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BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxvii
About the Author xxx

CH A P T E R 1 THE PURPOSE AND NATURE OF PUBLIC POLICY 2

PART I Frameworks
CH A P T E R 2 THE POLICY-MAKING PROCESS 38

CH A P T E R 3 PUBLIC POLICIES AS INVESTMENTS 72

PART II Applications
CH A P T E R 4 PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE 106

CH A P T E R 5 DEFENSE AND HOMELAND SECURITY 136

CH A P T E R 6 PUBLIC SCHOOLING 174

CH A P T E R 7 HEALTH CARE 208

CH A P T E R 8 POVERTY ALLEVIATION 246

CH A P T E R 9 CRIMINAL JUSTICE 286

CH A P T E R 10 SCIENCE FUNDING 324

CH A P T E R 11 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 354

PART III An Agenda for Change

CH A P T E R 12 POLICY LEGACIES 390

Glossary of Terms 413

Notes 425
Index 445
CONTENTS Preface xxiii

Acknowledgments xxvii
About the Author xxx

CH A P T ER 1 THE PURPOSE AND NATURE OF PUBLIC POLICY 2

Overview 3
What Is Public Policy? 4

CASE STUDY 1.1: Fighting Ebola 5

Institutions in Society 7
Governments as Institutions 8
Government Structures and Policy Making 9
Political Parties 10
The Legislature 10
The Judiciary 10
The Executive 11
Interest Groups, Lobbyists, and Think Tanks 11
Public Policy Formation in a Federal System 12
Treating Public Policies as Investments 13

CASE STUDY 1.2: Applying the Investment Perspective: The Value of

Higher Education 15
Goals of Public Policy 17
Defending People and Property and Maintaining Public Order 17
Promoting Human Flourishing 18
Supporting Effective Nongovernmental Institutions 18
Promoting Efficiency 18
Promoting Sustainability 19
Promoting Social Equity 19
Advancing Human Rights 20
Public Policy and the Promotion of Civil Rights 21
The Work of Policy Analysts 22

CONTENTS ix
 Policy Instruments That Governments Use 23
Market Making 24
Taxes 25
Subsidies 25
Regulation 27
Direct Service Supply 28
Funding and Contracting 29
Information Provision and Social Marketing 29
Indicators of Well-Being 30
CHAPTER SUMMARY 34
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 35
KEY TERMS 35
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 36
WEBSITES 36
FOR DISCUSSION 37

PART I FRAMEWORKS

CH A P T ER 2 THE POLICY-MAKING PROCESS 38

Overview 39
Government and Collective Action 39
A Policy-Making Process Framework 40
Influences on Policy Making 42
Institutions 42
Interests 43
Knowledge 44
The Five Stages of Policy Making 44
Stage 1: Problem Definition 44
Stage 2: Agenda Setting 48
Stage 3: Policy Adoption 50
Stage 4: Policy Implementation 51
Stage 5: Program Evaluation 52
The Policy-Making Process and the Promotion of Civil Rights:
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 54
Stage 1: Problem Definition 54
Stage 2: Agenda Setting 55
Stage 3: Policy Adoption 55
Stage 4: Policy Implementation 56

x CONTENTS
 Stage 5: Program Evaluation 56

CASE STUDY 2.1: Allegations of Racial Bias in Policing Practices in Ferguson,

Missouri, and the Public Policy Response 57
Policy Innovation in a Federal System 58

CASE STUDY 2.2: State Policy Making and the Recognition of Same-Sex
Marriage 59
Prevailing Theories of Policy Making 61
Elite Theory 61
New Institutionalism 62
Incrementalism 63
The Problem Stream, the Policy Stream, the Political Stream, and Windows of
Opportunity 64
Punctuated Equilibrium 65
Advocacy Coalitions 66

CASE STUDY 2.3: Theories of Policy Making and the Affordable Care Act
(2010) 67
CHAPTER SUMMARY 68
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 69
KEY TERMS 70
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 70
WEBSITES 71
FOR DISCUSSION 71

CH A P T ER 3 PUBLIC POLICIES AS INVESTMENTS 72

Overview 73
The Work of Policy Analysts 74

CASE STUDY 3.1: The Moneyball for Government Movement 76

Treating Public Policies as Investments 77
Public Policies as Investments: A Framework 79
Step 1: Focus on Existing Policies and Programs 80
Step 2: Gather Policy Evidence 82

