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 CHAPTER 6

EXPERIMENTATION AND CAUSAL RESEARCH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the concept of causality as defined in marketing research and distinguish between
the ordinary meaning and the scientific meaning of causality.
2. Discuss the conditions for causality, and whether a causal relationship can be
demonstrated conclusively.
3. Define and differentiate the two types of validity: internal validity and external validity.
4. Describe and evaluate experimental designs and the differences among pre-experimental,
true experimental, and statistical designs.
5. Compare and contrast the use of laboratory versus field experimentation and
experimental versus non-experimental designs in marketing research.
6. Understand why the internal and external validity of field experiments conducted
overseas is generally lower than in the United States.
7. Describe how social media facilitate causal research.
8. Describe the ethical issues involved in conducting causal research and the role of
debriefing in addressing some of these issues.

AUTHOR'S NOTES: CHAPTER FOCUS

This chapter provides an overview of causal research and experimentation. The concept
of causality and the conditions for causality are described. Internal and external validity in
experimentation are discussed in detail. A classification of experimental designs is presented
and pre-experimental, true experimental, quasi-experimental, and statistical designs are
described. Comparisons between laboratory versus field experiments, and experimental versus
nonexperimental designs are made. Test marketing is presented as an application of
experimental designs. This chapter covers the material on causal research contained in
competing texts; yet, the treatment of experimentation is more extensive than that found in
competing texts.
This chapter could be taught by focusing on the Learning Objectives sequentially. Greater
emphasis could be placed on the concept and conditions for causality (Learning Objectives 1 and
2), internal and external validity (Learning Objective3), and the various types of experimental
designs (Learning Objective 4). However, statistical designs may not be covered in detail.
Conducting experiments internationally (Learning Objective 6), social media (Learning
Objective 7), ethical issues (Learning Objective 8), and use of the Internet should be discussed.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

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 1. Overview
2. Concept of Causality
3. Conditions for Causality
i. Concomitant Variation
ii. Time Order of Occurrence of Variables
iii. Absence of Other Possible Causal Factors
iv. Role of Evidence
4. What is Experimentation?
5. Definition and Concepts
6. Definition of Symbols
7. Validity in Experimentation
i. Internal Validity
ii. External Validity
8. Controlling Extraneous Variables
9. A Classification of Experimental Designs
10. Pre-experimental Designs
i. One-Shot Case Study
ii. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
iii. Static Group
11. True Experimental Designs
i. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
ii. Posttest-Only Control Group Design
12. Statistical Designs
i. Factorial Design
13. Selecting an Experimental Design
14. Experimentation on the Web
15. Experimental versus Nonexperimental Designs
16. Limitations of Experimentation
i. Time
ii. Cost
iii. Administration
17. Application: Test Marketing
18. International Marketing Research
19. Marketing Research and Social Media
20. Ethics in Marketing Research
21. Summary
22. Key Terms and Concepts
23.

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
Learning Objective 1

* Discuss the concept of causality as used in marketing.

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 You may want to begin the class by asking a few students what the term ‘causality’ means
and writing components of their definitions on the board. Afterwards, be sure to stress to the
students that marketing effects are caused by multiple variables and the relationships tend to be
probabilistic. As such, it is not possible to conclusively prove causality. Thus, we can only infer
a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.

* Review the key definitions related to experimentation.

1. Independent variable: variables or alternatives that are manipulated and whose effects are
measured and compared, such as price levels, different package designs, and advertising
themes.
2. Test units: individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to the independent
variables or treatments is being examined, such as consumers, stores, and geographic areas.
3. Dependent variables: variables that measure the effect of the independent variables on the
test units, such as sales, profits, and market shares.
4. Extraneous variables: all the variables other than the independent variables or treatments
that affect the response of the test units to the treatments, such as store size, store location,
and competitive effort.
5. Experiment: the process of manipulating one or more independent variables to determine
their effect on the dependent variable, controlling for the effect of extraneous factors.
6. Experimental design: a set of procedures specifying (1) the test units and how these units
are to be divided into homogeneous sub-samples; (2) independent variables or treatments
that are to be manipulated; (3) dependent variables are to be measured; and (4) how the
extraneous variables are to be dealt with.

Learning Objective 2

* Via an example, explain the three necessary conditions to infer causality.

1. Concomitant variation: is the extent to which a cause, X, and an effect, Y, occur together
or vary together in the way predicted by the hypothesis under consideration. Evidence
pertaining to concomitant variation can be obtained in a qualitative or quantitative manner.
Thus, we may hypothesize that increasing product price will lead to an increase in profits.
2. Time order of occurrence of variables: the causing event must occur either before or
simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur afterwards. Thus, our profits cannot increase
until after we increase the price.
3. Absence of other possible causal factors: means that we can infer causality if all other
factors affecting the subject are absent, i.e., these factors are held constant. Thus, other
factors like store penetration, expanded consumer spending, or decreased costs must be held
constant.

