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Apago PDF Enhancer
Contents Unit 2
Common Deformation Modes

Preface viii 3
To the Student (pg. viii)
To the Instructor (pg. viii)
Axial Loading 84
Resources for Instructors (pg. ix) 3.1 Internal Force–Deformation–Displacement (pg. 86)
Resources for Students (pg. ix) 3.2 Varying Internal Force (pg. 92)
Acknowledgments (pg. x) 3.3 Systems of Axially Loaded Members (pg. 100)
About the Author (pg. xi) 3.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures (pg. 108)
3.5 Thermal Effects (pg. 120)
3.6 Wrapped Cables, Rings, and Bands (pg. 128)

1
Introduction 2 4
1.1 Why Study Mechanics of Materials? Torsion 136
(pg. 4)
1.2 How Mechanics of Materials Predicts 4.1 Rotation (pg. 138)
Deformation and Failure (pg. 6) 4.2 Shear Strain in Circular Shafts (pg. 140)
1.3 Review of Statics—Forces, Subsystems, 4.3 Application and Transmission
and Free Body Diagrams (pg. 8) of Torque (pg. 148)
1.4 Review of Statics—Representing Force 4.4 Shear Stress in Circular Shafts (pg. 150)
Interactions Simply (pg. 10) 4.5 Strength and Stiffness (pg. 162)
1.5 Review of Statics—Conditions of Equilibrium 4.6 Dependence of Stiffness and Strength on Shaft
(pg. 12) Properties (pg. 164)
1.6 Road Map of Book (pg. 16) 4.7 General Guidelines for Torsional Stiffness
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4.8 Torsion of Shafts with Rectangular Cross-Sections
(pg. 176)

Unit 1 4.9

4.10
Torsion of Shafts with Thin-Walled Cross-Sections
(pg. 178)
Shafts with Non-Uniform Twisting Along Their
Body Composed of Elements Lengths (pg. 186)
4.11 Internal Torque and the Relation to Twist
and Stress (pg. 188)
2 4.12 Relation Between Senses and Signs of Internal
Torque,Twist, and Stress (pg. 190)
4.13 Shafts with Varying Cross-Sections (pg. 192)
Internal Force, Stress, 4.14 Statically Indeterminate Structures Subjected
and Strain 18 4.15
to Torsion (pg. 202)
Power-Torque-Speed Relations for Rotating
Shafts (pg. 210)
2.1 Elements (pg. 20)
2.2 Internal Force (pg. 22)
2.3 Normal Stress (pg. 32)
2.4
2.5
Normal Strain (pg. 40)
Measuring Stress and Strain (pg. 48)
5
2.6 Elastic Behavior of Materials (pg. 50)
2.7 Failure and Allowable Limit on Stress
Bending 218
(pg. 58)
2.8 Variety of Stress–Strain Response (A) Shear Forces and Bending Moments
(pg. 60) 5.1 Deformation in Bending (pg. 220)
2.9 Shear Strain and Shear Stress (pg. 68) 5.2 Beams, Loads, and Supports (pg. 222)
2.10 Shear and Bearing Stress in Pin Joints 5.3 Internal Loads in Beams (pg. 224)
(pg. 70) 5.4 Internal Loads by Isolating Segments (pg. 226)
5.5 Variation of Internal Loads with Applied
Loads (pg. 232)

vi | CONTENTS
 (B) Stresses Due to Bending Moments 7.7 Failure for Stresses in 3-D (pg. 454)
5.6 Strain Distribution in Bending (pg. 250) 7.8 2-D Strain Transformations and Strain
5.7 Stresses in Bending (pg. 252) Rosettes (pg. 460)
5.8 Bending Equations (pg. 262) 7.9 Fatigue (pg. 466)
5.9 Bending of Composite Cross-Sections (pg. 272) 7.10 Stress Concentrations (pg. 468)
5.10 Bending Stresses Under a Non-Uniform Bending
Moment (pg. 280)
5.11

5.12
Dependence of Stiffness and Strength
on Cross-Section (pg. 290)
Bending of a Beam Composed of Multiple
8
Layers (pg. 296) Buckling 480
5.13 Bending of General (Non-Symmetric)
Cross-Sections (pg. 298) 8.1 Buckling of Axially Loaded, Simply Supported
(C) Stresses Due to Shear Forces Members (pg. 482)
5.14 Transverse Shear Stress (pg. 304) 8.2 Buckling of Axially Loaded Members—Alternative
5.15 Shear Flow—Thin-Walled and Built-Up Support Conditions (pg. 484)
Cross-Sections (pg. 310) 8.3 Design Equations for Axial Compression (pg. 486)
(D) Deflections Due to Bending Moments
5.16 Deflections Related to Internal Loads (pg. 318)
5.17 Deflections Using Tabulated Solutions (pg. 328) Appendices 501
5.18 Simple Generalizations of Tabulated
Solutions (pg. 332) A. Focused Applications for Problems (pg. 501)
5.19 Complex Generalizations of Tabulated A-1 Bicycles (pg. 502)
Solutions (pg. 344) A-2 Cable-Stayed Bridges (pg. 504)
5.20 Statically Indeterminate Structures Subjected A-3 Drilling (pg. 506)
to Bending (pg. 354) A-4 Exercise Equipment (pg. 508)
A-5 Fracture Fixation (pg. 510)
A-6 Wind Turbines (pg. 512)

