TOPIC #7

7.1 Types of false work

Falsework, also known as formwork or shuttering, refers to temporary structures or supports erected to
support the weight of concrete during construction until it sets and becomes self-supporting.

There are several types of falsework commonly used in construction:

Timber Falsework:

Timber falsework consists of wooden beams, planks, and supports assembled to create temporary
formwork for casting concrete. It is versatile, cost-effective, and suitable for a wide range of
construction projects.

Steel Falsework:

Steel falsework utilizes prefabricated steel components such as beams, channels, and props to support
concrete structures during casting. Steel falsework offers high strength, durability, and flexibility, making
it ideal for large-scale projects and complex geometries.

Aluminum Falsework:

Aluminum falsework employs lightweight aluminum components to create temporary formwork

systems. It offers advantages such as ease of handling, corrosion resistance, and fast assembly, making it
suitable for projects requiring rapid construction.

7.2 Types of scaffolding

Scaffolding is a temporary structure erected to support workers and materials during construction,
maintenance, or repair work on buildings or other structures. There are several types of scaffolding
commonly used in construction:

Tube and Coupler Scaffolding (Tubular Scaffolding):

Description: The most traditional and versatile type of scaffolding, made of steel tubes and various
couplers (clamps or fittings) to connect them.

Pros: Adaptable to various shapes and sizes, relatively affordable, easy to dismantle and reassemble.

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Cons: Requires more time and labor to set up compared to some prefabricated systems.

2. Frame Scaffolding:

Description: Prefabricated panels consisting of pre-welded frames and diagonal braces, creating a
modular system.

Pros: Faster to assemble and disassemble compared to tube and coupler, good for straight runs and
right angles.

Cons: Less adaptable to complex shapes or uneven ground, can be heavier, higher cost per unit area.

3. Mobile Scaffolding:

Description: Scaffolding mounted on wheels, allowing for easy movement without disassembly.

Pros: Highly mobile and convenient for tasks requiring frequent repositioning, often used for painting,
maintenance, or light construction.

Cons: Lower load capacity compared to other types, less stable for tall structures.

4. Cantilever Scaffolding:

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Description: Scaffolding that projects horizontally from a wall or structure, unsupported on one side.

Pros: Provides access to areas without full support from below, useful for elevation work, bridge
inspections, or maintenance.

Cons: Requires careful design and engineering to ensure stability, may have specific weight limitations.

5. Suspended Scaffolding:

Description: Scaffolding suspended from above using ropes, cables, or beams.

Pros: Ideal for working on high points of buildings or structures when access from below is difficult.

Cons: Complex to set up and dismantle, requires specialized skills and equipment, safety regulations.

6. Trestle Scaffolding:

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Description: Self-supporting scaffold consisting of vertical legs, horizontal beams, and diagonal braces.

Pros: Easy to set up and dismantle, can be adjusted for different heights, suitable for flat surfaces.

Cons: Not very versatile for complex shapes or uneven ground, limited load capacity compared to some
other types.

7. Cuplock Scaffolding:

Description: A prefabricated system using interlocking cups and wedges to connect tubular components.

Pros: Quicker to assemble and dismantle than tube and coupler, offers good stability, versatile for
various shapes.

Cons: May be slightly more expensive than tube and coupler, limited availability in some regions.

8. Kwikstage Scaffolding:

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Description: Another prefabricated system with wedge locks and steel components, known for its ease
of use.

Pros: Fast and simple to set up and dismantle, widely available, good for straight runs and right angles.

Cons: Not as adaptable to complex shapes as some other systems, might be more expensive per unit
area.

7.3 Types of shoring

Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure. OR

Shoring, form of prop or support, usually temporary, which is used during the repair or original
construction of buildings and in excavations.

1. H-beam (Soldier Pile) Shoring:

Description: Uses H-shaped steel beams (soldiers) driven into the ground or embedded in concrete to
support excavation walls.

 Applications: Suitable for deep excavations, especially in urban areas with limited space for
other shoring methods.

 Pros: Provides good strength and rigidity, can be reused in other projects.

 Cons: Requires heavy machinery for installation and removal, can be expensive.

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2. Secant Pile Shoring:

Description: Interlocking steel piles (H-beams or pipes) are driven into the ground, creating a continuous
wall that can withstand high water pressure.

 Applications: Ideal for deep excavations in wet soil conditions or areas with limited space for
excavation.

 Pros: Offers watertight construction, can be reused if properly maintained.

 Cons: Complex installation process, requires specialized equipment, high initial cost.

3. Contiguous Pile Shoring (Tangent Pile Shoring):

Description: Closely spaced precast concrete piles (or other materials) are driven into the ground,
forming a continuous wall.

