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Contents vii
Legislative and Judicial Landmarks 41

The Civil Rights Movement and the Schools 41
Judicial and Legislative Mandates Regarding Equity 42
Theoretical Approaches to Multicultural Education 49
Teaching the Culturally Different 49
Human Relations 50
Single-Group Studies 50
Inclusive Multicultural Education 51
Education That Is Multicultural and Social Reconstructionist 51
Outcomes of Multicultural Education 52
Student Outcomes 52
Program Outcomes 53
Where We Are Today 54
Public Responses to Multicultural and Bilingual Education Reforms 54
Recent Reaction to Multicultural Education 55
Resegregation: The Legacy of Neighborhood Schools 56
The Impact of Global Perspectives on Inequitable Education 58
Summary 59
Chapter Review 59
Key Terms 60
Active Exercise 60
Reflective Questions 60
References 61
Chapter 3 Culture and the Culture-Learning

Process 65
Exploring the Concept of Culture 66

Case Study: Beechland Heights: A Thought Experiment 67
Defining Culture 69
Culture in Everyday Use 70
Commonalities in Definitions of Culture 72
Humans Construct Culture 72
Culture Is Shared 73
Culture Is Both Objective and Subjective 74
Culture Is Nurtured 75
Applying the Concept of Culture 77
Culture-Specific Versus Culture-General Frameworks 78
The Culture-Learning Process 78
What Is Learned: The Sources of Cultural Knowledge 79
How Culture Is Learned: The Socializing Agents 86
When Culture Is Learned: The Process of Socialization 88
Primary Socialization and Cultural Similarities 88
viii Contents
Secondary Socialization 90
Some Consequences of Socialization 91
Perception and Categorization 92
Some Limits on Socialization 94
Understanding Cultural Differences 95
Variations in Cultural Environments: Returning
to Beechland Heights 95
Variations in Cultural Attributes, Socializing Agents,
and Cultural Learners 98
Summary 102
Chapter Review 102
Key Terms 102
Active Exercise 102
References 104
Chapter 4 Classrooms and Schools as Cultural

Crossroads 107
Case Study: Melinda’s Induction Year Dilemma 108

Schools and Classrooms: Where Cultures Intersect 109
Student Culture 110
Teacher Culture 110
Parent Culture 111
School Culture 112
Teachers as Cultural Mediators 112
Cross-Cultural Adaptation 113
Acculturation and Identity 115
Themes From Cross-Cultural Psychology 117
A Model of Intercultural Interaction 119
Stage 1: Understanding Emotional Responses
in Intercultural Interaction 119
Stage 2: Understanding the Cultural Basis
of Unfamiliar Behavior 122
Stage 3: Making Adjustments and Reshaping Cultural Identity 126
Applying the Culture-General Model 129
Identifying Commonalities Among Groups 130
Identifying Differences Within a Group 130
Critical Incidents at Wake Central High 131
Discussion of Critical Incidents 134
Summary 137
Chapter Review 137
Key Terms 137
Contents ix
Active Exercise 137

References 139
Chapter 5 Intercultural Development: Considering

the Growth of Self and Others 141
Intercultural Competence 142

Case Study: Dissent at Maplewood School 143
Developing Intercultural Sensitivity 146
Ethnocentric Stages of the DMIS 148
Ethnorelative Stages of the DMIS 152
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere
in the World? 155
Critical Incidents at Maplewood 158
Summary 161
Chapter Review 162
Key Terms 162
Active Exercise 162
References 163
2 Multicultural Teaching in Action 165
Chapter 6 Creating Classrooms That Address

Race and Ethnicity 167
Case Study: The Chameleon 168

Lay Versus Scientific Understanding of Race and Ethnicity 171
Pedagogies: Old and New 171
Roles: Old and New 171
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New 171
Assessment: Old and New 173
Understanding Prejudice and Racism 173
The Functions of Prejudice 174
Prejudice Formation: The Components
of Prejudice 175
How Children Learn Prejudice 175
Extreme Cases of Prejudice 177
Strategies for Prejudice Reduction 178
Parent and Teacher Talk 179
Curriculum Transformation 180
1. Improving Social Contact and Intergroup Relations 180
x Contents
Some Cautions in Applying the Contact Hypothesis 183

2. Increasing Cognitive Sophistication 184
3. Improving Self-Confidence and Self-Acceptance 185
4. Increasing Empathy for and Understanding of Others 185
Comprehensive Programs That Improve Intergroup Relations 186
Antibias Education for Young Children 186
Cooperative Learning 186
A World of Difference 187
Facing History and Ourselves 187
Critical Incidents 187
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere in the World? 188
Summary 194
Chapter Review 194
Key Terms 194
Active Exercise 194
Classroom Activities 197
References 197
Chapter 7 The Classroom as a Global Community:

Nationality and Region 201
Case Study: A Global Classroom 202

Education in a Global Society 207
What Is Globalization? 208
Characteristics of Globalization 209
Teaching With a Global Purpose 210
Education for a Global Perspective 211
How Do We Achieve the Cognitive Demands Required for
a Global Mind-Set? 212
Is Technology Facilitating a Global Mind-Set? 213
Curriculum Transformation: The International Perspective 215
Perspective Consciousness 215
State of the Planet Awareness 216
Cross-Cultural Awareness 219
Knowledge of Global Dynamics or World Systems 220
Awareness of Human Choice 221
What, Specifically, Should Students Study? 222
Characteristics of a Global Classroom 222
Contents xi
Teaching the Global Perspective 225

Comprehensive International Education Frameworks 226
International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) 227
Asia Society/EdSteps 227
Programs That Link Schools 228
Perspectives on a Globally Oriented Curriculum 230
Ethical Concerns 231
International Perspective: What’s Happening
Elsewhere in the World? 232
Summary 233
Chapter Review 234
Key Terms 234
Active Exercise 234
References 237
Chapter 8 Developing Learning Communities:

Language and Learning Style 241
Case Study: Language and Learning Style in a Learning-Community

Classroom 242
Case Analysis 248
Characteristics of a Learning Community 249
Rationale for Learning-Community Classrooms 250
Perspectives on Language Acquisition 253
Language and the Family 253
Institutional Aspects of Language in the Family 254
Perspectives on Language Variation 255
Verbal Communication 255
Nonverbal Communication 258
Culture, Language, and Learning Style 258
Components of Learning Style 258
Multiple Intelligences 259
Origins of Learning Style 260
The Relation of Language and Learning Style to Culture 260
Perspectives on Bilingual Education and Second-Language Acquisition 262
The Bilingual Education Backlash 263
Other Bilingual Education Issues 265
xii Contents
Perspectives on Second-Language Acquisition 265

