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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 5-2 General Hierarchy of Motivation 94 6-5 Self-Congruency Theory and Consumer
5-2a Simpler Classification of Consumer Behavior 128
Motivations 95 6-5a Segmentation and Self-Congruency 128
5-2b Consumer Involvement 95

7
5-3 Consumer Emotions and Value 98
5-3a Emotion 98 Attitudes and Attitude
5-3b Cognitive Appraisal Theory 98 Change 130
5-3c Emotion Terminology 99
7-1 Attitudes and Attitude Components 131
5-4 Measuring Emotion 100 7-1a Components of Attitude 132
5-4a Autonomic Measures 101
7-2 Functions of Attitudes 132
5-4b Self-Report Measures 102
7-2a Utilitarian Function 132
5-5 Differences in Emotional Behavior 104 7-2b Knowledge Function 133
5-5a Emotional Involvement 104 7-2c Value-Expressive Function 133
5-5b Emotional Expressiveness 105 7-2d Ego-Defensive Function 133
5-5c Emotional Intelligence 106
7-3 Hierarchy of Effects 133
5-5d What’s Funny 106
7-3a High-Involvement Hierarchy 134
5-6 Emotion, Meaning, and Schema-Based Affect 107 7-3b Low-Involvement Hierarchy 134
5-6a Semantic Wiring 107 7-3c Experiential Hierarchy 134
5-6b Mood-Congruent Recall 107 7-3d Behavioral Influence Hierarchy 134
5-6c Schema-Based Affect 108
7-4 Consumer Attitude Models 135
5-6d Self-Conscious Emotions 110
7-4a Attitude-Toward-the-Object Model 135
5-6e Emotional Contagion 110
7-4b Behavioral Intentions Model 138

7-5 Attitude Change Theories

6 Personality, Lifestyles,
and the Self-Concept 112
and Persuasion 140
7-5a Attitude-Toward-the-Object Approach 140
7-5b Behavioral Influence Approach 142
6-1 Personality and Consumer Behavior 112 7-5c Changing Schema-Based Affect 142
6-1a Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality 114 7-5d The Elaboration Likelihood Model 142
6-1b Trait Approach to Personality 115 7-5e Balance Theory 144
6-2 Major Traits Examined in Consumer Research 116 7-5f Social Judgment Theory 145
6-2a Many Traits Examined in CB 116 7-6 Message and Source Effects
6-2b Brand Personality 121 and Persuasion 146
6-3 Consumer Lifestyles, Psychographics, 7-6a Interactive Communications 147
and Demographics 123 7-6b Message Appeal 147
6-3a Lifestyles 123 7-6c Message Construction 149
6-3b Psychographics 124 7-6d Source Effects 150
6-3c Demographics 125 Part 2 Cases 152
6-4 The Role of Self-Concept in Consumer
Behavior 126
6-4a Self-Concept and Body Presentation 127

vi Contents

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 8-6 Household Decision Making and Consumer

Part 3 8-6a
Behavior 174
Traditional Family Structure 174

External Influences 8-6b

8-6c
Household Life Cycle 176
Household Purchase Roles 178

9 Consumer Culture 180

9-1 Culture and Meaning Are Inseparable 180
9-1a What is Culture? 180
9-1b Culture, Meaning, and Value 181
Donald Miralle/Getty Images

9-1c Cultural Norms 182

9-1d Cultural Sanctions 182

9-2 Using Core Societal Values 184

9-2a Where Does Culture Come From? 184
9-2b Dimensions of Cultural Values 185

8 Group and Interpersonal

Influence 158
9-2c
9-2d
The CSV Scoreboard 188
Cultural Distance 190

9-3 How Is Culture Learned? 192

8-1 Reference Groups 158 9-3a Enculturation 192
8-1a Group Influence 159 9-3b Acculturation 192
8-1b Conformity and Authority 161 9-3c Quartet of Institutions 193
8-2 Social Power 162 9-4 Fundamental Elements of Communication 195
8-2a Types of Social Power 162 9-4a Verbal Communication 195
8-3 Reference Group Influence 163 9-4b Nonverbal Communication 197
8-3a Informational Influence 163 9-5 Emerging Cultures 200
8-3b Utilitarian Influence 164 9-5a BRIC Markets 200
8-3c Value-Expressive Influence 164 9-5b Chindia 201
8-3d Value and Reference Groups 164 9-5c Glocalization 201
8-3e Reference Group Influence on Product

8-4
Selection 165

Social Media’s Role in Group and

10 Microcultures 202
Interpersonal Influence 166 10-1 Microculture and Consumer Behavior 202
8-4a Social Media and Consumer Behavior 166 10-1a Culture Is Hierarchical 202
8-4b Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Group 10-1b Microcultural Roles and Value 204
Influence 168
10-2 Major U.S. Microcultures 204
8-5 Word-of-Mouth and Consumer Behavior 170 10-2a Regional Microculture 205
8-5a Positive and Negative WOM 170 10-2b Sex Roles and Microculture 205
8-5b Buzz Marketing 171 10-2c Age-Based Microculture 207
8-5c Stealth Marketing 172 10-2d Generation Microculture 208
8-5d Opinion Leaders 173 10-2e Religious Microculture 212
8-5e Diffusion Processes 174 10-2f Ethnic Microculture 213

Contents vii

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 10-2g Income and Social Class Microculture
10-2h Street Microculture 216
10-3 Microculture Is Not Uniquely American 216
10-3a Microcultures Around the World 216
10-3b Street Microcultures Worldwide 216
10-4 Demographic Analysis 217
10-4a U.S. Census Data 217
10-5 Major Cultural and Demographic Trends 219
10-5a Trends Affecting Consumer Behavior 219
Part 3 Cases 222
Part 4
Situations and
Decision making
11 Consumers in Situations 228
11-1 Value in Situations? 228
11-1a Situations and Value 229
11-2 Time and Consumer Behavior
11-2a Time Pressure 230
11-2b Spare Time 231
11-2c Time of Year 232
11-2d Cycles 232
11-2e Advertiming 232
11-3 Place Shapes Shopping Activities
11-3a What Is Shopping? 233
11-3b Virtual Shopping Situations 233
viii Contents
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215 11-3c Shopping Activities 234
11-3d Shopping Value 236
11-4 Impulsive Shopping and Consumption 237
11-4a Impulsive versus Unplanned Consumer Behavior 237
11-4b Distinguishing Impulsive and Unplanned Consumer
Behavior 238
11-4c Susceptibility to Situational Effects 239
11-4d Consumer Self-Regulation 239
11-4e Impulsive versus Compulsive Behavior 241
11-5 Places Have Atmospheres 241
11-5a Retail and Service Atmospherics 241
11-5b Atmosphere Elements 242
11-6 Antecedent Conditions 247
11-6a Economic Resources 247
11-6b Orientation 248
11-6c Mood 249
11-6d Security and Fearfulness 249
12 Decision Making I: Need
Recognition and Search 250
12-1 Consumer Decision Making 250
12-1a Decision Making and Choice 251
12-2 Decision-Making Perspectives 253
Larry Dale Gordon/Getty Images
12-2a Rational Decision-Making Perspective 254
12-2b Experiential Decision-Making Perspective 254
12-2c Behavioral Influence Decision-Making Perspective 254
12-3 Decision-Making Approaches 255
12-3a Extended Decision Making 256
12-3b Limited Decision Making 256
12-3c Habitual Decision Making 256
12-4 Need Recognition, Internal Search,
and the Consideration Set 257
12-4a Need Recognition 258
230 12-4b Search Behavior 258
12-4c The Consideration Set 260
12-5 External Search 261
12-5a The Role of Price and Quality in the Search
Process 261
12-5b External Search and Emerging Technologies 262
233 12-5c Consumer Search and Smartphone Applications 262
12-5d Amount of Search 263
12-5e Search Regret 265
 13 Decision Making II:
Alternative Evaluation
14-1b Consumption and Product Classification 287
14-1c Situations and Consumer Reactions 288
14-1d Consumption, Meaning, and Transference 289
and Choice 266 14-1e Consumption Outcomes and Emotion 289
13-1 Evaluation of Alternatives: Criteria 266 14-1f Value in Experience 290
13-1a Evaluative Criteria 267 14-2 Value and Satisfaction 290
13-1b Determinant Criteria 268 14-2a What Is Consumer Satisfaction? 292
13-2 Value and Alternative Evaluation 268 14-2b What Is Consumer Dissatisfaction? 293
13-2a Hedonic and Utilitarian Value 268 14-3 Other Post-consumption Reactions 293
13-2b Affect-Based and Attribute-Based Evaluations 269
14-4 Theories of Post-consumption Reactions 294
13-3 Product Categorization and Criteria Selection 270 14-4a Expectancy/Disconfirmation 294
13-3a Category Levels 270 14-4b Equity Theory and Consumer Satisfaction 297
13-3b Criteria Selection 272 14-4c Attribution Theory and Consumer
Satisfaction 298
13-4 Consumer Choice: Decision Rules 276
14-4d Cognitive Dissonance 299
13-4a Compensatory Models 276
13-4b Noncompensatory Models 278 14-5 Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
Measurement Issues 300
13-4c Use of Decision Rules 279
14-5a Improving Satisfaction Measures 300
13-4d Retail Outlet Selection 280
14-6 Disposing of Refuse 301
Part 4 Cases 281
14-6a Disposal Decisions 301
14-6b Disposal, Emotions, and Product Symbolism 303