Learning Objective 3

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 * Define validity and describe the difference between internal and external
validity.
Start by defining validity, in an experimental setting, as the ability to draw appropriate
conclusions about the effects of independent variables and to make reasonable generalizations to
a larger population of interest. With this definition, we can distinguish internal and external
validity. Internal validity examines whether the manipulation of the independent variables or
treatments actually caused the effects on the dependent variables, while external validity
examines whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the experiment can be generalized.
Because of the conceptual difficulty in understanding validity, some examples that depict
a research design lacking one of the two types of validity would be instructive. For example, if
we hypothesize that selling through national chains will increase profits, we must hold all other
causes of increased profits constant in order to conclude internal validity. External validity can
be seen in a study that randomly selects stores from all markets in which a national chain
operates. Assuming that the study takes into account all realistic factors, any findings that hold
for all these markets will generalize to all stores in the national chain.

Learning Objective 4

* Introduce the symbolic notation used in marketing research.

1. X = the exposure of a group to an independent variable or
treatment or event, the effects of which are to be
determined
2. O = the process of observation or measurement of the
dependent variable on the test units or group of units
3. R = the random assignment of test units or groups to
separate treatments

The following conventions are associated with the symbols:

1. Movement from left to right indicates movement through time.
2. Horizontal alignment of symbols implies that all those symbols refer to a specific
treatment group.
3. Vertical alignment of symbols implies that those symbols refer to activities or events that
occur simultaneously.
Thus, the first example in the text, X O1 O2, indicates a treatment was given to a
sample and measurements at two different points in time were made.

* Discuss the differences in the types of experimental designs.

1. Pre-experimental Designs: do not apply randomization, thus, they can be influenced by
extraneous factors.

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2. True Experimental Designs: randomization is included, thus, allowing researchers to
randomly assign test units and treatments to experimental groups.
3. Quasi Experimental Designs: lacks control over the scheduling of treatments and the
ability to randomly expose test units to treatments.
4. Statistical Designs: a series of several basic experiments that are conducted
simultaneously. These designs suffer from the same shortcomings as the actual designs
of the basic experiments.

Figure 6.5 can be used here to organize your discussion on experimental designs.

* Describe pre-experimental designs and their shortcomings.

Note that pre-experimental designs include the one-shot case study, the one-group
pretest-posttest design, and the static group design. Stress that the salient feature of these
designs is that they do not employ randomization procedures to control for extraneous factors.
For example, in the one-group pretest-posttest design, an observation on attitudes toward the
brand is taken before and after watching a commercial, but randomization is not used in selecting
observers; thus, the results cannot be extended to the population as a whole.

* List the significant features of a true experimental design and provide

examples.
First, to introduce the ensuing discussion, distinguish true experimental designs by the
fact that the researcher can randomly assign test units to experimental groups and also randomly
assign treatments to experimental groups.

Examples of True Experimental Designs:

1. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design: this design controls for most of the
extraneous variables. Selection bias is eliminated by randomization, and interactive
testing effect is not controlled due to the effect of the pretest measurement on the
reaction of units in the experimental group to the treatment.
2. Posttest-Only Control Group Design: compared to the Solomon four-group
design, this design is fairly simple to implement because there is no premeasurement,
thus, the testing effects are eliminated. However, this design is sensitive to selection
bias and mortality.
It will prove instructive to use a running example in explaining these designs. A standard
example is to use advertising research in the measurement of consumer attitudes toward a
commercial or the brand being advertised.

* Explain the nature and uses of statistical designs.

Describe statistical designs as a series of basic experiments that enable statistical control
and analysis of external variables; thus several basic experiments are conducted simultaneously.

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 Advantages:
1. The effects of more than one independent variable can be measured.
2. Specific extraneous variables can be statistically controlled.
3. Economical designs can be formulated when each test unit is measured more
than once.

Examples of a Factorial design can be constructed for demonstration purposes. See Table
6.1

Learning Objective 5

* Start a class discussion on whether laboratory or field experiments are

more useful in marketing research.
Begin this discussion by simply asking students which form of experimentation is better.
You may want to note that laboratory experiments make up the bulk of consumer research
because of their ability to control extraneous variables and their relative efficiency in gathering
data. However, for certain studies, field experiments are used. For example, Coca-Cola counts
the shelf space it and its competitors receive in local grocery stores when promotional variables
are manipulated. Thus, each type of experimentation has its role to play in marketing research,
but because causality cannot be inferred from field experiments, laboratory experiments
predominate.

* Discuss why nonexperimental designs are limited for inferring cause-

effect relationships.

Mention that descriptive studies are sometimes used to infer causality, but this may not
be appropriate. In descriptive studies, prior equivalence of the groups with respect to both the
independent and dependent variables is difficult to establish, as is time order of occurrence of the
variables. Finally, it offers little control in eliminating other extraneous factors.

* Discuss the limitations of experimentation.

Start by asserting that theoretically, experimentation is a very powerful way to uncover
causal relationships. However, in practice, real world considerations prevent it from achieving
its optimal effectiveness. These considerations are:

1. Time: experiments can be time consuming; however, the experiments should be

long enough in duration so that the post-treatment measurements include most, or all
of the effects of the variables.
2. Cost: the requirements of experimental group, control group, and multiple
measurements significantly add to the cost of the experiment.

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 3. Administration: experiments can be difficult to administer, and it is not always
feasible to control for the effects of the extraneous variables.

Learning Objective 6

* Examine the difficulties involved with international experiments.

It is difficult to control for the time order of occurrence of variables and it is difficult to
control for the absence of other possible causal factors, two of the necessary conditions for
causality in an experiment.
• Control of extraneous variables is particularly problematic.
• It may not be possible to address this problem by adopting the most appropriate
experimental design, as environmental constraints may make that design infeasible.
• The internal and external validity of field experiments conducted overseas is
generally lower than in the United States.