Stages in Second-Language Acquisition 265
Other Important Concepts in Second-Language Acquisition 266
Ethical Issues: Local and Global 267
International Perspectives: What’s Happening Elsewhere
in the World? 268
Summary 270
Chapter Review 271
Key Terms 271
Active Exercise 271
Endnote 273
References 273
Chapter 9 Religious Pluralism in Secular

Classrooms 277
Case Study: Religion in a Secular Classroom 278

Rationale for Attending to Religion in Public Schools 280
Definitions of Religion 280
Religious Pluralism in the United States 282
European Influences on Religion in the United States 282
African Influences on Religion in the United States 283
Middle Eastern Influences on Religion in the United States 283
Characteristics of a Classroom That Attends to Religious Pluralism 285
Case Analysis 288
Perspectives on Religion and Schooling in the United States 289
Private Freedoms: Religion and Compulsory School Attendance 290
Private Freedoms: The Practice of Religious Beliefs in Classrooms 291
Public Freedoms: Public Funding for Religious Schools 293
Charter Schools, Home Schooling,
and Voucher Programs 294
Public Freedoms: The Provision of Religious Instruction 295
Perspectives on Religious Identity 296
Religion as a Form of Personal Identity 296
Organized Religion and the Net Generation 298
The Influence of the Religious Right 299
Ethical Issues 301
Contents xiii

Summary 305
Chapter Review 305
Key Terms 306
Active Exercise 306
Endnote 308
References 308
Chapter 10 Developing a Collaborative Classroom:

Gender and Sexual Orientation 311
Case Study: Gender and Sexual Orientation in a

Collaborative Classroom 312
Case Analysis 314
Rationale for Collaborative Teaching and Learning 315
Characteristics of a Collaborative Classroom 316
Perspectives on Gender Identity 322
Gender Role Socialization 323
Gender Role Socialization in the Middle Class 323
Gender Role Socialization in Popular Culture, Books, and Toys 324
Masculine and Feminine Behavior 325
Perspectives on Gender and Schooling 327
Schools as Socializing Agents 327
Gender Stereotypes in School 327
Gender as an Issue of Legal Equity in Schools 328
Legislation and Court Cases 329
Contemporary Concerns About the Education of Boys 330
Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality 331
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered Rights Are
Human Rights 332
Ethical Issues 335
International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere
in the World? 336
Summary 341
Chapter Review 341
Key Terms 342
Active Exercise 342
xiv Contents

Endnote 344
References 344
Chapter 11 Creating Developmentally Appropriate

Classrooms: The Importance of Age and
Developmental Status 349
Case Study: Age in Developmentally Appropriate Classrooms 350

Rationale for Developmentally Appropriate Educational Practice 353
Economic Aims for Schooling 356
Early Childhood Education and Developmentally Appropriate Practice 357
Constructivist Thought in Developmentally Appropriate Practice 358
Characteristics of a Developmentally Appropriate Classroom 359
Perspectives on Age and Development 366
Sensitive Periods and Developmental Crises 366
Socioemotional Implications of Body Size and Body Image 367
Individual Differences and Developmental Domains 368
The Importance of Developmental Knowledge 369
Summary 374
Chapter Review 374
Key Terms 374
Active Exercise 375
Endnotes 376
References 376
Chapter 12 Creating Inclusive Classrooms: The

Ability/Disability Continuum and the
Health Dimension 379
Case Study: Schools That Include All Students 380

Rationale for Inclusive Classrooms 383
What Is Exceptionality? 385
The Ability/Disability Continuum 385
Historical Perspectives on Special Education 386
Contents xv
New Perspectives: Being “Neuro-Atypical” and the Mental Health Continuum 389
The Health Dimension 390
Characteristics of an Inclusive Classroom 393
Inclusion and Human Diversity 393
Making Inclusive Teaching Work 399
The Importance of Collaboration 399
What Does Flexibility Involve 401
Ethical Issues in Inclusive Education 402
Summary 408
Chapter Review 408
Key Terms 408
Active Exercise 408
Endnotes 410
References 410
Chapter 13 Improving Schools for All Children:

The Role of Social Class and Social
Status in Teaching and Learning 413
Case Study: Fulfilling the Promise in the Northeast Kingdom 414

Case Analysis 416
Perspectives on Social Class and Social Status 421
Definitions of Social Class 422
Changes in the Definition of Social Class 423
Social Status 425
The Importance of Teacher Expectations 426
The Culturally Responsive Teacher 427
Social Class and School Funding 428
The Role of Social Class in Student Progress: A Little History 429
New Language for Considering Public Education 430
The Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act: A Bridge
Too Far? 433
xvi Contents
Perspectives on Multiple Forms of Assessment: Demand Versus Support 434

Ethical Issues 435
Summary 440
Chapter Review 440
Key Terms 441
Active Exercise 441
Endnotes 443
References 443
Glossary 447
Photo Credits 453
Name Index 455
Subject Index 461
About the Authors
Kenneth H. Cushner is Professor of Education in the College and Graduate School
of Education, Health and Human Services at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. In
addition to this text, Dr. Cushner is author or editor of several books and articles in
the field of intercultural education and training, including: Intercultural Student Teach-
ing: A Bridge to Global Competence (2007, Rowman Littlefield); Human Diversity
in Action: Developing Multicultural Competencies in the Classroom, 3rd edition
(2006, McGraw-Hill); International Perspectives on Intercultural Education (1998,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates); Improving Intercultural Interactions: Modules for
Cross-Cultural Training Programs, volume 2 (with Richard Brislin, Sage Publications,
1997); and Intercultural Interactions: A Practical Guide, 2nd edition (with Richard
Brislin, Sage Publications, 1996). A former East-West Center scholar, Dr. Cushner is
a Founding Fellow and past-president of the International Academy for Intercultural
Research; was a Fulbright Scholar to Sweden in 2008; coordinated the Teachers at
Sea program for Semester at Sea (summers of 2010 and 2011); and currently serves
as director of COST–the Consortium for Overseas Student Teaching. In his spare time,
Dr. Cushner enjoys music (percussion and guitar), photography, and travel. He has
developed and led intercultural programs on all seven continents.
Averil McClelland is currently Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Cultural