 Applications: Suitable for dry, granular soils with minimal water pressure, often used for
basement construction.

 Pros: Relatively inexpensive, can be installed quickly and efficiently.

 Cons: Not suitable for high water pressure, limited potential for reuse.

4. Sheet Pile Shoring:

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Description: Uses thin, interlocked sheets of steel, vinyl, or wood driven into the ground to retain soil
and support excavation walls.

 Applications: Useful for shallow excavations, trench works, and temporary cofferdams in water.

 Pros: Versatile, cost-effective, relatively easy to install and remove.

 Cons: Limited load-bearing capacity, not suitable for deep excavations or high water pressure.

5. Diaphragm Walls:

Description: Thin concrete walls constructed using slurry trench excavation and reinforcement.

 Applications: Deep excavations in urban areas, construction of basements, foundations, and

retaining walls.

 Pros: High strength and flexibility, permanent solution often integrated into the final structure.

 Cons: Requires specialized equipment and expertise, high initial cost.

Choosing the right type of shoring depends on several factors:

 Depth of excavation: Deeper excavations typically require stronger shoring systems.

 Soil conditions: Soil type, cohesion, and water pressure influence the shoring choice.

 Space constraints: Available space on the site can affect the installation and removal methods.

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  Cost and budget: Different shoring methods have varying costs and potential for reuse.

7.4 Methods of underpinning

Underpinning is the process of strengthening the foundation of an existing building or other structure.
Underpinning may be necessary for a variety of reasons:

 Settlement: The foundation has sunk or settled unevenly due to weak soil conditions,
overloading, or changes in the water table.
 Increased load: The structure requires additional support to bear the weight of an extension,
renovation, or heavier equipment.
 Deterioration: The foundation materials have degraded over time due to water damage,
chemical reactions, or other factors.

Here are some of the most common underpinning methods:

1. Mass Concrete Underpinning (Pit Method):

 Description: This traditional method involves excavating the soil beneath the existing
foundation in controlled stages. Once a stable stratum is reached, concrete is poured into the
excavation to create a new, deeper foundation. This process is repeated for sections of the
foundation until the entire base is underpinned.
 Advantages: Simple and cost-effective, suitable for various soil conditions and load capacities.
 Disadvantages: Disruptive due to excavations, may require temporary support for the structure,
limited access required for the excavation.
 2. Mini Pile Underpinning:
 Description: This method utilizes small-diameter piles (typically steel or concrete) drilled or
screwed into the ground below the existing foundation. These piles transfer the load of the
structure to deeper, stable soil layers.
 Advantages: Less disruptive than mass concrete underpinning, minimal excavation required,
suitable for tight spaces and limited access areas.
 Disadvantages: Can be more expensive than mass concrete, requires specialized equipment and
expertise, not ideal for very weak soils.
 3. Beam and Base Underpinning:
 Description: This method involves installing steel beams or reinforced concrete beams under
the existing foundation. These beams are then supported by piers or piles driven into the
ground, transferring the load to a deeper level.
 Advantages: Good for uneven settlement or situations requiring additional headroom, allows
for flexible design and load capacity adjustments.
 Disadvantages: More complex and expensive than other methods, requires skilled labor and
specialized equipment.
 4. Grouting:
 Description: This method injects a liquid grout material (often a mixture of cement, water, and
additives) beneath the foundation to fill voids or weak soil pockets. The grout solidifies,
strengthening the existing soil and improving load-bearing capacity.

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  Advantages: Minimally invasive, suitable for weak soils and areas with limited access, can be
used to fill gaps or stabilize the soil around existing piles.
 Disadvantages: Effectiveness depends on the nature of the soil and the depth of the cavities,
requires careful monitoring and control during injection.
 5. Micropiles:
 Description: Similar to mini piles but even smaller in diameter, micropiles are typically used for
underpinning in tight spaces or beneath sensitive structures. They offer high strength and
minimal vibration during installation.
 Advantages: Highly versatile, suitable for limited access areas and sensitive structures, cause
minimal disruption to surrounding areas.
 Disadvantages: Can be more expensive than other methods, require specialized equipment and
expertise.

The most suitable underpinning method for a specific project depends on various factors, including:

 The nature and severity of the foundation problem.

 The type and condition of the existing foundation.
 The site conditions and access limitations.
 The budget and schedule constraints.

7.5 Purpose of formwork

The purpose of formwork, also known as shuttering or molds, is to create temporary structures or molds
that hold freshly poured concrete in place until it sets and becomes strong enough to support itself.
Formwork serves several essential purposes in construction:

Shape and Support: Formwork provides the desired shape and dimensions for concrete elements such
as walls, columns, beams, slabs, and foundations. It holds the concrete in place during the pouring and
curing process, ensuring it retains the intended form and dimensions.