Unit 3 B. Theory of Properties of Areas (pg. 514)

B-1 Centroid and Second Moment of Inertia (pg. 514)
B-2 Products of Inertia and Principal Axes of Inertia
Design Against (pg. 516)
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C. Tabulated Properties of Areas (pg. 522)

6 D.
E.
Material Properties (pg. 525)
Geometric Properties of Structural Shapes (pg. 526)
F. Wood Structural Member Properties (pg. 535)
Combined Loads 364 G. Tabulated Beam Deflections (pg. 536)
G-1 Deflections and Slopes of Cantilever Beams
6.1 Determining Internal Loads (pg. 366) (pg. 536)
6.2 Drawing Stresses on 3-D Elements (pg. 372) G-2 Deflections and Slopes of Simply Supported Beams
6.3 Pressure Vessels (pg. 380) (pg. 538)
6.4 Elastic Stress–Strain Relations (pg. 386) H. Stress Concentration Factors (pg. 540)
6.5 Deflections Under Combined Internal Loads I. Advanced Methods and Derivations (pg. 542)
(pg. 392) I-1 Shear Stress and Twist in Thin-Walled Shaft
6.6 Strain Energy (pg. 398) Subjected to Torsion (pg. 542)
6.7 Solving Problems Using Conservation I-2 Method of Singularity Functions (pg. 544)
of Energy (pg. 400) I-3 Derivation of Stress Transformation Formulas (pg. 548)
I-4 Derivation of Equations for Maximum Normal

7 and Shear Stress (pg. 549)

Stress Transformations Answers to Selected

and Failure 412 Problems 552
7.1 Goal of Chapter, and Strain is in the Eye
of the Beholder (pg. 414)
7.2 Defining Stresses on General Surfaces (pg. 416)
Key Terms 562
7.3 Stress Transformation Formulas (pg. 424)
7.4 Maximum and Minimum Stresses (pg. 432)
7.5 Mohr’s Circle (pg. 440) Index 564
7.6 Failure Criteria (pg. 446)

CONTENTS | vii
 Preface
To the Student
This book introduces you to an exciting subject of immense application: how the forces
acting on a material relate to its deformation and failure. The range of technologies that
rely on insights from Mechanics of Materials is vast. They span applications that have seen
continual innovation and refinement over many years, such as aerospace structures and
propulsion, bridge design, automotive technologies, and prosthetic devices. And, Mechan-
ics of Materials underlies applications that were scarcely imaginable a few years ago:
atomic force microscopes, micro-scale robotics, wireless sensors for structural monitoring,
and engineered biological tissues. Mechanics of Materials can be satisfying in another
more personal way. It helps us make sense of countless interactions that we have with
everyday artifacts: why some are too flimsy, too rigid, or prone to break at certain points.
It is likely you are studying this subject because it is required for your major. But you may
have multiple goals: to pass the course or get a good grade, to be intellectually engaged and
exercise your mind and curiosity, and to learn something that you can use in later courses
or in life outside your courses. Every one of those goals points you in the same direction—
to genuinely learn the subject. That means gaining a physical and intuitive feel for its ideas,
seeing the big picture, and fitting the ideas together. By just thumbing through this book, you
will know it is different from most books you have seen. Let me tell you how the
arrangement of this book might help you learn.
We can only communicate the ideas of Mechanics of Materials with a combination of
words, diagrams, and equations. The equation might be necessary to get a quantitative
answer or to judge a trend; for example, should a part be thicker or thinner, longer or shorter.
But, in real life you are rarely handed the right equations. Someone explains a situation to
you with words and diagrams, and you need to make sense of it. Only after you have thought
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about the words and the diagrams, might you see an equation as useful. For this reason,
I have tried to write a book in which words, diagrams, and equations are in balance. In
addition, I have laid out this book so the words, diagrams, and equations are near each other
on the page to better help you solidify the ideas.
You might also notice a high degree of organization. Each chapter is a series of two-page
spreads or sections, with each section dedicated to developing one idea or concept. Further,
each two-page spread consists of subsections that break the idea into bite-size pieces. Not
only do we break this subject apart for you, we help you put it back together. The Chapter
Opener presents the major ideas of the chapter in diagrams and words. At the end of each
chapter, we summarize its sections, including the major equations, concepts, and key terms.
Finally, Chapters 2 through 8 are grouped into 3 units that capture the overall structure of
the subject.
You might also notice many everyday objects depicted on the pages. Familiar, everyday
objects can often illustrate the ideas of Mechanics of Materials. To genuinely learn this
subject, the ideas must ultimately make sense to you. But you are more likely to make sense
of new ideas if you see them first in a familiar context. This book tries to take situations that
you can already picture, and reframe them in more general, powerful ways. I hope you come
to rely on those general ideas and wield them effectively as you explore new applications
unimagined today.