Part 5
Consumption 15 Beyond Consumer
Relationships 304
and beyond 15-1 Outcomes of Consumption 304

15-2 Complaining and Spreading WOM 306

15-2a Complaining Behavior 306
15-2b Word-of-Mouth/Publicity 309

15-3 Switching Behavior 313

15-3a Procedural Switching Costs 314
michaeljung/Shutterstock.com

15-3b Financial Switching Costs 314

15-3c Relational Switching Costs 314
15-3d Understanding Switching Costs 315
15-3e Satisfaction and Switching 315

15-4 Consumer Loyalty 316

15-4a Customer Share 316

14 Consumption
to Satisfaction 286
15-4b
15-4c
Customer Commitment 318
Preferred Customer Perks 319
15-4d Antiloyalty 319
14-1 Consumption, Value, and Satisfaction 286 15-4e Value and Switching 320
14-1a Consumption Leads to Value 286
Contents ix

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 15-5 Link the Concept of Consumer Co-creation of Value 16-4 Corporate Social Responsibility 339
to Consumption Outcomes 321 16-4a The Societal Marketing Concept 339
15-5a Relationships and the Marketing Firm 322
16-5 Regulation of Marketing Activities 340
15-5b Value and Relationship Quality 322
16-5a Marketing and the Law 340

16-6 Public Criticism of Marketing 341

16-6a Deceptive Advertising 341

16 Consumer and Marketing

Misbehavior 324
16-6b Marketing to Children 341
16-6c Pollution 342
16-6d Planned Obsolescence 342
16-1 Consumer Misbehavior and Exchange 324 16-6e Price Gouging 342
16-1a The Focus of Misbehavior: Value 325 16-6f Manipulative Sales Tactics 343
16-1b Consumer Misbehavior and Ethics 326 16-6g Stealth Marketing 344
16-1c Motivations of Misbehavior 327 16-6h Products Liability 344
16-2 Distinguish Consumer Misbehavior from Problem Part 5 Cases 346
Behavior 327
16-2a Consumer Misbehavior 328
Endnotes 352
16-2b Consumer Problem Behavior 332
Glossary 373
16-3 Marketing Ethics and Misbehavior 334 Subject Index 383
16-3a Consumerism 336 Name Index 388
16-3b The Marketing Concept and the Consumer 336 Products/Organizations Index 389

x Contents

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 Access Textbook Content Online—
including on Smartphones!

Includes Videos & Other CB8

Interactive Resources! Ch apter

What Is CB and Why Should

I Care?

Ch apter

Value and the Consumer

Behavior Framework

Access CB8 ONLINE at www.cengagebrain.com

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PART 1

1 What Is CB and Why

Should I Care?
LEARNING Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1-1 Understand the meaning of consumption and consumer behavior.

1-2 Describe how competitive marketing environments lead to better outcomes for consumers.

1-3 Explain the role of consumer behavior in today’s business and society.

1-4 Be familiar with basic approaches to studying consumer behavior.

Juice Images/Getty Images

1-5 Appreciate how dynamic the field of consumer behavior continues to be, particularly as CB
is shaped by technological advances including big data analytics, the “internet of things”
and the sharing economy.

Remember to visit PAGE 23 for additional STUDY TOOLS

how they should be done. Websites like Pinterest mimic

Introduction
Students rarely feel like an expert when they begin a
new college class. However, a consumer behavior (CB)
course is an exception. Everyone reading this book has
years of experience spending and consuming! As we will
see, spending means that something is being used, per-
haps, time and/or money, are being used toward a value-
producing activity, meaning consumption takes place. In
fact, we act as consumers every day and every waking
hour. That’s correct: Every day you have been alive you
have been a consumer. As a result, you begin this book
with a degree of expertise that makes the subject come
alive with relevance.
The human experience is made up largely of
consumption-relevant episodes. We wake, we drink, we
eat, we clean, we dress, we ride, we shop, we play, we
read, we choose, we watch, we Instagram, we Tweet,
and on and on. Practically everything we do involves
consumer behavior in some way. Take a look at Pinter-
est and it becomes obvious that many of the posts call
attention to things to buy, places to go, things to do, and
real discussions where one consumer tells others about
the things that bring value to their lives. Certainly, the
sharing of preferences and information about what to
do helps consumer make decisions. The desire to share
such information has driven Pinterest to one of the top
websites in the United States.1
Consumer decisions are sometimes simple, involv-
ing few resources, and other times complex, involving
large amounts of resources. When consumers make de-
cisions, they set in place a chain of reactions that change
their lives, the lives of those around them, and the lives
of people they don’t even know. How can even simple
decisions be so important to society? The answer to this
question is one of the key points of this subject.
A consumer makes a decision with the intention of
improving his or her life—that is, doing something of
value. But, the value creation doesn’t stop here. Busi-
nesses survive by offering value propositions that tell
consumers how they can maintain or make life better
by engaging with some good, service, or experience.
As long as consumers continue shopping, buying, and
consuming, opportunity exists for business. The process

2 PART ONE: Introduction

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
of making a purchase starts a chain reaction of value-
creating actions.
Much of the news reported in the media focuses
on the economy. Various aspects of the economy
cause great concern. Why so? Consider the labor par-
ticipation rate, which has slid every year since 2007.2
As a result, analysts become concerned about what is
being sold, particularly housing sales. When consum-
ers stop buying houses, many industries and people
downstream are affected. Fewer home sales means
fewer appliance and furniture purchases, less demand
for architects, builders, and building supplies, and in
turn, fewer jobs for people in those industries. Jobs
provide resources for consumers to enhance their
lives by acquiring value-providing goods and services.
Those that are unemployed or underemployed are
less likely to be able to make major purchases like a
home. Thus, when consumers stop buying, bad things
can take place.
Now, what happens when consumers buy things?
Have you adopted some type of smartwatch yet? Three
out of four smartwatch adopters express satisfaction
with the device. Although owners are aggravated by
some aspects such as short battery life, overall sales are
growing. When someone buys a smartwatch, a chain
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
reaction occurs. Not only does the owner receive value,
but value is created for others as the store must restock
its inventory, meaning the manufacturer produces more
products. To do this, the manufacturer purchases raw
materials, parts, and services from suppliers. Compa-
nies like UPS or FedEx ship raw materials and finished
products, providing even more jobs. The consumer
also will enhance the product by adding appropriate
apps. Apps that track fitness can even change lifestyles:
some consumers report changing their lifestyles and
exercising because they don’t want their Fitbit or other
exercise tracking app to register 0 at the end of a day.3
Thus, what seems to be even a simple purchase sets in
place a chain reaction of value-enhancing activities that
improve individual lives and lives for those who work to
provide those products.
Marketers are challenged to continue to provide
innovations that offer relative value advantages. While
Apple turns its attention toward an autonomous electric
car, others are looking at transportation alternatives that
don’t involve cars at all. In fact, imagine climbing inside
a tube that is propelled through a hyperloop at 500 miles
per hour using technology commonly seen at bank drive-
throughs for decades.4 Will innovations like these offer
value for consumers?
CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 3
 1-1 Consumption and Consumer
Behavior
We consider CB from two unique perspectives:

1. The actual human thoughts, feelings, and actions

andrey_l/Shutterstock.com
involved in consumption experiences, and/or
2. A field of study (human inquiry) that is developing
an accumulated body of knowledge about human
consumption experiences.

