(eBook PDF) Focus on Writing:

Paragraphs and Essays 4th Edition

Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-focus-on-writing-paragraphs-and-essays-
4th-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Exploring Writing: Paragraphs and Essays 4th Edition

Zoé L. Albright - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/exploring-writing-paragraphs-
and-essays-ebook-pdf/

Exploring Writing: Sentences and Paragraphs, 3rd

edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/exploring-writing-sentences-and-
paragraphs-3rd-edition/

(eBook PDF) Exploring Writing: Sentences and Paragraphs

3rd edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-exploring-writing-
sentences-and-paragraphs-3rd-edition/

(eBook PDF) The Writer's World: Paragraphs and Essays

With Enhanced Reading Strategies 5th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-writers-world-
paragraphs-and-essays-with-enhanced-reading-strategies-5th-
edition/
(eBook PDF) Along These Lines: Writing Sentences and
Paragraphs 7th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-along-these-lines-
writing-sentences-and-paragraphs-7th-edition/

(eBook PDF) An Interactive Approach to Writing Essays

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-an-interactive-approach-
to-writing-essays/

(eBook PDF) Focus on Nursing Pharmacology 7th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-focus-on-nursing-
pharmacology-7th-edition/

(eBook PDF) FOCUS on Community College Success 5th

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-focus-on-community-
college-success-5th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Focus on Health Loose Leaf Edition 11th

edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-focus-on-health-loose-
leaf-edition-11th-edition/
Revision Symbols
This chart lists symbols that many instructors use to point out writing
problems in student papers. Next to each problem is the chapter of Focus
on Writing where you can find help with that problem. If your instructor
uses different symbols from those shown here, write them in the space
provided.

INSTRUCTOR’S
STANDARD SYMBOL PROBLEM
SYMBOL
problem
adj with use of
adjective 31
problem
adv with use of
adverb 31
agreement
problem
agr
(subject-
verb) 25
apostrophe
missing or
apos used
incorrectly
34
awkward
sentence
awk
structure 26,
27
capital letter
cap or triple underline [example]
needed 35
problem
with
case
pronoun
case 30
cliché cliché 20
INSTRUCTOR’S
STANDARD SYMBOL PROBLEM
SYMBOL
lack of
coh paragraph
coherence 2
combine
combine sentences
18, 24
comma
cs
splice 23
diction
d or wc (poor word
choice) 22
lack of
paragraph
dev
development
2
frag fragment 24
fused
fs
sentence 23
italics or
ital underlining
needed 35
lowercase;
capital letter
not needed
35
indent new
para or ¶
paragraph
overuse of
pass passive
voice 26
nonstandard
use of
prep
preposition
32
ref pronoun
reference
INSTRUCTOR’S
STANDARD SYMBOL PROBLEM
SYMBOL
not specific
30
run-on
ro
sentence 23
illogical
shift
shift 26
incorrect
sp
spelling 35
problem
tense with verb
tense 28, 29
transition
trans
needed 3
paragraph
unity
not unified 3
wordy, not
w
concise 20
problem
with
//
parallelism
21
problem
with comma
use 33
problem
with
semicolon
use 35
problem
with
quotation
marks 35
close up
space
^ insert
INSTRUCTOR’S
STANDARD SYMBOL PROBLEM
SYMBOL

delete

reversed
letters or
words
obvious
X
error
good point,
✔ well put

add a space
Brief Contents
Introduction: How Writing Can Help You Succeed 1

BECOMING A CRITICAL READER

Unit 1 Becoming a Critical Reader 5

1 Reading to Write 7

WRITING PARAGRAPHS AND

ESSAYS

Unit 2 Focus on Paragraphs 27

2 Writing a Paragraph 29
3 TESTing Your Paragraphs 59
4 Exemplification Paragraphs 74
5 Narrative Paragraphs 84
 6 Process Paragraphs 93
7 Cause-and-Effect Paragraphs 104
8 Comparison-and-Contrast Paragraphs 115
9 Descriptive Paragraphs 129
10 Classification Paragraphs 139
11 Definition Paragraphs 149
12 Argument Paragraphs 160

