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STRATEGIC
M AR ET IN G
CREATING CO MP ETI TIV E
ADVANTAGE
Dougla s West, John Ford, and Essam Ibrahim

THIRD EDITI ON

OXFO RD
Preface

This third edition of the book has been completely O\'erhauled and updated. Nevertheless, its stra·
tegic approach remains with Porter's tried-and -tested c.o st-differentiation framework. As an
approach, it remains second to none in capturing the essence of marketing strategy.
The book continues to utilize the popular ' WVfHIY framework consisting of the four questions:

1. \lihere are you now?

2. \A/here do you want to be?

3. How will you get there'
4. Did you get there?

As with the first and second editions, we conduded that choosing a differe nt framework would only
be c.o unterproductive. It works, and in our view it does not need a 'fix~ The application of strategy to
the marketing mix at the 'how will you get there' stage continues to be a featu re of the book.
As before, each chapter contains mini cases and one longer end of chapter case with questions for
dass discussion or assignment work. There are also four longer end of book cases with questions that
integrate the central themes placed within th e c.o ntext of marketing strategy 'blueprint' offered by the
book. Please note though that the examples and cases cited are for illustrative purposes only and are
not in any way tied to any judgements about marketing strategy.
A feature new to each chapter is a short introduction to the topic either in the form of a news item
or viewpoint from a well-respected and expe rienced practitioner. Each chapter has been revised to
incorporate advan ces in the field, to reflect changes in technology as well as plug some gaps identified
by readers and reviewers of the first and second editions.
The changes are too numerous to mention in their entirety, but the main one I would point out is that
the international perspective has been extended to include more insights from developing economies.
Furthermore, whereas we had previously decided against having an 'international marketing strategy'
chapter, we listened to the feedback and were persuaded that a dedicated chapter would be a great addi·
tion. This coincided neatly with a debate that \\"e had been having 0\rer whether a dedicated ·e ·marketing
strategies' chapter made any sense. Let's face it, e-marketing is an integral part of pretty m uch every aspect
of marketing strategy and marketing today, so a stand-alone chapter made increasingly less sense. Thus
the • · marketing chapter has been removed and replaced by a new chapter on 'international marketing
strnteg)~ which explores theory and practice within Porter's framework with numerous examples.
In addition, all the mini cases and end of chapter cases are new. A couple of the end of book cases
have been extensively revised and one new one added. Each of these changes, and many others, will
hopefully assist in gaining a thorough understanding of the theory and application of marketing strategy
and the underlying issues involved The online resource centre continues to provide a wealth of addi·
tiona) materials for anyone interested in marketing strategy and provides links to additional resourc.es.
Turning to our readers> this third edition is not intended as an introduction to marketing; the
book is designed fo r postgraduate students and undergraduates in their final years of studies.
This is the third updated edition of our account of strategic marketing. We recognize that th ere
are many great books on marketing s trateg)r to choose from; we hope that you- along with learning
from it- will enjoy reading it. From our s ide of things we too have learnt much from the update an d
enjoyed writing it (and of course seeing it finally off to print!).
DCW
Outline contents

Acknowledgements VI

Preface V II

PART 1: Introduction
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

1 Overview and strategy blueprint 3

2 Marketing strategy: analysis and perspectives 28

PART II: Where are we now?

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

3 Environmental and internal analysis: market information and intelligence 63

PART Il l: Where do we want to be?

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

4 Strategic marketing decisions, choices, and mistakes 107

5 Segmentation, targeting, and positioning strategies 150

6 Branding strategies 185

7 Relational and sustainability strategies 218

PART IV: How will we get there?

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

8 Product innovation and development strategies 251

9 Service marketing strategies 289

10 Pricing and distribution strategies 324

11 Marketing communications strategies 362

12 International marketing strategy 401

13 Social and ethical strategies 441

X OUTLINE CONTENTS

PART V: Did we get there?

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

14 Strategy implementation, control, and metrics 477

End of book case studies 5l 9

Index 553
Detailed contents

PART I Introduction

1 Overview and strategy blueprint 3

Learning Objectives 3
Chapter at a Glance 3
My life as a strategy planner 4
Imrcduction 6
Approaches to competitive marketing strategy 10
Thinking f im 10
See'ng First 11
Doing First 12
Simple Ru!es 14
Postmodem 15
Which one to choose? 17
The bock's framework 18
Marketing strategy blueprint 19
Things that can go wrong 21
Conclusion 21
Summary 22
Key terms 23
Discussion questions 23
Online Resource Centre 23
References and further reading 23
End of Chapter 1 case study. To eat or not to eat 24
2 Marketing strategy: analysis and perspectives 28
Learning Objectives 28
Chapter at a Glance 28
Case study: Plymouth Citybus- another one rides the bus 29
Imrcduction 31
Marketing strategy in a changing environment 32
Strategy concept and definitions 33
Marketing strategy: nature and definitions 35
Marketing strategy development 37
Marketing strategy orientation 38
 ..
XII DETAILED CONTENTS

Social media and intell igence gathering 39

Marketing orientation and corpo rate success 43
Co mpetitive marketing strategy: various perspectives 45
Planning frameworks for making strategy 48
The latest th inking: the uncomfortable zone of strategy 53
Conclusion 55
Su mmary 55
Key terms 56
Discussion questions 56
On line Resource Centre 57
References and further reading 57
End of Chapter 2 case study. British Petroleum: can a tarnished brand recover
fo llowing an eco logical disaster? 59

PART II Where are we now?

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

3 Environmental and internal analysis: market information and intelligence 63

Learning Objectives 63
Chapter at a Glance 63
Case stu dy: Exodus's d igital strategy 64
Introduction 66
The marketing environment and its co mponents 67
Strategic analysis of the external environment 68
Strategic analysis of the macro (remote) envi ron ment 69
Environmental uncertainty and scenario analysis 7l
Strategic analysis of the micro (competit ive) environment 75
Competitor analysis 78
Competitive intell igence 8l
Customer behaviour analysis via social media network platforms 8l
The strategic use of market research and t he role of big data 84
Strategic analysis of the internal environment 86
Resource- based approach to internal analysis 87
Value chain approach to internal analysis 88
Evaluat ion of functional areas 89
Performance analysis approach 89
'Strategic fit'-the concl usion of external and internal strategic analyses 90
The latest th inking: big data-the new management revo lution 93
Conclusion 96
Su mmary 97
Key terms 97
 DETAI LED CONTENTS xiii

Discussion questions 98
Online Resource Centre 98
References and further reading 98
End of Chapter 3 case study. Fage Yogurt: sustaining competitive
advantage in a crowded market 100

PART 111 Where do we want to be?