EXAMPLE: M&M/Mars has set up massive manufacturing facilities in Russia and

advertises its candy bars on television. Yet, sales have been low. Is Mars advertising too much,
too little, or just right? While the answer could be determined by conducting a field experiment
that manipulated the level of television advertising, such causal research is not feasible given the
tight control of television programming and advertising by the Russian government. TV stations
are owned and operated by the government with severe restrictions on television advertising.
This makes field experiments manipulating advertising levels extremely difficult.

Learning Objective 7

* Describe how social media is facilitating experimentation.

Virtual Reality (VR) is a real-time, 3D environment made to represent either reality or an
environment out of someone's imagination. These environments are created by high-powered
computer systems. As with many of the technological innovations used in marketing research,
VR was not developed specifically with research in mind, but VR is finding its way into the field
of marketing research nonetheless and holds great promise for conducting causal research.
Using VR, the researcher can create an environment that represents the field (marketplace) and
yet exercise the degree of control possible only in a laboratory setting.
In virtual worlds, one can use Second Life (www.secondlife.com) as a tool to conduct
standard marketing research projects at a lower cost. Incentives in the form of Linden dollars can
be given to gain residents’ cooperation and improve response rates. The researcher can also give
nonmonetary incentives such as free virtual products and services like clothing or scripts that add
certain features to avatars. However, opinions, tastes, and preferences in virtual worlds may not
be the same as in a real setting. Therefore, each new idea generated within virtual worlds needs
to be subject to a thorough reality test before actually being implemented.
All of the experimental designs that we have discussed in this chapter can also be
implemented within the context of the real social world. As compared to the field,

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experimentation in social media offers the advantages of ease of implementation and lower cost.
The internal validity may be satisfactory in most cases as extraneous variables can generally be
controlled. However, external validity will not be as high as that of field experiments.

Learning Objective 8

* Discuss the ethical responsibilities resulting from disguised experiments.

It is often necessary in experimentation to disguise the purpose of the research to produce
valid results. Disguising the purpose of the research should not lead to deception, however.
Although this seems like a paradox, one solution would be to disclose the possible existence of
deception before the start of the experiment and allow the participants the right to redress at the
conclusion of the experiment. The following four items should be conveyed: (1) inform
respondents that in an experiment of this nature a disguise of the purpose is often required for
valid results, (2) inform them of the general nature of the experiment and what they will be asked
to do, (3) make sure they know that they can leave the experiment at any time, and (4) inform
them that the study will be fully explained after the data have been gathered and at that time they
may request that their information be withdrawn. The procedure outlined in item (4) is called
debriefing.
One further ethical concern in experimentation involves using the appropriate experimental
design to control errors caused by extraneous variables. It is the responsibility of the researcher
to use the most applicable experimental design for the problem. Determining the most
appropriate experimental design for the problem requires not only an initial evaluation but also
continuous monitoring.

Internet Emphasis

* Indicate that the Internet and computers are helpful in the analysis of
experimental design data.

Different experimental treatments can be displayed at different Web sites. Respondents

can then be recruited to visit these sites and respond to a questionnaire that obtains information
on the dependent and extraneous variables. Thus, the Internet can provide a mechanism for
controlled experimentation, although in a laboratory type of environment.
To complement the Internet, microcomputers and mainframe software can be used in the
design and analysis of experiments. The comprehensive statistical-analysis software package
Minitab can be used to design experiments. Although similar in use to, SPSS or SAS, Minitab
includes functions and documentation specifically for industrial quality control work where
factorial designs are encountered.

iRESEARCH

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It should be noted that a variety of answers are appropriate. The ones given here are merely illustrative.

iResearch: FTC:
To ensure the smooth operation of our free market system, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
enforces federal consumer protection laws that prevent fraud, deception and unfair business practices.
The Commission also enforces federal antitrust laws that prohibit anticompetitive mergers and other
business practices that restrict competition and harm consumers. Whether combating telemarketing
fraud, Internet scams or price-fixing schemes, the FTC’s primary mission is to protect consumers.
- Information overflow; difficult for customers to differentiate noise and useful information
- Information flow cannot be controlled or traced. This can lead to misrepresentation of
information, fraud etc.
- Dumping of products especially from foreign countries (web based selling of drugs by Canadian
and Indian companies)
- Increased possibility of collusion between companies

The conditions necessary to conclude such causality are:

1. Concomitant variation - the information available has increased with increased consumer use.

2. Time Order - increased information lags or concurs with increased information use.
3. Absence of other possible causes

iResearch: Fox News

Information on consumers’ preferences for network news channels can be obtained from sources such as
http://www.rateitall.com/t-8-tv_news_shows.aspx.
A preexperimental design would not be appropriate as there are three experimental groups. A statistical
design is called for.

The popularity ratings for channels can be used to assess the attributes that audiences look for in
Network News Channels.
Based on experimentation, causality can be assigned to factors that make the news more attractive.
Improve the attributes preferred by audience.
Convey the change in form and content to audience through appropriate PR and Advertising channels.

iResearch: Canon
1. Students should be encouraged to visit www.bestbuys.com and identify the relevant
information.
2. Students should be encouraged to search the Internet and identify the relevant
information on consumers’ price sensitivity for digital cameras.
3. A factorial design is appropriate. The price of digital cameras could be varied and
consumers’ willingness to buy measured. It would be important to control for income
and digital camera usage.
4. It is likely that the market is segmented with respect to price sensitivity. Different prices
can be charged to the different segments with some differentiation in the cameras offered.

