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 DETAILED CONTENTS vii

Summary 48
Review questions 48
Further reading 49

3 Key academic models, theories, and debates 52

Introduction 52
Studying IHRM: universalistic and contextual/comparative approaches 52
The evolution of the study of IHRM 53
Hard and soft HRM 55
Models of human resource management 56
The growth of international business and management 58
International human resource management (IHRM) 62
Current themes and debates found in the IHRM literature 68
Two different perspectives on IHRM 70
Summary 72
Review questions 72
Further reading 73

4 Understanding IHRM: the cultural approach 76

Introduction 76
What is culture? 77
Cultural concepts and the research of key authors 79
National culture and expatriate adjustment 89
Culture and human resource policies and practices 91
Summary 92
Review questions 93
Further reading 93

5 Understanding IHRM: the institutional approach 96

Introduction 96
Institutional theory 97
Institutional effects 99
Political economy and historical context 103
Stages of economic development 105
Legislation as a key institutional factor 108
The application of institutional theory to the study of MNEs 114
Summary 117
Review questions 118
Further reading 119
viii DETAILED CONTENTS

PART II The challenges of HRM in MNEs

6 Global staffing 125

Introduction 125
Broad approaches to staffing 126
Recruitment and selection strategy 129
Issues in global staffing 134
Summary 144
Review questions 145
Further reading 145

7 International reward management 148

Introduction 148
Employment costs and labour markets 149
Reward philosophy and strategy 152
Reward strategies 153
International influences on reward strategy 158
Influences on pay satisfaction 163
Summary 166
Review questions 166
Further reading 167

8 Performance management 170

Introduction 170
What is performance management? 172
Performance management challenges in an MNE 175
The performance management process 178
Goal-setting and performance measurement issues 185
Performance measurement 186
Performance management outcomes 188
Repatriation issues 189
Performance management and international teams 190
Host country managers’ appraisals in subsidiary companies 190
Summary 191
Review questions 192
Further reading 193
 DETAILED CONTENTS ix

9 Training, development, and knowledge management 197

Introduction 197
Theoretical considerations: training and development context 198
Training and development issues in MNEs 202
Cross-cultural training 206
Expatriate learning and careers 210
Training potential global managers 212
Women in international management 212
Knowledge management in MNEs 214
Summary 219
Review questions 219
Further reading 220

10 Diversity management in an international environment 224

Introduction 224
Discriminatory management in the MNE 225
Equality management in the MNE 225
Diversity management in the MNE 225
Managing workforce diversity in the MNE 226
Discriminatory management: an MNE in Nigeria 227
Equality management: implications for an MNE in Nigeria 230
Managing diversity in different nations 232
The nature and ‘normality’ of unequal treatment: an MNE in Zambia 232
Tackling the unequal treatment of HCNs: an MNE in Azerbaijan 234
Equality management with diversity management: global policies at Verve Oil 236
Diversity management without equality management 237
Creating a diverse workforce in the MNE 237
Challenges and limitations of managing diversity in an MNE 239
Managing gender inequalities: MNEs in India 240
Managing diversity in practice: an MNE in Finland 242
Managing diversity in practice: American MNEs in Europe 244
Summary 245
Review questions 246
Further reading 247

11 Corporate social responsibility and ethics 250

Introduction 250
Corporate social responsibility 251
CSR and HRM 260
x DETAILED CONTENTS

CSR in MNC subsidiaries 263

Support for integrating CSR into corporate policy 266
Summary 269
Review questions 270
Further reading 270

12 Managing the employment relationship in international organizations 274

Introduction 274
The employment relationship: approaches to its management 274
The significance of the employment relationship 275
Choice and constraint in managing the employment relationship 275
Five dimensions of the employment relationship 276
Strategic options for managing organizational employment relations 287
The management of employment relations in multinational organizations 293
Summary 296
Review questions 297
Further reading 297