To the Instructor
I wrote this book because I love to help other people understand mechanics. I have taught
this subject for many years, and I still get excited when I come upon a new way of explain-
ing or illustrating some concept. Often, I bring an object into class—a bungee cord, a pool
noodle, a ruler—and I deform it, sometimes with students’ help. I point to the deformation,
which they can see, and I ask the student helpers what they feel. With this book, I hope to
capture some of that classroom experience.

viii | P R E FAC E
 Let me share some of the pedagogic philosophy that informs this book. I think most
instructors want students:
1. to understand the concepts in some intuitive way;
2. to grasp the big picture, that is, to see the forest as well as the individual trees;
3. to use the subject to solve problems.
First, to an intuitive understanding of concepts, there are few more important goals than
helping students attach physical meaning to the variables and symbols we use, and to their
relations with each other. I rarely start with the general case. Instead, I start with a simple
situation that exemplifies the idea. This helps to anchor the idea in each students’ world.
Then, we build a more general mathematical representation, as we need it. Students can
picture deformation far better than they can picture forces. So, for most topics, we begin
with the deformation, to anchor the topic in reality for the students, and next we deal with
the associated forces.
To help students grasp the subject’s larger, coherent structure, we have identified the core
question that it answers: will a body deform too much or fail (Chapter 1)? And, we have
grouped the remaining chapters into three units that delineate how this question is answered.
First, we choose to view a body that deforms and may fail as composed of many small,
identical pieces or elements (Chapter 2). This step is necessary to address failure, which
usually occurs locally, and to separate out the respective contributions of the body’s shape
and material to the force-deformation relations. Second, we identify three common modes
of deformation: stretching, twisting, and bending, which appear repeatedly in engineering
and nature (Chapters 3–5). Each mode deserves to be studied independently, considering the
deformations and forces overall and within each element. Third, to address deformation and
failure in more general situations, we recognize the presence of these common deformation
modes, and combine their contributions appropriately (Chapters 6–8). To reinforce the big
picture set forth in Chapter 1, the conceptual overview at the start of each chapter features
a map that locates the chapter in the overall structure of the subject.
For good reason, the problems in a textbook are very important to most instructors. This
book contains problems that illustrate ideas, concepts, and procedures, as well as problems
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that demonstrate applications to real situations. Studying Mechanics of Materials can also
offer students a chance to learn about interesting applications. To this end, I have devised a
number of problems that highlight selected focused application areas: bicycles, cable-stayed
bridges, drilling of wells, exercise equipment, bone fracture fixation, and wind turbines.
Focused Application Problems are sprinkled throughout the chapters. The diagram for each
such problem references Appendix A, in which that application is described at greater
length. An interested student can see how the situation depicted in a single problem fits into
the overall application. For different assignments, an instructor can select problems from the
same focused application area or problems from a variety of applications.
I hope this book serves your efforts to motivate and teach your students.

Resources for Instructors

• Instructor’s Solutions Manual. An instructor’s solutions manual was prepared
by the author. The manual was also checked as part of the Accuracy Checking program.
• Presentation Resources. All art from the text is available in PowerPoint slide
and JPEG format. These files are available for download from the Instructor Resource
Center at www.pearsonhighered.com/steif. If you are in need of a login and password for
this site, please contact your local Pearson Prentice Hall representative.

Resources for Students

• MasteringEngineering. Tutorial homework problems emulate the instructor’s
office–hour environment, guiding students through engineering concepts with self-
paced individualized coaching. These in-depth tutorial homework problems are
designed to coach students with feedback specific to their errors and optional hints that
break problems down into simpler steps.