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DECISION RESEARCH SCENARIO:
Levi’'s: Fading Jeans and Market Share
The Situation
Levi’'s has a long history, with over 150 years in the clothing business. Although one might
think that this long history can only result in good things, Levi’'s heritage has been its worst
enemy. Chip Bergh, president and CEO for Levi Strauss & Company, had to work to revamp
Levi’'s antique image and make the brand appealing to younger generations in an efforts to boost
its declining sales. In the last few years, Bergh saw worldwide sales drop 40 percent, and the
company losing market share to the Gap, Calvin Klein, Tommy Hilfiger, and Diesel. Another
problem for Bergh was store-brand jeans, such as JCPenney’s Arizona brand jeans, and the
Gap’s in-house brand, which have changed their image and launched an assault on big brand-
name jeans like Levi’'s. These store-brand jeans, along with other store-label jeans, now target
the teenage market with "cutting- edge" advertising. American trade publication Brand Strategy
estimated that the Levi’'s brand lost about 50 percent of the younger consumer market share
worldwide in the early 2000s.
To compete with these brands and maintain leadership, Levi’'s, the market leader, is considering
introducing its own line of private-label jeans to capture a larger portion of the teenage market.
Bergh wonders how powerful a national brand like Levi’'s is when compared to an in-house
brand such as the Gap or a store brand such as JCPenney’s Arizona jeans.

The Marketing Research Decision

1. If you were Chip Bergh, what type of research would you want to be conducted to help
arrive at an answer? Which one of the following types of research would be most appropriate?
a. Secondary data analysis
b. Focus groups
c. Descriptive cross-sectional survey
d. Descriptive longitudinal survey
e. Causal research
2. Explain how you would implement the type of research you have recommended.
3. Discuss the role of the type of research you recommend in enabling Chip Bergh to
determine the power of a national brand like Levi’'s compared to an in-house brand like the Gap
or a store brand like JCPenney’s Arizona jeans.

The Marketing Management Decision

1. What should Chip Bergh do to compete with in-house and store- brands of jeans?
a. Discount the price of Levi’'s.
b. Introduce a new brand of lower-priced jeans.
c. Sell Levi’'s through discount stores, such as Wal-Mart and Target.
d. Increase the advertising budget for Levi’'s.
e. Aggressively sell Levi’'s over the Internet.
2. Discuss how the marketing -management decision action that you recommend to Chip
Bergh is influenced by the research that you suggested earlier and by the findings of that
research.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 114

What Chip Bergh Did
Chip Bergh introduced a new line of cheaper jeans and clothing to mark Levi’s first foray into
the discount market. The new Signature brand was made available through Wal-Mart stores in
the United States and is a key feature in Levi’'s drive to reverse years of declining market share.

DECISION RESEARCH ANSWERS

It should be noted that a variety of answers are appropriate. The ones given here are merely illustrative.

The Marketing Research Decision

1. A, B & E

2. A lot of secondary data about apparel industry is available from online as well as traditional
third party databases. This can be used initially to gather information about the success of
private labels and in-house brands. The focus groups are helpful in gaining further
understanding of the conclusions drawn from the analysis of secondary data, understanding
consumer priorities, perceptions and preferences. The specific causal design that is
recommended is a factorial design. The factor, brand name can be varied at three levels:
Levi’s, Gap, and Arizona. Respondents can be randomly assigned to one of these brands and
asked to express preference for the brand rate its power. Current usage of these brands
should be controlled.

3. The causal design, as specified, will provide a direct relative measure of the power of the
three brands when the mean levels are compared.

The Marketing Management Decision

1. B and C

2. Comparing the prices, it appears to be one of the reasons why Levi’s is losing the battle for
market share. It would be a good idea to launch a cheaper line of jeans to appeal to the cost
conscious market segment. To reach the new target segment, the company would want to
increase advertising spend in targeted marketing efforts. The new line of jeans should be
distributed through different channels than that of the existing high priced segment. This will
ensure the necessary reach.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
6-1. There are three requirements or conditions that must be satisfied before a causal
relationship can be inferred. The three conditions are:
1. Concomitant variation of the two variables
2. Time order of occurrence of variables

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 3. Elimination of other possible causal factors

6-2. The difference between internal and external validity is that internal validity is concerned
with the question of whether the observed effects on the dependent variable have been
caused by variables other than the treatment, and control of extraneous variables is
necessary for establishing internal validity. External validity, on the other hand, is
concerned with whether the cause-effect relationship can be generalized. More often
than not a tradeoff is required between internal and external validity. While internal
validity can be increased in an artificial environment, this reduces the generalizability of
the results and consequently, the external validity.

6-3. The main method for controlling extraneous sources of variation is randomization. This
involves randomly assigning test-units to experimental groups by using random numbers.
Treatment levels are also randomly assigned. Such random assignment usually results in
an equal representation of extraneous variables in each treatment condition.

6-4. The distinguishing feature of the true experimental design, as compared to the pre-
experimental design, is randomization. In true experimental designs, the researcher can
randomly assign test units to experimental groups and also randomly assign treatments to
experimental groups.