4 Strategic marketing decisions, choices, and mistakes 107

Learning Objectives 107
Chapter at a Glance 107
Case study: Heine ken Desperados-a sensational experience 108
Introduction 110
Hierarchy of strategic choice and decisions 111
Strategic choice and dedsions at the corporate level 112
Strategic choice and dedsions at the SBU level 119
Strategic choice and decisions at the functional level 124
Marlceting suategy 126
Marketing plan and its link to strategy 134
Strategy mistakes and organizational failure 135
The latest thinking: categorizing strategic decisions 137
Conclusion 140
Summary 140
Key terms 141
Discussion questions 141
Online Resource Centre 141
References and further reading 142
End of Chapter 4 case study. Luxury apparel brands in a recession market:
a closer look at Michael Kors and Coach 143
s Segmentation, targeting, and positioning strategies 150
Learning Objectives 150
Chapter at a Glance 150
Case study: Targeting children-an ethical dilemma? 151
Introduction 152
Foundations for effective segmentation 153
Critetia for identifying segments 153
Geographic bases for segmentation 154
Demographic bases fOf segmentation 155
Psychographic bases for segmentation 159
Behaviouristic bases for segmentation 162
 .
X IV DETAILED CONTENTS

Cross-border segmentation and international challenges 164

Strategic framewo rk for segmentation 165
Segmentation tools 165
Targeting 167
Measuring effectiveness of target segments 168
Targeting improvement 169
Positioni ng 169
The position ing statement 171
Perceptual mapping 172
Position ing and the importance of consistency 173
The latest thinking: real-time experience tracking and how to bu ild superconsumers 174
Real-ti me experience tracking (RET) 174
The bu ilding of superconsumers 176
Conclusion 177
Su mmary 177
Key terms 178
Discussion questions 178
Online Resource Centre 179
References and fu rth er reading 179
End of Chapter 5 case study. Celebrity brands: a risky business 180

6 Branding strategies 185

Learning Objectives 185
Chapter at a Glance 185
Case stu dy: Unilever-Corporate branding for a consumer products company?
Can Lynx and Dove be seen as app ropriate under the same brand umbrella? 186
Introduction 187
Branding and industry structu re 189
The complex nature of brands 189
Brand ing and functionality 189
Brand arch itectu re: a strategic management framewo rk 192
Industry cost structure: brand efficiency and profitability 195
Consumer perceptions of brands 199
Key brand assessment veh icles for differentiation purposes: the brand wheel 201
Social media and brand ing 202
Love marks 205
The latest thinking: neu romarketing and sensory branding 207
Conclusion 208
Su mmary 208
Key terms 209
Discussion questions 210
Online Resource Centre 210
 DETAILED CONTENTS XV

References and further read ing 210

End of Chapter 6 case study. IKEA: global brand perspectives 212

7 Relational and sustainability strategies 218

Learn ing Objectives 218
Chapter at a Glance 218
Case study: Faux relationships-companies that go through the motions to build
customer relationships only hu rt themselves in the end 219
Introduction 220
Relationship marketi ng in the B2C context 222
Suspects 222
Prospects 224
Customers 224
Clients 227
Supporters 229
Advocates 229
Partners 231
Customer love 232
Relationships and loyalty in B2B markets 233
Customer relationship management (CRM) 236
CRM pitfalls to avoid 238
Sustainability of relationsh ips and co mpetitive advantage 240
j udging sustainabi lity 240
The latest thinking on customer relationships 241
Conclusion 242
Su mmary 242
Key terms 243
Discussion questions 244
Online Resource Centre 244
References and further reading 244
End of Chapter 7 case study. The relationsh ip chain 246

PART IV How will we get there?

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

8 Product innovation and development strategies 251

Learning Objectives 251
Chapter at a Glance 251
Case study: Brands and the Red Queen Theory 252
Introduction 254
W hat is innovation? 255
Disruptive busi ness models 256
 .
XVI DETAILED CONTENTS

Disruptive products 259

NPD (new product development) 26l
Process 26l
Too Ikit strategy 262
Systematic inventive thinking 263
Market preparation and branding 265
Product ro llovers 265
Solo-product ro ll 266
Dual- product roll 266
Disruptive technologies 267
Rogers' perspective 267
Moore's perspective 268
Crossing the chasm 269
Two marketing campaigns 27l
Horizons of growth 272
If you aren't the market leader 272
Innovation 'modes' 274
Isolate mode 274
Fo llow mode 275
Shape mode 275
Interaction mode 275
Strategic choice 276
Custom ization 276
Elicitation 277
Process flexibi lity 277
Logistics 277
Inventory 278
The car industry 278
Implementi ng customization 278
Conclusion 279
Su m mary 280
Key terms 280
Discussion questions 280
Online resource centre 28l
References and further reading 28l
Key article abstracts 282
End of Chapter 8 case study. Amazon instant video 284
9 Service marketing strategies 289
Learning Objectives 289
Chapter at a Glance 289
Case study: India's Mumbai dabbawalas bring new m eaning to
service excellence 290
Introduction 29l
 DETAILED CONTENTS XVII