P R E FAC E | ix
 Acknowledgments
Prentice Hall has been a pleasure to work with during the development of this book. I am
fortunate to have had continuing guidance and encouragement from three Acquisitions
Editors: Eric Svendsen, Tacy Quinn, and Norrin Dias, as well as the insight and enthusiasm
throughout from Editorial Director Marcia Horton. This project has benefited greatly from
the attention of Marketing Manager Tim Galligan, who helped to shape my appreciation
for the multiple audiences this book should seek to satisfy. I am grateful to Senior
Managing Editor Scott Disanno, who has both overseen the production of the book and
provided the fresh, clear eye that honed the manuscript at its final stages. Designer Blair
Brown brought a magical touch and excitement to this unusual project, and I am grateful
for his efforts and the fun I had working with him. The expertise of J.C. Morgan and lead
artist Matt Harshbarger at Precision Graphics has contributed significantly to the final
product, and I am grateful for their patience as the book and artwork evolved. The
distinctive integration of text, equations, and artwork in this book could not have been
realized without Anoop Chaturvedi and the composition services of MPS Limited. Other
than perhaps myself, no one spent more time or agonized more in bringing this project to
fruition than Sr. Production Project Manager Clare Romeo. She has been a joy to work
with, and I cannot thank her enough for her knowledge, expertise, attention to detail,
patience, and humor.
Thank you to the reviewers: Paolo Gardoni, Texas A&M University; Joao Antonio,
Colorado State University; Joel J. Schubbe, U.S. Naval Academy; Daniel A. Mendelsohn,
Ohio State University; Laurence J. Jacobs, Georgia Tech; Eduard S. Ventsel, Pennsylvania
State University; Dashin Liu, Michigan State University; Candace S. Sulzbach, Colorado
School of Mines; Amir G. Rezaei, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona;
Marck French, Purdue University; Niki Schulz, Oregon State University; Jim Morgan,
Texas A&M University; Shane Brown, Washington State University; Christine B. Masters,
Pennsylvania State University; Craig Menzemer, University of Akron; Edwin C. Rossow,
Northwestern University; Anna Dollár, Miami University; Mark E. Walter, Ohio State
University; David Baldwin, University of Oklahoma; Kevin Collins, United States Coast
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Guard Academy; He Liu, University of Alaska Anchorage; and Anthony J. Paris,
University of Alaska Anchorage. At several points during its development, extensive and
thoughtful input from the reviewers was critically important in helping the book take
shape. Their time and efforts are greatly appreciated.
I am also grateful to faculty members and students who offered ideas for realistic
applications and problems, including Jim Papadopoulos, Yoed Rabin, Dustyn Roberts, and
Jonathan Wickert. Billy Burkey, Chris D’eramo, Anthony Fazzini, Rob Keelan, Michael
Reindl, David Urban, and Derek Wisnieski provided valuable assistance in dimensions and
images for a number of application problems. Advice on graphics from Erick Johnson
towards the end of project was very helpful. I thank my assistant, Bobbi Kostyak, who
provided help with many details that arose. I have relied often, to my great satisfaction, on
the design and artistic sense of Ariela Steif, for which I am grateful.
This book has benefited from the many years I have fruitfully and joyfully discussed the
learning of mechanics with my long-time friend and collaborator, Anna Dollár. I credit my
friend and collaborator, Marina Pantazidou, for giving a pivotal nudge that convinced me to
write this book, and for supplying ongoing encouragement in education endeavors generally.
I want to thank Robbin Steif for the significant role she played at the start of this project.
My own teachers provided the foundation for my fascination with the subject of
mechanics. I have in turn had the pleasure of getting to know many students over the years
in my classes. They have helped me recognize the challenges in learning mechanics, and the
practical situations in which mechanics comes alive.
During much of the writing of this book, I was fortunate to have the companionship,
warmth, and good wishes of many fellow denizens of the Galleria.
My family life provides the perfect counterpoint to my work, and I thank my loved ones,
Michelle, Ariela, Talia, and Marigny for making that family life such a desirable distraction
to writing this book.
PAUL S. STEIF
Carnegie Mellon University

x | P R E FAC E
About the Author
Professor Paul S. Steif has been a faculty member in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University since 1983. He received a Sc.B. degree in
engineering mechanics from Brown University; M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in applied
mechanics from Harvard University; and was National Science Foundation NATO Post-
doctoral fellow at the University of Cambridge. As a faculty member his research has
addressed a variety of problems, including the effects of interfacial properties on fiber-
reinforced composites, bifurcation and instabilities in highly deformed layered materials,
and stress generation and fracture induced by cryopreservation of biological tissues.
Dr. Steif has also contributed to engineering practice through consulting and research on
industrial projects, including elastomeric damping devices, blistering of face seals, and
fatigue of tube fittings.
Since the mid-1990s, Dr. Steif has focused increasingly on engineering education,
performing research on student learning of mechanics concepts, and developing new course
materials and classroom approaches. Drawing upon methods of cognitive and learning
sciences, Dr. Steif has led the development and psychometric validation of the Statics
Concept Inventory—a test of statics conceptual knowledge. He is the co-author of Open
Learning Initiative (OLI) Engineering Statics. Dr. Steif is a Fellow of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers and recipient of the Archie Higdon Distinguished Educator Award
from the Mechanics Division of the American Society for Engineering Education.

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P R E FAC E | xi
Resources to Accompany Steif, Mechanics of Materials, 1e

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variety of published papers based on NSF-sponsored research and tests illustrate the benefits of
MasteringEngineering. To read these papers, please visit www.masteringengineering.com.