Imagine climbing inside a tube that is

If we think of a consumer considering the purchase of a
propelled through a hyperloop at 500 miles
smartwatch, CB captures the thoughts, feelings, reactions,
per hour using technology seen at bank
and consequences that take place as the consumer goes
drive-throughs for decades. . . . through a decision-making process, ownership, and usage
of a product, in this case a smartwatch. Alternatively, we
consider the body of knowledge that researchers accumu-
late as they attempt to explain these thoughts, feelings,
Although some may call a course like this one “buyer
actions, reactions, and consequences as the field of study
behavior,” consuming involves more than just buying. Cer-
known as consumer behavior. Thus, rather than choosing
tainly, businesses are interested in getting someone to buy
between the two alternative approaches, the best appre-
something. But consumption goes on long after purchase,
ciation of CB requires consideration of both perspectives.
and this consumption story ultimately determines how
much value results.
1-1a  Consumer Behavior as Human
As you can see, our behavior as consumers is
critically important, not just to ourselves, but to many Behavior
other people. This is why so many people, not just mar- Consumer behavior is the set of value-seeking activi-
keting people, are interested in learning about CB. ties that take place as people go about addressing and at-
True, the marketer who understands consumers will tempting to address real needs. In other words, when a
be able to design products consumer is motivated by a
with greater value potential need, a process kicks in as the
and thus a greater chance of Consumers who understand consumer sets out to find de-
enhancing the well-being of sirable ways to fill this need.
stakeholders, including the CB can make better decisions The process involves multiple
company and customers. concerning how they psychological events, includ-
Policy makers also show ing thinking, feeling, and be-
interest in CB because the allocate scarce resources— having, and the entire process
knowledge allows them to that is, they become better culminates in value. If it’s suc-
make more effective public cessful, the process creates
policy decisions. Last but consumers. sufficient value to address the
not least, consumers who need that began the process.
understand CB can make better decisions concerning
how they allocate scarce resources—that is, they be- The Basic CB Process
come better consumers. Thus, an understanding of CB Exhibit 1.1 illustrates the basic consumption process.
can mean better business We discuss each step in detail in later chapters. How-
consumer behavior set for companies, better pub- ever, we briefly illustrate the process here, using a con-
of value-seeking activities that lic policy for governments, sumer who just got a new smartwatch. At some point,
take place as people go about
addressing their real needs and a better life for indi- the consumer realized a need to more conveniently ac-
viduals and households. cess outside media, such as Snapchat, Viber, and email,

4 PART ONE: Introduction

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 and appliances retailer). After looking at several
Exhibit 1.1 alternative devices and talking it over with a sales-
person, the consumer selects the Samsung Gear S2
The Basic Consumption Process smartwatch. Having made a choice, the consumer
completes an exchange in which he gives up re-
sources in return for ownership and the potential to
use the product. An exchange is the acting out of
a decision to give something up in return for some-
thing perceived to be of greater value. Here, the
consumer decides the watch will be worth at least

© iStockphoto.com/Squaredpixels
the price of the product plus any apps and subscrip-
tions that may be needed to fully use the device.
The consumer then uses the product and
experiences all the associated benefits and costs
associated with consumption. Costs are the
negative results of consumption experiences.
The costs involve more than just the monetary
price of the product. Consumers spend time
both shopping for and learning how to use a device.
via the Internet. The realization of this need may be
Physical effort also takes place as consumers visit retail
motivated by a desire to do better on the job, to have
stores and browse web resources during the process.
better access to friends and family, to more quickly post
The time, money, and effort spent acquiring a product
news about personal activities, or some combination
comes at the expense of other activities, resulting in
of reasons. The realization of a need creates a want.
high opportunity costs for the consumer. Also, com-
A want is a specific desire that spells out a way a con-
patibility often is an issue for so-called smart devices.
sumer can go about addressing a recognized need. A
Health-conscious, budget-minded consumers like the
consumer feels a need to stay in touch, belong, socialize,
Fitbit Blaze? Consumers need to check compatibility
or feel good about him or herself, and this need mani-
with Windows, Android, and OSX before making the
fests itself in the want for better media access devices.
purchase. An incompatible phone or PC means the
Realizing the need, our consumer decides to visit the
smartwatch’s value is limited. In fact, even if a con-
new Buckhead HH Gregg store (consumer electronics
sumer might prefer a Samsung Gear S2, he/she may
end up with an iWatch, especially if he/she already
owns an iPhone or MacBook.5
Benefits are positive results of consumption expe-
riences. The benefits are multifaceted, ranging from po-
tentially better job performance, easier text, email, and
social network access, and benefits from other smart-
watch apps that do things
like monitor heart rate and
calories consumed. Other want a specific desire
koya979/Shutterstock.com

representing a way a consumer

tacit benefits may exist for
some consumers who like
the fact that other consum-
ers notice and admire the
smartwatch. Benefits like
these potentially enhance
the perceived self-esteem
of the consumer.
Devices create customers for apps. Over time, the con-
Consumers drive the economy. sumer evaluates the costs
and benefits and reacts
may go about addressing a
recognized need
exchange acting out of the
decision to give something up in
return for something perceived to
be of greater value
costs negative results of
consumption experiences
benefits positive results of
consumption experiences

CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 5

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 to the purchase in some way. These reactions involve
thoughts and feelings. The thoughts may involve reac- Exhibit 1.2
tions to features such as the ease of use. The feelings
may sometimes include frustration if the features do not Relationships of CB with Other
work correctly or conveniently. Ultimately, the process
results in a perception of value. We will discuss value in Disciplines
more detail in Chapter 2.
Law Economics Neuroscience
Consumption

Statistics
Political
Science
Another way to look at the basic consumer behavior Marketing
process is to consider the steps that occur when con-

Finance Anthropology

Psychology
sumption takes place. Obviously, a consumer consumes.
Consumer Behavior
Interestingly, very few consumer behavior books define
consumption itself. Consumption represents the pro-
cess by which consumers use goods, services, or ideas and Marketing Strategy
transform the experience into value. Thus, the actions in-
volved in acquiring and using a technological device like

OR
a smartwatch create value for a consumer. Consumption
is a value-producing process in which the marketer and History Sociology Management
the consumer interact to produce value. When the con-
sumer fails to realize value from the process, something Source: Based on D. J. MacInnis and V. S. Folkes, “The Disciplinary Status of Consumer Behavior:
A Sociology of Science Perspective on Key Controversies,” Journal of Consumer Research 36 (April
has broken down in the process; perhaps a bad perfor- 2010): 899–914.

mance from the marketer or perhaps a bad decision by

the customer. Thinking about the result of all of these
interactions considered together, one easily sees that con-
sumption outcomes affect consumer well-being by affect- remains, and consequently, the body of accepted theory
ing quality of life. and rules of practice remains small. This is one reason con-
sumer behavior is so exciting to study. CB researchers con-
tinue to expand the knowledge base at a fast pace compared
1-1b Consumer Behavior as a Field of Study to more mature disciplines.
Consumer behavior as a field of study represents Like other fields of study, CB has family ties with
the study of consumers as they go through the consump- other disciplines. Exhibit 1.2 displays the relationship
tion process. In this sense, consumer behavior is the sci- between CB and other disciplines. Research in various
ence of studying how consumers seek value in an effort disciplines produced relevant knowledge for marketers
to address real needs. This book represents a collection seeking to understand consumers. The genesis of the CB
of knowledge resulting as consumer behavior research- field lies in business and the growing body of academic
ers go about studying consumers. research produced by business schools in the late 20th
Consumer behavior, and early 21st century.7 The exhibit displays the over-
as a field of study, is a very lapping nature of CB and marketing; other fields that
consumption process sometimes contribute to and to which CB sometimes
by which consumers use and young field. The first books
transform goods, services, or ideas focusing on consumer or contributes are also shown. A few of these disciplines
into value buyer behavior date from share a special bond with CB, as we discuss below. CB
the 1960s.6 Thus, compared shares particularly strong interdisciplinary connections
consumer behavior as
a field of study study of with older disciplines, re- with economics, psychology (particularly social psychol-
consumers as they go about the searchers have had less ogy), marketing, and anthropology.8
consumption process; the science time to develop the body
of studying how consumers seek
of knowledge. Therefore, Economics and Consumer Behavior
value in an effort to address real
needs each decade the accumu- Economics often is defined as the study of produc-
lated body of knowledge tion and consumption. A free enterprise system allows
economics study of
production and consumption grows significantly. Clearly, individuals to participate freely in the market.9 Ac-
however, much uncertainty cordingly, it is easy to see that marketing has origins

6 PART ONE: Introduction

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
in economics, particu-
larly with respect to Exhibit 1.3
the production and
distribution of goods. The Big Mac Index
As the definition im-
Big Mac Prices
plies, economics also $8.00
involves consumption. 2016 2014
Therefore, consumer
behavior and econom- $6.00
ics have a lot in com-
mon. However, the
economist’s focus on $4.00
consumer behavior
is generally a broad
or macro perspective $2.00
bounded by broad as-
sumptions. Economic
studies often involve
$0.00
things like commod-

ela
a

a
ay
St ited

nd
di
in

ric
rw
u
Ch

In
ity consumption of

Af
es

la
ez
Un

No
at

er

h
n

ut
Ve

itz
nations over time.

