepare thyself for future battles:
 And that thou mayst cleave unto me with the whole affection of
thy heart, and serve me with fervent desire.

2. Ask not that which is delightful and profitable unto thee, but
that which is acceptable to me, and for my honour.

For if thou judgest aright, thou oughtest to prefer and follow my

appointment, rather than thine own desire.

I know thy desire, and have heard thy frequent groans.

Thou wouldst now enjoy the everlasting habitation; and thy

heavenly country, replenished with all joy, now delights thee.

But that hour is not yet come; as yet there is another time, a time
of war, a time of labour and trial.

Thou desirest to be filled with the supreme good, but thou canst
not attain it for the present.

I am the supreme good: patiently wait for me, until the kingdom of
God come.

3. Now therefore be humbly obedient unto all, and regard not

who said or commanded this:

But take great heed, that whether thy superior, inferior, or thine
equal, require any thing of thee, or insinuate their desire, thou take it
all in good part, and endeavour to fulfil it with a sincere will.

Let one seek this, another that; let him glory in this, the other in
that, and be praised a thousand times; but do thou neither rejoice in
this, nor in that, but in the contempt of thyself, and in my good
pleasure and honour alone.

This art thou to wish, that whether it be by thy life or by thy death,
God may be always glorified in thee.
 C H A P T E R XXXV.
How a person in heaviness ought to give up himself into the
hands of God.

ORD God, holy Father, be thou blessed both now and for
L
Christian. evermore; because as thou willest, so it is done, and
what thou dost is good.

Let thy servant rejoice in thee, not in himself, nor in any thing
else; for thou alone art the true gladness, thou art my hope and my
crown, thou art my joy and my honour, O Lord.

What hath thy servant, but what he hath received from thee, even
without any merit of his?

Thine is all that thou hast given, and whatsoever thou hast made.

I am poor, and in labour from my youth: and sometimes my soul

is sorrowful even unto tears; sometimes also it is troubled, by reason
of the evils which hang over my head.

2. I long after the joy of peace, I earnestly crave the peace of thy
children, that are led by thee in the light of thy comfort.

If thou givest peace, if thou pourest into my heart holy joy; the
soul of thy servant shall be full of gladness, and shall become devout
in thy praise:

But if thou withdrawest thyself, he will not be able to run the way
of thy commandments, but rather he will bow his knees, and smite
his breast, for it is not with him as it was heretofore, when thy candle
shone upon his head, and he was protected under the shadow of thy
wings, from the temptations which violently assaulted him.

*O righteous Father, and ever to be praised, the hour is come

that thy servant is to be tried.
 Behold, dear Father, meet it is that in this hour thy servant suffer
something for thy sake.

O Father, ever more be honoured, the hour is come; that for a

short time thy servant should outwardly be oppressed, but inwardly
live with thee.

That he should be a little despised, humbled, and made abject in

the sight of men, and worn down with heaviness; that he may rise
again with the morning of the new light, and be glorified in heaven.

Holy Father, thou hast so appointed it; and this is fulfilled which
thyself hast commanded.

3. It is a favour to thy friend, that he may suffer and be afflicted in

the world for the love of thee, how often soever, and by whomsoever,
thou permittest it to fall upon him.

Nothing cometh to pass on earth without thy counsel, without thy

providence, or without a cause.

It is good for me, Lord, that thou hast afflicted me, that I may
learn thy righteous judgment, and cast away all haughtiness of heart,
and presumption.

*It is profitable to me, that shame hath covered my face, that I

may rather seek to thee for comfort than to men.

4. I have learned also here to dread thy unsearchable judgments,

who afflictest the just with the wicked, but not without equity and
justice.

I give thee thanks, for that thou hast not spared my sins, but hast
worn me away, inflicting sorrows, and sending griefs within and
without.
 There is none under heaven that can comfort me, but thou my
Lord God, the heavenly physician of souls, that strikest and healest,
bringest down to hell, and bringest back again.

Let thy correction be upon me, and let thy rod instruct me.

5. Behold, dear Father, I am in thy hands, I bow myself under the

rod of thy correction:

Strike my back and my neck, that my perverseness may be

conformed to thy will.

Make me an holy and humble disciple of thine (as thou art wont
to do) that I may be ready at every beck of thy pleasure.

I commend myself and all that is mine unto thee to be corrected.

It is better to be corrected here than hereafter.

Thou knowest every thing, and there is nothing in the conscience

of man hidden from thee.

Before things are done, thou knowest that they will come to pass,
and hast no need that any should teach thee, or admonish thee of
those things which are done on earth.

Thou knowest what is expedient for my profiting, and how fit

tribulation is to scour off the rust of my sins.

Do with me according to thy good pleasure, and disdain me not

for my sinful life; better and more clearly known to none than to thee
alone.