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tutorial system, MasteringEngineering is designed to provide students with customized coaching
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homework efficiently and effectively with tutorials that provide targeted help.

 Immediate and specific feedback shows students their mistakes while they are working on the
problem. This allows them to see the explanation behind their misconceptions.

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concept is not correct.
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 This page intentionally left blank

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Mechanics
of
Materials
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 Introduction to
Mechanics of
Materials Excessive deformation . . .
Mechanics of Materials
can help with that . . .

If I knew the factors that

affect the sagging, I could
I need to do something redesign the shelf so it
about that sagging shelf . . . sags less . . .

How do I model this shelf?

The shelf is bending under the weight of those books, and it’s resting q
on the brackets at the ends. In Mechanics of Materials I can represent
this shelf approximately as a beam with simple supports. I can
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approximate the books as applying a uniformly distributed force
on the beam. L

What key result do I need

from analyzing the model?

The maximum deflection v at the center

of the shelf is given by this equation: q: the force per length
applied by the books
L: the length of the shelf
between the brackets

5qL4
v =
384EI
I: the second moment of inertia —
it tells me how the width and
the thickness affect the bending

Thickness
E: the elastic modulus of the shelf —
it tells me how the stiffness of the material
itself, the wood, affects the bending Width
 Chapter
From what I just learned, how
could I redesign the shelf?

I could make the shelf shorter, or maybe install

CONTENTS
1
another bracket under the center — might need
1.1 Why Study Mechanics of Materials?
some more analysis to see how much that helps . . .
(pg. 4)
1.2 How Mechanics of Materials Predicts
Deformation and Failure (pg. 6)
1.3 Review of Statics—Forces, Subsystems,
and Free Body Diagrams (pg. 8)
1.4 Review of Statics—Representing Force
Interactions Simply (pg. 10)
1.5 Review of Statics—Conditions
of Equilibrium (pg. 12)
1.6 Road Map of Book (pg. 16)

I could use a stiffer material — steel or aluminum, or a carbon-

reinforced composite — might be a little overkill for a bookshelf in
my apartment . . . The thickness of the shelf has much more effect
on the resistance to bending than does its width . . . So it could help
a lot to use a thicker board

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Or I could put a much thicker reinforcing strip on the front . . . That

should help . . . I wonder by how much . . .

. . . Welcome to Mechanics of Materials

3
1.1 Why Study Mechanics of Materials?
The design of products, systems, and structures demands
the engineer to consider a broad range of issues. Here we identify
the issues addressed by Mechanics of Materials.

1. Account for deformation
and the potential for failure
when designing systems
subjected to forces.
Forces acting on designed artifacts can be significant. All bodies deform under applied forces,
and they can fail if the forces are sufficiently large.
Mechanics of Materials addresses two prime questions:
●
How much does a body deform when subjected to forces?
●
When will forces applied to a body be large enough to cause the body to fail?
Deformation and failure depend on the forces and on the body’s material, size, and shape.

2. In most situations, try Usually, the structure or system must remain intact even when subjected to forces. If we know
to avoid failure and keep the forces under which failure would occur, we can design to avoid failure. Further, a system often
deformations within needs to remain close to its original shape to function properly. If we can quantify deformations,
acceptable limits. we can design the system to avoid undesirably large deformations.

This computerized welding system functions

properly only if the deflections of its track are
very small.

While a structure may still be intact, it could

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be viewed as having failed if there is a
permanent deformation. A bicycle that has
deformed this much is unlikely to be useful.

A crack in a structure, such as this

support column, is a type of failure.
This crack may be repairable. A
structure that fractures completely
into two parts would clearly be
unacceptable.

4 CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

3. Deformation is desirable
in some situations where
it depends predictably
on the forces.
4. Occasionally, failure is
desirable, if it occurs at a
reproducible level of load.
Some products must deform to carry
out their function. They are designed
to have a desired relation between
the deformation and the acting forces.
For example, such products include
pole vaults that flex to temporarily store
energy that later propels the vaulter,
mountings that accommodate motions
of helicopter blades, and support
springs that allow for deflection of
structural members.
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Although such circumstances are rare, we sometimes deliberately want failure to occur when loads
reach a predetermined level. In expensive equipment, failure can be disastrous. So, engineers design
into the equipment an inexpensive extra part, which fails at a consistent force that is safely less than
the main components can tolerate. For the transmission shaft in a drive train, such a system that
protects the shaft is called a torque fuse. Just as an old fashioned electric fuse breaks when the current
is too high, the pins in the torque fuse break when the torque is too high.
>>End 1.1
1.1 | Why Study Mechanics of Materials? 5
1.2 How Mechanics of Materials Predicts
Deformation and Failure
A few very general scientific principles are needed to predict
deformation and failure. With very general principles, we can consider
bodies with a wide range of geometries and materials, which are
subjected to many types of loads. Mechanics of Materials introduces
these principles and applies them to bodies and loadings that can be
analyzed with relatively simple mathematics.