This may even involve
tracking changes in
consumption with dif-
ferent price levels, enabling price elasticity to be deter-
mined. The economist finds data for a study like this
in historical sales records. This type of study does not
require data describing individual consumers that may
reveal the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors associated
with consumption.
Economists’ inclination to track and compare overall
consumption of a specific phenomenon illustrates a macro
perspective. For instance, The Economist journal tracks
prices of Big Macs globally.10 The Big Mac Index compares
the relative price of hamburgers country by country. The
idea was to show relative purchasing power, but economists
now realize the Big Mac Index actually predicts currency
fluctuations with some accuracy. A relatively low price in-
dicates an undervalued currency. The prices represent ag-
gregate prices paid by thousands of anonymous consumers
within each country. Exhibit 1.3 displays the Big Mac
Index prices for several countries for both 2014 and
2016. Large differences in the prices indicate less
stable currencies. In this case, Venezuela and Norway
show the biggest changes in two years. The fluctuation
is likely tied to the fact that oil prices have dropped
from well over $100 per barrel in 2014 to well under
$50 a barrel in 2016.11 Both Norway’s and Venezuela’s
economies rely heavily on oil.
In contrast, consumer behavior researchers generally
study CB at much more of a micro level, often focusing
So
Sw
on individual consumers rather than countries. The Big
Mac Index assumes equal liking for Big Macs and does
not take into account individual difference characteristics
or even cultural variables that might influence the value
of a Big Mac. Most Indian consumers for instance, would
not pay a penny for a Big Mac because eating beef would
run counter to Hindu beliefs. CB research relaxes many
assumptions of economics including rationality to better
understand why consumer preferences vary so much. For
instance, consumer researchers study how consumers’ de-
sires for fast food are influenced by various health claims
or even by the relative body shape of other individuals in
the fast-food restaurant.12 These results suggest, among
other things, that a consumer who buys a “healthy” burger
is likely to indulge in more side orders than a consumer
buying a burger that makes no health claims.
Consumption is a value-
producing process in which
the marketer and the
consumer interact to produce
value.

CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 7

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 Psychology Marketing
Psychology is the study of human reac- One doesn’t have to look very
tions to their environment.13 Psychologists hard to find different definitions
seek to explain the thoughts, feelings, and of marketing. Many older defini-
behaviors that represent human reaction. tions focus heavily on physical
Psychology itself consists of several subdis- products and profitability. Even
ciplines. Social psychology and cognitive though products and profits are
psychology, in particular, are highly rel- very important aspects of market-
evant to consumer behavior.14 ing, such definitions are relatively
Social psychology focuses on the narrow.16 Marketing consists of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that the multitude of value-produc-
people have as they interact with other ing seller activities that facilitate

beornbjorn/Shutterstock.com
people (group behavior). Consumer be- exchanges between buyers and
havior most often takes place in some sellers. The value-producing ac-
type of social setting or sometimes with tivities include the production,
the specific intention of affecting the promotion, pricing, distribution,
way others view the self. Thus, social and retailing of goods, services,
psychology and consumer behavior over- ideas, and experiences, all with
lap significantly. the potential to create value for
Cognitive psychology deals with the intricacies consumers and other stakeholders.
of mental reactions involved in information processing. CB and marketing are very closely related. Ex-
Every time a consumer evaluates a product, sees an ad- change is intimately involved in marketing and, as can
vertisement, or reacts to product consumption, informa- be seen from Exhibit 1.1, exchange also is central to CB.
tion is processed. Thus, cognitive psychology is also very In fact, in some ways, CB involves “inverse” marketing
relevant to consumer behavior and a prominent topic as consumers operate at the other end of the exchange.
throughout the text. Marketing actions are targeted at and affect consumers,
Today the study of cognitive psychology is assisted while consumer actions affect marketers. A marketer
by developments in neuroscience. Neuroscience, the without customers won’t be a marketer very long. In
study of the central nervous system including brain mech- fact, without consumers, marketing is unnecessary.
anisms associated with emotion, offers potential for un- Some researchers view the CB discipline as sepa-
derstanding CB by charting rate and distinct from marketing. Others view CB as a
psychology study of human a consumer’s physicological subdiscipline within marketing.17 The details of the ar-
reactions to their environment brain functions during the gument are beyond the scope of this text; however, the
social psychology study that consumption process. Neu- very fact that such an argument exists illustrates the
focuses on the thoughts, feelings, roscience researchers use close bond between the two. Marketing and CB share
and behaviors that people have as sophisticated brain imag- considerable relevance, and both are essential inputs to
they interact with other people ing equipment to monitor organizational success.
cognitive psychology brain activity. One finding
study of the intricacies of mental suggests that when con- Consumer Behavior and Other Disciplines
reactions involved in information
sumers think about enjoy- Commerce increased tremendously with the industrial
processing
ing some of their favorite revolution and the coinciding political changes that
neuroscience the study of the foods their brains become fostered economic freedom in many countries. Busi-
central nervous system including
brain mechanisms associated with more active than when nesses looked to the new field of marketing for practical
emotion they actually eat the food.15 advice initially about distribution and later about pric-
marketing multitude of value- Is thinking about consum- ing, packaging, advertising, and communication. Thus,
producing seller activities that ing as good as actually although marketing may have originally shared more
facilitate exchanges between buyers consuming? Neuroscience in common with economics, the turn toward consumer
and sellers, including production, applications addressing research brought numerous psychologists into the field.
pricing, promotion, distribution,
such questions continue to Many of these psychologists became the first consumer
and retailing
increase in number. researchers.

8 PART ONE: Introduction

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 CB research and marketing research overlap with
each other more than they do with any other discipline,
as illustrated by the overlapping shapes in Exhibit 1.2.
Beyond this, CB research shares much in common with
psychological research, particularly in terms of shared
research approaches and shared theories. Consumer re-
search is based largely on psychology, and to some extent
psychology draws from consumer behavior research.

ROBYN BECK/Getty Images

Disciplines beyond economics, psychology, and
marketing also intersect with consumer behavior.
Sociology focuses on the study of groups of people
within a society. Sociology’s relevance for CB lies in the
fact that consumption often takes place within group set-
tings or is in one way or another affected by group dynam- Compared to a restaurant, what motivation
ics. Consumers take value from sharing experiences with does the DMV have to provide a high-value
others not only because it is enjoyable, but because waiting experience?
shared experiences can build social capital. 18
Anthropology has contributed to consumer be-
havior research by allowing researchers to interpret the places? What is the waiting environment like at each
relationships between consumers and the things they pur- one? Is there a clean, comfortable waiting area with
chase, the products they own, and the activities in which pleasant music? How dedicated are the employees to
they participate. Anthropological consumer research of- delivering a high-quality service experience? How likely
ten features the symbolic meanings behind our posses- are employees to view the customer as a nuisance? If
sions. One interesting study looks at the role of gift-giving you don’t see the point of these questions yet, contrast
among victims held in Nazi concentration camps and the waiting area at a driver’s license bureau with the
links both giving and possessing to self-identity.19 Other elaborate lobby where you wait for check-in service
disciplines, such as geography and the medical sciences, (probably not very long) at a Miami Beach resort.
overlap with consumer behavior in that they draw from Some organizations can survive while treating cus-
some of the same theories and/or research approaches. tomers badly, while others need to pamper customers
just to have a chance of surviving. Consider these two
questions in trying to understand why this is so:
1-2 The Ways in Which 1. How competitive is the marketing environment?
Consumers Are Treated 2. How dependent is the marketer on repeat
business?
Is the customer always “king”? Look at this list of famil-
iar service environments: 1-2a Competition and Consumer Orientation
Where do consumers go if
▸▸ A typical Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) office they don’t like the service
▸▸ The registrar’s office at a state university at the DMV? If the choice sociology the study of
groups of people within a society,
▸▸ A bank lobby comes down to visiting with relevance for consumer
the bureau or not driving, behavior because a great deal of
▸▸ A university health clinic
nearly all consumers will consumption takes place within
▸▸ A Veterans’ Administration (VA) Clinic put up with the less-than- group settings or is affected by
group behavior
▸▸ A sports bar immaculate surroundings,
▸▸ A New York City fine dining establishment long waits, and poor ser- anthropology field of
vice that all too typically study involving interpretation of
▸▸ A Honolulu resort relationships between consumers
go along with getting a and the things they purchase,
driver’s license. Put your- the products they own, and the
Think about the following questions. Does a consumer self into the shoes of the activities in which they participate
receive the same degree of service at each of these service providers at the

CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 9

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 to cut wait times to 15 minutes, many Colorado drivers
still face waits of 2 to 3 hours.20 Veterans waiting for
care from a VA health facility sometimes wait months
or years to receive care. The excessive wait times did
much to fuel the recent VA scandal.21 Imagine a bank
touting wait times of less than two hours or a sports bar
saying “Come back next year!” A few states have turned
to combinations of technology and private outsourcing
to improve service. Some states have outsourced DMV
offices to private companies. The private companies
generally provide consumers with better service, and
the DMV ends up with better and more accurate infor-
mation about drivers.22 Why does the private company
improve service? They are the marketer, and the city,
county, or state is the customer. Just like the sports bar
customer, if the public officials are unhappy with the

EtiAmmos/Shutterstock.com
service, they’ll find another company to do the job.

Many Competitive Pressures?

Now consider the customer dining in New York City.
A consumer can choose from thousands of options in-
cluding over 1,000 Italian restaurants alone. A diner
Competitive pressures motivate marketers to doesn’t have to put up with poor treatment. The con-
provide good service. sumer can simply go next door. While the consumer
without a reservation may wait for a table at the estab-
lishments with a loyal clientele, many provide a com-
bureau. Is there any concern about doing something fortable lounge area to enjoy a drink, some music, and
that would make a customer not want to return to do conversation while waiting. Here the consumer deals
business again? Is there any real incentive to provide a with firms operating in a highly competitive market
pleasant and valuable experience? dependent on repeat business. Thus, firms are oriented
toward value creation, and consumers typically receive
Few Competitive Pressures? better treatment.
In essence, the DMV typifies a service organization Governments sometimes realize that competition
that operates in a market with practically no competi- in the marketplace serves to protect consumers. In the
tive pressure and a captive audience. In a government United States, many federal laws oversee commerce
service like this, the answers to the two questions above with an eye toward ensuring business competition.
are (1) not at all competitive and (2) not at all dependent The Robinson-Patman Act, the Sherman Act, and the
on keeping customers. No matter how poor the service Clayton Act are examples of such legislation. They at-
is, they know consumers will return to do more business tempt to restrict practices such as price fixing, secret
when the term on their license expires or they need to rebates, and customer coercion. European officials are
register a vehicle. The incentive for better customer ser- debating consumer privacy acts under the name of a
vice remains relatively small. “right to be forgotten” as part of the European Agenda
Unlike a restaurant, DMV management may not be for Security intended to prohibit companies, including
compelled to adjust workloads to demand. DMV cus- Google, Amazon, and Facebook, from divulging con-
tomers in many places face sumer information without permission.23
consumer (customer) long lines and even wait
orientation way of doing times counted in hours, Firm Orientations and Consumers
business in which the actions and not minutes. Even after Competition eventually drives companies toward a
decision making of the institution
prioritize consumer value and state officials in Colo- high degree of consumer orientation. Consumer
satisfaction above all other concerns rado introduced the “Wait (customer) orientation is a way of doing busi-
Less” program, designed ness in which the actions and decision making of the

10 PART ONE: Introduction

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
institution prioritize consumer value and satisfaction
above all other concerns. A consumer orientation is a
key component of a firm with a market-oriented culture.
Market orientation is an organizational culture that
embodies the importance of creating value for custom-
ers among all employees. In addition to understand-
ing customers, a market orientation stresses the need
to monitor and understand competitor actions in the
marketplace and the need to communicate information
about customers and competitors throughout the orga-

David Pereiras/Shutterstock.com
nization.24 Market-oriented firms develop effective ways
of listening to consumers, and these skills usually, but
not always, lead to better performance.25
A market orientation represents a less narrow fo-
cus than a strategic orientation that focuses more solely
on production. However, an even broader orientation
comes when firms adapt stakeholder marketing. This consumer is encountering a touchpoint
Under this orientation, firms recognize that more than
with her stylist. Are there other touchpoints
just the buyer and seller are involved in the marketing
taking place at the same time?
process.26 In fact, primary stakeholders include custom-
ers, employees, owners (or shareholders), suppliers,
and regulating agencies; secondary stakeholders in-
clude the mass media, communities, and trade organi- a customer. Increasingly, multiple channels or ways of
zations. Stakeholder marketing orientation recognizes making this contact exist, including phone, email, text
that all stakeholders are involved in and/or are affected messaging, online social networking, and especially
by the firm’s marketing in some way. This means that face-to-face contact.28 Every touchpoint, no matter the
even secondary stakeholders can alter the value equa- channel, should be considered as an opportunity to cre-
tion and have relevance for marketing strategies. ate value for the customer. Like any type of relationship,
a customer–marketer relationship will continue only as
1-2b Relationship Marketing long as both parties see the partnership as valuable.
Marketers are increas-
and Consumer Behavior
ingly realizing the value of
Let’s go back to the list of service environments. Certainly, relationship marketing. Wait market orientation
banks and restaurants are generally in very intense com- staff sometimes provide organizational culture that
petition with rival businesses. Competitive pressures business cards to customers. embodies the importance of
challenge businesses to get customers to repeatedly These customers can use creating value for customers among
purchase the goods or services they offer. Even in a city all employees
the card to ask for this waiter
with a population as great as New York, without repeat again on the next visit or to stakeholder marketing an
business each restaurant would have fewer than ten orientation in which firms recognize
recommend the restaurant
that more than just the buyer and
customers per night. In addition, virtually all firms see and server to a friend. Notice seller are involved in the marketing
repeat customers as less costly to serve.27 For instance, that with relationship mar- process, and a host of primary
business managers often need to buy a lot of advertising keting, the firm and its em- and secondary entities affect and
for new customers to learn about a restaurant, whereas are affected by the value creation
ployees are very motivated
process
old customers already know the place. to provide an outstanding
Thus, relationship marketing means the firm’s overall experience. In sum, relationship
marketing activities aim to increase repeat business as a both a competitive mar- marketing activities based
on the belief that the firm’s
route to strong firm performance. Relationship market- ketplace and a relationship performance is enhanced through
ing recognizes that customer desires are recurring and marketing orientation cre- repeat business
that a single purchase act may be only one touchpoint ate exchange environments
touchpoints direct contacts
in an ongoing series of interactions with a customer. where firms truly treat cus- between the firm and a customer
Touchpoints are direct contacts between the firm and tomers as “king.”

CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 11

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
 1-3 The CB Field’s Role
in Business, Society,
and for Consumers
As mentioned earlier, multiple reasons for studying con-
sumer behavior exist. Each perspective provides unique
and interesting opportunities for study. CB is important
in at least three ways:

1. CB provides an input to business/marketing

Chris Hondros/Getty Images

strategy.