Foundations of Education program in the College and Graduate School at Kent State
University, from which she received her Ph.D. Dr. McClelland has had extensive
experience in curriculum design and program evaluation, as well as experience with
addressing issues of gender and education and cultural diversity in education. In addi-
tion to this text, she is the author of The Education of Women in the United States:
A Guide to Theory, Teaching, and Research (Garland, 1992), as well as a number of
articles in scholarly journals. She received the Distinguished Teaching award from
Kent State University in 1996, and has a long-standing relationship with the National
First Ladies Library, where she develops Web-based curricula based on the lives of
the nation’s 44 First Ladies. Her special interests are the history, sociology, and pol-
itics of education, the reconstruction of teacher education, and internationalizing the
college curriculum for preservice and practicing teachers.
Philip Safford, Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Case Western Reserve University,

is Emeritus Professor and former chair of Special Education at Kent State University.
Prior to earning his Ph.D. through the Combined Program in Education and Psychol-
ogy at the University of Michigan, with specialization in special education and child
development, he had been a teacher and administrator in residential treatment pro-
grams for children with emotional disorders. Dr. Safford has authored or edited six
books and numerous articles dealing with special education history, early intervention
for young children with disabilities, and related topics. He has directed or co-directed
a number of training, research, and demonstration projects in special education sup-
ported by federal and state grants.
xvii
Preface
People across the planet seem to be in constant flux and challenge—some seek and
embrace innovation and change at an ever-accelerating pace, while others struggle
through a variety of political and social resistance to retain older and more traditional
ways of doing things. In the few years since the previous edition of this book we have
witnessed, the Middle East alone has witnessed the emergence of the Arab Spring that
challenged long-standing dictatorships by a citizenry bent on establishing democracy;
the de-escalation of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; a major civil war emerging in
Syria; the death of Osama bin Laden; and the continuation of terrorist threats aimed
at Western interests. Elsewhere around the world significant changes continue to
emerge, with the African continent experiencing perhaps its greatest economic devel-
opment in a century; the continued emergence of China as a major economic force;
while the economies in many of the countries of the European Union struggle. On
the national level, but yet with global significance, we have encountered the dis-
semination of sensitive government documents leaked by the likes of Edward Snowden,
Private Bradley Manning, and Julian Assange’s Wikileaks, increasingly made possible
by the ubiquitous use of technology; global climate change has resulted in new and
unpredictable weather patterns, including the steady increase in the number of forest
fires, hurricanes, and tornadoes encountered across the country. Closer to home, peo-
ple continue to wrestle with questions surrounding same-sex marriage and gay rights;
the question of health care mandates alongside the accelerated identification of chil-
dren with autism and other disabilities and the aging of our population; issues of
immigration, minority rights, and the ethnic makeup of the nation; and the challenges
of a slow economic recovery and related issues posed by the Occupy Wall Street
protests in 2011. Such changes and challenges span cultural differences and cut across
geographic, political, and social boundaries; they continue to impact us all at the local,
national, and global levels.
Such problems continue to enter and impact our increasingly culturally diverse
classrooms and communities. In order to effectively address and potentially solve
these issues it is incumbent upon teachers to both understand their origin as well as
think about possible solutions. This requires people who have the knowledge, skills,
and motivations to reach beyond their own cultural boundaries and collaborate with
others. If people are not willing and able to do this, these, and other future problems,
simply will not be solved. Developing multicultural understanding and intercultural
competence, thus, underlies much that must be actively addressed throughout the
school curriculum.
As events continue to evolve across the globe, it is increasingly important that
teachers provide young people with a foundation that will assist them to better under-
stand the complex nature of the world in which they will live while developing the
skills that will enable them to be proactive problem solvers in an interdependent,
global society. This eighth edition of Human Diversity in Education: An Intercultural
Approach, continues to focus on the preparation of teachers and other human-service
providers who can teach and interact more effectively with the wide diversity of stu-
dents they are certain to encounter, and are able to transmit this knowledge and skill
to the individuals in their charge.
xviii
Preface xix
New to This Edition

This book continues to receive overwhelmingly positive feedback from users around
the world, and because of this we have maintained much of the familiar format.
Regular users, however, will notice some changes in this edition. The book continues
to provide a broad treatment of the various forms of diversity common in today’s
schools, including nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, gender, social class, language
acquisition and use, sexual orientation, health concerns, and disability. We also main-
tain its research-based approach, with an increased cross-cultural and intercultural
emphasis. Because attention to diversity is not unique to the United States, and
because we can learn quite a lot from others, we have maintained the International
Perspectives that are featured beginning in Chapter 6. Scholars and practitioners from
around the world bring another voice to the discussion, sharing their perspectives on
how similar issues are addressed in their home countries of Australia, Canada, China,
the Republic of Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa.
We continue to stress that it is both at the level of the individual teacher as well
as the organizational structure of the school where significant change must occur with
regard to how diversity is understood and accommodated. Little institutional or sys-
tematic change will occur until individuals fully understand the role that culture plays
in determining their own thoughts and actions and how they can go about altering its
powerful influence. Culture learning of both teacher and student, along with intercul-
tural interaction, remain central to this book.
We also recognize that today’s generation of young people has been exposed to
greater diversity, both global and domestic, through the influence of global media,
demographic changes that have occurred in many local communities, as well as
through the increased use of technology by both individuals and schools. This edition,
thus, continues to see greater attention to the role that technology plays both in teach-
ing and learning as well as the international socialization of young people. This
edition also includes greater attention to the international aspects of curriculum by
featuring recent initiatives taken by the Asia Society/EdSteps, and the International
Baccaluareate (IB) programs. Also new to this edition are updates on the No Child
Left Behind mandates, the emergence of the Common Core Standards, new directions
in testing and assessment, and issues related to the growing number of children living
in poverty.
We have maintained the inclusion of the Active Exercises and Classroom Activities
at the end of each chapter, while links to the Online Learning Center continue to
provide students with additional activities and active exercises. Case Studies and
Critical Incidents, while continuing to be integral teaching devices throughout the
book, have been streamlined. Each chapter continues to open with a Case Study that
introduces major concepts and sets the context for that chapter. A number of related
Critical Incidents can be found at the end of each chapter. Each chapter also identifies
an expanded number of updated references and websites that students can access for
more information. An icon in the margin identifies these websites. A teacher’s guide
and other online learning resources are also available that provide directions for
instructors as well as classroom activities and test questions.
The general format of this edition remains similar to the previous one with a few
modifications. Part One provides background to the broad social, cultural and eco-
nomic changes that confront society today (Chapter 1), with a historical overview of
past multicultural effort (Chapter 2). We place particular emphasis on culture learning
xx Preface
and intercultural interaction in Chapters 3 and 4. Chapter 5 explores the development