Unit 3 Focus on Essays 173

13 Writing an Essay 175

14 Introductions and Conclusions 216
15 Patterns of Essay Development: Exemplification, Narration,
Process, Cause and Effect, Comparison and Contrast 227

16 Patterns of Essay Development: Description, Classification,

Definition, Argument 276

REVISING AND EDITING YOUR

WRITING
Unit 4 Writing Effective Sentences
321

17 Writing Simple Sentences 323

18 Writing Compound Sentences 336
19 Writing Complex Sentences 350
20 Writing Varied Sentences 361
21 Using Parallelism 379
22 Using Words Effectively 388

Unit 5 Solving Common Sentence

Problems 409

23 Run-Ons 411
24 Fragments 426
25 Subject-Verb Agreement 447
26 Illogical Shifts 460
27 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 470
 Unit 6 Understanding Basic
Grammar 481

28 Verbs: Past Tense 483

29 Verbs: Past Participles 494
30 Nouns and Pronouns 507
31 Adjectives and Adverbs 534
32 Grammar and Usage for ESL Writers 546

Unit 7 Understanding Punctuation

and Mechanics 577

33 Using Commas 579

34 Using Apostrophes 596
35 Understanding Mechanics 604

Unit 8 Reading Essays 621

36 Readings for Writers 623

Appendix A: Strategies for College Success 668

Appendix B: Strategies for Doing Research 675

this page left intentionally blank
Focus on Writing
Paragraphs and Essays

Fourth Edition

Laurie G. Kirszner
University of the Sciences, Emeritus

Stephen R. Mandell
Drexel University
For Bedford/St. Martin’s
Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Learning Humanities: Edwin Hill
Editorial Director, English: Karen S. Henry
Senior Publisher for Composition, Business and Technical Writing, Developmental Writing:
Leasa Burton
Executive Editor: Karita dos Santos
Senior Developmental Editor: Jill Gallagher
Senior Production Editor: Jessica Gould
Media Producer: Sarah O’Connor
Senior Production Supervisor: Jennifer Wetzel
Executive Marketing Manager: Joy Fisher Williams
Copy Editor: Wendy Annibell
Senior Photo Editor: Martha Friedman
Photo Researcher: Susan Doheny
Senior Permissions Editor: Kalina Ingham
Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik
Text Design: Jerilyn Bockorick
Cover Design: John Callahan
Cover Photo: cristinagonzalez/Getty Images
Composition: Jouve
Printing and Binding: LSC Communications

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, 2008 by Bedford/St. Martin’s.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing
by the Publisher.

Manufactured in the United States of America.

109876
fedcba

For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116 (617-399-
4000)

ISBN 978-1-319-07375-6

Acknowledgments
Text acknowledgments and copyrights appear at the back of the book on pages 696–697, which
constitute an extension of the copyright page. Art acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the
same page as the art selections they cover.
Preface
Our goal with the first edition of Focus on Writing: Paragraphs and
Essays was to create an appealing text that motivates students to improve
their writing and gives them the tools to do so. We developed the popular
TEST tool specifically for this purpose. The letters that spell TEST
stand for Topic sentence or Thesis statement, Evidence, Summary
statement, and Transitions; this acronym helps students understand how
paragraphs and essays are constructed and teaches them how to revise
their own writing by checking for unity, support, and coherence.
In addition to retaining this important and successful feature, the
fourth edition of Focus on Writing continues to reflect two of our central
beliefs: that in college, writing comes first; and that students learn
writing and grammar skills best in the context of their own writing.
Accordingly, the text’s activities not only get students writing
immediately, but also encourage them to return to their own writing to
apply the new skills they are learning and — with the help of TEST —
to create a polished draft. Similarly, Grammar in Context boxes
introduce fundamental concepts where they are most relevant to the
student’s writing.
In this fourth edition, we have used engaging images and a
contemporary design to appeal to today’s visual learners. The text’s
explanations and instructions are streamlined throughout to make them
as useful as possible. In addition, to meet student needs expressed by
many instructors, we have added a new Introduction, How Writing Can
Help You Succeed, and a new Appendix on college success strategies.
We’ve also expanded our step-by-step guidance for developing
paragraphs, and now offer more coverage of critical reading and
thinking, as well as updated exercises and readings that reflect the
concerns of contemporary students.
It is our hope that this new edition of Focus on Writing will continue
to motivate and empower students to become confident writers and
capable editors of their own writing.
 Organization
Focus on Writing has a flexible organization that permits instructors to
teach various topics in the order that works best for them and their
students. The book is divided into three sections, which are color-coded
to help students and instructors more easily navigate the book:

Becoming a Critical Reader introduces students to critical reading

skills such as note taking and highlighting, and also teaches students
how to differentiate between the various types of reading they need
to do. Chapter 36, Readings for Writers, includes even more model
essays to show students how to effectively read and comprehend
texts.
Writing Paragraphs and Essays, Chapters 2–16, is a
comprehensive discussion of the writing process.
Revising and Editing Your Writing, Chapters 17–35, is a thorough
review of sentence skills, grammar, punctuation, and mechanics.
 Features
Central to this text is our philosophy that students learn to write best by
working with their own writing. This philosophy is supported by
innovative features designed to make students’ writing practice
meaningful, productive, and enjoyable.

TEST helps students write and revise. This easy-to-remember tool,

introduced in Chapter 2, helps students check their paragraphs and
essays for unity, support, and coherence. By applying TEST to their
writing, students can quickly see where their drafts need more work.

Focus on Writing activities engage and motivate students.

These activities ask students to begin writing immediately by responding
to a chapter-opening visual and prompt. An end-of-chapter prompt sends
students back to their initial writing to apply the new skills they have
learned and to work toward a final draft.
Students get the writing help they need — in a clear, step-by-
step format. Eleven chapters on paragraph writing and four on essay
writing cover the writing process and nine patterns of development. Each
chapter includes a student-focused case study and an abundance of clear
examples and engaging exercises.

Instruction and activities emphasize critical reading and

thinking skills. With a full chapter on reading critically and a set of
critical reading/thinking questions for each professional reading, Focus
on Writing helps students build essential critical thinking and reading
skills.

Grammar coverage is thorough yet accessible. Nineteen

grammar chapters clearly and concisely convey the rules of English
grammar.
 New to This Edition
New support to inspire academic and college success.

A new Introduction — How Writing Can Help You Succeed —

helps students pinpoint exactly how writing will help them in their
courses and beyond the classroom.
A new chapter on Strategies for College Success. This new
appendix gives students practical advice on how to succeed in
college, with an emphasis on taking exams and how to manage time
effectively.

New chapter organization features updated model essays

integrated with instruction. Patterns of essay development have
been broken up into two chapters in order to provide students and
instructors model essays right in the chapter instead of at the back of the
book, making clear the connections between reading and writing
processes and better supporting students as they write.
New readings in Readings for Writers. Updated readings include
essays by Tom Hanks, Marina Keegan, LeBron James, Jennine Capó
Crucet, and Estelle Tang on a wealth of topics including the value of
community college, e-readers, basketball, gun control, the Americans
with Disability Act, women in technology, and sexual harassment.

Revised and enhanced exercises. New exercises help students

practice the writing and grammar strategies they’ll use in their own
essays.

New in-depth coverage of Strategies for Doing Research. This

appendix guides students through the process of writing a research paper,
from choosing a topic to documenting sources. Special attention is given
to finding, evaluating, integrating, and citing sources, as well as how to
avoid plagiarism, which are especially challenging issues for today’s
students.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 A Disappearing Towel

The Weight Draws the Towel into the Case Out of Sight When Not in Use

Nothing is more unsightly to a stranger entering a home than a

dirty towel in either the bathroom or the kitchenette. To keep the
towel out of sight I made a hanger as shown in the illustration. A wire
was bent into shape similar to a clothes hanger and a sliding clip
made to hold the towel in place. A cabinet was made to
accommodate the towel, and the hanger was attached to a cord run
over a pulley fastened at the top, through a weight pulley, and then
tied to a screw eye at the top. The weight draws the towel into the
cabinet. Near the bottom edge a slot was cut and a small panel fitted
in it. This small panel is fastened to the lower end of the towel. It is
only necessary to pull out the small panel to get at the towel. When
through with the towel, let loose of it and the weight will draw it into
the opening.—Contributed by Chas. C. Bradley, W. Toledo, O.
 Ammonia-Carrying Case for Insect Bites