Containment: Formwork contains the freshly poured concrete, preventing it from flowing or spreading
uncontrollably. This containment helps achieve precise and uniform concrete placement, ensuring
structural integrity and aesthetics.

Load Distribution: Formwork supports the weight of the wet concrete and any additional loads, such as
construction workers and equipment. It distributes these loads evenly to prevent deformation or
collapse during the concrete curing process.

Surface Finish: Formwork imparts the desired surface finish or texture to the concrete elements. The
quality and condition of the formwork directly influence the appearance and smoothness of the finished
concrete surface.

Safety: Properly designed and installed formwork enhances construction safety by preventing accidents
such as concrete spillage, collapse, or structural failure. It provides a stable and secure working platform
for construction workers to perform their tasks safely.

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Efficiency: Formwork enables efficient and cost-effective concrete construction by facilitating rapid
assembly, disassembly, and reuse. It allows for the repetitive casting of concrete elements with
consistent quality and accuracy, thereby improving construction productivity.

7.6 Components of formwork

o Ties: A tie is a tensile unit used to connect opposite sides of formwork. It serves as a balanced
connection or is used to resist the effective pressure of fresh concrete.

o Braces: Braces are used to keep the formwork upright by deterring form deflection under lateral
pressure.

o Studs: Studs in the formwork are used to support sheathing panels and make a framework to
keep them in position.

o Sheathing: Sheathing panel is used to keep the concrete in its required shape and position until
it sets and hardens.

o Wales: Wales are horizontal propping members that are placed against sheathing to directly
resist sheathing pressure.

o Battens: Battens are vertical members in the formwork which keep cleats and wales uptight and
in position.

o Footing: Footing is the bottommost member which supports the entire formwork.

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 7.7 Characteristics of a good formwork
Quality:

Strong and Durable: Good formwork needs to be tough and last a long time without breaking or bending
under the weight of wet concrete.

Smooth Finish: It should make the concrete look smooth and nice without any bumps or rough patches.

Exact Size: The formwork should make sure the concrete pieces are the right size and shape, so they fit
together perfectly.

Can Handle Water and Chemicals: It should be able to resist water and chemicals in the concrete so it
doesn't get damaged.

Easy to Use: Good formwork should be easy to put together and take apart, so it doesn't slow down the
construction work.

Safety:

Stable and Strong: Formwork should be sturdy and stay in place even when holding heavy concrete to
keep workers safe.

Guardrails and Handrails: It should have rails to prevent workers from falling off and getting hurt.

Not Slippery: The surface should be rough enough so workers don't slip and fall, especially when it's wet.

Good Airflow: It should allow air to flow through to keep workers safe from dangerous gases.

Economy:

Saves Money: Good formwork should be affordable and help save money by not wasting materials or
taking too long to set up.

Can Be Reused: It's better if the formwork can be used again and again to save money and reduce
waste.

Uses Materials Wisely: Formwork should use just the right amount of materials, so nothing goes to
waste.

Works with Different Construction Tools: It should be easy to use with different machines and tools, so
the work gets done faster.

7.8 Types of Formwork:

Formwork comes in various types, each suited to specific applications and offering different advantages
and limitations. Here's an overview of four common types:

1. Collapsible Formwork:

 Description: This is the most common type of formwork, consisting of reusable panels and
frames that can be easily assembled, dismantled, and reconfigured for different projects.

 Advantages:

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 o Cost-effective due to reusability.

o Versatile and adaptable to various shapes and sizes.

o Easy to assemble and dismantle, reducing labor costs.

 Disadvantages:

o May not be suitable for highly complex shapes or large-scale projects.

o Requires proper storage and maintenance to ensure reusability.

2. Progressive Formwork:

 Description: This method involves constructing and dismantling the formwork in sequential
stages, allowing construction to progress continuously without waiting for the entire concrete
structure to cure.

 Advantages:

o Faster construction process, especially for tall structures.

o Reduces the amount of formwork required at any given time.

 Disadvantages:

o More complex planning and coordination required compared to collapsible formwork.

o May require specialized lifting equipment for formwork movement.

3. Slip Formwork:

 Description: This continuous process involves continuously raising the formwork as the concrete
is poured and cures, enabling continuous construction for vertical structures like walls and
towers.

 Advantages:

o Very fast construction method, ideal for high-rise buildings or long walls.

o Reduces labor costs and minimizes formwork handling.

 Disadvantages:

o Limited to specific shapes (primarily vertical elements).

o Requires specialized equipment and skilled labor for operation.