The distinctive nature of services 292

Intangibility 292
Heterogeneity 293
Inseparability 293
Perishabi lity 294
The 7Ps of services 294
Customer experience strategies 295
SERVQAL: measuring the quality of the customer experience 295
Service-dominant logic: enhancing the customer experience through
the customer as co-producer 297
Service delivery as drama 298
The stage: servicescape 300
The actors: service personnel interactions with each other 300
The aud ience: customer interactions during the service experience 301
Great performances and emotional engagement 301
Operational efficiency and profitability 303
Streamlining and cost cutting 303
Creative strategic al liances 306
Effect of Internet/d igital/technology on expectations 308
Customer value and sustainable competitive advantage 312
Relationship building with customers 313
Customer service as a basis for differentiation 314
The latest thinking: the Chief Experience Officer 315
Concl usion 316
Summary 316
Key terms 317
Discussion questions 318
Online Resource Centre 318
References and further read ing 318
End of Chapter 9 case study. United Parcel Service: courier and express delivery
serv1ces 320
10 Pricing and distribution strategies 324
Learning Objectives 324
Chapter at a Glance 324
Case study: Two pieces of the marketingjigsaw- pricing and distribution 325
Introd uction 328
Pricing 329
Definition 329
Strategic mindset 330
Strategic options 331
Dolan's eight options 331
Maintaining price points 334
XVIII DETAILED CONTENTS

Online pricing 335

New product pricing 338
Implementing pricing strategy 338
Human capital 338
Systems cap ital 339
Social capital 339
Distribution 339
Defin ition 339
Buyer's perspective 340
Navigation 342
Distribution options and principal channels-buyer's perspective 344
Multi-channel marketing 347
Value proposition 347
Organizational structures and incentives 349
Create metrics 349
Grey marketing 349
Price and distribution strategies meet 350
Market leader 350
Market challenger 35l
Market fol lower 35l
Market niche 352
Conclusion 353
Su mmary 353
Key terms 354
Discussion questions 354
Online Resource Centre 355
References and further reading 355
Key article abstracts 356
End of Chapter l 0 case study. Uniq lo: the next ten years 358
11 Marketing communications strategies 362
Learning Objectives 362
Chapter at a Glance 362
Case study: A CRISP approach to brand and communications strategy 363
Introduction 365
Sh ift fro m push to pu ll 368
Services 37l
Co mmunities 37l
MARCOMS strategic process 374
Aud it 374
Establ ish ing the strategy 375
Target market 380
 .
DETAILED CONTENTS XIX

Posit ion 380

Creative strategy 380
Operations 385
Creative executi on 385
Med ia execut ion 386
Measurement 387
The latest thinking: lean advertising 389
Conclusion 389
Su mmary 390
Key terms 390
Discussion questions 390
Online resource centre 391
References and further reading 391
Key article abstracts 392
End of Chapte r 11 case study. Cookie turns 100: how a successful
heritage brand updates the product, packaging, and advertising 393
12 International marketing strategy 401
Learn ing Objectives 401
Chapter at a Glance 401
Case study: HSBC Expat 402
Introduction 404
International marketing strategy 405
International marketing analysis 407
International marketing cho ices and decisions 412
Choice of fore ign countries and markets to enter 412
Choice of generic st rategy for fore ign countries 415
Choice of fore ign investment (entry) modes 416
International marketing m ix strategies 421
International product decisions 422
International pricing decisions 425
International distribut ion decisions 426
International marketing communicati on decisions 427
Social media and international marketing strategy 429
The latest thinking: 'guarded globalization' 432
Conclusion 434
Su mmary 434
Key terms 434
Discussion questions 435
Online Resource Centre 435
References and further reading 436
End of Chapte r 12 case study. Branding Las Vegas internationally 437
XX DETAILED CONTENTS

13 Social and ethical strategies 441

Learning Obj ectives 44l
Chapter at a Glance 44l
Case stu dy : Watch out in t he afternoon when the m oral slope gets slipperier 442
Introd uction 443
The firm and its role in society 444
The nat ure of the fi rm's stakeholders 444
Social marketing 445
Corporate ethics and ethical codes of conduct 448
Corporate social respons ib ility (CSR) 449
Greenwash ing 454
Moving CSR from co m pliance to strategic imperative 455
The virtue matrix 457
Issues related to new m ed ia: privacy, security, etc. and thei r relation to strategy 460
The latest thinking: UPS and sustainab ility, and m aking cause marketing work 46l
UPS and sustainability 46l
Making cause marketing work 462
Conclusion 463
Su m m ary 464
Key terms 464
Discussion quest ions 465
On line Resource Centre 466
References and fu rt her read ing 466
End of Chapter l 3 case study. Nespresso's sustainab ility chal lenge 467

PART v Did we get there?

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

14 Strategy implementation, control, and metrics 477

Learning Obj ectives 477
Chapter at a Glance 477
Case stu dy : The problem s of im plementing, contro lling, and measuring
m arketi ng strategy 478
Introd uction 482
The im plem entat ion of marketing strategy 483
Marketing budget 487
Cont roll ing marketing strategy 488
O rganization 488
Cu lture 489
Structu re 490
Metrics 495
Sou rces of competit ive advantage 495
Performance outcomes 496
 DETAILED CONTENTS xxi