An old clinical-thermometer case can be easily turned into a vial in

which to carry ammonia for insect bites. Fit a small rubber stopper in
the case, then push a darning needle into the stopper so that its end
will be a little more than midway in the case. Cut or break off the
needle end projecting on the outside and attach a small wad of
cotton to the inside end. The case is then filled with ammonia. For
bee stings this works fine, as the ammonia completely neutralizes
the formic acid which the bee deposits.—Contributed by E. Everett
Buchanan, Elmira, N. Y.
¶The contact points of a firm-joint caliper should never be struck on
hard surfaces to adjust them.
 How to Make Combined Kites
By C. M. MILLER

PART II—A Festooned Kite

Morekite.thanTheoneonekiteillustrated
on the same framework is known as a compound
consists of three tailless kites on one
long stick, called the spine. The upper one is 3 ft.; the center one, 2
ft., and the lower one, 1 ft. in width. There will be needed for the
construction of this kite a stick of light wood—spruce is best, but it
may be of pine or bass—7 ft. long by ¹⁄₄ by ¹⁄₂ in. If the wood breaks
easily it will be better to increase the width from ¹⁄₂ in. to ³⁄₄ in., or the
stick might be made ³⁄₈ in. thick without increasing the width, but with
a good spruce stick the dimensions first given will be sufficient. The
stick should be straight-grained and without a twist. If the spine is
twisted, the kites will not lie flat or in a plane with each other, and if
one is out of true, it will cause the kite to be unsteady in the air. The
bow sticks are three, the upper one being 4 ft. long by ¹⁄₄ by ¹⁄₂ in.;
the center one, 2 ft. long by ¹⁄₄ by ³⁄₈ in., and the lower one, 1 ft. long
by ¹⁄₄ by ¹⁄₄ in. About five sheets of tissue paper will be required, but
more may be needed for color combinations. The so-called French
tissue paper is much better, as it comes in fine colors and is much
stronger than the ordinary tissue. It costs a trifle more, but it pays in
making a beautiful kite. The Chinese rice paper is the strongest, but
it comes only in natural colors.
 The Spine with the Bow Sticks The Kite as It Appears with the
Properly Spaced as Shown by the Festoons Hung to the Ends of the
Dimensions Sticks

It will be seen that the kites do not extend to the top and bottom of
the spine stick. The first bow stick is placed 13 in. from the top end of
the spine, and each of its ends extends 6 in. beyond the kite for
fastening the festoons. The bow sticks should be lashed to the spine,
not nailed. Wind diagonally around the two sticks, both left and right,
then wind between the two, around the other windings. This draws
all windings up tightly to prevent slipping.
To string up the upper kite, drill a small hole through the spine, 6
in. from the top, at A, and also 6 in. from each end of the bow stick,
at B and C. If a small drill is not available, notch the stick with a knife
or saw to hold the string. Another hole is made in the spine 29 in.
from the upper bow stick, or at D. Tie the outline string at A, then
pass through the hole at C, then through D, up through B and back
to the starting point at A. In tying the last point, draw up the string
tightly, but not enough to spring the spine or bow. Measure carefully
to see if the distance AC is the same as AB, and if CD is equal to
BD. If they are not, shift the string until they are equal and wind at all
points, as shown at E, to prevent further slipping. Proceed in the
same way with the center and lower kite, and it will be ready for the
cover.
The cover tissue should be cut about 1 in. larger all around than
the surface to be covered, but turn over about half of this allowance.
This will give plenty of looseness to the cover. For the fringe
festoons, cut strips of tissue paper, 2¹⁄₂ in. wide, paste ¹⁄₂ in. of one
long edge over a string, and cut slits with scissors at intervals of 1 in.
along the loose edge. After the fringe has been made, attach it as
shown in the illustration. Do not stretch it tightly, but give sufficient
looseness to make each length form a graceful curve and keep the
sides well balanced.
To bend the bows of the upper and center kites, attach a string
from end to end of each bow on the back side of the kite and spring
in short brace sticks in the manner usual for tailless kites.
Attach the upper end of the bridle at A. The length of the bridle
string is 87 in. and the kite line is attached to it 30 in. from A, leaving
the lower part from this point to F, where it is tied to the spine, 57 in.
long.
The kite should fly without a tail, but if it dodges too much, attach
extra streamers to the ends of the bow sticks of the lower kite, and to
the bottom of the spine.
If good combinations of colors are used a very beautiful kite will be
the result, and one that will fly well.
 Simple Experiment in Electromagnetism