6. Grant me, O Lord, to know that which ought to be known, to

love that which ought to be loved;

To praise that which pleaseth thee most, to esteem that which is

precious unto thee, to despise that which is contemptible in thy sight.
 Suffer me not to judge according to the sight of the outward eyes,
nor to give sentence according to the hearing of the ears of ignorant
men.

But to discern invisible and spiritual things with a true judgment,

and, above all things, ever to search after thy good will and pleasure.

C H A P T E R XXXVI.
That a man ought to esteem himself not worthy of any
comfort.

ORD, I am not worthy of any comfort nor of any spiritual

L
Christian. visitation.

And therefore thou dealest justly with me; when thou leavest me
poor and desolate.

For though I could shed a sea of tears, yet I were not worthy of
thy comfort.

For, alas, I deserve nothing but to be punished, in that I have

grievously offended thee in many things.

But thou, O merciful God, who willest not that any should perish,
to shew the riches of thy goodness, vouchsafest to comfort thy
servant above the manner of men:

For thy comforts are not like the words of men.

2. What have I done, O Lord that thou shouldest bestow any

heavenly comforts upon me?
 I remember not that I have done any good, but have been always
prone to sin and slow to amendment.

This is true, and I cannot deny it: if I should say otherwise, thou
wouldst stand against me, and there would be none to defend me.

What have I deserved but hell and everlasting fire?

I confess in very truth, that I am worthy of all scorn and contempt,

and it is not fit that I should be numbered among thy saints.

3. What shall I say, guilty as I am, and full of all confusion?

I have nothing to say but this; I have sinned, Lord, I have sinned;
have mercy on me, pardon me;

*Suffer me a little, that I may vent my grief, before I go into the

land of darkness, a land covered with the shadow of death.

What dost thou require of a guilty and miserable sinner, but that
he humble himself for his offences?

Of true contrition and humbling of the heart, ariseth hope of

forgiveness; the troubled conscience is reconciled to God; the favour
of God which was lost, is recovered; man is preserved from the
wrath to come, and God and the penitent soul meet together with an
holy kiss.

4. Humble contrition for sin is an acceptable sacrifice unto thee,

O Lord, savouring much sweeter in thy presence than the perfume of
frankincense.

This is also the pleasant ointment which thou wouldst should be

poured upon thy sacred feet.

For thou never despisest a contrite heart.

 C H A P T E R XXXVII.
Of the different motions of nature and grace.

ON, mark diligently the motions of nature and grace, for they
S
Christ. move in a very subtle manner, and cannot be discerned but
by him that is spiritually enlightened.

All men pretend some good in their words and deeds; and
therefore under the shew of good many are deceived.

Nature is crafty, and seduceth, entangleth, and deceiveth many,

and always proposeth herself for her end:

But grace walketh in simplicity, useth no deceit, and doth all things
purely for God’s sake, in whom also she finally resteth.

2. Nature will not willingly die, nor be kept down, nor be overcome,
nor be subject to any:

But grace studieth mortification, resisteth sensuality, seeketh to be

subject, is willing to be kept under, and will not use her own liberty.

She loveth to be kept under discipline, and desireth not to rule any,
but always to live and remain wholly subject to God; and for God, is
ready humbly to obey all men.

Nature striveth for her own advantage, and considereth what profit
she may reap by another;

But grace considereth not what is profitable unto herself, but what
is profitable to many.

Nature willingly receiveth honour and respect.

 But grace faithfully attributeth all honour and glory unto God.

3. Nature feareth shame and contempt;

But grace rejoiceth to suffer reproach for the name of Jesus.

Nature loveth ease and bodily rest;

But grace cannot be idle, but willingly embraceth labour.

Nature seeketh to have those things that are beautiful, and

abhorreth that which is mean or coarse;

But grace delighteth in plain and humble things, and despiseth not
rough things, that are old and mean.

Nature respecteth temporal things, rejoiceth at earthly gain,

sorroweth for loss, is moved with every little injurious word;

But grace thinketh on that which is everlasting, and cleaveth not to

temporal things; she is not troubled at losses, nor disquieted with hard
words; because she hath placed her treasure and joy in heaven,
where nothing perisheth.

4. Nature is covetous, and doth more willingly receive than give;

she loveth her own things;

But grace is bountiful to all, shunneth private interest, is content

with a little, thinketh it more blessed to give than to receive.

Nature inclines to the creatures, to her own flesh, to vanities and

wanderings;

But grace draweth unto God, and unto goodness, renounceth

creatures, flieth the world, hateth the desires of the flesh, restraineth
wanderings abroad, blusheth to be seen in public.

Nature is willing to have some outward comfort, wherein she may

be sensibly delighted;
 But grace seeketh comfort in God alone, and delighteth above all
visible things in the highest good.