6-5. The steps involved in implementing the posttest-only control group design are:
1. Select a sample of respondents at random.
2. Randomly assign the respondents to two groups (i.e. experimental group and control
group).
3. Respondents in the experimental group would then be exposed to a treatment.
4. Post-treatment measurements are obtained from both groups using a measuring
instrument like a questionnaire.

The design is described symbolically as follows:

EG: R X 01
CG: R 02

Treatment effect is given by:

TE = 01 – 02

6-6. The advantages statistical designs have over basic designs are:
a. In the case of basic designs, the effects of only one independent variable or treatment
can be measured, while in case of a statistical design, the effects of more than one
independent variable can be measured.
b. In the case of statistical designs, specific extraneous variables can be statistically
controlled.
c. Economical designs can be formulated when each test unit is measured more than
once.

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6-7. A laboratory experiment is one where the researcher creates an artificial environment for
the purpose of experiment; thus, he has a great degree of control over extraneous
variables. On the other hand, a field environment is one where the experiment is
conducted under actual conditions.
Laboratory experiments have some advantages and some disadvantages vis-à-vis field
experiments. The advantages are that there is a greater control over extraneous variables,
internal validity is high, and time required is short. It is also economical. The
disadvantages are that the environment is artificial and external validity is low.
Therefore, the results cannot be safely generalized. Also, the reactive error is high due to
artificiality of the environment, which may cause the respondent to react to the situation
itself, rather than to the independent variable.

6-8. Descriptive research should not be used for establishing causal relationships for the
following reasons:
(a) It is difficult to establish the prior equivalence of the groups with respect to both the
independent and dependent variables in descriptive research.
(b) It is difficult to establish time order of occurrence.
(c) It provides little control in eliminating other possible causes.

6-9. Test marketing is an application of a controlled experiment done in a limited but carefully
selected part of the marketplace called test markets. It involves a replication of a planned
national marketing program for a product in the test markets. The three types of test
markets are:
1. Standard test market: The product is sold through regular distribution channels and,
typically, the company's own salesforce is responsible for distributing the product. It
involves a one-shot case study.
2. Controlled test market: The entire test marketing program is conducted by an
outside research company, which also handles distribution and field sales operations
in the test market.
3. Simulated test market: These are also called laboratory tests and yield mathematical
estimates of market share based on initial reaction of consumers to the new product.

6-10. In virtual worlds, one can use Second Life (www.secondlife.com) as a tool to conduct
standard marketing research projects at a lower cost. Incentives in the form of Linden
dollars can be given to gain residents’ cooperation and improve response rates. The
researcher can also give nonmonetary incentives such as free virtual products and
services like clothing or scripts that add certain features to avatars. However, opinions,
tastes, and preferences in virtual worlds may not be the same as in a real setting.
Therefore, each new idea generated within virtual worlds needs to be subject to a
thorough reality test before actually being implemented.
All of the experimental designs that we have discussed in this chapter can also be
implemented within the context of the real social world. As compared to the field,
experimentation in social media offers the advantages of ease of implementation and
lower cost. The internal validity may be satisfactory in most cases as extraneous variables
can generally be controlled. However, external validity will not be as high as that of field
experiments.

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APPLIED PROBLEMS
6-11. a. Independent Variable - The commercial
Dependent Variable - Attitude towards abortion
b. Posttest-only control group design
c. External validity may be affected because this was a lab experiment, not an actual
field experiment, thus, the results may not be generalizable to those obtained
when the commercial is actually viewed in home.

6-12. If the respondents had been selected by convenience, a static group design would result.

6-13. a. This is an example of the one-shot case study. The internal validity is threatened
by history, maturation, selection, and mortality.
b. This is an example of the posttest-only control group design. Internal validity is
not hampered by extraneous variables.

6-14. Many answers are possible for each design. One solution is provided as an example.
a. Measuring the attitude towards a new advertisement or new product
b. Evaluating the effectiveness of a change in a product attribute or the effectiveness
of a new marketing program when time and cost are not major considerations
c. Evaluating the attitude toward a new advertisement or product when time and cost
are not significant factors, forcing researchers to reduce sample size, quickly
determine results, and/or keep costs down
d. A new advertising program is being initiated which must be evaluated to
determine its effectiveness. The goal is to determine which of the three
commercials is most effective in generating sales.

INTERNET EXERCISES
6-15. Computer controlled experiments are becoming increasingly popular in marketing
research. They ensure that proper technique is followed when conducting an experiment.
As such, the validity of the results is improved.

6-16. Several of the designs can be implemented. A two factor design, where factor one
denotes the value of coupon (none, low, medium, and high), and factor two denotes
product use (none, low, medium, and high), seems to be very appropriate. Students
should select a specific product and also define the levels (low, medium, and high) for
each factor.

6-17. The existing and the three new packages can be displayed, one at each specific location
on the Internet. Respondents can be recruited and randomly assigned to each package
location (URL), asked to view the package and answer several attitudinal and behavioral

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 118

 intent questions. The package with the most favorable attitude and/or the highest
behavioral intent can then be identified.

6-18. The previous (existing) and the new version of EXCEL can be made available, one at
each specific location on the Internet. Respondents can be recruited and randomly
assigned to each EXCEL version, and then asked to do a specific task using that version.
Then they answer several questions relating to ease of use, performance, features, and
overall preference. The most favorable version can then be identified.