13 Global talent management 301

Introduction 301
Talent management and multinational enterprises 301
What is talent management? 302
Assumptions behind talent management 305
Normative approaches 306
Talent management—the dark side 308
Identifying talent 310
Summary influences on talent recognition 318
Summary 319
Review questions 319
Further reading 320

14 The dark side of international employment 323

Introduction 323
Scope of the subject 324
The migrant labour problem 325
Terminology and types of migrant workers 326
Terminology in the USA 328
The difference between an expatriate and a migrant worker 330
Relevance of migrant workers to IHRM 330
 DETAILED CONTENTS xi

The role of temporary staffing agencies in outsourcing and migration 332

The role and responsibility of multinationals 334
Migrant workers in the UK, USA, and the Middle East 335
Summary 340
Review questions 341
Further reading 342

Glossary 346
Index 352

The lead author for each chapter is as follows: Eileen Crawley for chapters 1 to 5, 8, 9, 11 and 14;
Stephen Swailes for chapters 6, 7 and 13; and David Walsh for chapters 10 and 12. The authors
gratefully acknowledge the many helpful suggestions received from anonymous reviewers during
the writing process.
List of figures

2.1 An open systems model 28

3.1 The Harvard analytical framework for HRM 58

3.2 Integrative framework of IHRM 63

6.1 Flow chart of organizational staffing strategy 130

6.2 Reliability and validity in employee selection 132
6.3 Selecting for international assignments 135

7.1 Annual gross earnings 2007 (€000) (organizations with fewer than ten employees excluded) 149
7.2 Financial and psychological components of reward 154
7.3 Determinants and outcomes of reward 158
7.4 Relationships between organizational performance and aggregate workforce satisfaction 164

10.1 Approaches to managing workforce diversity 227

12.1 Employment relations strategies 290

12.2 Managing the employment relationship 293

13.1 Talent recognition and distance 310

13.2 Talent fit matrix 313
13.3 Influences on the identification of organizational talent 319
List of tables

3.1 The ‘EPRG’ model of mind-sets and international strategies (Perlmutter, 1969) 59

4.1 Cultural dimensions and resulting HRM practices 92

6.1 Cross-cultural issues relating to selection methods 133

6.2 Cultural dimensions and theoretical relationships to selection practice 140

7.1 Culture and reward—theoretical predictions 162

8.1 Performance appraisal elements linked to the knowledge and skills required by line managers 173
8.2 Factors that impact on expatriate adjustment 183

13.1 Talent recognition and distance 304

About the authors

Eileen Crawley has had an international career in business management, corporate training,
and academic teaching over the past thirty years.
Eileen graduated from the University of East Anglia with a degree in social studies. She
began her career in the UK Department of Employment. However, on moving to Malaysia
she developed a career and a business, providing corporate training for leading Malaysian
institutions. During this time she completed her MSc in training and human resource man-
agement (HRM) with Leicester University’s Centre for Labour Market Studies. This stimulated
her interest in cross-cultural issues and international HRM.
On moving to Spain she was employed by the Open University Business School and tutored
MBA students in Brussels, Vienna, and Munich. She also worked as a corporate trainer for
senior managers in leading Spanish organizations and conducted programmes for IEDE and
BBVA Business Schools in Madrid.
Following a year teaching in China, she was appointed Senior Lecturer at the University
of Bournemouth Business School, where she developed and taught International HRM and
other HR/OB courses for five years. She was also a programme leader during this time.
She returned to Malaysia in 2008 and continues to work as a part-time lecturer and dis-
sertation supervisor for British and Australian university partner colleges. Currently she is a
part-time lecturer on the University of East London MBA Programme, teaching International
HRM at WIM College (Malaysia), and is a coordinating lecturer for the University of Ballarat,
Australia, MBA programme, teaching HRM at Stamford College. She also teaches on the
Cardiff Metropolitan University BABS programme at Westminster International College. She
has recently been an external examiner for Nottingham Trent University in Malaysia. Students
in Malaysia come from all over the world and Eileen enjoys the constant challenge of sup-
porting students from different cultures.

Stephen Swailes is Professor of Human Resource Management at the University of Huddersfield.