2. CB provides a force that shapes society.

3. CB provides an input to making responsible deci-
sions as a consumer.

The Pets.com sock puppet. The San

1-3a Consumer Behavior
Francisco-based pet products company,
and Marketing Strategy known for its commercials with the sock-
What companies do you think of as successful? The puppet dog and the slogan “Because
ultimate hallmark of success for a business is long-term pets can’t drive,” closed in late 2000 after
survival. One hundred years is a blink of an eye in the failing to find a financial backer or buyer.
course of history. But how many companies survive at
least 100 years? Exhibit 1.4 lists some famous interna-
tional companies, their core business, and their age. founded in 1994 and now synonymous with online retail-
None of these companies are even 100 years old. ing, is ancient in terms of “.com” firms. Remember Pets.
Even though we may think about big famous companies com? Probably not! This online pet supply retailer spent
as lasting forever, chances are some of these giants will vastly more on Super Bowl advertising than it made in rev-
not be around 100, 50, or perhaps even 20 years from enue and never saw its first birthday. Similarly, flooz.com,
now. So, surviving is not a trivial goal, and the companies intended to provide online currency to replace credit card
that do survive long term do so by finding ways to con- payments, and quirky.com, an invention platform allowing
tinuously obtain resources from consumers in return for consumers to vote on their favorite new things, failed to
the value they offer. This is a basic tenet of resource- create sufficient value and didn’t make it to adolescence.30
advantage theory, a prominent theory that explains One company that has survived over 100 years is
why companies succeed or fail.29 Companies succeed Abercrombie and Fitch (A&F). They were founded in
by acquiring more resources from consumers and in the early 1890s as a store providing high-quality gear
turn using those resources to gain advantages in physi- for the active hunter or fisherman. Not what you think
cal and intellectual capital. Consumer research is needed about when you think of A&F today? Well, this illus-
to understand what makes trates how the companies that survive long term cannot
a consumer give up scarce be complacent or think that consumers do not change.
resource-advantage
theory theory that explains why resources. Ultimately, con-
companies succeed or fail; the firm sumers give up resources in What Do People Buy?
goes about obtaining resources the pursuit of value. When consumers buy something, they give up resources
from consumers in return for the
In contrast to the com- in the form of time, money, and energy in return for what-
value the resources create
panies listed in Exhibit 1.4, ever is being sold. Consider a customer who purchases a
attribute a part, or tangible many companies that were Toyota Prius. What does she really get? Well, the tan-
feature, of a product that
thought of as innovative and gibles include an engine, high-powered batteries, plastic,
potentially delivers a benefit of
consumption can’t miss never make it out integrated circuitry, seats, wheels, and so on. These parts,
of infancy. Amazon.com, or attributes, make up the product. No reasonable

12 PART ONE: Introduction

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Exhibit 1.4
The Short Life Span of Success?
Company Core business Birthdate Place of birth
Tesco Food Retailing 1919 London, England
Toyota Motor Vehicles 1937 Tokyo, Japan
Target Discount Retailing 1962 Ohio
Samsung Electronic Equipment 1969 Seoul, South Korea
Microsoft Computer Software and Systems (originally operating systems) 1975 New Mexico
Amazon.com Retailing 1994 Washington State
Home Depot Retail and Contractor Building Supply 1976 Georgia
FedEx Express Package Shipping—Originally founded as Federal Express in 1973 2000 Tennessee
Facebook Online Social Networking 2004 Massachusetts
Apple Inc. Media devices and peripheries—Originally founded as Apple Computers in 1976 2007 California

consumer would pay around $30,000 for a pile of these successful. Over time, successful innovations exhibit all
parts. Consumers don’t really pay for the physical attri- or some of these characteristics:
butes of a product. So what do consumers pay for? The 1. Relative Advantage—makes things better than
attributes do function to enable the consumer to enjoy before
benefits such as transportation and comfort. Also, the
product’s image, in this case a Prius, creates a feeling 2. Simplicity—all things equal, a simpler innovation is
better than a complex innovation
within the owner. Outcomes like these are valuable and
represent what the customer is ultimately buying. 3. Observable—things that are observable tend to get
Marketing firms often implement poor strategies adopted faster
when they don’t fully understand what a product truly 4. Trialability—things that can be tried with little or
is. A product is not a collection of attributes but rather no risk get adopted faster
a potentially valuable bundle of benefits. Theodore 5. Consistency—consumers are more likely to adopt
Levitt, one of the most famous marketing researchers, things that are congruent with existing values and
understood this by saying that a customer who buys a knowledge
drill is really buying holes in the wall. He emphasized
the importance of the value a customer receives from a
product, rather than the product itself. The companies that survive
Innovation long term cannot be
Ultimately, companies need to understand why people complacent or think that
buy their products to recognize which other current
and future products represent competitive threats. Let’s
consumers do not change.
look at the companies that produced slide rules (rulers
used to do calculations) such as Accu-Rule. They did not Consider our consumer with the new smartwatch from
go out of business because their products were flawed. the beginning of the chapter. His liking of the new de-
Accu-Rule made great slide rules. They went out of busi- vice will depend on these
ness because they failed to innovate. characteristics, but more
product potentially valuable
Newness alone does not make an innovation. An importantly for those in- bundle of benefits
innovation has to produce value for consumers to be volved in marketing these

CHAPTER 1: What Is CB and Why Should I Care? 13

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Luba: en studie
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Luba: en studie

Author: Ina Lange

Release date: January 2, 2024 [eBook #72592]

Language: Swedish

Original publication: Helsingfors: G. W. Edlunds förlag, 1889

Credits: Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LUBA: EN

STUDIE ***
LUBA

En studie

Af

DANIEL STEN [Ina Lange]

Helsingfors, Edlunds, 1889.

INNEHÅLL:

Företal. 1. Demonen. 2. Luba. 3. Tre friare. 4. Två systrar. 5. Prosa.

6. Kris. 7. Aftonvandring. 8. Om tio år. 9. Helgonet. 10. Nattens
skuggor. 11. Mosters ogudaktighet. 12. Barnabss-föreningen. 13.
Återseendet. 14. Förlofvad karl. 15. Han kommer. 16. Idealet funnet.
17. Luba gift. 18. Slutet.
FÖRETAL.

Då jag nu sänder dig denna min nya lilla bok, en anspråkslös studie
som du ser, öfver några af de egendomliga fenomener —
patologiska kallas de ju — som just nu så mycket låta tala om sig, så
sker det i den glada tillförsigt, att du förstår mig.

Som du vet, finns det många goda människor hvilka äro så naiva
att de på allvar tro att det är författaren sjelf som talar i de personer
han för fram i sin berättelse. Människor som förmena att då
författaren skildrar några mindre sympatiska individer inom en
nation, en församling, en sekt, han därmed vill angripa eller anklaga
nationen, församlingen, sekten.

Naturligtvis kommer jag att dömas så af några. Men andra skola

måhända liksom du med intresse följa berättelsen om en urspårad
tillvaro i kamp med lifvets svårigheter; dess ifriga men från orätt sida
började sökande efter de eviga sanningarne. De skola gärna läsa
denna skildring om ett förfeladt men rikt lif som går förloradt, till följe
af en osund natur och en ytlig uppfostran; så ytlig som ännu i dag
välmenande och tanklösa föräldrar bestå den dotter, som är ämnad
att pigas balsalongerna och sedan göra ett godt parti.
 Du vet att mina såkallade modeller längesen äro döda, och att de
lefvat på andra orter. Men vet också att hvarje ord är sannt, alla
händelser engång upplefvade.

Mottag boken och läs den med den sympati för lidandet — det må
nu vara sjelfförvålladt eller icke — som jag sjelf känt. Af dig
åtminstone kan jag ju hoppas det.

Helsingfors, 1 September, 1880.

>I. L.

1.

DEMONEN.

I hennes lilla rum lågo alla sakerna från i går kringkastade åt olika
håll. På soffan hängde tyllklädningen med lifvet snuddande vid
golfvet och de trasiga fållarne uppåt karmen, på stolarne hade hon
kastat sina kjolar, och på skrifbordet låg en bundt skrynklade hvita
blommor tillsammans med den ena skon, handskarne och de halft
afvigtdragna strumporna.

Den lata gamla Katrina som inte satt in allt detta, eller tagit det bort
då hon gick!

Unga fröken kom dock inte riktigt noga ihog hur det var när de
kommo hem: Katrina hade sett så otäckt sömnig ut, så att hon sändt
henne bort. Det är inte roligt att se ett sådant skenheligt, gammalt
ansigte när man kommer från en förtjusande bal, ännu alldeles
betagen och varm. Och så… hvarför skulle man inte skynda i säng
till sina drömmar.

På ena sidan sofvo systrarne som om det ingen glädje fanns i

världen, sä tungt och dumt. De gamla skåpen, ingen under att de,
som aldrig varit unga, sofvo bort allting.

Det var annat med henne som bara var aderton år och ändtligen
fått börja lefva!