FinandaJ measures 496

Key issues 496
Mar\et sllare 500
Customer equity 501
Customer lifetime value 501
From CLTV to customer equity 508
Conclusion 509
Summary 510
~~~ ~0

Discussion questions 511

Online resource centre 511
References and further reading 512
Key article abstracts 513
End of Chapter 14 case study. Social media Impact on a brand Launch at PepsiCo 515

End of book cases 519

End of book case I 519
End of book case II 526
End of book case Ill 533
End of book case IV 541
Index 553
 Part I
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

•
lntro uct1on

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ... • •
••
• .•
••
•. I . Introduction ••
•
• •
• •
•
•
• 1 Overview and strategy blueprint •
• •
• •
•
•• 2 Marketing strategy: analysis and •
•
••
•
•
•
perspectives •
••
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .....

II. Where are we now? Ill. Where do we want to be?

3 Environmental and internal analysis: market 4 Strategic marketing decisions, choices,
information and intell igence and mistakes
5 Segmentation, targeting, and positioning
strategies
6 Brand ing strategies
7 Relational and sustainability strategies

V. Did we get there? IV. How will we get there?

14 Strategy implementation, control, and 8 Product innovation and development
metrics strategies
9 Service marketing strategies
10 Pricing and distribution strategies
11 Marketing communications strategies
12 International marketing strategy
13 Social and ethical strategies
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Continuing in the way that followed this crooked stream, I
occasionally beheld the high top of Mount Klabat before me. Several
large butterflies flitted to and fro, their rich, velvety blue and green
colors seeming almost too bright to be real. At the eighth paal we
came to the native village Sawangan, and the chief showed me the
burial-place of his people previous to the arrival of Europeans. Most
of the monuments consist of three separate stones placed one on
another. The lowest is square or oblong, and partly buried in the
earth. Its upper surface has been squared off that the second might
rest on it more firmly. This is a rectangular-parallelopipedon, one or
two feet wide and two-thirds as thick, and from two to three feet high.
It is placed on end on the first stone. In its upper end a deep hole
has been made, and in this the body of the deceased is placed. It
was covered by the third stone of a triangular form when viewed at
the end, and made to represent that part of a house above the
eaves. It projects a little beyond the perpendicular stone beneath it.
On the sides of the roof rude figures of men, women, and children
were carved, all with the knees drawn up against the chin and
clasped by the arms, the hands being locked together in front below
the knees. In many of these the faces of the figures were flat, and
holes and lines were cut representing the eyes, nose, and mouth; in
others rude busts were placed on the eaves. This burial-place
contains the finest monuments of olden times now existing in the
Minahassa. Others can be seen at Tomohon, and especially at
Kakas, but they are not as highly ornamented as these. At Kakas
they are mostly composed of but two stones, one long one set
upright in the ground, and another placed over this as a cover to the
hole containing the body. At each of these places they are entirely
neglected, and many of the images here have already fallen or been
broken off. Noticing that a very good one was loose and ready to fall,
I remarked to the chief that, if I did not take it, it would certainly soon
be lost, and, before he had time to give his assent, I had it under my
arm. The missionary at Langowan informed me that originally these
graves were beset with such obscene ornaments that one of the
Residents felt it his duty to order that they should all be broken off.
This fact, and the rude form of the images, led me to think that they
ought to be classed with the remarkable temple found near Dorey,
on the north coast of New Guinea, and with the nude statues used
by the Battas to ornament the graves of their deceased friends.

THE BAMBOO.

When the Portuguese first arrived in the Moluccas, this region was
tributary to the prince of Ternate. All the natives were heathen then,
and many of them yet retain the superstitious belief of their
ancestors. Mohammedanism had not gained a foothold among them,
nor has it since, and the only Mohammedans now in the land are the
immigrants at Menado, who have come from other parts of the
archipelago, and a few natives banished from Java. Even as late as
1833, but little more than thirty years ago, Pietermaat, who was then
Resident, in his official report, says of these people: “They are wholly
ignorant of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They reckon by means of
notches in a piece of bamboo, or by knots made in a cord.” Formerly
they were guilty of practising the bloody custom of cutting off human
heads at every great celebration, and the missionary at Langowan
showed me a rude drawing of one of their principal feasts, made for
him by one of the natives themselves. In front of a house where the
chief was supposed to reside, was a short, circular paling of
bamboos placed upright, the upper ends of all were sharpened, and
on each was stuck a human head. Between thirty and forty of these
heads were represented as having been taken off for this single
festive occasion, and the missionary regarded the drawing as no
exaggeration, from what he knew of their bloody rites.
The remarkable quantities of coffee, cocoa-nuts, and other articles
yearly exported from the Minahassa show that a wonderful change
has come over this land, even since 1833; and the question at once
arises, What is it that has transferred these people from barbarism to
civilization? The answer and the only answer is, Christianity and
education. The Bible, in the hands of the missionaries, has been the
chief cause that has induced these people to lay aside their bloody
rites. As soon as a few natives had been taught to read and write,
they were employed as teachers, and schools were established from
place to place, and from these centres a spirit of industry and self-
respect has diffused itself among the people and supplanted in a
great measure their previous predisposition to idleness and self-
neglect. In 1840, seven years after Pietermaat gave the description
of these people mentioned above, the number of Christians
compared to that of heathen was as one to sixteen, now it is about
as two to five; and exactly as this ratio continues to increase, in the
same degree will the prosperity of this land become greater.
 The rocks seen on this journey through the Minahassa, as noted
above, are trachytic lavas, volcanic sand and ashes, pumice-stone,
and conglomerates composed of these materials and clay formed by
their decomposition. They all appear to be of a late formation, and,
as Dr. Bleeker remarks, the Minahassa seems to be only a recent
prolongation of the older sedimentary rocks in the residency of
Gorontalo. In this small part of the peninsula, there are no less than
eleven volcanoes. North of Menado is a chain of volcanic islands,
which form a prolongation of this peninsula. On the island Siao there
is an active volcano. North of it is the large island of Sangir.
According to Valentyn, the highest mountain on the island underwent
an eruption in December, 1711. A great quantity of ashes and lava
was ejected, and the air was so heated for some distance around,
that many of the natives lost their lives. North of the Sangir islands
are the Talaut group. These are the most northern islands under the
Dutch, and the boundary of their possessions in this part of the