After graduating in chemistry he worked in industry on a range of technical and management
projects and after completing his MBA he moved to the University of Northampton. Before
joining Huddersfield he was Director of the full-time MBA programme at the University of
Hull. In addition to supervising PhD students he delivers a range of HRM modules, including
teaching on MBA programmes delivered in Gulf countries.
His research interests include the assessment of management team roles, how organiza-
tions can evaluate talent management programmes, and how management in the Gulf States
is influenced by local cultural factors. He is co-author of a popular text on organizational
change and has written over thirty articles for leading academic journals.

David Walsh is Principal Lecturer in Human Resource Management at Nottingham Trent

University in the UK. As Director of the professional HRM programmes at his university, he
was instrumental in its being designated a Centre of Research Excellence by the Chartered
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS xv

Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD); and also in the establishment of thriving
CIPD courses in Moscow and in Baku, Azerbaijan.
David has over thirty years’ university teaching experience, including visiting lectureships
in Europe and South East Asia. His current teaching in Nottingham is centred on Masters pro-
grammes in Management, HRM, and Business Administration, which attract students from
all parts of the world.
David’s subject specialism is International Human Resource Management (IHRM), alongside
the more strategic aspects of HRM, which include his scholarly interests in People and Pro-
ductivity, Workplace Employment Relations, Exit Management, and Diversity Management.
 How to use this book

Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter you will be able to:
● understand the meaning of Human Resource Management (H
HRM (SHRM)
● explain the difference between various approaches to Internat
● make sense of some of the key terminology, concepts, and per
● see the relationship between the development of internationa
● appreciate the range of issues that IHRM presents for multina
Learning outcomes
Each chapter opens with a series of learning outcomes
which provide a route map through the chapter and
the goals of each section, so that you know what you
can expect to achieve as you progress through the
chapter.

Introduction Introduction
This book provides an introduction to International Human R At the beginning of each chapter you will find an
and goes on to discuss the major challenges facing multinatio
wide management of their human resources. It is particularly
introductory section offering a brief overview of the
are taking an undergraduate or postgraduate course in Interna subject topic and key issues to be covered in that
have previously studied HRM.
First, however, this opening chapter explains how IHRM
section of the book.
concepts and terminology related to our study of this academ

Discussion activities
Discussion Activity 5.1

Consider the links that your own country has with other countries
and training. Which countries, if any, have educational links with y
or universities?
Why is this, do you think? For example how far do such links i
skills of the local labour force? Do MNEs and local companies re
universities?
Each chapter contains a number of discussion questions
and points. These are designed to provide an opportunity
for readers to work together and share ideas. This feature
will also help you to assess your own understanding of
the text and to consider how topics and ideas might be
applied to your own country and work experiences.

Case examples
Case Study 12.1 (Part Three) Employees’ social
at Insure-Co.
02-Crawley-Chap01.indd 3
Each chapter includes several cases in order to illustrate
1/8/13 2:28 PM

We know that working as a CSREP might not be a very intrinsically satis

02-Crawley-Chap01.indd 3
when ‘cold calling’ potential customers who may see an invitation to bu the points being made or to show their practical
1/8/13 2:28 PM

intrusion. However, at Insure-Co. there are promises of a friendly and s

opportunities for career development.
application.
In such a challenging environment, the role of the line manager can
the actual work experience of CSREPs. In turn this can impact upon eac
psychological contract and their work performance.