IN FOCUS 3.1: Personal Safety in a Community: An Example of a

Randomized Controlled Experiment 83
Step 3: Measure Desired Effects 84
Step 4: Assess Costs and Benefits 85
Step 5: Offer Robust Advice 86
Public Policies as Investments: Two Cases 87

CONTENTS xi
 CASE STUDY 3.2: Early Childhood Education 87

CASE STUDY 3.3: Assisting the Long-Term Unemployed in Their Return to

the Workforce 90
Broader Implications from the Specific Cases 92
The Investment Perspective and the Federal System of Government 93
Looking Beyond Financial Considerations 94
The Investment Perspective and the Promotion of Civil Rights 96

CASE STUDY 3.4: The Head Start Program and the Pursuit of Civil Rights 96
Toward Systematic Application of the Investment Approach 98

CASE STUDY 3.5: The Investment Approach from Theory to Practice 99

CHAPTER SUMMARY 101
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 102
KEY TERMS 103
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 103
WEBSITES 104
FOR DISCUSSION 105

PART II APPLICATIONS

CH A P T ER 4 PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE 106

Overview 107
An Introduction to Public Infrastructure 108

CASE STUDY 4.1: Congestion on the New York City Subways 109
Why Governments Get Involved in Infrastructure 111
Funding Infrastructure 112
Regulating Infrastructure 113
Stimulating Economic Development 115

CASE STUDY 4.2: The Levees Protecting New Orleans 115

Contemporary Policy Issues 116
Setting Priorities 117
Securing Funding 117
Aligning Incentives 118
Infrastructure in a Federal System of Government 118
Public Infrastructure and the Investment Perspective 119

xii CONTENTS
 Macroeconomic Analysis 120
Microeconomic Analysis 121
Political Considerations 122
Key Insights from the Investment Perspective 123

CASE STUDY 4.3: Maintaining the Williamsburg Bridge 123

Improving Infrastructure Performance through Ownership Changes 124
Changing Ownership of Electricity Assets 125
Assessing the Effects of Ownership Change 126

CASE STUDY 4.4: Improving Nuclear Power Plant Performance 127

Infrastructure and the Promotion of Civil Rights 130
Lessons for Public Policy 130
CHAPTER SUMMARY 132
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 133
KEY TERMS 133
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 134
WEBSITES 134
FOR DISCUSSION 135

CH A P T ER 5 DEFENSE AND HOMELAND SECURITY 136

Overview 137
An Introduction to Defense and Homeland Security 138

CASE STUDY 5.1: Managing Aversion Behavior: Public Perceptions of

Danger and Safety 140
The Public Problem: Protecting American Interests 141

IN FOCUS 5.1: The United States Defense Budget in Context 145

Traditional Approaches to Defense Policy 147
The Quest for Military Superiority 148
The Nonmilitary Pursuit of Security 148

IN FOCUS 5.2: The Nuclear Age and Nuclear Proliferation 149

The Emergence of an Incidental Superpower 151
The Importance of Homeland Security 151
Coordination Initiatives and Information Sharing 152
Detecting Terrorist Plots 153
Federalism and Homeland Security 155

CONTENTS xiii
 CASE STUDY 5.2: Militarism, State Gun Laws,
and Public Safety 156
Contemporary Policy Issues 160
Staying Strong amid the Changing Nature of Warfare 160
Promoting Nuclear Disarmament 161
Tackling Inefficiencies in the Department of Defense 162
Clarifying Priorities in Homeland Security 163
Defense, Homeland Security, and the Investment Perspective 163
The Investment Perspective and Defense Procurement 164
The Investment Perspective and Homeland Security 165

CASE STUDY 5.3: Improving Commercial Passenger

Airliner Security 166
Defense, Homeland Security, and the Promotion of Civil Rights 169
Lessons for Public Policy 170
CHAPTER SUMMARY 171
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 172
KEY TERMS 172
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 172
WEBSITES 173
FOR DISCUSSION 173