archipelago.
The steamer Menado, on which I had previously taken passage
from Batavia all the way to Amboina, now arrived at Kema. She had
brought my collection from Amboina, Buru, and Ternate, and I was
ready to return to Java, for some months had passed since I
accomplished the object of my journey to the Spice Islands, and
during that time I had travelled many hundred miles and had reached
several regions which I had not dared to expect to see, even when I
left Batavia. A whale-ship from New Bedford was also in the road,
and when I visited her and heard every one, even the cabin-boy,
speaking English, it seemed almost as strange as it did to hear
nothing but Malay and Dutch when I first arrived in Java. Many
whales are usually found east of the Sangir Islands, and north of
Gilolo and New Guinea.
January 10th.—At noon steamed out of the bay of Kema and
down the eastern coast of Celebes for Macassar. When the sun was
setting, we were just off Tanjong Flasco, which forms the northern
limit of the bay of Gorontalo or Tomini. As the sun sank behind the
end of this high promontory, its jagged outline received a broad
margin of gold. Bands of strati stretched across the sky from north to
south and successively changed from gold to a bright crimson, and
then to a deep, dark red as the sunlight faded. All this bright coloring
of the sky was repeated in the sea, and the air between them
assumed a rich, scintillating appearance, as if filled with millions of
minute crystals of gold.
The controleur, on board, who travelled with me from Langowan,
has been farther into the interior, south of Gorontalo, than any
foreigner previously. He found the whole country divided up among
many petty tribes, who are waging a continual warfare with each
other; and the immediate object of his dangerous journey was to
conciliate two powerful tribes near the borders of the territory which
the Dutch claim as being under their command. He found that all
these people are excessively addicted to the use of opium, which is
brought from Singapore to the western coast, near Palos, by
Mandharese and Macassars.
The dress of the people consists of a sarong, made from the inner
layers of the bark of a tree. They have large parangs, and value
them in proportion to the number and minuteness of the damascene
lines on their blades. Twenty guilders is a common price for them.
The controleur gave me a very fine one, which was remarkably well
tempered. The most valuable export from this bay is gold, which is
found in great quantities, at least over the whole northern peninsula,
from the Minahassa south to the isthmus of Palos. The amount
exported is not known, for, though the Dutch Government has a
contract with the princes to deliver all the gold obtained in their
territory to it at a certain rate, they are offered a much higher price by
the Bugis, and consequently sell it to them. No extensive survey has
yet been made in this territory, by the mining engineers employed by
the government, and the extent and richness of these mines are
therefore wholly matters of the most uncertain speculation. The fact,
however, that gold was carried from this region before the arrival of
Europeans, more than three hundred and forty years ago, and that
the amount now exported appears to be larger than it was then,
indicates that the supply must be very great. The government has
not yet granted to private individuals the privilege of importing
machinery and laborers, and proving whether or not mining can be
carried on profitably on a large scale. A fragment of rock from this
region was shown me at Kema by a gentleman, who said he knew
where there were large quantities of it; and that specimen certainly
was very rich in the precious metal. Gold is also found in the
southwestern peninsula of Celebes, south of Macassar. The
geological age of these auriferous rocks is not known, but I was
assured that, back of Gorontalo, an outcropping of granite had been
seen. Buffaloes and horses are plenty and cheap at Gorontalo, and
many are sent by sea to the Minahassa. The horses are very fine,
and from the earliest times the Bugis have been accustomed to buy
and kill them to eat, having learned that such flesh is a most
delectable food, centuries before this was ascertained by the
enlightened Parisians.
January 11th.—Last night and to-day the sea has been smooth,
almost as smooth as glass, while we know that on the opposite or
western side of Celebes there has been one continuous storm. This
is why we have come down the eastern side of the island. Here the
seasons on the east and west coasts alternate, as we have already
noticed in Ceram and Buru, though those islands extend east and
west, while Celebes extends north and south. To-day we passed
through the Bangai group, lying between the Sula Islands and
Celebes. From the appearance of the water, and from such
soundings as are given, there appears to be only a depth of some
thirty fathoms in the straits. These islands, therefore, not only have
formed a part of the adjacent peninsula of Celebes, but do at the
present day.
A remarkable similarity has been noticed between the fauna of
Bachian, near the southern end of Gilolo, and that of Celebes, and in
the Bangai and the Sula Islands we probably behold the remnants of
an old peninsula that once completely joined those two lands. When
we compare Celebes and Gilolo, we notice that the Bangai and Sula
groups, stretching off to the east and southeast from one of the
eastern peninsulas of Celebes, are analogous in position to Gebi,
Waigiu, and Battanta, and the adjacent islands which are but the
remnants of a peninsula that in former times connected Gilolo to the
old continent of New Guinea and Australia.
 Now, at sunset, we were approaching the Buton Passage, which
separates the large island of Buton from Wangi-wangi, “The Sweet-
scented Island.” This is a great highway for ships bound from
Singapore to China in the west monsoon, and several are now here,
drifting over the calm sea.
Buton is a hilly island, but no mountains appear. Its geological
formation is said to consist of “recent limestone, containing
madrepores and shells.” Here, again, we find indications of the wide
upheaval that appears to be occurring in the whole archipelago, but
especially in its eastern part. It is quite famous for the valuable
cotton it produces, which, in the fineness and length of its fibres, is
said to excel that raised in any other part of the archipelago, and is
therefore highly valued by the Bugis and Macassars.
January 13th.—This morning we passed a large American man-of-
war coming down grandly from the west, under steam and a full
press of canvas. It is a most agreeable and unexpected pleasure to
see such a representation of our powerful navy in these remote
seas.[51]
The next day we passed through Salayar Strait, which separates
the southern end of the peninsula of Celebes from the Salayar
Islands, and may be regarded as the boundary between the
alternating wet and dry seasons on the opposite sides of Celebes.
January 15th.—Arrived back at Macassar. There is nothing but
one continuous series of heavy, pouring showers, with sharp
lightning and heavy thunder.
January 16th.—Sailed for Surabaya in Java. This morning there is
only such a wind as sailors would call a fresh, but not a heavy gale.
In all the wide area between Java and the line of islands east to
Timur on the south, and the tenth degree of north latitude, none of
those frightful gales known in the Bay of Bengal as cyclones, and in
the China Sea as “typhoons,” have ever been experienced. The chief
sources of solicitude to the navigator of the Java and the Banda
Seas are the strong currents and many reefs of coral.
 Our large steamer is little else than a great floating menagerie. We