14-Crawley-Chap12.indd 283 1/11/13 12:57 PM


Stop and Think
We have learned that Insure-Co. has employed Ravi and Preethi on identical te
employment; and that this is a prerequisite for ensuring the fairness and consis
a stable and cooperative employment relationship with each individual. Yet in
meeting these essentials, the attitudes of these two employees towards their wo
It is the concept of the ‘psychological contract’ that leads us to stop and thin
employment relationship is inherently problematical. Employees should not be
of management’s directions, but as people with their own distinctive reasons a
their employment.
Review questions
1. What is the difference between HRM, Strategic HRM and Interna
2. In what ways may the focus of the study of IHRM differ between
3. What differences might you find between texts originating from
Europe, in terms of their approach to IHRM?
4. What does the study of comparative international HRM include?
5. What are the main challenges that face MNEs in their ma
Further reading
FDI Report (2011) Manufacturing makes a comeback, FDI Global Outloo
Intelligence, Financial Times, April/May, online at http://www.fdiIntel
June 2012).
A useful overview of changes in FDI in different regions and sectors.
OECD (2011) International Migration Outlook: SOPEMI 2011, summary i
This publication analyses recent developments in migration movements and p
and some non-member countries, including migration of highly qualified and
Glossary
14-Crawley-Chap12.indd 283
02-Crawley-Chap01.indd 24 360-degree (Three-hundred-and-sixty-degree) Bounded rationali
or multi-source performance rating system—a not make perfectly
performance rating system that uses opinions of not rationality is bound
only the line manager but also peers, subordinates, other words there i
and sometimes customers and suppliers to provide an person can have or
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK xvii
Stop and Think
Every chapter features a section that invites you to
‘stop and think’ about particular points of interest. This
encourages personal reflection and offers an additional
way to help you learn about aspects of IHRM.
Review questions
At the end of each chapter there is a list of ten
questions which relate to the contents of the
chapter. These are designed to help you check your
understanding across the breadth of information in the
chapter. By focussing attention on the most relevant
issues covered in the chapter, these questions will help
further develop your learning.
Further reading
Recommendations are given at the end of each
chapter, should you wish to develop your learning
through more specialized reading. Each source has a
short explanation of its particular relevance and value.
Glossary
New terms which are introduced in each chapter have
been combined into a final glossary. These terms are
1/11/13 12:57 PM
identified in bold when they appear in the text for the
1/8/13 2:28 PM
first time. You will also be directed to other chapters
where related concepts or topics are developed.
How to use the Online Resource Centre

http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/crawley/

For students:
Web links
A series of annotated web links will direct you to
valuable sources of information on IHRM and
specialist forums to further your learning in the
field.

Online glossary
The authors have provided an online version of
the glossary from the book which enables you to
search across the terminology from the book for
your ease of reference.
 HOW TO USE THE ONLINE RESOURCE CENTRE xix

Suggested answers to end-of-chapter

questions
A bank of suggested answers to all end-of-chapter
questions and exercises enables you to check your
understanding of key themes and issues and offers
tips on what to include in your answer.

Recommended films
The authors have provided a list of suggested
films which you may like to watch to further your
understanding of various aspects of international
human resource management.

For registered adopters:

Online case study
A detailed online case study is offered for each
chapter. The case studies reinforce key issues
from the textbook and are accompanied by a
series of questions.

Stakeholder
Figures and illustrations from the book
interests:
Shareholders These have been provided for your ease of use –
Management
Employee groups you can insert them into your PowerPoint® slides
Government
Community HRM policy
choices:
HR outcomes:
or simply show them to students on-screen.
Unions Commitment
Employee influence Competence
Human resource Congruence
flow Cost-effectiveness
This page intentionally left blank
Part I

The context
of IHRM
This page intentionally left blank
 What is IHRM? Definitions
and perspectives
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter you will be able to:
● understand the meaning of Human Resource Management (HRM) and Strategic
HRM (SHRM)
● explain the difference between various approaches to International HRM (IHRM)
● make sense of some of the key terminology, concepts, and perspectives in IHRM
● see the relationship between the development of internationalization and IHRM
● appreciate the range of issues that IHRM presents for multinational enterprises
(MNEs) and for small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Introduction
This book provides an introduction to International Human Resource Management (IHRM)
and goes on to discuss the major challenges facing multinational organizations in the world-
wide management of their human resources. It is particularly useful for those students who
are taking an undergraduate or postgraduate course in International HRM, but who may not
have previously studied HRM.
First, however, this opening chapter explains how IHRM differs from HRM. Then, key
concepts and terminology related to our study of this academic subject are briefly explained.
We begin by considering the terms HRM and Strategic HRM, go on to explore the foremost
approaches to the study of IHRM, and then provide an introduction to concepts and argu-
ments that underpin both HRM and IHRM. Finally, we briefly consider the role of an IHRM
department and its degree of involvement in HR issues across the organization, in the context
of the evolving structure of MNEs.
The second part of the chapter presents an overview of the book and an outline of each of
the chapters.