A Small Coil of Wire Mounted on a Cork Floating in Dilute

Sulphuric Acid

The following simple experiment, which may be easily performed,

will serve to prove the theory that there is a magnetic field produced
about a conductor carrying a current, and that there is a definite
relation between the direction of the current in the conductor and the
direction, or polarity, of the magnetic field produced by the current.
The current in the experiment is to be produced by a battery
consisting of a small copper and zinc plate fastened to the under
side of a large flat cork, as shown in the sketch, the whole being
placed in a glass or rubber vessel partly filled with diluted sulphuric
acid. A small coil of wire is formed and mounted on top of the cork,
and its terminals are connected to the copper and zinc plates. The
electromotive force generated will cause a current to circulate
through the coil from the copper plate to the zinc plate. If the poles of
a permanent magnet be presented in turn to the same side of the
coil it will be found that there is a force of attraction between one
pole of the permanent magnet and the coil, and a force of repulsion
between the other pole and the coil. If the same operation be
performed on the opposite side of the coil, it will be found that the
force between the poles of the magnet and the coil are just the
reverse of what they were in the first case; that is, the pole that
attracted the coil in the first case will now repel it, and the one that
repelled it, will now attract it. Applying one of the fundamental laws of
magnetism—like poles attract and unlike repel each other—it can be
readily seen that the two sides of the coil are of opposite magnetic
polarity.
If the direction of the current around the coil be changed, the
action between the coil and the magnet will be opposite to what it
was originally, and if the plates be placed in clean water, there will be
no current and no attraction or repulsion between the coil and the
poles of the magnet.
 Double Lock for a Shed

Four boys using the same shed as their workshop wished to lock it
so that any one of them could enter alone. Usually only two keys are
supplied with a lock, so two locks were purchased and applied to the
staples as shown. Each boy was provided with a key and could enter
at his pleasure.—Contributed by George Alfred Moore, Versailles, O.
 Ferrules for Tool Handles

Discarded metal caps from broken gas-mantle holders should be

saved, as they will come in handy for several purposes, such as
ferrules on wood handles, and the like. The wire screen is removed
from the end, and the cap is fastened to the handle with a nail or
screw.—Contributed by James M. Kane, Doylestown, Pa.
 Mallet Made from Wagon-Wheel Felly and Spoke

A Well-Shaped Mallet Made from a Section of a Wagon-Wheel Felly and

Spoke

When in need of a mallet and if an old broken and discarded

wagon wheel is at hand, one can be made quickly as follows: Cut
through the rim at A and B, and through the spoke at any distance
desired, as at C, for instance. The spoke is dressed into the shape of
a handle and sandpapered smooth. The section of the felly is used
as head and is shaped properly and fastened to the handle with two
nails.—Contributed by Mark Gluckman, Jersey City, New Jersey.
 A Mystery Sounding Glass
Procure a thin, tapering drinking glass, a piece of thin, black
thread, about 2 ft. long, and a long lead pencil. Cut a small groove
around the pencil near one end. Make a slip noose in each end of
the thread and slip one into the notch and place the thin glass in the
other with the thread near the top. When the pencil is revolved slowly
the thread will be wound on it slightly and it will slip back with a jerk
that produces a ring in the glass. This may be kept up indefinitely.
The movement necessary is so small that it is imperceptible. The
glass can be made to answer questions by two rings for “yes” and
one ring for “no.”