have, as usual, many native soldiers on board, and each has with
him two or three pet parrots or cockatoos. Several of our passengers
have dozens of large cages, containing crested pigeons from New
Guinea, and representatives of nearly every species of parrot in that
part of the archipelago. We have also more than a dozen different
kinds of odd-looking monkeys, two or three of which are continually
getting loose and upsetting the parrot-cages, and, before the
sluggish Malays can approach them with a “rope’s end” unawares,
they spring up the shrouds, and escape the punishment which they
know their mischief deserves. These birds and monkeys are mostly
purchased in the Spice Islands; and if all now on board this ship
could be safely transported to New York or London, they would far
excel the collection on exhibition in the Zoological Gardens of the
latter city.
Besides the Chinese, Arabs, Malays, and other passengers
forward, there is a Buginese woman, a raving maniac. She is
securely shackled by an iron band around the ankle to a ring-bolt in
the deck. One moment she is swaying to and fro, and moaning as if
in the greatest mental agony and despair, and, the next moment,
stamping and screeching in a perfect rage, her long hair streaming in
the wind, her eyes bloodshot, and flashing fire like a tigress which
has been robbed of her young. It would be difficult to fancy a more
frightful picture. They are taking her to the mad-house near
Samarang, where all such unfortunates are kindly cared for by the
government. Her nation, the Bugis or Buginese, are famous for
“running a muck.” Amuk, which was written by the early navigators “a
muck,” is a common term in all parts of the archipelago for any
reckless, bloody onset, whether made by one or more. It is, however,
generally used by foreigners for those insane attacks which the
Malays sometimes make on any one, generally to satisfy a feeling of
revenge. When they have decided to commit a murder of this kind,
they usually take opium, and, when partially under its influence, rush
out into the street with a large knife and try to butcher the first person
they may chance to meet. Many years ago such émeutes were of
frequent occurrence, and even at the present time most of the
natives who stand guard in the city of Batavia are each armed with a
long staff, on the end of which is a Y-shaped fork, provided on the
inner side with barbs pointing backward. This is thrust against the
neck of the murderer, and he is thus secured without danger to the
policeman.
 CHAPTER XII.
SUMATRA.

On the third day from Macassar we arrived safely at Surabaya,

and thence proceeded westward to Samarang, and, on the first of
February, 1866, I was again in Batavia, having been absent in the
eastern part of the archipelago eight months. Through the courtesy
of Messrs. Dümmler & Co., of that city, who obligingly offered to
receive and store my collections and forward them to America, I was
left entirely free to commence a new journey.
The generous offer of the governor-general to give me an order for
post-horses free over all parts of Java was duly considered; but as
many naturalists and travellers have described it already, I
determined to proceed to Sumatra, and, if possible, travel in the
interior of that unexplored island, and, accordingly, on the 12th of
February, I took passage for Padang on the Menado, the same
steamer in which I had already travelled so many hundred miles.
Transcriber’s Note: Map is
clickable for a larger version.

ISLAND of SUMATRA

To Illustrate Professor Bickmore’s

Travels.
 Edwᵈ Weller

From Batavia we soon steamed away to the Strait of Sunda, and

once more it was my privilege to behold the lofty peaks in the
southern end of Sumatra. From that point as far north as Cape
Indrapura the coast is generally bordered with a narrow band of low
land, from which rises a high and almost continuous chain of
mountains extending parallel with the southwest, or, as the Dutch
always call it, the “west” coast, all the way north to Achin.
The next morning, after passing the lofty peak of Indrapura, found
us steaming in under the hills and high mountains that stand by the
sea at Padang and rise tier above tier until they reach the crest of
the Barizan chain, producing one of the grandest effects to be
enjoyed on the shores of any island in the whole archipelago.
Padang, unfortunately, has no harbor, and the place where ships are
obliged to anchor is an open, exposed roadstead. There is a
sheltered harbor farther to the south, but it would cost a large sum to
build a good road from Padang to it by cutting down the hills and
bridging the ravines. The distance from the anchorage to the city is
some three miles, and all the products exported must be taken out to
the ships on barges.
The city of Padang is situated on a small plain, whence its name;
padang in Malay, meaning an open field or plain. Its population
numbers about twelve thousand, and is composed of emigrants from
Nias, Java, some Chinese and Arabs, and their mestizo
descendants, besides the natives and Dutch. The streets are well
shaded and neat. Near the centre of the city is a large, beautiful
lawn, on one side of which is the residence of the governor. On the
opposite side is the Club-House, a large and well-proportioned
building. On the south side is a small stream where the natives haul
up their boats, and here the barges take in their cargoes. This part of
the city is chiefly filled with the store-houses and offices of the
merchants. In front of the governor’s residence is a large common.
Two of its sides are occupied by private residences and the church,
the roof of which has fallen in, and indeed the whole structure is in a
most dilapidated condition compared to the rich Club-House on the
other side of the green. Having landed and taken up my quarters at a
hotel, I called on Governor Van den Bosche, who received me
politely, and said that the inspector of posts, Mr. Theben Terville,
whose duty it is not only to care for transporting the mails, but also to
supervise and lay out the post-roads, had just arrived from Java, and
must make an overland journey to Siboga, in order to examine a
route that had been proposed for a post-road to that place.
He had promised the inspector, who was an old gentleman, the
use of his “American,” a light four-wheeled carriage made in Boston.
There was room for two in it, and he would propose to the inspector
to take me with him, and further provide me with letters to the chief
officials along the way; but as it would be two or three days before
Mr. Terville, who was then in the interior, would be ready to start, he
proposed that I should leave the hotel and make my home with him
as long as I might remain in Padang. “Besides,” he added, “I have
eight good carriage-horses in the stable, and I have so much writing
to do that they are spoiling for want of exercise; now, if you will
come, you can ride whenever you please.” So again I found myself
in the full tide of fortune. It is scarcely necessary to add that I did not
fail to avail myself of such a generous offer. In the evenings, when it
became cool, the governor was accustomed to ride through the city,
and occasionally out a short distance into the country. Our roads
were usually shaded with tall trees, frequently with palms, and to fly
along beneath them in a nice carriage, drawn by a span of fleet
ponies, was a royal pleasure, and one never to be forgotten. One
pleasant day we drove out a few miles to a large garden where the
governor formerly resided. The palace had been taken down, but a
fine garden and a richly-furnished bathing-house yet remain. The
road out from Padang to this place led through a series of low rice-