What is the study of HRM?

The study of HRM, which has evolved from what used to be called ‘Personnel Manage-
ment’, incorporates a consideration of how organizations plan and manage their staff. It is
concerned, therefore, with the composition of the organization’s workforce and with those
processes that incorporate the recruitment and selection of employees, their training and de-
velopment, the management of their performance and rewards, and finally the termination
4 THE CONTE X T OF IHRM

of their employment. It also involves the management of employment relations, which may
include dealing with employee representatives or their trade unions.
In spite of this generally agreed set of management processes, HRM is often examined from
the perspective of just one country. So, texts published in the UK, the USA, or India, and so on,
tend to use examples local to them and to focus their attention on the way national employ-
ment legislation impacts on the practice of HRM in their particular country. By contrast, some
texts take a more comparative approach, examining the human resource systems and prac-
tices used in different countries. This approach provides a helpful insight into the complexities
of managing people in different parts of the world, and a useful guide to the laws and customs
that influence how human resource activities are performed. In addition, we can differentiate
between texts by the extent to which they adopt an academic or a practitioner focus. From
our viewpoint, the latter tend to pay insufficient attention to a critical (i.e. questioning) dis-
cussion of theory and the likely implications for HR in practice.
Whereas the concept of Personnel Management is often perceived as a middle manage-
ment function in which the manager has little influence on strategic decisions, the concept of
HRM (derived from the USA in the 1980s) is based on ‘the notion that people management
can be a key source of competitive advantage’ ( Tayeb, 2005: 5). As a consequence, HRM is
more associated with a senior management role, with its occupant being expected to have
direct involvement in strategic decision making.
Storey (2001) has identified twenty-seven differences between Personnel Management
and HRM. He then divides these into four broad areas:

● beliefs and assumptions;

● strategic qualities;
● the critical role of managers;
● key levers.