CH A P T ER 6 PUBLIC SCHOOLING 174

Overview 175
An Introduction to Public Schooling 176

CASE STUDY 6.1: Encouraging Students to Be Creative Thinkers 177

Traditional Functions of Schooling 179
Caring for Children 179
Socializing Children 179
Providing Enculturation for Children 179
Sorting Children and Preparing Them for the Workforce 180
Why Governments Get Involved in Schooling 180
Promoting Positive Externalities 181
Advancing Social Justice 181
Promoting Consistent Educational Practices 181
Traditional Policy Approaches 182
State and Local Government Authority 182
Public Support for Private Schools 183

xiv CONTENTS
 Contemporary Policy Issues 183
Political Control of Public Schooling 184
Religion and Public Schools 184
Student Academic Performance 185

IN FOCUS 6.1: Student Performance in the United States—A Comparative

Assessment 186
New Accountability Systems for Schools 188
School Choice and Charter Schools 189
Improving Teacher Quality 189

CASE STUDY 6.2: Charter Schools and Improvements in Teaching Practice 190
Making Effective Use of Information Technology 192
Public Schools in a Federal System 193
Public Schools and the Investment Perspective 194
Studies at the Country Level 195
Studies of Specific Policy Actions 196

CASE STUDY 6.3: Class Size and Student Achievement 196

Options for Improving School Performance 199
Public Schooling and the Pursuit of Civil Rights 200
The Future of Public Schooling 202
Lessons for Public Policy 203
CHAPTER SUMMARY 204
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 205
KEY TERMS 206
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 206
WEBSITES 207
FOR DISCUSSION 207

CH A P T ER 7 HEALTH CARE 208

Overview 209
An Introduction to Health Care 210

CASE STUDY 7.1: Using Taxes to Reduce Sugar Consumption 211

Why Governments Get Involved in Health Care 212
Preventing the Spread of Disease 213
Managing Complexity 214
Making Health Care Affordable 214
Aligning Incentives 215

CONTENTS xv
 International Perspectives on Health Care Provision: Expenditures
and Outcomes 215
Expenditures and Life Expectancies 216
Nonmedical Determinants of Health 216
Health Differences within the United States 218
Funding Health Care: Comparing Single- and Multi-Payer Systems 219
Traditional Policy Approaches in the United States 221
The Historical Backdrop 221
Key Moments in Health Care Policy Development 221

IN FOCUS 7.1: Features and Impacts of Medicare

and Medicaid 222
Contemporary Policy Issues 223
Expanding Health Insurance Coverage 223

IN FOCUS 7.2: Features and Impacts of the Affordable

Care Act 2010 225
A Stable, Evolving System 226
High Costs 226
Coverage Gaps 227
Quality of Care 227
Health Care and Federal Systems of Government 228

CASE STUDY 7.2: State and Local Efforts to Reduce

Cigarette Smoking 229
Health Care and the Investment Perspective 232
Long-Term Benefits of Health Care Spending 232
Getting Better Outcomes at Lower Cost 233

CASE STUDY 7.3: Workplace Wellness Programs 234

Health Care and the Promotion of Civil Rights 237
The Future of Health Care 239
Information Technology and the Patient 239
Information Technology and Hospital Systems 240
Lessons for Public Policy 241
CHAPTER SUMMARY 242
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 243
KEY TERMS 243
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 243
WEBSITES 244
FOR DISCUSSION 244

xvi CONTENTS
CH A P T ER 8 POVERTY ALLEVIATION 246
Overview 247
Definitions of Poverty 248
Absolute Poverty versus Relative Poverty 249
The Psychology of Poverty 250
The Official Definition of Poverty in the United States 251

IN FOCUS 8.1: Patterns of Poverty in the United States 253

Common Causes of Poverty 255
Economic Conditions 256
Immigration 257
Lack of Education and Training 257
Health Problems and Physical and Mental Disabilities 258
Family Circumstances 259
Employment Discrimination 259
The Problem of a “Culture of Poverty” 260

CASE STUDY 8.1: Good Intentions, Challenging Circumstances, and Poverty 260
Why Governments Get Involved in Poverty Alleviation 262
Maintaining Public Order 262
Promoting Social Equity and Human Flourishing 263
Supporting Economic Growth 264
Traditional Policy Approaches to Poverty Alleviation 264
Legacies of the New Deal 265
The War on Poverty 266
An Emphasis on Personal Responsibility 266
Social Insurance versus Means-Tested Cash Transfers 267

IN FOCUS 8.2: The Financial Structure of Social Security 267

Federalism and Poverty Alleviation 269
Contemporary Policy Issues 270
Government Budget Stress 270
Job Skills in a Knowledge Economy 271
Making Work Pay 272
Poverty Alleviation and the Investment Perspective 273