lands, and just then the young blades were six or eight inches high,
and waved charmingly in the morning breeze. The road, for a long
distance, was perfectly straight and bordered by large shade-trees. It
was one of the finest avenues I ever saw. Here I was reminded of
the region from which I had so lately come, the Spice Islands, by a
small clove-tree, well filled with fruit. Much attention was formerly
given here to the culture of the clove, but for some years raising
coffee has proved the most profitable mode of employing native
labor. There were also some fine animals in various parts of the
garden, among which was a pair of the spotted deer, Axis maculata.
Thus several days glided by, and the time for me to go up into the
interior and meet the inspector came almost before I was aware of it.
February 21st, 1866.—At 8 a. m. we started from Padang for Fort
de Kock, sixty miles from this city. A heavy shower during the night
has purified the air, and we have a clear, cool, and in its fullest sense
a lovely morning. This “American” is generally drawn by two horses,
but the governor has had thills put on so that one may be used, for
he says, between Fort de Kock, where the present post-road ends,
and Siboga, a distance of about one hundred and ninety miles, by
the crooked route that we must travel, that we shall find it difficult to
get one horse for a part of the way. Behind the carriage a small seat
is fastened where my footman sits or stands. His duty is to help
change the horses at the various stations, which are about five miles
apart. When the horses are harnessed his next duty is to get them
started, which is by far the most difficult, for most of those we have
used to-day have been trained for the saddle, and we have not
dared to put on any breeching for fear of losing our fender, these
brutes are so ready to use their heels, though fortunately we have
not needed any hold-back but once or twice, and then, by having the
footman act as hold-back himself with a long line, I have urged on
the horse, and in every case we have come down to the bottom of
the hill safely. With only a weak coolie tugging behind, of course I
have not been able to make these wild horses resist the temptation
to go down the hill at a trot, and, after running and holding back until
he was out of breath, the coolie has always let go, generally when I
was half-way down; nothing of course then remained to be done but
to keep the horse galloping so fast that the carriage cannot run on to
him, and by the time we have come to the bottom of the hill we have
been moving at a break-neck rate, which has been the more
solicitous for me, as I had never been on the road, and did not know
what unexpected rocks or holes there would be found round the next
sharp turn.
From Padang the road led to the northwest, over the low lands
between the sea and the foot of the Barizan, or coast chain of
mountains. In this low region we have crossed two large streams,
which come down from these elevations on the right, and are now
quite swollen from the recent rains. A long and large rattan is
stretched across from one bank to the other, and a path made to slip
over it is fastened to one end of a rude raft. This rattan prevents us
from being swept down the boiling stream, while the natives push
over the raft with long poles. I began to realize what an advantage it
was to ride in the carriage of the Tuan Biza, or “Great Man,” as the
Malays all call the governor. As soon as those on the opposite side
of the stream saw the carriage they recognized it, and at once came
over by holding on to the rattan with one hand and swimming with
the other. In their struggles to hasten and kindly assist, several times
the heads of a number of them were beneath the water when they
came to the middle of the stream, where the current was strongest
and the rattan very slack; but there was very little danger of their
being drowned, for they are as amphibious as alligators. I had not
been riding long over these low lands before I experienced a new
and unexpected pleasure in beholding by the roadside numbers of
beautiful tree-ferns, which, unlike their humbler representatives in
our temperate regions, grow up into trees fifteen to eighteen feet
high. They are interesting, not only on account of their graceful forms
and limited distribution, but because they are the living
representatives of a large family of trees that flourished during the
coal period.
 APPROACH TO THE “CLEFT,” NEAR PADANG.

As we proceeded, our road approached the base of the Barizan

chain until we were quite near them, and then curved again around
some spur that projected toward the sea-shore. Late in the afternoon
we came to the opening of a broad, triangular valley, and beheld on
our right, and near the head of the valley, the towering peak of
Singalang, whose summit is nine thousand eight hundred and eighty
feet above the sea. Large numbers of natives were seen here
travelling in company, returning homeward from the market at Kayu
Tanam, the next village. Their holiday dress here as elsewhere is a
bright red. Beyond Kayu Tanam the road ran along the side of a
deep ravine, having in fact been cut in the soft rock, a narrow wall of
it being left on the outer side to prevent carriages from sliding off into
the deep chasm. Suddenly, as we whirled round the sharp corners
while dashing through this place, we came into a deep cañon
extending to the right and left, called by the Dutch the Kloof, or
“Cleft,” a very proper name, for it is a great cleft in the Barizan chain.
Up this cleft has been built a road by which all the rich products of
the Padangsche Bovenlanden, or “Padang plateau,” are brought
down to the coast. Opposite to us was a torrent pouring over the
perpendicular side of the cleft, which I judge to be about seventy-five
feet in height. Where it curved over the side of the precipice it was
confined, but, as soon as it began to fall, it spread out and came
down, not in one continuous, unvarying sheet of water, but in a
series of wavelets, until the whole resembled a huge comet trying, as
it were, to escape from earth up to its proper place in the pure sky
above it. On either side of this pulsating fall is a sheet of green
vegetation, which has gained a foothold in every crevice and on
every projecting ledge in the precipice. Behind the falling water there
is a wall of black, volcanic rock, and at its foot is a mass of angular
débris which has broken off from the cliff above. Now we turned
sharply round to the north, and began ascending to the plateau. The
cleft has not been formed in a straight but in a zigzag line, so that, in
looking up or down, its sides seem to meet a short distance before
you and prevent any farther advance in either direction; but, as you
proceed, the road suddenly opens to the right or left, and thus the
effect is never wearying. It resembles some of the dark cañons in our
own country between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada,
except that while their dark sides are of naked rock, the sides of this
ravine are covered with a dense growth of vines, shrubs, and large
trees, according to the steepness of the acclivities. Here were many
trees and shrubs with very brilliantly-colored leaves. The whole
scenery is so grand that no description, or even photograph, could
convey an accurate idea of its magnificence. For four miles we rode
up and up this chasm, and at last came on to the edge of the plateau
at the village of Padang Panjang. We were then more than two
thousand four hundred feet above the plain, having ascended about
two thousand feet in four miles. Here the inspector left word for me
to wait a couple of days for him, as he was still away to the south.
Heavy showers continued the next day, so that I had little opportunity