Taking these in turn, Storey suggests that HRM places emphasis on giving the organization
a competitive edge through gaining employees’ commitment, as opposed to their mere ob-
servance or compliance with company rules. Second, HRM is seen as being integrated with
an organization’s strategic objectives. Third, as a result of this enhanced importance, HRM
responsibilities go beyond the specialist personnel manager and involve line managers as
drivers of HR policies. Finally, the focus of HRM is on managing organizational culture rather
than simply ensuring compliance with procedures.
From the above, it follows that the main functions of HRM (in terms of recruiting, training,
and rewarding staff, and so on) also need to be integrated. Moreover, increased significance
is given to job redesign and restructuring to allow devolved responsibility and empowerment
(Storey, 2001).
Storey’s actual definition of HRM (1995: 5) is as follows: ‘Human resource management
is a distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive
advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce,
using an array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques.’
However, this might be seen as rather idealistic. Redman and Wilkinson (2006), for example,
suggest that Storey’s definition is associated with what is now known as ‘high commitment
management’ and ‘high performance work systems’. These tend to lay down a somewhat
prescriptive view of what HRM should look like. Perhaps a more realistic, general, and
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 NATURE OF TARGETS FIRED AT.
Targets have been of all kinds, such as:—
1. Dense masses at all ranges.
2. Extended lines at all ranges.
3. Artillery on the move and in action.
4. Edges of woods, hedges, ditches, etc., where enemy’s firing-line
was known to be, but in many cases could not be seen.
5. Enemy machine guns in all manner of positions, usually
invisible to the eye or even with glasses.
6. Hollows, wood, and other cover under which the enemy was
known to be concentrating.
7. Searching fire to try and locate and beat down hostile fire that
was being delivered from concealed positions.
The varied nature of the targets that the machine gunner may have
to engage brings out the fact that the machine gunner must be very
thoroughly trained, and emphasizes the points brought out under
“Ranges, Fire Orders, Indication and Recognition.”
 FIRE ORDERS.
While in a large number of instances it has been possible to give
fire orders by word of mouth, this will, as a rule, be only possible
under exceptionally favourable circumstances.
Thus the successful co-operation of the guns working under one
leader will very largely depend on the mutual understanding that
exists between the Officer and his Gun Commanders.
Therefore the Officer must ensure that all those under him clearly
understand:—
1. The part the machine guns are intended to play.
2. The plans of the Machine Gun Officer.
3. The objects in view and the methods by which the Machine Gun
Officer hopes to attain them.
In this way, even when individual control by the Officer has been
lost, the desired effect will most likely be obtained, for each Gun
Commander will be striving to attain that effect, though, perhaps, by
different means.
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN CONTROLLING
FIRE OF SECTION.
The following have been the usual methods:—
1. Fire orders by word of mouth.
2. Signals (including flashlights, etc.).
3. Telephones (in one or two cases in trenches).
4. Orderlies.
But whatever method is employed, a thorough understanding
between the Officer and those under him is essential.
NUMBER OF GUNS UNDER ONE COMMAND.
One Officer to a 4–Gun Section is not sufficient. Whether the guns
are grouped under the supreme command of one Senior Officer, or
whether they work in sections, there should always be one Officer to
each pair of guns.
ALTERNATIVE POSITIONS ARRANGED FOR.
The great importance of alternative positions being arranged for
cannot be overestimated. The best way of moving the gun from one
position to another without being seen should be studied. If guns are
located and shelled, either:—
1. Move guns at once to an alternative position or right away.
2. Let the gunners cease fire and get under cover until the shelling
ceases.
The first will be the more useful proceeding, but success has been
obtained several times with the second. For example:—
On one occasion, after shelling for some time, the artillery ceased,
thinking, no doubt, that they had “knocked out” the machine guns.
Massed enemy infantry then advanced, the machine guns opening
fire again from their old position with great effect.
The great importance of concealed approach in occupying
positions must be impressed on Machine Gun Officers.
 GENERAL REMARKS OF INTEREST.
1. Lack of any organised method of using machine guns. Young
and inexperienced Officers are left in many cases to do what they
think best with their sections, without any previous consultation or
plan as to how guns can be most usefully employed.
2. Lack of any attempt at co-operation between the sections of the
units working together in any particular action.
3. Lack of initiative and push. This is usually due to want of
knowledge. Though the machine gun is a weapon of opportunity,
opportunities seldom occur to those who passively await them.
A good Machine Gun Officer, by keeping himself thoroughly in
touch with the situation, must have an opportunity to use his guns
with effect.
4. This lack of co-operation is seen both in the open and in trench
work. All this points to the fact that co-operation between the whole
of the machine guns taking part in any action is not sufficiently
studied.
 GUNS BRIGADED IN ACTION.
On many of the occasions brought to notice in which machine guns
have been brigaded they have achieved marked success, but on the
whole not sufficient use has been made of this method of obtaining
the combined action of a number of guns.
“Brigading” guns does not mean “massing” them. It means the
“brigaded” guns are employed with some definite plan under the
direction of one Officer.
In all cases where the action of brigade guns has been successful
there has been:—
1. A thorough understanding of the plans of the Brigadier by the
B.M.G.O.
2. Conference between the B.M.G.O. and the Section Officers at
which the arrangements for the employment of the machine guns
were fully discussed.
3. Definite orders to the Section Officers.
4. A proportion of the guns held in reserve under the B.M.G.O.
But when the sections have been hastily collected together and
placed under the B.M.G.O., without time for making the above
arrangements, the result has usually been that sections have been
dispersed without definite orders or a complete understanding of the
situation, and effect has been lost.