IN FOCUS 8.3: From Data Analysis to Targeted Interventions in

Newzealand 274
CASE STUDY 8.2: Welfare to Work Programs 276
Poverty Alleviation and the Promotion of Civil Rights 279
Lessons for Public Policy 280

CONTENTS xvii
 CHAPTER SUMMARY 281
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 282
KEY TERMS 283
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 283
WEBSITES 284
FOR DISCUSSION 284

CH A P T ER 9 CRIMINAL JUSTICE 286

Overview 287
An Introduction to Criminal Justice 288
The U.S. Prison Population in Comparative Perspective 289

CASE STUDY 9.1: Prisoner Abuse in New York’s Attica

Correctional Facility 291
The Public Problem 292
Establishing and Maintaining Social Order 293
Balancing Punishment and Rehabilitation 293
Traditional Policy Approaches 294
Early Forms of Punishment in the United States 294
From Corporal Punishment to Lengthy Prison Terms 294
Establishing Humane Prisons 295

CASE STUDY 9.2: Preparing Prisoners for Effective Release and Social
Integration 295
Criminal Justice in a Federal System 297
Evolving Definitions of Criminal Behavior 298
Contemporary Policy Issues 299
The Prison Population 299
Sentencing Reform 301
The Death Penalty 303
Private Prisons 306
Criminal Justice and the Investment Perspective 306
The Investment Perspective in the State of Washington 307
The Justice Reinvestment Movement 308
Justice Reinvestment in Michigan 310

CASE STUDY 9.3: Improving Probation and Parole Supervision 311

Criminal Justice and the Pursuit of Civil Rights 315
Evolving Practices in Criminal Justice 317
Lessons for Public Policy 318

xviii CONTENTS
 CHAPTER SUMMARY 319
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 320
KEY TERMS 321
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 321
WEBSITES 321
FOR DISCUSSION 322

CH A P T ER 10 SCIENCE FUNDING 324

Overview 325
An Introduction to Science Funding 326
Why Governments Get Involved in Science Funding 327
Scientific Research as a Public Good 327
Pure and Applied Science 327
Science Funding 328

CASE STUDY 10.1: Bell Laboratories and Private

Science Funding 328
Actions to Guide Good Funding Choices 330
Science Funding In Federal Systems of Government 330
Traditional Policy Approaches 331
Examples of Private Research Universities 332
The Creation of Land Grants 332
Specific Federal Science Projects 333
Defense and Science Funding 333
Creating Science Funding Institutions 334
Contemporary Policy Issues 335
The Expansion of Public Universities 335
The Linear Model of Science 336

IN FOCUS 10.1: Questioning the Pure Basic Research Model: The

Stokes Concept 337
The Big Science Model 338

CASE STUDY 10.2: The Human Genome Project 338

The Challenge of Short-Term Thinking 340
The Pipeline of Scientific Talent 341
Commercial Application of Scientific Knowledge 341
Science Funding and the Investment Perspective 342
The Appeal of Rational Funding Decisions 342
The Quest to Assess Return on Investment 343

CONTENTS xix
 CASE STUDY 10.3: From Scientific Knowledge to
Technological Innovation 344
Science Funding and the Pursuit of Civil Rights 347
Lessons for Public Policy 348
The Future for Science Funding 349
CHAPTER SUMMARY 351
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 351
KEY TERMS 352
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 352
WEBSITES 353
FOR DISCUSSION 353

CH A P T ER 11 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 354

Overview 355
An Introduction to Environmental Protection 356

CASE STUDY 11.1: Extraction Industries and Environmental Damage 357

Why Governments Get Involved in Environmental Protection 358
The Tragedy of the Commons 358
Global Warming as a Tragedy of the Commons 359

CASE STUDY 11.2: Beijing’s Health-Threatening Air Pollution Problems 360

Public Policy Responses to the Tragedy of the Commons 361
Traditional Policy Approaches to Environmental Protection 363
Nature Conservancy 363
Environmental Regulation 363
Extending the Role of Government 364
Using Incentives to Promote Environmental Protection 364
Environmental Protection and U.S. Public Opinion 365
Environmental Protection in a Federal System of Government 367
The Politics of Environmental Protection 368