of intercultural competence while providing a model that teachers can use to gauge
their own growth as well as that of their students.
Part Two examines what teachers can do to make their classrooms and schools
more responsive to diversity and more effective learning communities; that is, how to
structure classrooms that are collaborative, inclusive, developmentally appropriate,
globally oriented, and religiously pluralistic. Each of the chapters in Part Two centers
on a major aspect of diversity: race and ethnicity (Chapter 6), global understanding
(Chapter 7), language and learning style (Chapter 8), religious pluralism (Chapter 9),
gender and sexual orientation (Chapter 10), age and development (Chapter 11), excep-
tionality and ability (Chapter 12), and social class and social status (Chapter 13).
We hope you continue to find benefit from this edition, and we welcome feedback
from you.
Kenneth H. Cushner
Averil McClelland
Philip Safford
Supplemental Material
The eighth edition of Human Diversity in Education is accompanied by a supplemen-
tal website, www.mhhe.com/cushner8e. Instructor’s materials are offered on a pass-
word-protected section of the site and include an Instructor’s Manual and a Test Bank.
Instructors can contact their local McGraw-Hill sales representative for a username
and password to access the site. Students will find study resources including an online
glossary, PowerPoint presentations, and the Diversity in Action workbook
This text is available as an eTextbook from CourseSmart, a new way for faculty to
find and review eTextbooks. It’s also a great option for students who are interested in
accessing their course materials digitally and saving money. CourseSmart offers thou-
sands of the most commonly adopted textbooks across hundreds of courses from a
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and compare the full text of a textbook online, providing immediate access without
the environmental impact of requesting a print exam copy. At CourseSmart, students
can save up to 50% off the cost of a print book, reduce their impact on the environ-
ment, and gain access to powerful web tools for learning including full text search,
notes and highlighting, and e-mail tools for sharing notes between classmates. For
further details contact your sales representative or go to www.coursesmart.com.
www.mcgrawhillcreate.com
Craft your teaching resources to match the way you teach! With McGraw-Hill
Create you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material from other content
sources, and quickly upload content you have written, like your course syllabus
Preface xxi
or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by searching through thou-
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1
Foundations for
Teaching in an Increasingly
Intercultural Context
Chapter 1: Education in a Changing Society
Chapter 2: Multicultural Education: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives
Chapter 3: Culture and the Culture-Learning Process
Chapter 4: Classrooms and Schools as Cultural Crossroads
Chapter 5: Intercultural Development: Considering the Growth of Self and Others