6-19. Respondents would be randomly recruited and randomly assigned to one of two Internet
locations (URLs). The experimental group of respondents would first see the print ad for
Toyota Camry and then respond to a battery of attitudinal and behavioral intent questions.
The control group respondents would not see the print ad but respond to the same battery
of attitudinal and behavioral intent questions. The effectiveness of the print ad can be
determined by comparing the responses of the two groups.

ROLE PLAYING
Q1. You are a marketing research manager for the Coca-Cola Company. The company would
like to determine whether it should increase, decrease, or maintain the current level of
advertising dollars spent on the Coca-Cola brand. Design a field experiment to address
this issue.

A1. One of several designs can be used for this field experiment. A pretest-posttest control
group design is outlined below:
(a) Select three sets of test markets with similar demographic profiles, competitive
environments and sales volume of Coke Classic.
(b) Randomly increase ad budgets in one set of markets, decrease them in a second set and
maintain them in the third set of markets.
(c) Track sales volumes for three months in each set of markets.
(d) Analyze the sales results to determine differences in performance.

Q2. What potential difficulties do you see in conducting the experiment just described? What
assistance would you require from the Coca-Cola management to overcome these
difficulties?

A2. Potential difficulties include access to sales data, selecting three similar markets to test,
changing competitive dynamics and objections from bottlers in the test market where ad
expenditures will decrease.

Management can assist by ensuring corporate compliance for gathering data, allocating
the necessary funds, pacifying affected bottlers.

FIELD WORK

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 119

Q1. Select two different perfume advertisements for any brand of perfume. Design and
conduct an experiment to determine which ad is more effective. Use a student sample
with ten10 students being exposed to each ad (treatment condition). Develop your own
measures of advertising effectiveness in this context.

A1. The purpose of this exercise is to have the student actually design and conduct a simple
experiment in order to apply the material discussed in the chapter. They should also gain
an appreciation for the rigor of statistical testing and the assumptions a researcher must
make when conducting an experiment. Because quantitative analysis has not been
covered in the text so far, it should be interesting to see what measures students devise to
measure the advertising effectiveness. Whatever measure they choose, it should be
justifiable and valid in this setting.

GROUP DISCUSSIONS
Q1. “Since one cannot prove a causal relationship by conducting an experiment,
experimentation is unscientific for examining cause-and-effect relationships.” Discuss
this statement in a small group.

A1. Issues which can be discussed include the role of inference in drawing conclusions, the
difficulty of isolating all possible sources of variation in social science experimentation,
the historic value of experimentation in deriving theories and inferring relationships, and
the nature or definition of science, (i.e., is science only limited to proofs which account
for all sources of variation?).

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 120

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
yli aitasi ahtaan rajan
ulos suurille niityille karkeloon
cancanin villissä vauhdissa
keltaisen taivaan alla —
minä siunaan sinut valkeilla käsilläni
ja murskaan liikkumattomuutesi tappavan loihdun!
———————
KAUKANA MERELLÄ.

Minä olen niin tumma ja kaunis,

ja ihmeelliset aarteet uinuvat aaltojeni alla,
olen öisin kaikkien tähtien hiljainen vuode
ja auringon kullan ja helmien äänetön vahti.
Mutta minä olen niin yksin,
rikkauteni on minulle kärsimys
ja kauneuteni tekee murheelliseksi.
Miten ikävöinkään rakkautta ja punaista verta!

Ah — te itkette, ihmisten tyttäret, valkeita ja väkeviä

sulhojanne, jotka kerran luotanne lähtivät eivätkä palanneet
koskaan: suurempi ja mahtavampi olin minä teitä, ja joka ei
rakastanut minua, sen minä väkevämpänä otin!

— Mutta kaikki ovat he niin hiljaisia ja kylmiä nukkuessaan

linnani salissa; olen sulkenut heidät näkinkenkiini ja
ympärilleen kasvavat hohtavat helmet. Luulen, että he ovat
onnellisia — mutta miksi eivät he vastaa minulle kun
myrskyisinä öinä huudan tuskaani simpukkatorviin tai
intohimoni huokaus saa iltaisin mainingit levottomiksi? Ah,
tahtoisin näyttää teille kauneimman heistä: hän oli niin nuori ja
lämmin kun kiihkoisna tempasin hänet kohisevassa
pimeydessä! Miten väkevänä tunsinkaan voimansa
syleilyssäni silloin!

— nyt lepää hän jäykkänä halliten muita nukkujia suuressa

salissa, lyhtykalojen himmeässä valossa aaltoilevat hiuksensa
hiljaa. Joka yö suutelen häntä kun ylhäältä kuuluu ihmisten
puhe ja nauru ja hiljainen musiikki liukuvista venheistä — —
— Itken mustia helmiä hänen rinnalleen.
TUMMAT ILLAT.

Iltojen tummuessa ovat kaikki tähdet välähtäneet näkyviin:

kylmät naulat kuolleen kesän mustalla arkulla.

Mutta pimeän maan kamaralla tuoksuvat

ympärilläni kaikki kukkaset
ja puutarhat ovat
kuin ruumiskappelit
täynnä suitsutusta ja mykkien
rukousten tuskallista kiihkoa.