4. Non-removable Formwork (Stay-in-Place Formwork):

 Description: This type of formwork, often made from lightweight materials like insulated
concrete forms (ICFs) or prefabricated concrete panels, remains in place after the concrete
cures. It becomes a permanent part of the structure, providing additional benefits like insulation
or fire resistance.

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  Advantages:

o Saves time and labor costs by eliminating formwork removal.

o Can offer additional benefits like insulation, soundproofing, or fire resistance.

 Disadvantages:

o Increased initial cost compared to other types of formwork.

o Limited in terms of reusability and adaptability.

7.9 Preparation of formwork for placing concrete

Preparing formwork for placing concrete involves getting the molds or frames ready to hold the
concrete in the right shape until it dries. Here's how it works in easy wording:

Cleaning: First, make sure the formwork is clean and free from any dirt, debris, or old concrete. This
ensures that the new concrete will have a smooth and even surface.

Checking: Next, check the formwork to make sure it's in good condition and doesn't have any cracks,
holes, or damage. Repair any defects to prevent leaks or unevenness in the concrete.

Applying Release Agent: To prevent the concrete from sticking to the formwork, apply a release agent
such as oil or wax to the inner surface. This helps the concrete slide out easily once it's set.

Assembling: Put together the formwork panels or frames according to the design and dimensions of the
concrete structure. Make sure they're securely connected and aligned properly to avoid any leaks or
misalignment.

Bracing and Support: Use braces, props, or supports to reinforce the formwork and keep it stable during
the concrete pouring process. This prevents the formwork from shifting or collapsing under the weight
of the concrete.

Checking Alignment: Double-check the alignment and levelness of the formwork to ensure that the
concrete will be poured evenly and to the correct height. Adjust as needed to achieve the desired shape
and dimensions.

Sealing Joints: Seal any gaps or joints in the formwork to prevent concrete leakage or seepage. This
helps maintain the integrity of the concrete structure and ensures a smooth and uniform finish.

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 7.10 Loads on formwork
Loads on formwork refer to the various forces and pressures that act on the temporary structures used
to support freshly poured concrete until it sets and becomes self-supporting. These loads are important
considerations in formwork design and construction to ensure safety and stability. Here are the primary
loads on formwork:

Dead Load:

Dead load refers to the weight of the formwork itself, including panels, frames, braces, and any
additional attachments or accessories. This load is constant and acts vertically downward due to gravity.

Live Load:

Live load includes the weight of construction materials, equipment, and workers that are temporarily
placed on the formwork during the concrete placement process.

Concrete Pressure:

Concrete pressure is the lateral force exerted by the freshly poured concrete against the inner surface of
the formwork. This pressure increases as the height of the concrete column or wall increases and can
vary depending on factors such as concrete mix, pouring rate, and formwork geometry.

Hydrostatic Pressure:

Hydrostatic pressure occurs when concrete is poured against vertical formwork in below-grade
applications or in situations where water is present. The pressure exerted by the liquid concrete or
groundwater against the formwork can increase the lateral forces acting on the structure.

Impact Load:

Impact load refers to sudden or dynamic forces that may occur during construction activities, such as
the accidental dropping of equipment or materials onto the formwork.

Wind Load:

Wind load is the horizontal force exerted by wind acting on the exposed surface area of the formwork
system. Wind can cause formwork panels to sway or deflect, especially in tall or open structures, leading
to instability and potential failure if not adequately braced or anchored.

Vibration Load:

Vibration load occurs during concrete placement when vibrators are used to consolidate the concrete
and remove air voids. The vibrations transmitted through the concrete can affect the stability and
integrity of the formwork system, particularly in lightweight or flexible structures.

7.11 Formwork for different components of structure

1. Column Formwork:

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  Labels:

o Formwork panels

o Stringers

o Tie rods

o Wedges

2. Wall Formwork:

 Labels:

o Formwork panels

o Joists

o Shoring (props)

o Braces

3. Beam Formwork:

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Labels:

o Soffit formwork (bottom)

o Side formwork

o Beam soffit support (beam bottom support)

o Shoring (props)

4. Slab Formwork:

 Labels:

o Formwork panels

o Shoring (props)

o Soldier piles (optional, for deep excavations)

o Slab reinforcement (optional)

5. Staircase Formwork:

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Labels:

o Riser formwork (vertical form)

o Tread formwork (horizontal form)

o Stringers

o Shoring (props)

6. Foundation Formwork:

Labels:

o Formwork panels (can be different materials like wood or metal)

o Tie rods

o Wedges

o Shoring (props)

o Footing (base of the foundation)

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