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The work of carving and ornamenting the rood-lofts in the parish
churches was constant up to the very eve of the Reformation, and
bequests are very frequently met with in the wills of that period for
this end, and to keep up the rood-lights. At St. Mary-at-Hill, for
instance, in 1496-7 there are a set of accounts headed “costes paid
for the pyntyng of the Roode, with karvyng and odir costes also”; and
amongst the items is “to the karvare for makyng of 3 dyadems—and
for mendyng the Roode, the cross, the Mary and John, the crowne of
thorn, with all other fawtes, Summa 10 shillings”; and yet another
item was for the painting and gilding. Towards these and other
expenses of “setlyng up of the Roode” the parishioners contributed
in a special collection. The legacy for beautifying and completing the
rood at Leverton has already been noticed. To the “Rood” in one
parish church a lady in her will leaves “my heart of gold with a
diamond in the midst.” In 1510, at St. Margaret’s, Westminster, £10
was left “towards making a new rood-loft”; and the work was still
apparently going on in 1516, when another donor left £38 for the
same object. Lastly, in the churchwardens’ accounts of St.
Edmund’s, Salisbury, there are entered expenses for the light kept
burning before the rood; at which place, for example, in 1480 the
candlemaker was specially employed in making “the rood-light.” A
curious entry in the accounts of the parish church of St. Petrock’s,
Exeter, shows how this light at the rood was kept up: “Ordinans
made by the eight men for gathering to the wax silver for the light
kept before the high cross, which says, that every man and his wife
to the wax shall pay yerely one peny, and every hired servant that
takes wages a half peny, and every other persons at Easter, taking
no wages, a farthing.” In some places, as, for example, Cratfield,
there was a “rowell,” or wheel or corona of candles, kept burning on
feast-days before the rood.
The special destruction of the roods of the English churches in the
early stages of the Reformation under Edward VI., and again under
Elizabeth, causes many to think that the reverence shown to this
representation of our Crucified Lord, probably the most prominent
object visible in the churches, was not only excessive, but mistaken
in its kind. If that were so, it must at least be allowed that the
Church’s teaching on the matter was clear and definite. The author
of Dives and Pauper, for example, says that the representations of
the Crucified Christ—
“ben ordeyned to steryn men’s mynds to thinke on Crist’s
Incarnation and on hys passyon and on his levyng ... for
oft man is more sterryed be syght than be heryng or
redyng—also thei ben ordeyned to ben a tokne and a
boke to the lewyd people that thei mon redyn in ymagery
and peyntour that clerkes redyn in boke.”
Then, after describing what thoughts the sight of the crucifix should
bring to the mind of the beholder, Pauper goes on—
“In this manner I pray thee read thy boke and fall down to
the ground and thank thy God that would do so much for
thee, and worship him above all things—not the stock,
stone nor tree, but him that died on the tree for thy sin and
thy sake: so that thou kneel if thou wilt afore the image,
not to the image; do thy worship afore the image, afore the
thing, not to the thing; make thy prayer afore the thing, not
to the thing, for it seeth thee not, heareth thee not,
understandeth thee not. Make thy offering if thou wilt afore
the thing, but not to the thing; make thy pilgrimage not to
the thing nor for the thing, for it may not help thee, but to
him and for him that the thing representeth. For if thou do
it for the thing or to the thing thou doest idolatry.”
We now pass from the chancel to the body of the church. The nave
and aisles—if there were any—were in a special way under the care
of the wardens chosen by the people. There seems to be little doubt
that very generally, although perhaps not universally, the walls of the
parish churches were painted with subjects illustrating Bible history,
the lives of the saints, or the teaching of the sacramental doctrine of
the Church. In the same way, although of course in a lesser degree,
the windows were often filled with glass stained with pictures
conveying the same lessons to the young and the unlettered. These
were, as they were called, “the books of the poor and the illiterate,”
who, by looking at these representations, could learn the story of
God’s dealings with mankind, and could draw encouragement to
strive manfully in God’s service, from the example of the deeds of
God’s chosen servants.
The work of beautifying the parish churches by wall decorations and
painted windows was the delight of the parishioners themselves, for
it all helped to make their churches objects both of beauty and
interest. To take but one example: the church of St. Neots possesses
many stained-glass windows, placed in their present positions
between 1480 and 1530. The inscriptions inserted below the lights
testify that most of them were paid for by individual members of the
parish, but in the case of three it appears that groups of people
joined together to beautify their church. Thus, a Latin label below
one says that “the youths of the parish of St. Neots” erected the
window in 1528; a second says that, the following year, the young
maidens emulated the example of their brothers; and the “mothers”
of the parish finished the third window in 1530.
Besides the high altar in the chancel, there were, from early times,
few churches that did not have one or more, and sometimes many
smaller or side altars. These were dedicated to various saints, and
from the fifteenth century, and even earlier, they were used as
chantries or guild chapels. The priests serving them were supported
by the annuity left by some deceased benefactor to the parish
church, or by a stipend paid by the guild to the priest who acted as
its chaplain, or again by the private generosity of some benefactor.
These chapels were frequently richly decorated, furnished with
hangings, and supplied with their own vestments and altar furniture
by their founders or by the guilds that supported them. To take an
example: In 1471 an indenture or agreement was made between Mr.
William Vowelle, master of the town of Wells, and the two wardens of
our Lady’s altar in St. Cuthbert’s Church, and John Stowell,
freemason, for making the front of the Jesse at the said altar. The
work was to cost £40 (probably more than £500 of our money), and
the mason was to be paid 40s. a week, with £5 to be kept in hand till
the completion of the work. To take another example: at Heydon, in
the East Riding of Yorkshire, the south aisle was dedicated to St.
Catherine, and there is an item of expense in the churchwardens’
accounts showing the existence of a painted altar, an image of the
saint, and a kneeling-desk in front of it.
In the accounts of St. Mary-at-Hill, where there were many such side
chapels, there is an order of the wardens, made in 1518, “that every
priest shall sing with his founder’s vestments, and that their chest is
to be at the altar’s end, next where they sing.” In some of these small
chapels there were statues, before which lights were kept burning by
the devotion of various members, or groups of members, of a parish.
Thus at Henley-on-Thames there were seven chapels and two altars
in the nave, besides the high altar in the chancel. Lights were kept
burning before the rood, the altar of Jesus, and the altar of the Holy
Trinity. In 1482 the warden and the commonalty ordained that the
chaplain in the chapel of the Blessed Virgin Mary say Mass every
day at six o’clock, and the chantry priest of St. Katherine’s chapel at
eight o’clock. In these accounts are entered the receipts and
expenses of the Guild of the Holy Name, and amongst the rest is an
entry “for painting the image of Jesus and gilding it.” The most
curious entry, however, in this book of accounts is that of a gift to
secure the perpetual maintenance of “our Lady’s light.” This was a
set of jewels, given to the churchwardens in 1518 by Lady Jones.
They were apparently very fine, and were to be let out by the
wardens for the use of brides at weddings. The sum charged for the
hire was to be 3s. 4d. for anyone outside the town, and 20d. for any
burgess of Henley. Portions of what is called “the Bridegeer” were let
at lower figures; but in one year the wardens received as much as
46s. 6d. from this source of income. At the Reformation the jewels
were sold for £10 6s. 8d.
The floors of our churches, until late in the fifteenth century, were not
generally so encumbered with pews or sittings, as they became later
on, but were open spaces covered with rushes. The church accounts
show regular expenses for straw, rushes, or, on certain festivals, box
and other green stuff wherewith to cover the pavement. This carpet
was renewed two or three times a year, and one almost shudders to
think of the state of unpleasant dirt revealed on those periodical
cleanings. Some accounts show regular payments made to “the
Raker” on these occasions, whilst the purchase, in 1469, of “three
rat-traps”
for the
church of
St.
Michael’s,
Cornhill,
suggests
that the
rush
covering
must
have
been a
happy
hunting-
ground
for rats,
mice, and
suchlike
vermin. In
some
places,
however,
mats CORONA OF LIGHTS, ST. MARTIN DE TROYES—
were FIFTEENTH CENTURY
provided
by the wardens, as at St. Margaret’s, Westminster, where, in 1538,
4s. 4d. was paid to provide “matts for the parishioners to kneel on
when they reverenced their Maker.” So too, at St. Mary-at-Hill,
London, there was a mat in the confession pew, and others were
provided for the choristers, whilst we read of the expenditure of 4d.
“for three mats of wikirs, boght for prestis and clerkis.”