Ja minun vihani nousee vastaanne,

te kylmät ja rauhalliset siellä korkealla,
kuin välähtelevä, pitkä veitsi
kaikkien kuolevien verestä huuruavana!
Ja teidän jumalallista ikuisuuttanne vastaan asetan
katoovaisuuden ihanan hurmion
ja suuren kärsimyksen!
Sillä ihanassa kristallivaa'assa
Jumalan kasvojen edessä
on ikuinen, valtava tähti
painava vähemmän kuin auringon oikusta elämään tullut,
yhdessä yössä kuoleva
pieni kukka.
OUTO SERENADI.

Minä laulan sinulle hiljaa, mustiinverhottu Kuolema, kun sinä

vihdoin saavut astuen syyskuun tähtien alla:

Niin ihanaa ompi sulkea lepohon silmät, jotka väsyneet ovat

elämän kauneudesta, niin ihanaa ompi tuntea raukeiksi
huulet, jotka huutaneet ovat rajuutta tuskan ja riemun.

Olet murheellinen, Kuolema, hyvä ja kaunis, olet lempeä

ystävä, jolle voi uskoa kaiken, ja uupuneet unelmat viet sinä
himmeään lepoon — siksi laulan sinulle hiljaa niinkuin yksin
laulaa voi vain sille, joka on saanut ja ottanut kaiken — kun
sinä kuolleitten kukkien seppele päässä kuljet ohitse
syyskuun tähtien alla.
ILMARI PIMIÄ: NÄKINKENKÄ
AKORDI.

Kuin unelma kaunis luoksi tuli kukkiva kevätkuu. Sen

syttämän riemun vuoksi vois' sammua kaikki muu.

Maat vihreät, tummat vuoret,

haan lehdikot varjokkaat
saa kätkeä tunteet nuoret,
salat sadat ja voimakkaat.

Ylin onni ja autuus suuri — kevätmuistelo elää voi, vaikk'

kulkevi talvi juuri ja kylmät vihurit soi! —
HERÄNNYT KEVÄT.

Mikä siipien suhina ja sävelten helinä? —

Pääskyset! Ovatko ne jo tulleet?
Nyt on siis kevät — omiin vaaleanpunaisiin
ajatuksiini painuen en sitä huomannutkaan.
Puhkeavain omenapuiden alla olen istunut
käsi armahan kädessä, enkä ole tuntenut
tuoksujen huumaa:
hänen pyytävät silmänsä vain olen nähnyt ja
janoisesti väriseväin huulteni tuntenut olevan
hänen huulillaan —
muu kaikki on saanut huojuen kulkea ohitse
tajuntani.

Minä olen kuin uudesti syntynyt — uusi

elämä on vaikuttanut voimakkaasti,
elämä on minun, ei mikään maallinen mahti
saattaisi sammumaan saada sen syttämää tulta,
minä olen jo liiaksi ehtinyt imeä itseeni sen
kasvavaa suuruutta hänen kauttaan, joka on
minun onneni.
— Tunkekaa, tunkekaa sieluuni saakka, te
silmien säteet, jotka pitkien ripsien raosta
paistatte kuin kalvas kulta,
teidän ihmeellinen lämpönne on kuumempi
itse aurinkoa!

Miten kaikki lie tapahtunut, en ymmärrä.

Hän on äkkiä voittanut sydämeni —
se on asia, jonka salaperäisesti roihuva
rakkaus yksin kykenee selville tuomaan.
— Kevät, kevät! — Sinä vaarallinen kevät,
katso, sinä olet lumonnut minut niin, ettei
minulla ole tahdonvoimaa:
tiedotonna kuin humalainen painun onnesta
vavisten armaan aukaistuun syliin uupuen
suudelmainsa unijuomaan…
Suloinen on elämä! — Omenapuun kukat,
haudatkaa meidät tuoksuihinne!
PUUTARHA-ODOTUS.

Koko päivän minä olen kulkenut puutarhassa

poimien punaisia ruusuja.
Aurinko on vuodattanut valtaisen runsauden
säteittensä hohdetta ylitse pääni.

Tuon tuostakin olen nojannut säleaitaan ja

katsonut tomuiselle tielle:
se näyttää kovin hyljätyltä, mutta eiköhän
sieltä pian alkane kuulua askelten ääni,
kevyt ja hiljainen askelten ääni.

Minun armaani on mennyt, mutta hänen

pitäisi vielä tänään palata luokseni,
niin lupasi hän. — Ah, tiedän, että hän
rakastaa minua — sen olen monesti lukenut
kasvoiltansa.

Siksi palvelen häntä ja vien hänelle kimpun

poimimiani kukkia,
hän hymyilee niille, ne saavat painua poskeensa
ja juoda janoiset suudelmat hänen huuliltansa,
 hänen pieniltä, kauniilta huuliltansa.
Sydämessäni on alkanut soida aavistelevana
värinänä heränneen lemmen sävel
ja se on saattanut uneksuvan sieluni vavahtamaan
salaperäisestä odotuksesta.

Sormiini on tullut haavoja, paljon punaista

verta tihkuvia haavoja,
mutta minä en huomaa mitään, olen kuin
päihtynyt pyörryttävän pyhästä onnesta,
nopeasti lähestyvästä onnesta.

Vihreä muratti, kohoa korkeammalle ja,

kukkaset, nostakaa päänne ylös —
te ette saa uupua päivän helteestä, pian
ympärillänne humisee kastehelminen puisto!