IN FOCUS 11.1: The Conference of Parties in Paris (2015) and Its

Aftermath 369
Contemporary Policy Issues 370
Measuring Environmental Impacts 370
Selecting and Implementing Policy Instruments 371
Promoting Environmental Protection 372

CASE STUDY 11.3: Controversy Surrounding Fracking to Release Oil

and Natural Gas 373

xx CONTENTS
 Environmental Protection and the Investment Perspective 375
Investing to Reduce Acid Rain 375
Investing Together to Reduce Harmful Emissions 376

CASE STUDY 11.4: Renewable Electricity Generation 378

Environmental Protection and the Promotion of Civil Rights 382

CASE STUDY 11.5: Environmental Justice and Civil Rights 382

Lessons for Public Policy 384
The Future of Environmental Protection 385
CHAPTER SUMMARY 386
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER CHAPTERS 387
KEY TERMS 387
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 387
WEBSITES 388
FOR DISCUSSION 388

PART III An Agenda for Change

CH A P T ER 12 POLICY LEGACIES 390

Overview 391
The Promise of Public Policy 392
Key Lessons from the Applications Chapters 394
Foresight Matters 394
Public Perceptions Drive Policy Durability 395
Governance Influences Service Performance 396
Government Cannot Do Everything 397
Policy Design Can Encourage Innovation 398
Federalism Encourages Policy Learning 400
Assessing Policy Legacies 400
Understanding Path Dependencies 401
Measuring the Impact of Both Old and New Policies 401
Assessing Implications for Civil Rights 402
Other Considerations 402
Public Policies as Investments 402
Successes of the Investment Perspective 403
Challenges to the Investment Perspective 405
Effective Policy Analysts 407

CONTENTS xxi
 1. Aspire to Create Public Value 407
2. Identify What Works 407
3. Think Like Scientists 408
4. Build Skills in Data Analysis 408
5. Apply Design Thinking 408
6. Practice Political Astuteness 409
7. Tell Good Stories 409
8. Play the Long Game 410
CHAPTER SUMMARY 410
KEY TERMS 411
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 411
WEBSITES 411
FOR DISCUSSION 412

Glossary of Terms 413

Notes 425
Index 445

xxii CONTENTS
PREFACE

I believe we are here on earth to live, grow, and do what we can to

make this world a better place for all people to enjoy freedom.
—Rosa Parks

We live in a world exhibiting wide material differences among people, where the
wealth and life prospects of those in some countries are phenomenal, while others
elsewhere live in extreme poverty with little prospect of change. In this world,
having a sound understanding of public policy is of great value, because the public
policy choices that governments make can have huge consequences for their citi-
zens, both in present times and well into the future.
This text offers a snapshot of current thinking about public policy. The evidence
is grounded in public policy experiences in the United States, but the lessons for policy
practice are universally applicable. The distinguishing contribution of this text is that
it argues throughout that public policies should be treated as investments. Often in
the past they were not, but today, investment models are starting to be used more
systematically to guide government decision making. An opportunity exists to extend
the logic of investment decision making to most government spending choices.
Since its inception, public policy education in the academy has lacked con-
ceptual coherence in how it has introduced students to various substantive public
policy issues. This shortcoming reinforces the view that it is entirely reasonable for
policy making in specific areas to occur without reference to the broader portfo-
lio of governmental interests and activities. Meanwhile, over recent decades, advi-
sors in government have more commonly construed government expenditures as
investments. Reports produced in the United States, the United Kingdom, New
Zealand, Canada, and Australia often now explicitly portray and discuss a range of
public policies as investments.
Treating public policies as investments is implicit in cost-benefit analysis,
which government advisors now use routinely as they seek to clarify the impacts of
policy choices. A key aspect of cost-benefit analysis involves calculating expected
returns on investments. However, although all public finance textbooks and most
public policy textbooks discuss how cost-benefit analysis can be performed, they
rarely include any sustained discussion of public policies as investments.
It would be easy for an exploration of public policies that treats them as in-
vestments to become a narrow, technical exercise. I have avoided that here. While
indicating the tools for treating policies as financial investments and measuring

PREFACE xxiii
 their return on investment, I seek to emphasize the importance of broadening the
investment metaphor. Thus, among other things, I make clear—both in the ongo-
ing text and in numerous case studies—how well-designed public policies can serve
as effective platforms for the further development of programs and practices that,
over time, add high value to citizens’ lives.
In writing this book, I have been well aware of the scholarly tradition to which
I am contributing. Milton Friedman’s Capitalism and Freedom (1962) is recog-
nized as one of the most important books on public policy published in the 20th
century. Ideas in it subsequently influenced reform of public policy in many coun-
tries. Writing from the position of classical liberalism, Friedman put forward three
central propositions:

• First, individual freedom is essential to human creativity and

experimentation.
• Second, economic freedom is the basis of all other forms of individual free-
dom, including political freedom.
• Third, limited, decentralized government is the key to preserving individual
freedoms.