The provision of fixed seats in parish churches, for the use of the
people generally, was a late introduction. The practice of allowing
seats to be appropriated to individuals was in early days distinctly
discouraged. In 1287, for instance, Bishop Quevil, of Exeter, in his
synodical Constitutions, condemns the practice altogether.
“We have heard,” he says, “that many quarrels have
arisen amongst members of the same parish, two or three
of whom have laid claim to one seat. For the future, no
one is to claim any sitting in the church as his own, with
the exception of noble people and the patrons of
churches. Whoever first comes to church to pray, let him
take what place he wishes in which to pray.”
This, of course, refers to a few seats or benches, and not to regular
sittings or pews, which were begun to be set up in the English
churches only in the middle of the fifteenth century, and in some not
till late in the sixteenth. At Bramley church, for example, the wardens
did not begin “to seat” the nave before 1538; at Folkestone some
pews were in existence as early as in 1489; in 1477-8 the wardens
of St. Edmund’s parish church, Salisbury, assigned certain seats to
individuals at a yearly rent of 6d.; and even before that time, in 1455,
seats were rented at St. Ewen’s church, Bristol. Apparently, once
introduced, the churchwardens soon found out the advantages of
being able to derive income from the pew or seat rents, especially as
from some of the accounts it is evident that the seats were first made
with money obtained at special collections for the purpose, as at St.
Mary’s the Great, Cambridge, in 1518. In the first instance,
apparently, the seats were assigned only to the women-folk, but the
great convenience was, no doubt, quickly realised by all, and the use
became general after a very short time.
BACKLESS BENCHES, CAWSTON, NORFOLK
One of the most conspicuous objects in every parish church was its
Font. This stood at the west end of the church, and frequently in a
place set apart as a baptistery. From the thirteenth century it was
ordered, in the Constitutions of St. Edmund of Canterbury, that every
font must be made of stone or some other durable material, and that
it was to be covered and locked, so as to keep the baptismal water
pure, and prevent any one except the priest from meddling with what
had been consecrated on Easter Eve with Holy Oils and with solemn
ceremony. Great care was enjoined on the clergy to keep the
Blessed Sacrament, the Holy Oils, and the baptismal water safe
under lock and key. For, says the gloss on this ordinance in
Lyndwood, keys exist so that things may be kept securely; and he
that is negligent about the keys would appear to be negligent about
what the keys are supposed to guard. By the ordinary law of the
Church a font could only be set up in a parish church; and in the
case of chapels of ease, and other places in a parochial district,
where it was lawful to satisfy other ecclesiastical obligations, for
baptism the child had generally to be brought to the mother church.
The instances in which permission was granted for the erection of
any font in a chapel are very rare, and leave was never given without
the consent of the rector of the parish church. Thus a grant was
made in
the
fourteenth
century to
Lord
Beaucha
mp to
erect a
font for
baptisms
in his
chapel at
Beaucha
mp,
provided
that the
rector
agreed
that it
would not
harm his
parochial
rights.
FONT, ST. MICHAEL’S, SUTTON BONNINGTON,
NOTTS Leading
into the
church
very generally there was a covered approach, greater or less in size,
called the porch, from the Latin porta, “a door or gate.” This was
usually at the south side of the church, and sometimes it was built in
two stories, the upper one being used as a priest’s chamber, with a
window looking into the church. In some cases this chamber was
used as a safe repository for the parish property and muniments. In
the lower porch, at the side of the church door, was the stoup,
usually in a stone niche, with a basin to contain the Holy Water. With
this people were taught to cross themselves before entering God’s
house, the water being a symbol of the purity of soul with which they
ought to approach the place where His Majesty dwelt. The mutilated
remains
of those
niches,
destroyed
when the
practice
was
forbidden
in the
sixteenth
century,
may still
frequently
be seen
in the
porches
of pre-
Reformati
on
churches.
Sometime
s it would
seem that
there was
attached
to the
water
stoup a
sprinkler
to be HOLY WATER STOUP, WOOTTON COURTNEY,
used for SOMERSET
the
Blessed Water—as, for example, at Wigtoft, a village church near
Boston, in Lincolnshire, where the churchwardens purchased “a
chain of iron with a Holy Water stick at the south door.”
The land round about the church was also in the custody of the
people’s wardens. It was called the Cemetery, from the word
cœmeterium, “a dormitory,” it being in the Christian sense the
sleeping-place of the dead who had died in the Lord. It was likewise
spoken of as the “church-yard,” or under the still more happy
appellation of “God’s acre.” From an early period attempts were
made from time to time to put a stop to the practice of holding fairs in
the cemetery, or to prevent anything being sold in the porches of
churches or in the precincts. Bishops prohibited the practice by
Constitutions, and imposed all manner of spiritual penalties for
disobedience. By the Synod of Exeter, in 1267, Bishop Quevil
ordered that all the cemeteries in his diocese should be enclosed
securely, and that no animal was to be allowed pasturage on the
grass that grew in them, and even the clergy were warned of the
impropriety of permitting their cattle to graze in “the holy places,
which both civil and canon law ordered to be respected.” For this
reason, the bishop continues, “all church cemeteries must be
guarded from all defilement, both because they are holy (in
themselves) and because they are made holy by the relics of the
Saints.”
The reason for this belief in the holy character of cemeteries is set
out clearly in a letter of Bishop Edyndon, in 1348, where he says that
“the Catholic Church spread over the world believes in the
resurrection of the bodies of the dead. These have been
sanctified by the reception of the Sacraments, and are
consequently buried, not in profane places, but in specially
enclosed and consecrated cemeteries, or in churches,
where with due reverence they are kept, like the relics of
the Saints, till the day of the resurrection.”
The trees that grew within the precincts of the cemetery were at
times a fertile cause of dispute between the priest and his people.
Were they the property of the parson or of the parish? And could
they be cut down at the will of either? In the thirteenth century, when
the charge of looking after the churchyards was regarded as
weighing chiefly on the clergy, it was considered that to repair the
church—either chancel or nave—the trees growing in them might be
cut. Otherwise, as they had been planted for the purpose of
protecting the churches from damage by gales, they were to be left
to grow and carry out the end for which they had been placed there.
Archbishop Peckham had previously laid down the law that, although
the duty of keeping the enclosure of the cemetery rested upon the
parishioners, what grew upon holy ground being holy, the clergy had
the right to regard the grass and trees and all that grew in the
cemetery as rightly belonging to them. In cutting anything, however,
the archbishop warned the clergy to remember that these things
were intended to ornament and protect God’s house, and that
nothing should be cut without reason. However the question of the
ownership of the trees growing in churchyards may have been
regarded by the parishioners, there are evidences to show that they
did not hesitate to adorn their burial-places with trees and shrubs
when needed. At St. Mary’s, Stutterton, for instance, in 1487, the
churchwardens purchased seven score of plants from one John
Folle, of Kyrton, and paid for “expenses of settyng of ye plants, 16d.”
The sacred character of consecrated cemeteries was recognized by
the law. Bracton says that “they are free and absolute from all
subjection, as a sacred thing, which is only amongst the goods of
God—whatever is dedicated and consecrated to God with rites and
by the pontiffs, never to return afterward to any private uses.” And
amongst these he names “cemeteries dedicated, whether the dead
are buried therein or not, because if those places have once been
dedicated and consecrated to God, they ought not to be converted
again to human uses.” Indeed, “even if the dead are buried there
without the place having been dedicated or consecrated, it will still
be a sacred place.”
The ceremony by which the mediæval churchyard was consecrated
was performed by the bishop of the diocese, or some other bishop,
by his authority and in his name. The fees were to be paid by the
parish; and the parochial accounts give examples of this expense
having been borne by the wardens. Thus at Yatton, in 1486, the
churchyard was greatly enlarged, and, when the new wall had been
constructed, the bishop came over and consecrated the ground. The
parish entertained him and his ministers at dinner, and paid the
episcopal fee, which was 33s. 4d. One of the expenses of this
ceremony, noted down by the churchwardens, was, “We paid the old
friar that was come to sing for the parish, 8d.”
In the churchyards thus dedicated to God were set up stone crosses
or crucifixes, as a testimony to the faith and the hope in the merits of
Christ’s death, of those who lay there waiting for the resurrection.
The utmost reverence for these sacred places was ever enjoined
upon all. Children, according to Myrc, were to be well instructed on
this point—
“Also wyth-ynn chyrche and seyntwary