of travelling far; besides, it was very cool after coming up from the
low, hot land by the shore. There is almost always a current of air
either up or down this cleft, and the warm air of the coast region is
brought into contact with the cool air of the plateau, and
condensation and precipitation seems to occur here more
abundantly than at any other place in the vicinity, the number of rainy
days numbering two hundred and five. This is no doubt due to the
local causes already explained. The average temperature here is
49.28° Fahrenheit. In the cleft, at one or two places, are a few
houses made by the people who have moved down from the
plateau. They are placed on posts two or three feet above the
ground. Their walls are low, only three or four feet high, and made of
a rude kind of panel-work, and painted red. Large open places are
left for windows, which allow any one passing to look in. There are
no partitions and no chairs nor benches, and the natives squat down
on the rough floor. It requires no careful scrutiny of these hovels to
see that they are vastly more filthy than the bamboo huts of the
Malays who live on the low land.
In all the villages I have passed to-day, both on the low land and
here on the plateau, there is a pasar, or market, and, where they
have been erected by the natives, they are the most remarkable
buildings I have seen in the archipelago. They are perched upon
posts like the houses. The ridge-pole, instead of being horizontal,
curves up so high at each end, that the roof comes to have the form
of a crescent with the horns pointing upward. Sometimes a shorter
roof is placed in the middle of the longer, and then the two look like a
small crescent within a large one. Long before Europeans came to
this land these people were accustomed to meet to barter their
products, and this was their only kind of internal commerce. The next
morning I rode part way down the cleft to near the place where the
post-horses are changed, and found a marble that was soft, but so
crystalline as to contain no fossils. I understand, however, that Mr.
Van Dijk, one of the government mining engineers, discovered some
pieces of this limestone which had not been crystallized, and that he
considered the species of corals seen in them to be entirely of the
recent period. Limestone again appears in the cleft of Paningahan, a
short distance to the south. The rocks with which it is interstratified
are chloritic schists, that is, layers of clay changed into hard schists
by the action of heat and pressure.
February 23d.—The inspector arrived this morning, and we set out
together for Fort de Kock, about twelve miles distant. From Padang
Panjang the road continues to rise to the crest of a ridge or col,
which crossed our road in an easterly and westerly direction, and
connects Mount Singalang with Mount Mérapi. This acclivity is very
nicely terraced, and the water is retained in the little plats by dikes.
When any excess is poured into the uppermost in the series, it runs
over into those beneath it, and thus a constant supply of water is
kept over all. On looking upward we saw only the vertical sides of the
little terraces covered with turf, and, in looking down, only the rice-
fields. Near the crest of the col we could look down the flanks of the
Mérapi to Lake Sinkara away to the south. The earth here is a
tenacious red clay formed by the decomposition of the underlying
volcanic rocks and volcanic ashes and sand. These are arranged in
layers which have an inclination nearly parallel to the surface. The
layers of ashes and sand may have been partly formed in their
present position by successive eruptions in the summits of the
neighboring peaks, but those of clay show that the col has been
elevated somewhat since they were formed. The height of this col is
three thousand seven hundred feet, and this is the highest place
crossed by the road from Padang to Siboga. We now began slowly
to descend, passing wide, beautifully-cultivated sawas on either
hand to Fort de Kock. Here on a pretty terrace is located the house
of the Resident, who has command of the adjoining elevated lands,
so famous in the history of this island as the kingdom of
Menangkabau, whence the Malays originally migrated, whom we
have found on the shores of all the islands we have visited, and who
are very distinct from the aborigines of these islands, as we have
particularly noticed at Buru.
 WOMAN OF THE PADANG PLATEAU.

The dress of the men here is not very different from that of the
Malays of Java, but the costume of the women is remarkable. On the
head is worn a long scarf, wound round like a turban, one end being
allowed to hang down, sometimes over the forehead, and sometimes
on one side, or on the back of the head. The upper part of the body
is clothed in a baju of the common pattern, and passing over one
shoulder, across the breast, and under the opposite arm is a long,
bright-colored scarf. The ends of this, as well as that worn on the
head, are ornamented with imitations of leaves and fruit, very
tastefully wrought with gold thread. At the waist is fastened the
sarong, which is not sewn up at the ends as in other parts of the
archipelago. It is therefore nothing but a piece of calico, about a yard
long, wound round the body, and the two ends gathered on the right
hip, where they are twisted together, and tucked under, so as to form
a rude knot. As the sarong is thus open on the right side, it is thrown
apart higher than the knee at every step, like the statues
representing the goddess Diana in hunting-costume. Their most
remarkable custom, however, is distending the lobe of the ear, as
seen in the accompanying cut from a photograph of one of the
women at the kampong here at Fort de Kock. When young, an
incision is made in the lobe, and a stiff leaf is rolled up, and thrust
into it, in such a way that the tendency of the leaf to unroll will stretch
the incision. When one leaf has lost its elasticity it is exchanged for
another, and, in this way, the opening increases until it is an inch in
diameter. This must be a very painful process, judging from the
degree to which the ears of the young girls are inflamed and swollen.
A saucer-shaped ornament, with a groove in its rim, is then put into
the ear, exactly as a stud is put into a gentleman’s shirt-bosom. It is
generally made of gold, and the central part consists of a very fine
open work, so that it is very light, yet the opening in the ear
continues to increase until it is frequently an inch and a half in
diameter, and almost large enough for the wearer to pass one of her
hands through. The front part of the loop is then only attached to the
head by a round bundle of muscles, smaller than a pipe-stem, and
the individual is obliged to lay aside her ornaments or have the lower
part of her ears changed into long, dangling strings. While these
ornaments (for it is not proper to call such a saucer-shaped article a
ring) can be worn in the ear, the appearance of the native women, as
seen in the cut, is like that of the other Malay women; but as soon as
these ornaments are taken out, and the lobes of their ears are seen
to be nothing but long loops, their appearance then becomes very
repulsive. The men are never guilty of this loathsome practice. A
similar habit of distending the lobe of the ear prevails in Borneo,
among the Dyak women. It is also seen in all the Chinese and
Japanese images of Buddha, The native women of India are
accustomed to wear several small rings, not only all round in the
edge of the ear, but in the nostrils. A large number of rings are
shown in the ear of the cut of a Dyak or head-hunter of Borneo. Even
in the most civilized lands this same barbaric idea—that a lady is