Working from these propositions, Friedman contended that government had a

fundamental role to play in society: “Government is essential both as a forum for
determining the ‘rules of the game’ and as an umpire to interpret and enforce the
rules decided on.”1 According to Friedman, in a free-market, capitalist economy,
government is necessary for defining property rights, maintaining law and order,
and ensuring a stable monetary system. Beyond these mandates, on a case-by-case
basis, government may be necessary for two other reasons:

• First, government may need to exert control when goods or services are most
effectively supplied by one producer.
• Second, government action may be required when the behavior of one indi-
vidual can have implications for another, and where a voluntarily negotiated
resolution is difficult to attain.

Friedman’s propositions remain valid. Nothing in this book contradicts them.

In the decades since he wrote Capitalism and Freedom, there has been a burgeoning
of research concerning the impacts of public policies, and how differences in policy
settings can produce different economic, social, and environmental outcomes.
That research has been produced by scholars around the world, and studies have
explored policy impacts in many jurisdictions.
Looking back 50 years or so, it is noteworthy that many political leaders in
the United States and elsewhere have been motivated by the desire to limit the
role of government in society. Frequently that motivation has come from worries
over how to balance government budgets, rather than by any strict adherence to a

xxiv PREFACE
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Essay on art and
photography
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Essay on art and photography

Author: A. V. Sutton

Release date: August 29, 2023 [eBook #71518]

Language: English

Original publication: Liverpool: Michael James Witty, 1866

Credits: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAY ON

ART AND PHOTOGRAPHY ***
 E S S AY
ON

A R T A N D P H O T O G R A P H Y.

1866.
PRINTED BY
M. J. WHITTY
18 CABLE ST.
LIVERPOOL
 E S S AY

ON

Art and Photography.

BY

A. V. SUTTON.

LIVERPOOL:

MICHAEL JAMES WHITTY.

MDCCCLXVI.
 D e d i c at e d

TO MY

Friends and Patrons.