Do rygt thus as I the say.
Songe and cry and such fare
For to stynt thou schalt not spare;
Castynge of axtre and eke of ston
Sofere hem there to use non;
Bal and bares and such play
Out of chyrcheyorde put away.”
And the penitent soul was to inquire of itself whether it had done its
duty in ever offering a prayer for the dead when passing through a
cemetery—
“Hast thou I-come by chyrcheyorde

And for ye dead I-prayed no worde?”
In concluding this brief survey of the material parts of pre-

Reformation churches, it is impossible not mentally to contrast the
picture of these sacred places, as revealed in the warden’s
accounts, the church inventories and other documents, with the bare
and unfurnished buildings they became after what Dr. Jessopp has
called “the great pillage.” Even the poorest and most secluded
village sanctuary was in the early times overflowing with wealth and
objects of beauty, which loving hands had gathered to adorn God’s
house, and to make it, as far as their means would allow, the
brightest spot in their little world, and beyond doubt the pride of all
their simple, true hearts. This is no picture of our imagination, but
sober reality, for the details can be all pieced together from the
records which survive. Just as a shattered stained-glass window
may with care be put together again, and may help us to understand
something of what it must have been in the glory of its
completeness, so the fragments of the story of the past, which can
be gathered together after the destruction and decay of the past
centuries, are capable of giving some true, though perhaps poor,
idea of the town and village parish churches in pre-Reformation
days. “There is not a parish church in the Kingdom,” writes a
Venetian traveller of England in 1500,—“there is not a parish church
in the Kingdom so mean as not to possess crucifixes, candlesticks,
censers, patens, and cups of silver.” What is most remarkable about
the documents that have come down to us, and which are mere
chance survivals amid the general wreck, is the consistent story they
tell of the universal and intelligent interest taken by the people of
every parish as a whole in beautifying and supporting their churches.
In a real and true sense, which may be perhaps strange to us in
these later times, the parish church was their church. Their life, as
will be seen in subsequent chapters, really centred round it, and they
one and all were intimately connected with its management. The
building was their care and their pride; the articles of furniture and
plate, the vestments and banners and hangings, all had their own
well-remembered story, and were regarded, as in truth they were, as
the property of every man, woman, and child of the particular village
or district.
CHAPTER IV
THE PARISH CLERGY
The head of every parish in pre-Reformation days was the priest. He
might be a rector or vicar, according to his position in regard to the
benefice; but in either case he was the resident ecclesiastical head
of the parochial district. The word “parson,” in the sense of a
dignified personage—“the person of the place”—was, in certain
foreign countries, applied in the eleventh century, in its Latin form of
persona, to any one holding the parochial cure of souls. English legal
writers, such as Coke and Blackstone, have stated the civil law
signification of the word as that of any “person” by whom the
property of God, the Patron Saint, the church or parish was held, and
who could sue or be sued at law in respect to this property. In
ecclesiastical language, at any rate in England, according to
Lyndwood, the word “parson” was synonymous with “rector.”
Besides the rector or parson and the vicar, several other classes of
clergy were frequently to be met with in mediæval parishes. Such
were curates, chantry priests, chaplains, stipendiary priests, and
sometimes even deacons and subdeacons. About each of these and
their duties and obligations it will be necessary to speak in turn, but
before doing so something may usefully be said about the clergy
generally, and about their education, obligations, and method of life.
From the earliest times the clerical profession was open to all ranks
and classes of the people. Possibly, and even probably, the English
landlords of the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries were only too glad to
bestow livings, of which they had the right of presentation, upon
younger sons or relations, who had been educated with this end in
view. But in those same centuries there is ample evidence that the
ranks of the clergy were recruited from the middle classes, and even
from the sons of serfs, who had to obtain their overlord’s leave and
pay a fine to him for putting their children to school, and thus taking
them from the land to which they were by birth adscripti, or bound.
Mr. Thorold Rogers has given instances of the exaction of these
fines for sending sons to school. In one example 13s. 4d. was paid
for leave to put an eldest son ad scholas with a view of his taking
orders; in another 5s. was paid, in 1335, for a similar permission for
a younger son. In the diocesan registers, also, episcopal
dispensations de defectu natalium are frequent, and show that a not
inconsiderable number of the English clergy sprang from the class of
“natives” of the soil, or serfs, upon whom the lord of the manor had a
claim. Examples also could be given of a bishop allowing his “native”
(nativus meus) permission to take sacred orders and to hold
ecclesiastical benefices—acts of kindness on the bishops’ part
shown to some promising son of one of the serfs of the episcopal
domains.
The practice of introducing into the body of the clergy even those
sprung from the lower ranks of life was not altogether popular, and
the author of The Vision of Piers Plowman has left a record of the
existing prejudice on the subject. He thinks that “bondmen and
beggars’ children belong to labour, and should serve lords’ sons,”
and that things are much amiss when every cobbler sends “his son
to schole” and “each beggar’s brat” learns his book, “so that
beggar’s brat a Bishop that worthen among the peers of the land
prese to sytten ... and his sire a sowter (cobbler) y-soiled with grees,
his teeth with toyling of leather battered as a saw.”
In 1406 the more liberal spirit of encouraging learning wherever it
was found to exist asserted itself, and by a statute of the English
Parliament of that date it was enacted that “every man or woman, of
what state or condition he be, shall be free to set their son or
daughter to take learning at any school that pleaseth them within the
realm.” That such schools existed in the past in greater numbers
than has been thought likely does not now appear open to doubt.
Besides the teaching to be obtained at the cathedrals, religious
houses, and well-known grammar schools, the foundations of
education were furnished by numerous other smaller places, taught
by priests up and down the country. This is proved by the numbers of
students who came up to the Universities for their higher work at the
age of fourteen or so, after they had been prepared elsewhere, and
the numbers of whom fell off almost to a vanishing point on the
destruction of the religious houses, and the demolition of the smaller
schools, under cover of the Act for dissolving Chantries, etc. In the
Chantry certificates mention is made of numerous parochial schools
taught by priests, who also served the parish in other ways, or by
clerks supported by money left for the purpose of giving free
education. These proofs appear on the face of the certificates, in
order that a plea might be made for their exemption from the
operation of the general dissolution of chantries and guilds; it is
needless to add that the plea had no effect. In some places, too, as
for example at Morpeth and Alnwick and Durham, a second school
of music, called the “song school,” was kept. At the latter place a
chantry was founded in the cathedral for two priests “to pray and to
keep free schools, one of grammar and one of song, in the city of
Durham, for all manner of children that should repair to the said
schools, and also to distribute yearly alms to poor people.” At
Lavenham, in Suffolk, a priest was paid by the parish to “teach the
children of the town” and to act as “secondary” to the curate.
By the will of Archbishop Rotheram, in 1500, the foundation of a
college in his native place was laid. In this will the archbishop, after
saying that he had been born at Rotheram, gives an interesting
biographical note about his early years—
“To this place a teacher of grammar coming, by what
chance, but I believe it was God’s grace that brought him
thither, taught me and other youths, by which others with
me attained to higher (paths of life). Wherefore wishing to
show my gratitude to our Saviour, and to celebrate the
cause of my (success in life), and lest I should seem to be
ungrateful and forgetful of God’s benefits and from
whence I came, I have determined in the first place to
establish there a teacher of grammar to instruct all without
charge.”
Archbishop Rotheram’s case was not singular. Bishop Latimer, in
one of his sermons before Edward VI., gives an account of his early
life.
“My father,” he says, “was a yeoman, and had no lands of
his own; only he had a farm of three or four pounds by the
year at the uttermost, and hereupon he tilled so much as
kept half a dozen men. He had a walk for a hundred
sheep, and my mother milked thirty kine. He was able and
did find the king a harness and his horse. I remember that
I buckled on his harness when he went to Blackheath
field. He kept me to school, or else I had not been able to
have preached before the King’s majesty now.”
An ordinance of the diocese of Exeter in the synod of Bishop Quevil
seems also to suggest that schools of some kind existed in most
cities and towns. He had always understood, he says, that the
benefice of the “Holy Water bearer” was in the beginning instituted in
order to give poor clerks something to help them to school, “that they
might become more fit and prepared for higher posts.” In this belief
the bishop directs that in all churches, not more than ten miles
distant from the schools of the cities and towns of his diocese, the
“benefices” of the “Holy Water bearers” should always be held by
scholars.
Seager’s Schoole of Virtue, although written in Queen Mary’s reign,
refers, no doubt, to a previous state of things. The author seems to
take for granted that attendance at school is a very common, if not
the ordinary thing, and that it is in the power of most youths to make
their future by study and perseverance.
“Experience doth teche, and shewe to the playne