Hur hon njöt af att dansa! Att såsom nyss få sväfva omkring i
värme, i ljus och under döfvande musik! Att få fladdra som en fjäril,
iklädd lätta kläder, från den en» till den andra, tryckt af starka armar,
smickrad af leende människor, och allt detta efter toner, i böljor, med
klappande hjärta och blodet i svallning.

Så härligt!

Att pappa också kunde afbryta alltsammans midt i det roligaste,

klockan var ju då knappt två. Just i det allra bästa, när hon dansade
med doktorn, och var så glad och lycklig som i himlen.

Hur tråkigt att allting måste afbrytas just då man riktigt var i farten!

Nej, hon skulle fortsätta dansen i drömmen, lemna sig i hans

armar, så kunde de valsa hur länge som helst. Det var då väl att man
åtminstone fick tänka sig vidare, eftersom det var förbjudet i
värkligheten.

Nu ville hon njuta.

Hon hade i hand en liten näsduk, starkt parfymerad och

hopskrynklad som en boll. Den hade hon fällt i kotiljongen och så
hade han tagit upp den och fört den till sina läppar.

Där fanns ännu kvar en liten doft af likör och cigarr.

Hon tryckte näsduken mot sitt ansigte och höll andan. O! att den
kunde tala.

Hvad tänkte han på då han gaf henne den tillbaka? Månne på det
som hon?
Månne han var så glad, så öm som hon?

Hon ville alls inte sofva, utan hellre drömma vaken. Så ensam hon
dock var — så utan en förtrogen att tala med! Om hon bara haft en
jemnårig, men hon hade ju ingen.

Modren var död för längesen, henne mindes hon ej mer.

Och systrarne, de voro ju gamla, tjugufyra år, och tjugufem, dem

kunde man naturligtvis knappt räkna för medmänniskor.

Det skulle då möjligen varit fadren. Han var lefnadsglad! Det var
på honom hon bråddes. Hans vackra drag, hans figur, hans varma
blod.

Och han hade hjärta!

Men de gamla, hvad hade de? Huslighets själar, moralkakssinnen,

det var allt.

Hur de förmanat henne för den här usla picknicken! Hon skulle
vara försigtig med herrarne, inte skratta för mycket, inte låta kurtisera
sig för mycket; som om man rådde för att folk tyckte om en!
 Syster Anna var alldeles fatal, när hon förmanade. Och syster Lina
odräglig, när hon bad henne vara "fin, tillbakadragen, men ändå
naturlig!"

Naturlig ja, det ville hon vara! Och det var naturligt att vara glad,
att vara vänlig, att ta emot vänlighet, att njuta sin ungdom.

Sådant bråk systrarne haft att sy den där fattiga klädningen! Och
den var naturligtvis för hög i halsen, för lång i ärmarne, och för lite
stram i lifvet.

På eftermiddagen när hon skickat ut systrarne på ärenden, hade

hon sjelf hjelpt upp den en liten smula. Sytt in, och klippt bort. Det
fanns ändå ingen af de riktiga baldockorna, som var så lite utringad,
och det var vackert, det visste hon.

Tänk så roligt hon haft denna afton. Hur tiden flög! Klockan i
matsalen slog tre. — Det var så mörkt det kunde utanför, allt var
vinter och drifvor, ingenting lefde utom hon, och hennes hjärta var
nog det enda son klappade så vildt den tiden på dygnet.

Nattlampan brann sömnigt och kastade ett sken öfver klädningen,

som nu såg röd ut, och ej hvit. Och blommorna, tänk att de varit
hvita, så grå och tillplattade som de nu sågo ut. Sådana
skräpgrannlåter som inte tålte det smula trycket mot kavaljerns bröst
i dansen!

De fördärfvades af det som gjorde att hon bara blef vackrare och
mer liffull!

Där låg hon i sin lilla säng, och vände och vred sig medan
tankarna alltjemt dansade i valstempo. Kudden slängde hon åt alla
håll, klämde ihop den, och bredde den ut igen, kramade den i sina
hota armar, och sökte alltjemt nya svala ställen att trycka sitt
blossande ansigte mot.

Från fadrens sofrum på andra sidan kunde hon höra hans ljudeliga
andedrag.

Så han sof prosaiskt! Och snarkade så otäckt

Det var nog längesen han var så upphettad och orolig efter en bal
som hon; skulle hon väl nånsin bli så lugn? — nåja, kanske vid hans
ålder.

Om det snart åter blef något, om också bara en studentbal! Då

skulle hon ha ny klädning, pappa kunde ej neka. Blått, och med
band, allt som var lätt och mjukt och tunnt klädde henne. Men inga
blommor, det rika håret uppsatt i en fläta.

Hon ville att man skulle erkänna henne som den mest firade. Att
häradshöfdingen och doktorn och student Horn och kusin Alfred
kunde ge sig af med att dansa så mycket med den tjocka Ella, som
om det fanns något poetiskt om henne.

De skulle bara vetat hur gärna Luba ville dansa, hur själfull hon
var, och hur söt!

Hon blef allt hetare, ju längre det led. Hon hörde musiken så tydligt
som om den ännu spelade, och hennes hjärta klappade i takt.

Pulsarne slogo hårdt, och kinderna glödde som mörka rosor.

Småningom blefvo hennes tankar mer orediga, balen liksom

fjärnades, och andra föreställningar kommo i stället. Hon fantiserade,
för hennes inbillning sväfvade en hop gestalter, och de spolade i
hennes hjärna en komedi däri hon sjelf var hufvudpersonen.

Några romanfigurer eller hjeltar från bekanta dikter antogo kött och
blod och lefde med henne, i hennes krets, de besökte hennes hem
och hon knöt ömma band med dem, än den ena än den andra.

Isynnerhet var det en. Var han ifrån en roman eller ifrån en dikt?
Hade hon sett hans bild i museet, eller hvar?

Hvem var det?

Nej nu blef hon alltför varm, och kastade bort täcket. Hennes
kropp, höljd i det tunna linnet, låg feberhet på bädden, hon borrade
fötterna in i lakanet och ansigtet i dynorna.

Med tätt slutna ögon låg hon så och halfdrömde.

Var det någon där borta, bakom henne? Var det ett mänskligt
väsen, eller en ande? En dröm eller något värkligt?

Där hon låg med ögonen begrafna i kudden tyckte hon sig se. Det
var en stor skepnad med ett underligt mörkt ansigte och svart hår,
han såg ut som den där bilden hon sett, eller dikten hon läst,
hvilkendera visste hon ej.

Hon tyckte att han rörde sig och nalkades henne, hon kände att
han böjde sig öfver henne och betraktade henne, hon visste att hans
stora, oroliga ögon stirrade på henne med brinnande blickar.

Hon såg hur hans mun rördes, han hviskade och hviskade, men
hon kunde ej höra orden.
 Han stödde sig på handen; rakt öfver hennes hufvud hade han
den, på sängkarmen. Och när han böjde sig närmare henne föll hans
här öfver hans panna, och dolda ögonbrynen.

Hon ville höra hvad han sade, höll andedrägten, och lyssnade.

Det var alldeles skymt i rummet, lampan lyste så dåligt som om

den höll på att slockna. Om hon tordes vända sig om, och öppna
ögonen, bara en liten smula?

Men nej, hon tordes icke.

Hon ville inte heller, ty då kunde han ju försvinna. Och nu var han
där, klädd i något svart, hvilket omslöt honom som en mantel. Det
knittrade som silke, det häfde sig som under tunga andedrag.

Hon försökte att halföppna ögonen, men såg inte! Hon tyckte sig
skymta hans stora svarta vingar som till hälften fyllde rummet och
sakta och svalkande flägtade.

Ja, han hviskade! kunde hon blott urskilja orden!

Hon tyckte sig känna hans andedrägt i sin nacke, het darrade den
genom hennes hår och gick upp mot hjärnan som däraf blef än mer
omtöcknad. Men nu, nu började hon höra hans tal, hon visste ej
hvad han sade, hon förnam orden utan att förstå.

Han talade som hennes romaneska, uppjagade fantasi dikterade,

som hjeltarne ifrån hennes romaner brukade tala, hon igenkände
talesätten, accenterna, ja sjelfva orden, men hon förstod honom
ändock icke.
 "Luba, Luba", sade han, "här är jag! — Älska mig! Du har mig
ändtligen, med kropp och själ, så se på mig! Du har ju längtat efter
mig, tränat efter denna stund, hvarför dröjer du?