5. Nature worketh all for her own profit; she can do nothing but for
benefit she hopeth to obtain, either that which is equal or better, either
praise or favour, and coveteth to have her works and gifts much
esteemed:

But grace requireth no other reward than God alone; nor desireth
more of temporals, than may serve her for the obtaining of things
eternal.

6. Nature rejoiceth to have many friends and kinsfolks; glorieth in

noble place and birth; is obsequious to the powerful, fawneth upon the
rich, and applaudeth those that are like herself;

But grace loveth her enemies, and is not puffed up with multitudes
of friends, nor esteemeth place or birth, but where it is joined with
virtue:

She rather favoureth the poor than the rich; hath more tenderness
for the innocent than the powerful; rejoiceth in the true, not in the
deceitful:

Always exhorting good men to labour for more excellent gifts; and
by goodness to resemble the Son of God.

Nature quickly complaineth of want and trouble; grace with

constancy endureth need:

Nature coveteth to know secrets, and to hear news; she will appear
abroad, and make proof of many things by her own senses; she
desireth to be known, and to do those things for which she may be
praised and admired:

But grace careth not for hearing curious matters;

 She teacheth to restrain the senses, to avoid vanity and
ostentation; and in every thing and every knowledge to seek the praise
and honour of God.

She will not have praise, but desireth that God should be praised in
his gifts, who of mere love bestoweth all things.

C H A P T E R XXXVIII.
Of the corruption of nature, and efficacy of Divine grace.

LORD, my God, who ♦hast created me after thy likeness,

O
Christian. grant me this grace which thou hast shewed to be so
necessary to salvation, that I may overcome my wicked
nature, which draweth me to sin and perdition.

♦ “has” replaced with “hast” per Errata

For I feel in my flesh the law of sin contradicting the law of my

mind; neither can I resist, unless thy most holy grace, infused into my
heart, assist me.

2. O Lord, how exceeding needful is thy grace for me to begin any

good work, to go forward, and to accomplish it;

For without it I can do nothing; but in thee I can do all things.

Arts, riches, beauty, strength, wit, eloquence, are of no value with

thee, O Lord, without thy grace.

3. O most blessed grace, that makest the poor in spirit rich in

virtue, and makest the rich in many blessings, to be humble in heart;
 Come, come down unto me, replenish me early with thy comfort,
lest my soul should faint for weariness and dryness of mind.

O Lord, thy grace is sufficient for me, though other things that
nature desireth be wanting.

If I be tempted and vexed with many tribulations, I will not fear any
evils, while thy grace is with me:

This is stronger than all enemies, and wiser than all the wise.

Let thy grace, O Lord, always prevent me, and follow me, and
make me ever diligent in good works, through Jesus Christ thy Son.
Amen.

C H A P T E R XXXIX.
That we ought to deny ourselves and imitate Christ.

OLLOW Me, I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life.

F
Christ.
I am the way, which thou oughtest to follow; the truth
which thou oughtest to trust; the life which thou oughtest to hope for.

I am the strait way, the supreme truth, the true life: yea, the blessed
life, the uncreated life.

If thou remainest in my way, thou shalt know the truth, and the truth
shall make thee free, and thou shalt lay hold on everlasting life.

2. Christian. Lord Jesus, forasmuch as thy life was poor and

contemptible unto the world, grant me grace to imitate thee in suffering
worldly contempt.
 For the servant is not greater than his Lord, nor the disciple above
his Master.

Let thy servant be exercised in thy life, for therein my salvation

consists.

Whatsoever I read or heard besides it, doth not refresh or delight

me fully.

3. Christ. Son, now thou knowest these things, happy shalt thou be
if thou do them.

He that hath my commandments, and keepeth them, he it is that

loveth me;

And I will love him, and will manifest myself unto him, and make
him sit with me in the kingdom of my Father.

Christian. Lord Jesus, as thou hast said and promised, so let it

come to pass.

I have received the cross, I have received it from thy hand; I will
bear it, and bear it till death, as thou hast laid it upon me.

Truly the life of a Christian is the cross; but yet it is a guide to

paradise.

I have begun, I may not go back, neither is it fit to leave that which I
have undertaken.

Behold, our King goeth before us, who also will fight for us.

Let us follow him manfully, let none be dismayed, but be ready to

die valiantly in the battle, and let us not blemish our glory by flying from
the cross.
 C H A P T E R XL.
That a man be not too much dejected when he feeleth some
defect.

ON, patience and humility in adversity are more pleasing to

S
Christ. me, than much devotion in prosperity.

Why art thou grieved for every little trifle spoken against thee?

Although it had been much more, thou oughtest not to have been
moved.

But now let it pass; it is not the first that hath happened, nor is it
any new thing, neither shall it be the last.