¶A lighted match held to the outside of a fish-pole joint causes an

expansion of the outer ferrule and allows the pole to be readily pulled
apart.
 Repairing a Broken Canoe Paddle

While paddling a rented canoe one day the paddle struck a rock
and snapped in two a little below the center of the handle. The
boatman laughed at the idea of trying to fix it, but after paying his
price for the paddle I decided to try mending it. The barrel of an old
bicycle pump was procured and I found that it fitted over the paddle
at the break a trifle loosely. It was pushed on the handle out of the
way. Then with a No. 8 bit I bored a hole 8 in. deep in the end of
each broken part. Into these holes, which formed one cavity when
the broken ends were brought together, was forced and glued a
tight-fitting 16-in. dowel pin. The outside of the handle was then
wrapped with tape for about 10 in. each side of the break, and the
pump barrel was forced down over this tape until it completely and
firmly enveloped the broken ends.—Contributed by Clarence G.
Meyers, Waterloo, Iowa
 Tightening Lever for Tennis Nets

The Upper Rope on a Tennis Net Held Taut with a Lever on the Post

Tennis nets are always sagging and to keep them at the proper
height requires considerable attention, especially so where the posts
are not solidly set in the ground. A very effective net tightener, and
one that is easy to make is the lever shown in the illustration. One
end of a piece of hardwood board is shaped into a handle the other
end being left large. In the latter a hole is cut to fit loosely over the
post for the net. The upper end of the post is notched and a sheave
pulley is placed in it so that the groove will be in line with the net.
The upper rope on the net is run over the pulley and is attached to
the lever handle. A downward pressure on the handle draws the
rope taut and locks it on the post. It is easily removed from the post
and can be left attached to the rope and rolled up in the net when not
in use.
 A Desk Watch Holder

A watch holder for the desk is a great convenience for the busy
worker, and many calendar devices are sold for this purpose, yet
they are no more efficient than the one illustrated, which can be
made from an ordinary spindle desk file. If the wire is too long it can
be cut off and the bend made in it to form a hook for the watch ring.
 Cleaning Silverware
To clean silverware or anything made of the precious metals, such
as jewelry, etc., is very simple with the following method: Place a
piece of zinc in a cup, dish, or any glazed ware; put in the articles to
be cleaned, and pour over them a hot solution of water and
carbonate of soda—washing soda—in proportions of one
tablespoonful of soda to ¹⁄₂ gal. of water. This is a solution and
method used by many jewelers for cleaning pins, rings, chains, and
many other small articles made in gold and silver.

¶A machine should never be stopped in the midst of a fine cut.

 An Eight-Pointed Star Kite
By CHARLES M. MILLER

Nearly every boy can make kites of the several common varieties
without special directions. For the boy who wants a kite that is not
like those every other boy makes, an eight-pointed star kite,
decorated in an original and interesting manner, in various colors, is
well worth while, even if it requires more careful work, and extra
time. The star kite shown in Fig. 1 is simple in construction, and if
carefully made, will fly to a great height. It is balanced by streamers
instead of the common type of kite tail. Any regular-shaped kite
should be laid out accurately, as otherwise the error appears very
prominent, and unbalances the poise of the kite.
The frame for this star kite is made of four sticks, joined, as
indicated in Fig. 5, with strings running from one corner to the
second corner beyond, as from A to C, from C to E, etc. A little
notching of each pair of sticks lessens the thickness of the sticks at
the center crossing, and strengthens the frame, The sticks are ¹⁄₄ by
¹⁄₂ in. by 4 ft. long, They are set at right angles to each other in pairs,
and lashed together with cord, and also held by a ³⁄₄-in. brad at the
center. The strings that form the sides of the squares, A to G, and B
to H, must be equal in length when tied. The points where the strings
forming the squares cross each other and the sticks are also tied.
The first cover, which is put on with paste, laying it out on a
smooth floor or table as usual in kite making, is plain light-colored
paper. The darker decorations are pasted onto this. The outside
edges of the cover are turned over the string outline, and pasted
down. The colors may be in many combinations, as red and white,
purple and gold, green and white, etc. Brilliant and contrasting colors
are best. The decoration may proceed from the center out, or the
reverse. The outside edge in the design shown has a 1¹⁄₂-in. black
stripe. The figures are black. The next octagonal black line binds the
design together. The points of the star are dark blue, with a gilt stripe
on each. The center design is done in black, dark blue, and gilt.