That many to honour, by learninge attayne
That were of byrthe but simple and bace
Such is the goodness of God’s speciale grace.
For he that to honour by vertue doth ryse
Is doubly happy, and counted more wyse.”
The writer then warns the boys he is addressing to behave

themselves when leaving school. On their way home they would do
well to walk two and two, and “not in heaps, like a swarm of bees.”
Another educator, Old Symon, in his “Lesson of Wysedom for all
maner chyldryn,” urges diligence and plodding upon his pupils, with
a jest as to possible positions to which the student may in time
attain.
“And lerne as faste as thou can,

For our byshop is an old man,
And therfor thou must lerne faste
If thou wilt be byshop when he is past.”
It is unnecessary to pursue the subject of the education of the

parochial clergy further. After his elementary education had been
received in the schools, the student’s preparation for the reception of
Orders was continued and completed at the Universities. The
ordinary course here was lengthy. Grammar, which included Latin
and literature with rhetoric and logic, occupied four years. The
student was then admitted a Bachelor. In the case of clerical
students this was followed by seven years’ training before the
Bachelor’s degree in Theology was bestowed, and only after a
further three years’ study of the Bible, and after the candidate had
lectured at least on some one book of the Scriptures, was he
considered to have earned his degree of Doctor in Theology.
ACOLYTHES
SACRAMENT OF BAPTISM
The age when the candidate for Orders could be promoted to the
various steps leading to the priesthood was settled by law and
custom. A boy of seven, if he showed signs of having a vocation to
the sacred ministry, might be made a cleric by receiving the tonsure.
In “rare instances” and under special circumstances he might then
receive an ecclesiastical benefice, and so get the wherewith to live
while he was studying to fulfil the duties attached to his office. In the
course of the next seven years the youth could be given the minor
Orders of “doorkeeper,” “lector,” “exorcist,” and “acolyte.” He would
then be at least fourteen years of age, and thus at the time of life at
which in those days students were supposed to begin their

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Legislative and Judicial Landmarks 41

Chapter 3 Culture and the Culture-Learning

Exploring the Concept of Culture 66

Chapter 4 Classrooms and Schools as Cultural

Case Study: Melinda’s Induction Year Dilemma 108

Active Exercise 137

Chapter 5 Intercultural Development: Considering

Intercultural Competence 142

2 Multicultural Teaching in Action 165

Chapter 6 Creating Classrooms That Address

Case Study: The Chameleon 168

Some Cautions in Applying the Contact Hypothesis 183

Chapter 7 The Classroom as a Global Community:

Case Study: A Global Classroom 202

Teaching the Global Perspective 225

Chapter 8 Developing Learning Communities:

Case Study: Language and Learning Style in a Learning-Community

Perspectives on Second-Language Acquisition 265

Chapter 9 Religious Pluralism in Secular

Case Study: Religion in a Secular Classroom 278

International Perspective: What’s Happening Elsewhere in the World? 302

Chapter 10 Developing a Collaborative Classroom:

Case Study: Gender and Sexual Orientation in a

Classroom Activities 343

Chapter 11 Creating Developmentally Appropriate

Case Study: Age in Developmentally Appropriate Classrooms 350

Chapter 12 Creating Inclusive Classrooms: The

Case Study: Schools That Include All Students 380

Chapter 13 Improving Schools for All Children:

Case Study: Fulfilling the Promise in the Northeast Kingdom 414

Perspectives on Multiple Forms of Assessment: Demand Versus Support 434

Averil McClelland is currently Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Cultural

Philip Safford, Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Case Western Reserve University,

New to This Edition

and intercultural interaction in Chapters 3 and 4. Chapter 5 explores the development

Chapter 1: Education in a Changing Society

Chapter 2: Multicultural Education: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives

Chapter 3: Culture and the Culture-Learning Process

Chapter 4: Classrooms and Schools as Cultural Crossroads

Chapter 5: Intercultural Development: Considering the Growth of Self and Others

“Also wyth-ynn chyrche and seyntwary

“Hast thou I-come by chyrcheyorde

In concluding this brief survey of the material parts of pre-

“Experience doth teche, and shewe to the playne

The writer then warns the boys he is addressing to behave

“And lerne as faste as thou can,

It is unnecessary to pursue the subject of the education of the

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