1. Separate out the effects
of material and geometry by
viewing a body as composed
of many tiny elements.
To predict deformation and failure, mechanics of materials relies on a critical insight: any body can
be viewed as an assemblage of tiny, in fact infinitesimal, cubic elements. This insight allows us
to separate out the effect of the body’s material from its shape. Since a tiny cube is a standard shape,
the relations between the cube’s deformation and the forces on it depend only on the material, for
example, the particular type of ceramic, metal, plastic, or wood. These relations can be measured
and described for a given material, and they are relevant to a body of any shape and size composed
of that material.

Apago PDF Enhancer

6 CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

2. Relate forces and
deformations at the element
level with those at the level
of the overall structure.
3. Recognize that loaded
bodies often deform in simple
patterns, namely, stretching,
twisting, or bending.
4. Study deflection and failure
for each pattern individually,
and then how they combine.
Mechanics of materials defines stress and strain to describe force and deformation at the level
of an elemental cube. To determine a body’s overall deformation and potential for failure, we
combine (1) the material-specific stress–strain relations for a cubic element, (2) equilibrium
relations between forces on the body as a whole and the forces on its elements, and (3) geometric
relations between deformations of the whole body and of its elements.
Equilibr
Stress ium
Force
Material
Deflection
tr y
Strain Geome
Engineers deal with deformation and failure in structures having a wide variety of shapes,
materials, and loadings. However, in mechanics of materials, we study deformation and failure
primarily for simple patterns of deformation: stretching, twisting, or bending.
Stretching Twisting Bending
Apago PDF Enhancer
For each pattern, the overall loading is described by equal and opposite forces or moments at
the two ends. The overall deformation is described by a single parameter: how much the body
stretches, twists, or bends.
In mechanics of materials, we learn how the forces and deformations vary from one cubic element
to another for each deformation pattern. With that information, we interrelate the overall load and
deformation for that pattern, and we find the load at which failure will occur. As a by-product,
we gain insight into how the body’s geometry (length and cross-section) and the body’s material
independently affect the overall deformation and failure.
Faced with applications that appear complex, we must also learn to detect the presence of these
simple deformation patterns, alone or, often, in combination. We typically analyze the deformations
and stresses in each pattern and then combine them appropriately to find the total deformation and
to determine if failure will occur.
>>End 1.2
1.2 | How Mechanics of Materials Predicts Deformation and Failure 7
1.3 Review of Statics—Forces, Subsystems,
and Free Body Diagrams
The forces that we study in Mechanics of Materials generally keep
the body in equilibrium, even if they also cause the body to deform.
For this reason, Statics, which addresses the forces on bodies
in equilibrium, is a critical prerequisite to Mechanics of Materials.
The central ideas of Statics are reviewed here.

1. A force represents A force describes the equal and opposite

a mechanical interaction
between two bodies, which
often are in contact.
mechanical interaction between two bodies, B
one upon the other. Since a force has a B
magnitude, direction, and sense, we represent it
mathematically by a vector. Two forces applied Force of
to a body at the same point have the same effect A on B
A Force of
as their vector sum. B on A

Whenever a force is drawn, it should be clear which body exerts the force on which body.
For example, in this vise-grip forces are exerted between the palm and the upper handle and between
the fingers and the lower handle. There are many other forces that one could consider in this
example.

Apago PDF Enhancer

Upper
handle

Lower
handle

2. Engineering systems
of interest may consist
of multiple, interconnected
parts, which exert forces
on each other.
In general, systems studied in engineering are composed of multiple parts. Any pair of contacting
parts can exert forces on each other. We must be prepared to consider all such forces and to
quantify those deemed necessary.
This vise-grip consists of several connected parts. The clamped object and the lower jaw exert
forces on each other. The lower jaw and the lower handle exert forces on each other through
the indicated pin.