In trench warfare the successful co-operation of the machine guns
assisting in the defence of any particular section of the entrenched
line has been obtained by:—
1. A previous reconnaissance of the whole line by the B.M.G.O.
2. Diagrams made of own and enemy’s trenches.
3. The number of emplacements.
This has enabled rapid concentration of the requisite number of
guns only on any one portion of the enemy’s line, and has prevented
unnecessary opening of fire and the consequent waste of
ammunition.
In many cases, however, Officers in command of troops in sections
of trench line have considered they are also in command of the
machine guns placed in that portion of the trench occupied by their
troops. This has led to:—
1. The disadvantage of dual control.
2. The guns being placed in the same emplacement day after day.
3. The arrangements of Machine Gun Officer being interfered with.
4. The guns being located by the enemy through an unnecessary
opening of fire ordered by an Officer who is not an expert in machine
gun tactics.
 FIRE ORDERS.
The system of fire orders as taught at Hythe previous to the war
has been most successful.
Machine Gun Officers are also of opinion that, though it has often
been impossible to give orders by word of mouth, the systematic
training of all ranks in this system tends to ease of control under
difficult circumstances, and when a number of guns are being
employed for combined action.
This training forms a basis from which other methods of control
can most easily be evolved, and inculcates into the men the necessity
for assuring themselves that any orders received by them are passed
on by some means to those concerned.
 “INDICATION AND RECOGNITION.”
The methods of “indication and recognition,” as taught at Hythe
before the war, have proved most useful. This fact has been brought
out in the accounts of the most successful machine gun actions, as
has also the great value of the use of range cards and indication
points. Targets are generally easy to indicate, as men are more alert
than in peace-time.
Training in indication, recognition, fire orders, and judging
distance, can be given at any time, as no apparatus is required.
This is also valuable, as it trains all ranks in a quick understanding
of directions given, study of ground, and trains the eye in quick
observation.
WORKING GUNS IN PAIRS AND INTERVALS
BETWEEN GUNS.
The necessity of using guns in pairs for mutual support in case of
mechanical trouble no longer holds good. Guns in the open have
usually been placed not less than 50 yards apart. This enables the
best use to be made of the ground as protection against artillery fire
and for concealment. In trench warfare guns should usually be
placed singly, arrangements being made for “cross fire” and mutual
support between the guns of any particular section of the defensive
line.
 OBSERVATION OF FIRE.
Observation of fire has usually been obtainable up to 900 yards,
and in favourable circumstances at even longer ranges.
Even when the ground has been unfavourable, observation has
often been obtainable on water, walls of houses, enemy’s parapet,
etc.
 OVERHEAD FIRE AND CONDITION OF
GROUND.
During the fighting on the Marne and on the Aisne, guns were
often able to support the infantry advance to within 100 yards of the
enemy’s position.
Even on flat ground frequent instances are given where overhead
fire has been used, with excellent effect, from buildings.
On the whole it would appear that not enough use is made of this
fire.
This is a question that should be carefully studied by all Machine
Gun Officers.
 INDIRECT FIRE BY GRATICULES, LEVEL,
AIMING POSTS AND OBSERVATION.
All the suggested methods have been used, and in some cases
compasses and maps as well. Effect has been obtained in the open
and on enemy’s concentrations at long ranges, and in trench warfare
on working parties, ration parties, communications, etc., behind the
enemy’s lines. A great deal more could be done in this way if all guns
were not almost invariably placed in trenches, instead of a
proportion being placed in suitable positions in rear, and long-range
fire employed. All this points to the fact that a Machine Gun Officer
should be acquainted with all methods of employing indirect fire, in
order that he may be in a position to make the best of any
opportunities that may occur.
CLOSE CO-OPERATION BY MACHINE GUNS
WITH THE FRONT LINES OF ATTACKING
INFANTRY.
Very little information has been given on this subject, but co-
operation seems to have been very poor; but this co-operation is
made very difficult in many cases by:—
1. Inability of the M.G. sections to keep pace with the attacking
infantry.
2. The visibility of the methods employed of carrying the gun. This
leads to many casualties.
3. Lack of tactical knowledge on the part of many of the more
junior M.G.Os.
4. Lack of definite plans as to the role of the M.Gs. before the
action commences.
The two following examples serve to illustrate some of the above:—
1. In a recent attack, owing to lack of any previous understanding
between M.G.Os., eight M.Gs. converged into one small section of a
captured trench. Owing to lack of space only two of these guns were
able to come into action.
2. In another instance during an attack, six guns converged into
one small house. Owing to lack of space, etc., only two of these guns
were able to come into action.
Before an attack a certain M.G. Officer was told to await orders
from his Commanding Officer. He was forgotten and left behind.
In this case, as soon as the Officer realized that he had been
forgotten, he should have used his own initiative.
All these point to the fact that some arrangements for concerted
action should be made.
N. B.—See “Guns Brigaded in Action.”
 OBTAINING AMMUNITION FROM LIMBER
FOR GUNS WHEN ATTACKING.
1. The usual system of using Nos. 3 and 4 as carriers is generally
adopted. Often these numbers are not sufficient for the work. It is
then necessary to borrow men from neighbouring squadrons or
companies.
2. The bringing up of ammunition is dangerous work; therefore it
is obviously best to avoid employing trained gunners if unskilled men
are available.
3. In this manner you conserve your trained gunners for replacing
casualties.
4. Pack animals can sometimes be brought close to the firing-line
when the ground is favourable, thus saving manual labour.
5. Several instances are given of confusion occurring during an
attack, owing to the limber moving without orders. This should be
guarded against.
 CHIEF MECHANICAL TROUBLES.
The answer to this subject emphasizes the fact that when well
looked after, the Maxim or Vickers machine gun is thoroughly
reliable. Except in very few cases all breakages may be said to be due
to want of care. The following are the principal troubles that have
occurred:—