 INTRODUCTION
The idea that occurred to me in drawing in epitome a history of
the amalgamation of Art and Science, and ultimately induced me to
attempt so hazardous a task, was to enable the public to learn the
true course to be pursued in order to give fresh vigour and impulse
for the revival of Fine Arts, and I have endeavoured to exemplify in a
striking manner, as far as my poor abilities admit, the inestimable
advantage the one confers upon the other, which renders the
combination so essential in advancing and developing a better, truer,
and nobler style of art—a style that I feel assured will distinguish for
ever the present generation. With this view, I have gathered
materials from every common report or otherwise, from personal
acquaintance with some of the most distinguished artists of the day,
and it is with regret that I find how immeasurably incompetent I am to
do justice to a subject so worthy of being treated by greater talents
and accomplishments than are granted to me. In sketching the
various changes Photography has undergone ere it reached the
supremacy it now enjoys, owing—principally to the natural instability
of events—and in the rapid survey to which the limits of the Essay
constrain me, I have been compelled to point out defects “both in the
Art and the Science,” without reserve, but with all due respect to the
opinion of others; but while doing so, I trust that I have rendered
justice also.
As a professional artist, the reader may be led to suppose I write
with bias—not so. I have most cautiously avoided any sentiment that
might be so construed, and beg that judgment may be suspended
until these pages have been perused, the perusal of which, I
sincerely trust, may have the desired effect—not actually resulting in
the revival of Fine Arts—but as an auxiliary for paving the way for
others commanding a greater range of knowledge, who may thereby
be induced to embark in the cause I am humbly seeking to advocate.
Liverpool,
Jany., 1866.
ESSAY.
 ESSAY.
When Photography was first introduced, it met with a severe
struggle ere gaining the esteem it now happily enjoys. Artists of all
grades unanimously condemned it, looking upon it only in the light of
a vehicle that would carry destruction to their own especial pursuits,
while on those who attempted to practice and advance it fell
anathemas and ridicule. So great was professional prejudice, and so
blind in its apprehension, that it dexterously and successfully biased
and enlisted the opinion of the Press in its favour, which echoed the
assertions that, under the most favourable circumstances,
“Photography could only be a caricature of the subject it portrayed.”
Thus was the combination of Art and Science for a time checked in
its progress, and the artists, now exulting in having temporarily
attained their purpose, watched jealously the science of chemistry,
and depreciated as useless any further inquiry that seemed to
encourage or aid Photography.
The great body of the public, as usual in all such cases,
remained neutral, but fortunately, for the advancement of the new
art, there remained a few who were more sanguine than their
cotemporaries, and generously bestowed their sympathy on the
“oppressed.” They saw in Photography, a great science, then but in
its infancy, but which must ultimately compete with the finer arts; its
peculiar adaptation in copying rendering it still more valuable, not
only to artists, in furthering their own success, by securing
truthfulness and accuracy, but likewise in all the various usages to
which it has since been so successfully applied. Too numerous to
attempt to specify here.
At the period we speak of, Photography was entirely confined to
that class of illiterate men who only pursued it to benefit by its
novelty, and like everything new, particularly when added to
cheapness, produced a great amount of bad taste and unpardonable
vulgarity. It is, no doubt, an art which is peculiarly liable to be
perverted to base and immoral uses, but now that better taste
prevails, no such fears need be entertained. All classes of society
have been benefited by Photography; it has been a generous friend
to the poor as well as to the rich, and all must acknowledge its
superior advantages and merits. Not only has it been fostered and
liberally supported by the munificence of kings, but also in the more
humble walks of life has it been welcomed as a benefactor. Its
patrons of all grades have not only derived pleasure from the novelty
of its fascinations, but inexpressible consolation from the souvenirs it
affords of cherished places, and the memory of those loved ones
who may be far away, or sleeping the “sleep of death.”
It would indeed be deplorable if an art so consecrated to all that
is noble, pure, generous and holy, were again to be jeopardised by
the association of bad taste and worse usages. In England we are
fortunately protected from such an evil; but in other countries,
particularly in France, it still exists to an alarming extent, and until the
authorities there adopt the same measure of punishment as with us,
no one can walk the streets without being subjected to some gross
outrage against propriety and moral feeling. Photography, therefore,
has a double claim upon our affections—to preserve it unscathed
and unsullied, when we find it diverted into new channels that may
endanger its purity and legitimate usefulness. An art which assists
the memory and educates the taste is entitled to encouragement, the
more particularly, when by its aid we can recall in privacy the happy
hours suggested by the contemplation of the sure-reflected
lineaments of a doating mother, an affectionate sister, a tender loving
wife, or a fond and innocent child.
One great reason why Photography is so frequently applied to
unworthy purposes is, owing to its cheapness, for, where there is a
supply of anything novel, combined with cheapness, patrons will
present themselves. This is a public weakness which is to be
regretted, for although competition may be consistent with the “spirit
of the age,” it is an unpardonable error when cheapness is resorted
to as a means to success, in place of trying to excel by artistic or
superior merits alone.
In no stage of Photography have we been further advanced and
initiated into the grand applications of its science than by the
introduction of the “paper process;” it presented to the mind of the
photographer a channel for experimentalising and uniting art proper
with his own, for previously the word Art was foreign to the ear of the
professional photographer; all that was deemed essential in the
pursuit was that you should acquire a knowledge how to produce a