Upper
handle

Clamped
object

Lower Lower
jaw Pin handle

8 CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

3. All subsystems of a system
in equilibrium are also in
equilibrium.
4. A free body diagram
displays all forces that
affect the equilibrium
of a subsystem.
5. Select subsystems
strategically to find forces
of interest.
A system that is at rest (or at least not accelerating) is in equilibrium. This vise-grip, which
is squeezed by the hand and clamps an object, is in equilibrium.
Any part or “subsystem” of a system in equilibrium is also in equilibrium. The lower jaw of the
vise-grip, which is highlighted in the figure, must also be in equilibrium.
Because it contacts other parts, each subsystem will typically have multiple forces acting on it.
The forces on the subsystem, acting in combination, keep the subsystem in equilibrium. The
mathematical conditions for equilibrium are presented later.
In a free body diagram (FBD), we draw a subsystem and all the forces directly exerted on it by
bodies external to the subsystem. The FBD is helpful because equilibrium of the subsystem is fully
determined by the forces drawn in the diagram.
Draw forces due to
Draw forces due to pin connected to
clamped object here upper handle here
Here is the lower jaw of the vise-grip. In
an FBD of the lower jaw, we would draw
forces in the three regions where other
Apago PDF Enhancer
bodies touch the lower jaw. Draw forces due to
pin connected to
lower handle here
We can choose to focus on any subsystem. We choose particular subsystems because their FBDs
contain forces of interest that we wish to determine.
Sometimes, we even consider a portion of a single part as a subsystem. This is important in
mechanics of materials, because we often need to find the internal force that acts within a part,
between one portion and another.
Draw “internal forces”
due to right portion
Left Right
portion portion
Draw “internal forces”
due to left portion
>>End 1.3
1.3 | Review of Statics—Forces, Subsystems, and Free Body Diagrams 9
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
"He is not a man after my own heart, and I would rather be excused
from serving under him. I don't think we shall agree."
"You may not agree, but he will," laughed the captain, who did not
appear to be half so amiable as before I had signed the shipping
papers.
"I don't think you know him. In my opinion, the police commissioners
of St. Louis would like to see him very much indeed," I answered.
This was a very imprudent remark on my part, though it was only the
simple truth. Ben Waterford's face turned red, and he leaped into the
boat where I was.
"We have carried this farce just far enough," said he, angrily. "I'm not
going to fool all day with any one. Now get into that boat. Tumble his
trunk in."
The men with me obeyed the order, and my valuable trunk was
placed in the stern sheets of the shipping master's boat. I could not
hope successfully to resist the captain and mate of the Michigan, and
calmer reflection than I had at first given the subject cooled my
desperate ardor. But I still hoped that some lucky event would save
me from my fate.
"Tumble into the boat, Phil," repeated the mate.
"I want you to tell the police of New York, as soon as possible," I
continued, turning to my boatman, "that the mate of the Michigan is
—"
I had not time to say any more before Ben Waterford seized me by
the throat, and pitched me into the other boat.
 Phil made Prisoner by Waterford.

"Is a forger," I shouted.