Oi puutarhani, miten suuresti sinua rakastan

hänen, minun armaani, tähden —
jokaisessa sopessasi väikkyy hohtavana
kuningaskukkana vierellään vietettyjen hetkien muisto,
unohtumattomien hetkien ihana muisto.
KUU PAISTAA…

Kuu paistaa kukkulan takaa, puut tummat varjoja luo, tien yli
ne pitkinä makaa — ei peljätä tummuus tuo.

Me kahden kuljemme lehtoon,

kylä jäänyt jo kauas on.
Ah, aina me tullessa ehtoon
näin painumme varjohon.

Ei ääntämme kenkään kuulle, yö mykkä se suojaa näin.

Kuu kulkevi puulta puulle yli latvain väriseväin…
SYKSYINEN LÄHTÖ.

Miten tuntuneekin ihmisen elämä joskus

niin oudon autiolta ja tyhjältä,
on kuin unelmain kukat veisi halla ja sydän
turhaan itkisi mennyttä kesäänsä.
Kaikki on yhdentekevää, millään ei ole mitään
merkitystä, mikään ei ole pysyväistä —
näin ajatellen heitän jäähyväiset ystävälleni
ja jään tuijottamaan hänen jälkeensä.
Hänen täytyy lähteä ja minä en voi sille
mitään.

Syksyinen tuuli soi humisten ja laskeva

aurinko näyttää purppuranpunaiselta,
juoksevan veren lailla se värjää riippuvat
pilvet ja valuu alas tunturin pieltä.
Pian tulee hirveä sade itkien pitkään ja
äänekkäästi kuin syvästi loukattu lapsi.

Itseni hyljätyksi tuntien käännyn kotiin ja

koetan viihdyttää haavoittunutta mieltä.
Särkyneet unelmat eivät milloinkaan anna
lepoa!
Ruskeat lehdet lentävät ja kylmät aallot
kolkuttavat rantaa — niilläkin on suru.
Mikä voisikaan tänä vaikeana hetkenä nostattaa
raskaasti maahan painuvaa jalkaa!
Puutarha ympärilläni on paljastuttuansa
tullut kaamoittavan suureksi ja tyhjäksi.
— Oi ystäväni, tiesinhän, tiesinhän minä
että lähdettyäsi kärsimykseni alkaa!
Minun mieltäni ei saata enää ilahduttaa
mikään…
PITKÄ ILTA.

Istun, viettäen iltaa, vierellä majan. Vaappuu kun vanhaa

siltaa vankkuri ajan.

Painuu peittohon puiden

aurinko vapaa.
Ääntä ei yhtään muiden
korvani tapaa.

Autius sieluun saartuu,

suuri ja syvä.
Kaste-kosteena kaartuu
yö lähestyvä.

Taisi jo linnut armaat

laulusta laata.
Hämärän hartiat harmaat
hipovat maata.
———
Lien ma valkea vainaa
lepoa vailla:
murheiset muistot painaa
turpehen lailla.
TÄÄ KUKKANEN…

Yö hiljainen, ei lehden havinaa — ajatus arka säikkyy

sydämessä: tää kukkanen, mi janoo suudelmaa, oi oisko
onnen alku keväimessä?

Yö huumeinen — ja kaksi vavahtaa… käy joku äänetönnä

ovessani. Tää kukkanen ja sata suudelmaa jää polttamaan
kuin tuli povessani.

Yö kaukainen pois vierryt vuotten taa, ja armas entinen jo

sydän jäässä! Tää kukkanen, mi salaa suudelmaa: suruinen
merkki tarinamme päässä.
LAULU ILTATÄHDILLE.

Ilta oli tullut suurena ja kauniina —

kauniimpana kuin koskaan ennen.
Kaukaa kuului etäisten korpien poveen
katoavan virran kohiseva juoksu.
Me olimme kulkeneet paljon ja istuutuneet
väsyneinä hämärtyvän lehdon viileään syliin
ja ympärillämme oli puhjenneiden kukkien
voimakas tuoksu.
Tähdet, ah tähdet — te leimusitte silloin!

Minä katselin, kallis, sinua: korkea otsasi

näytti kalpealta.
Liekö sen aiheuttanut ylhäällä väriseväin
tähtien valkea valo.
Äkkiä vapisutti, sillä tunsin, että raukea
ruumiisi oli oudon lähellä minua,
niin että sydäntäni lämmitti sun sydämesi
hehkuva palo.
Tähdet, ah tähdet — te leimusitte silloin!
 Sinä kuiskasit: »oi armaani», ja kiersit
käsivartesi ympärilleni,
ja sun rakkautesi oli janoinen kuin yrtti
suolaisessa erämaassa.
Koko yön vallan suutelin sinua, sillä tahdoin
juopua lumoavien huultesi hurmasta
ja vuodattaa sinuun olemukseni riemun unessa
autuaassa.
Tähdet, ah tähdet — te leimusitte silloin!
———

Sydämen liekki sammuu aikanaan ja punaisten

huulten hurma katoaa pois —
se on vain elämää: vihreän kesän jälkeen
tulee aina alaston syksyn kuu.
— Nyt olet sinä mennyt! Lehdossa on
tallattuja kukkia ja maahan kääntynyt ruoho
kuivettuu.
Lämpöä vailla pudottaa lehtensä sinun
lempesi loihtima puu…
Tähdet, ah tähdet — ette leimua enää! —