photograph free from all the optical and chemical defects. Light was
only studied to secure the image with brilliancy on the plate, of the
subject or object about to be copied. If it came out clear, clean, and
sharp, the operator was delighted with his success—its artistic merits
were never consulted; no question asked whether the face came out
with the rich, soft, rotundity of nature; whether the light and shade
had given tone and gradation, to add harmony to the picture;
whether the line of the head had been carried to prevent
awkwardness to the figure; whether the eyes did not look askance to
the pose of the head; its artistic superiorities, in fact, were never
looked for, which explains why, at that period, photographs were
taken, as a general rule, simply head-bust, most commonly called
vignettes, or as the Americans would term it, ambrotype. Such were
the productions of the “Glass Age.” But from the time the “paper
process” established itself, Photography at once took its place
among the finer arts, and having gained the victory, the artists that
had disdainfully resented its popularity, ventured to advance into the
new field of enterprise, and not only were they delighted in procuring
such an auxiliary, but they laboured in trying to improve the
application of its science to Portraiture. Though painting renders the
chemical result subordinate, and likewise subservient to the skill of
the artist, when removed from the pressure frame to the easel, yet in
no way does it depreciate Photography as an art which is necessary
to assist in securing with unerring accuracy of outline momentary
indications of character, expression of face, and costume, consisting
of numberless and minute details; all of which are at once portrayed
on a tablet of glass reflected through the Camera; and which, if not
satisfactory to the mind of the operator, he may arrange according to
his own artistic taste, judgment and skill, with a view of securing
pictorial effect and individual character.
It would be utterly impossible to estimate the advantages
Photography has conferred upon all mankind, or to anticipate the still
greater wonders it is yet destined to achieve.
Having sketched the early struggles which Photography had to
surmount to claim a high place for its followers, we now proceed to
examine its distinguishing features. In scrutinizing the works of even
the greatest artists of our day, we are sure to find some fault—some
error. Why is it that imperfection should exist even in works of the
highest rank, grand in conception, beautiful in execution, rich in
modulation, truthfulness of outline and form, and harmonious in
colouring? For the simple reason, that true excellence can only be
found in composition pictures where the creative mind of the artist
has been free to labour in accordance with its own poetic fancy, and
when such perfection exists in portraiture without the aid of
Photography, it will indeed be an exception!
When the practical eye of an artist takes up a Work of Art, he at
once recognizes the forte of the genius in some one particularity.
Say for instance one artist may excel in the master-stroke of
execution, and by a few strokes of the brush give much more artistic
and life-like effect than another would by hours of close application
and the minutest finish—the difference between these two artists
being that the one was a true born artist, and the other a lover of the
art—simply one who had acquired its mechanism from untiring study
and practice. We will again find others who excel in the
amalgamation of colours, others for composition, others for
costumes and drapery—others for the delicacy and transparency of
the flesh tones; and we might still further attempt to specify their
various fortes of particular excellence, by dissecting the human
forms and classify them by their technical terms in anatomy. For
instance, I have known artists who have excelled in the execution of
a face, and yet fail in the representation of the hair—all their heads
conveying to the observer an idea that they were wigged! In other
productions we are at once made sensible that the artist has one
ideal for a nose, and if the picture represents innumerable figures,
they are all possessed of the same type of nasal organ! In others
again, we find the artist manifest in some peculiarity in the eye or in
the mouth; but it is not any of these artistic individualities we ask for
when we are desirous of possessing a faithful likeness of some
loved one, nor do we care to find as we scan their well-remembered
features, the artist’s ideal of a nose, an eye, a mouth, a chin, or
some other member, in place of its, perhaps, more homely
characteristic. In nature we are daily witnessing how the various
types of features, at once the most classic and homely—highest and
lowest, come to mingle so congruously in one face, but such as
nature has thought fit to endow us, such do we want to be faithfully
and accurately delineated, and if such combination of distinctive
specialities of art are required for portraiture, which is rarely, if ever,
found individually, then how inestimable is the aid of Photography!
Many are under the impression that its process exaggerates to such
an extent that the object or subject reproduced is figuratively
distorted, which constituted the opprobium attached to its
productions. This is a mistake. If the operator uses a first-class
instrument, and sufficiently large to secure the same perfect
definition at the extreme margin of the plates as in the centre, and
regulated by the diaphragm with space sufficient for the required
length of focus, no aberation or distortion will be visible. But if a
questionable lens is used, and the aperture too small for the flatness
of “field” required, then the whole model will be more or less
distorted; its receding lines obtruding as to become perfectly blurred
and indistinct; the shadows black, without detail, and the lights hard
and flat. But let it be remembered that this Essay is entirely confined
to the aspirants to Art in its higher branches. Photography in the
hands of a lover of its art, initiated in the theory and practical
knowledge of its science, would not waste valuable time in the
production of such enormities. We have, therefore, only to deal with
its advantages in its higher order of execution; or if we deviate a
while from our theory, it is but to confirm our arguments, and give the
reader an opportunity to discriminate for himself between the two.
But to return to the fallacy of portraiture being confined to the
erroneous pencil of the deceitful imagination of an artist possessing
one or more only of those capabilities essential to the production of