1. Broken Lock Spring.

From inquiries made it would appear that many gunners keep

their guns loaded with the lock spring compressed during the whole
period that the gun is in the trenches. This practice will be a fruitful
source of broken lock springs. The half loading motion should be
performed, and the lock spring released. To complete the loading
when required should not take more than one second.

2. Bulged Barrels.

These are due to mud getting into the barrel when the gun is being
carried into the trenches, while it is being mounted, or through
striking against the parapet when in position.
Waterproof sheets or sandbags should be put round the gun when
carrying it to or from the trenches.

3. Wet Belts.

These can generally be kept dry by covering the box with a

waterproof sheet; the exposed part of the belt also being covered by
that part of the sheet that is hung over the gun.

4. Muzzle Cups (Vickers’ Gun).

 The reason for most of the breakages of these cups is that they are
screwed up too tight, thus allowing for no expansion of the metal of
the barrel owing to heat. At the same time they must not be too
loosely screwed up, as this will equally cause breakages.

5. Stove Pipe Attachment.

Complaints are made that this bursts at the seam. This seam can
easily be riveted by the armourer sergeant.

6. Loose Belts.

Loose belts have given trouble owing to wear.

7. Firing Pins.

A number of firing pins have been broken.

Beyond these few things mechanism troubles have been very rare.
 USE OF PACK TRANSPORT.
Pack transport for both cavalry and infantry has been found to be
more mobile and less conspicuous than limbered wagons. A
combination of both is probably best. In many cases, before the war,
pack transport was never used; thus when issued it was little
understood. Sufficient attention is not paid to the selection of horses
for pack work. If the horses with easy action are selected the bad
effects of undue jolting can be minimized. Putting on pack and
getting in and out of action with it is too little practised.
 THE FOLLOWING COMPLAINTS HAVE
BEEN RECEIVED.
1. Canvas ammunition carriers soon wear out. These can easily be
reinforced with leather by a saddler. A board placed underneath
them with rope passed through the brass eyelets has been found very
satisfactory.
2. Jolting of the pack causes the ammunition to slip back in the
belt, leading to faults in feed. Boxes can be lined with tin from biscuit
boxes. Ammunition has been carried in boxes that have been treated
in this way for long periods without any movement of the
ammunition.