"Är du nu, när jag ändtligen är kommen, är du nu rädd för mig,

fruktar du? Det hjelper icke, ty du undgår mig icke, och du är lika fast
bunden vid mig som vid ditt eget öde.

"Luba, Luba, hädanefter är jag hos dig alltid då du är ensam, jag

kommer sakta, kallad af din längtan och dina böner.

"Minns du demonen på den stora och sällsama bilden du en gång

säg? Det är jag, — och klosterjungfrun hvars världsliga själ behöfdo
jordisk, men icke himmelsk kärlek, det är du!

"Ja, jag älskar dig, och din lidelsefulla själ! Såsom du där ligger
darrande och skälfver, upphettad af dansen, förstår du dig icke sjelf,
men jag känner dig! Och jag är kommen som inkarnationen af dina,
för dig sjelf oförklarade passioner, kommen, icke att med mina vingar
flägta dig sval, men att hetsa upp dig än mer!"

Den unga flickan drog sig närmare mot väggen, tryckte ansigtet
fastare i kudden; hon kände kalla kåror gå sig öfver ryggen, men hon
vågade inte röra sig för att ta upp täcket och svepa sig in i det.

Hon hörde rösten hviska vidare:

"Luba, känner du mig nu? Vet du hvem jag är? Du älskar mig, och
tillhör mig, men känner ej ens mitt namn!

"Jag är din hjelte, din själs begär, ditt lifs innehåll, och du känner
mig icke!
 "När du efter uppeldande, yra balnätter ligger där utsträckt i din
bädd, så vet att ditt hjärtas längtan har löst den trollformel, som hållit
mig fängslad, och så är jag här, lutad öfver din späda, sköna gestalt,
och fyllor dina öron med djärfva sånger, ditt väsen med på engång
tjusning och ängslan!"

Nu var hon åter het, och hennes blod rusade i en ström från hjärtat
och upp öfver hals, kinder och panna. Hon skulle i detta ögonblick
gifvit mycket om hon med en häftig rörelse kunnat jaga honom bort
för att få en smula luft; ty hans ord gjorde ju henne orolig och
skrämd.

Men hon kunde icke. Hon låg som fängslad. Och hon förmådde ej
mer hålla emot, drömmen tog henne allt starkare, hon var ej mer
Luba, postmästar Donners yngsta dotter, hon var värkligen
klosterjungfrun som i sin cell låg och lyssnade till demonen,
demonen som ville föra henne ut till världen och till ett lif i synd och
oro.

"Blir du snart färdig?" sade rösten. "Så skynda dig, eljest blir det
för sent! Vågar du inte följa ditt hjärtas röst? Hvad fruktar du?
(Världen kanske, världen, hvars dom du ännu ej vet vigten af). Är du
feg, Luba, och törs ej se mig i ansigtet? Tänk då hur skönt det
okända är, dit jag ville föra dig, det fremmande, framtidslandet! Och
kom, kan du ännu stå emot, så vackert jag ber dig? Slå dina armar
om min bals så fly vi, mina vingar är starka nog att bära oss tusen
mil bort — kom".

Hon ryste, men rörde sig icke. Igenom hennes hjärna for, som en
svag erinring, minnet om legendens demon. Hon tyckte sig minnas
att han där talade så mycket om prester och vigselceremonier, och
dyra, heliga eder.
 — "Luba" fortsatte rösten, nu i en annan ton, liksom hånande: —
"Är du kanske min täcka, blyga klostermö? Den af världen oberörda,
den drömmande novisen från St. Istara Monastér vid Krim! Är det
du?

"Nåväl, men minnes du då hvad himlen fordrar af henne, hvad

öfverguden befallt? Din kärlek skall vara sådan Gud vill, och sådan
människorna vilja, eljes frälsar du icke den irrande, kropplösa
demonen, som blott kan räddas af den rena jungfru, som i oskyldig
kärlek vill offra sig!

"Sä gå ofta, dagligen och stundligen i kyrkan, bed till helgonen,

späk dig, offra!

"Luba, blif helig, eljes kan du ej hjelpa mig från den eviga elden
som förtär mig! Blif helig, kväf dina syndiga tankar och räck mig din
hand, men blott vid altaret där den brune arkimandriten välsignar
oss! Så kunna vi bli saliga ett helt långt människolif."

Rösten tystnade. Luba kände sig tryggare och var färdig att vända
sig om och i tillitsfull förtröstan betrakta honom. Men så började han
åter, med förändrade tonfall, mer inträngande än förr, mer
passioneradt, än eldigare:

"Nej — tro ej legenden. Du är Luba, världsbarnet, den vackra,

firade baldockan från i går. Hvem skulle äga din skönhet och ej
begagna den! Slå fritt dina armar om min hals, och känn hur mitt
hjärta slår! Vildt och fullt som ditt eget!

"Kom och låt mig känna den första kyssen på mina läppar som
brinna. Kom — snart randas morgonen. Tänk ej på arkimandriten!
När du blir äldre, så kan det vara tid att be till helgonen, att göra
hjärtat kallt och otillgängligt, att bli tvär som de andra. Kom —
hvarför vor' du väl eljes så skön — kom!

"Kom, se upp, blicka in i mina ögon. Haf mod! Luba… Luba…

Luba!"

Hon tordes icke. Hans tal blef allt oredigare, hon hörde nu endast
som en sakta susning.

Var det lampan som slocknande sjöng så där? Eller var det suset
af hans vingar? Ljudet blef allt svagare. Så dog det hän.

Och allt var stilla, alldeles stilla.

*****

"Nu är det tid att stiga upp. Fröken lilla, klockan är nio, och
frukosten väntar. De andra ha ren länge varit uppe!"

Katrina drog upp rullgardinerna och gick och pysslade af och an i

rummet. Plötsligen kom hon att kasta en blick på sängen.

"Hjärtandes! Så hon ligger! Stackare, alldeles naken! Och krupen

åt väggen som om hon var rädd! Upp nu, lilla fröken, vakna! Och
lampan osar ännu! Så styggt med luften här inne… lite för varmt har
hon haft, det glöder ju än i kakelugnen, nå, vaknar hon inte,
sötungen min?"

Den gamla tjenarinnan tog Luba om lifvet och reste henne upp.
Med yrvakna, skrämda blickar stirrade den unga flickan omkring sig i
rummet, en glödande rodnad slog upp öfver kinderna, spred sig
öfver pannan och ända ned till halsen.
 "Hvar är han — hvar?" sade hon och spärrade upp ögonen.

"Jessos, barnungen min, sofver hon än?" klagade Katrina och

stödde Lubas hufvud med handen medan hon jemkade om
kuddarne så hufvudgärden blef högre.

"Sof mitt lilla gull", småpratade hon, "sof ut balosot sitt. Kommer
nog den tid då hon får rusa upp bitti och vagga sina ungar eller koka
kaffe till mannen sin. Sof ut! Jag skall öppna spjellet så får hon luft,
och städa härinne. Här har hon täcket sitt. Sof ut min docka! Om inte
postmästarn går på tåspetsarne, så blir jag arg! Sof min dufva, min
lilla oskyldiga dufunge… gamla Kati skall nog se att hon inte störs!
Sof mitt lam, och dröm om himlens små englar! Den som stör dig
skall få med gamla Kati att göra Sof mitt socker! Voj voj, så blek och
så vacker hon är! Sof. Sof och dröm om små englar. Sof!"
LUBA.

Sommarn hade kommit och på de fjärdar, som för några veckor sen
lågo fjättrade i is, svallade nu vågorna fria, och skummade upp mot
grönklädda stränder.

Träden stodo i vårfrisk bladkostym och från marken doftade det

svagt af nyssutspruckna blommor.

Det var ett jublande uppe i trädtopparne, i boen lågo honorna på

sina ägg och besvarade med sina späda och svaga stämmor
hanarnes ljudeliga sång. Ekorren hoppade från tall till tall och innerst
ifrån skogen hördes göken, det var de sista tonerna, ty snart kom
midsommar…

Där viken vidgade sig till fjärd låg en liten hvit sommarvilla mellan
tallarne. Postmästarn hade hyrt den för sommarn, hans döttrar hade
godt af frisk luft och af salta bad, isynnerhet den yngsta som hade så
ömtålig hälsa.

Hon var bara själ, bara nerver, en högst ömtålig natur. Ja, hon var
ett söderns barn liksom han, alltför varmblodig för Finlands kalla och
hårda klimat. Och så hade hon naturligtvis dansat för mycket i