Thou art valiant enough, as long as no adversity happeneth.

Thou canst give good counsel, and strengthen others with thy
words; but when tribulation cometh to thy door, thou art destitute of
counsel and strength.

I yet live, saith the Lord, ready to help thee, and to give thee
greater comfort than before, if thou puttest thy trust in me, and callest
devoutly upon me.

2. Be patient, and prepare thyself to greater sufferings.

All is not lost, if thou feelest thyself afflicted, or grievously tempted.

I am he, who will strengthen with health them that mourn, and raise
up unto glory those that know their own infirmity.

3. Christian. Lord, blessed be thy word, more sweet unto my mouth

than honey, and the honey-comb.

What should I do in tribulations, unless thou didst comfort me with

thy holy words?
 What matter is it, how much and what I suffer, so I may at length
attain the port of salvation?

Grant me a good end. Grant me a happy passage out of this world!

Be mindful of me, O my God, and direct me in the right way to thy

kingdom. Amen.

C H A P T E R XLI.
Of searching the secret judgments of God.

SON,secret
Christ.
beware thou disputest not of high matters, nor of the
judgments of God.

Why this man is left, and that man taken into favour; why this is so
much afflicted, and that so greatly advanced:

These things are beyond the reach of man; neither can reason
search out the judgments of God.

When the enemy therefore suggesteth these things unto thee,

answer; thou art just, O Lord, and thy judgments are right.

And again, the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous
altogether.

Thy judgments are to be feared, not to be discussed; they are such

as cannot be comprehended by the understanding of man.

2. Neither enquire or dispute of the merits of saints, which of them

is holier than the other.

3. I know both the first and the last: I embrace all with inestimable
love.
 I am to be praised in all my saints; I am to be blessed above all
things, and to be honoured in every one.

C H A P T E R XLII.
That all our hope and trust is to be fixed in God alone.

LORD,
Christian.
what is my trust in this life? Or what is my greatest
comfort of all things under heaven?

Is it thou, my Lord God, whose mercies are without number?

Where hath it been well with me without thee? Or when could it be

ill with me, when thou wert present?

I had rather be poor for thee, than rich without thee.

I had rather chuse to be a pilgrim on earth with thee, than to

possess heaven without thee.

*Where thou art, there is heaven; and there is death and hell,
where thou art not.

Thou art my desire; and therefore I cannot but sigh, and cry, and
pray unto thee.

For I have none to trust in, none that can help me in my

necessities, but thee alone, my God.

*Thou art my hope, thou art my trust, thou art my comfort, and most
faithful unto me in all things.

2. All men seek their own; thou only seekest my salvation, and
turnest all things to my good.
 Although thou exposest me to divers temptations and adversities;
yet thou orderest all this to my advantage, who art wont to try thy
beloved a thousand ways.

In which thou oughtest no less to be loved and praised, than if thou

didst fill me with heavenly comforts.

3. In thee therefore, O Lord God, I put my whole hope and refuge:

On thee I rest in all tribulation and anguish.

For I find all to be weak and inconstant, whatsoever I behold out of

thee.

*For neither can my friends avail, nor strong helpers aid, nor wise
counsellors give any profitable answer, nor the books of the learned
comfort, nor any wealth deliver, nor any secret or pleasant place
defend: if thou thyself dost not assist, help, strengthen, comfort,
instruct, and keep us.

4. For all things that seem to make for peace, without thee are
nothing, and bring indeed no felicity at all.

Thou therefore art the end of all that is good, the height of life, the
depth of wisdom:

*And the strongest comfort of thy servants is, to trust in thee above
all things.

To thee therefore do I lift up mine eyes; in thee O my God, the

Father of mercies, I put my trust.

*Bless and sanctify my soul with thy heavenly blessing, that it may
be made thy holy habitation, and the seat of thy eternal glory:

*And that nothing may be found in the temple of thy glory, that may
offend the eyes of thy majesty.
 According to the greatness of thy goodness, and the multitude of
thy mercies, look upon me, and hear the prayer of thy poor servant,
who is far exiled from thee in the land of the shadow of death.

*Protect and keep the soul of thy servant, amidst so many dangers
of this corruptible life, and by thy grace accompanying me, direct it by
the way of peace to the country of everlasting light. Amen.

An Extract of the

CHRISTIAN PATTERN:
Or, a treatise on the imitation of Christ. Written in Latin by
Thomas a Kempis.

B O O K IV.

An Exhortation unto the Holy Communion.

The voice of Christ.

C OME unto me, all ye that travail and are heavy laden and I will
refresh you.

The bread which I will give is my flesh, for the life of the world.

Take, eat, this ♦ is my body that is given for you: do this in

remembrance of me.

♦ “in” replaced with “is”