"Shove off," said Captain Farraday; and the two boats separated.
"I'll tell them," replied the boatman, who was evidently vexed at the
loss of the promised sovereign, though he had done his best to earn
it.
"I want you to come alongside the bark, and carry the papers to the
custom-house," said Captain Farraday. "I will give you five dollars if
you will."
"I'll give you five more," added Ben Waterford.
I saw that those who were likely to be my friends were to be bought
off. Ten dollars would effectually silence them, and I had nothing more
to hope for, though it occurred to me that I might communicate with
the pilot, whose canoe had come alongside just as I left the bark. I
had exhausted my own resources, and I prayed to God for help. I was
driven up the accommodation ladder, and reached the deck, utterly
defeated and cast down. The men hoisted up my trunk, but I felt as
though that and myself might as well be at the bottom of the bay. I
had neglected, both in the letter and the spirit, the advice of my
father, and I was in a fair way to suffer severely for it. If Ben Waterford
had not been the mate of the bark, my future would have seemed
more tolerable.
"What shall we do with him?" asked Captain Farraday. "Send him
forward with the rest of the crew?"
"Not yet; he is turbulent, and may make trouble there. We will keep
him aft till we are in blue water. Come with me, Phil," he continued, in
savage tones, which were a foretaste of what I might reasonably
expect from him.
I followed him into the cabin, where he ordered me to wait his further
pleasure. He looked into several state-rooms, and finally entered one
of them, closing the door behind him. I had an opportunity for
reflection; but I had nothing to think of but the misery which the future
had in store for me. I sat down on a stool, and it was the literal stool
of repentance to me. If I could only get on shore once more, I should
be willing to give my word never to go to sea as a sailor again.
Captain Farraday came below while I was there, but he said nothing
to me. He enclosed some papers in an envelope, and soon left me
alone.
He had hardly gone before Ben Waterford came out of the state-
room. He had changed his clothes, and looked more like a sailor than
before. When I first saw him, I recognized him as the "Mr. A.
McGregor" I had seen on board of the steamer. Of course I had no
more doubt that he had robbed me of my money. I concluded that he
had in some manner learned that I had it before he left St. Louis, and
had probably come on board of the boat to obtain it. He had shaved
off his whiskers, and taken other precautions to avoid recognition.
"Go in there, Phil," said he, pointing to the state-room he had just left.
"You and I have berthed together before, and we can do it again."
"I don't care about going on this voyage now, Mr. Waterford."
"Perhaps not; but you have shipped, and you are bound to go now."
"If you will let me off—"
"I have no time to talk now. Go in there. I shall know where to find you
when I want you."
"I was only going to say—"
"In there," said he, savagely; and he made a demonstration towards
me.
I concluded that it would be the safest way for me to obey, and I
entered the state-room. He closed the door behind me, and I heard
the bolt of the lock spring upon me. I was a prisoner, and Ben
Waterford intended that I should remain where I was till the bark was
in blue water. In a short time I heard the voice of the captain, giving
orders on the quarter-deck to get the vessel under way. I had nothing
to do but bewail my sad fate.
The state-room belonged to the chief mate. On a desk in the corner
was a volume lettered "Log-book." On the floor was Ben Waterford's
trunk, and I was almost sure I had seen it on board of the steamer on
the Ohio. I stooped down to look at it, in order to satisfy myself, for I
had nothing else to do. The key was in the key-hole. This was
certainly a great oversight on the part of the mate. He could not have
intended to leave his trunk open while I was a prisoner in his room;
but villains are always making blunders and mistakes.
I am willing to acknowledge that it is not right to retaliate for an injury;
but I at once decided to explore the trunk of Mr. Ben Waterford. I did
not intend to do so from motives of revenge, but simply in the
interests of justice, and with the hope that I might find my lost money.
I had been trying for years to be a Christian young man. I had been in
earnest, and every day I had read the New Testament, and
endeavored to follow its precepts and principles. I honestly believe, if
I could have performed a good service to the new mate, I should not
have hesitated to do it.
I opened the trunk, and lifted up the various articles which it
contained. Among other things, I found several bags of money—gold,
I concluded by the weight of them. I untied the strings of several of
them, and found that they contained English sovereigns and Spanish
doubloons. They were not mine, and I restored them. If I had known
then to what use they were to be applied, I should have felt justified in
throwing them all into the sea. I concluded that Waterford had
exchanged the money he had obtained by forgery in St. Louis for this
gold. I tied up each bag as I found it, and put it back in its place.
While I was thus engaged, I heard the creaking of the rigging, and the
bark had careened over so that I understood she was now going to
sea.
But I had not examined all the bags, and I continued my investigation.
Among them I found a quantity of coin tied up in a white linen
handkerchief. I removed the string, and was pleased to find that the
money consisted of American gold. I had counted my own coin times
enough to know exactly of what it consisted. There were sixty twenty-
dollar pieces and thirty ten-dollar pieces. It did not take me long to
count them, and the number corresponded to my own. I was satisfied
that this money was mine, though of course I could not identify all the
pieces. I should not have been willing to swear to any one of them,
though some had a very familiar look.
I claimed this gold, and being my own judge and jury, my claim was
allowed. It was possible that it was not mine; but the probabilities
were all in my favor. I decided to take possession, though it occurred
to me that I might as well take possession of the vessel, since I was
in the power of my enemy, and he could take it from me at his own
pleasure. I proceeded to tie up the handkerchief as I had found it,
when upon one corner of it I found the initials "P. F." These letters
certainly belonged to me, whether the gold did or not. They had been
worked in the linen by Mrs. Greenough, my excellent St. Louis
landlady. It was the counterpart of the others in my wardrobe; and it
was perfectly evident that Mr. Ben Waterford had stolen the
handkerchief from my trunk when he opened it to take out the gold. I
had not missed the handkerchief, but I identified it to my own
satisfaction. I thought that a less partial judge and jury would have
given me the verdict on this evidence, added to that I had before
obtained.
I put the gold into my coat pocket, hoping that my wits would enable
me to retain it through the vicissitudes which were before me. I had
recovered my money, but I cannot say that I felt much better than
before. It was like the yellow dross upon the desert island; I had no
opportunity to use it; but I felt that I was in better condition to escape
whenever an occasion should be presented. I put everything in the
trunk just as I had found it, except the portion that belonged to me. I
locked it, and then, having unscrewed the bull's eye, I opened it, and
dropped the key overboard.
By this time the bark was pitching in the billows, and I concluded that
we must soon be in "blue water." It grew dark in the state-room; but at
last the door opened, and the mate summoned me to appear on
deck.
 CHAPTER IX.
IN WHICH PHIL FINDS HIMSELF RATED AS AN
ABLE SEAMAN IN THE PORT WATCH.
"We are in blue water, Phil," said Mr. Ben Waterford, as he opened
the door of the state-room. "I didn't know but you might want to take
a last look at the shores of your native land, as you are a little
sentimental, like all young monkeys when they go to sea for the first
time."
"Thank you; it is very kind of you to give me the opportunity to do
so," I replied.
"It may be a long time before you see it again."
"Neither of us may ever see it again."
"That's a good deal more likely to happen to you than to me."
"There's no knowing what may happen to either of us."
"Whatever happens to either of us, I want you to understand, in the
first place, Phil, that I am the mate of this vessel."
"I understand that already, and because I understood it, I wanted to
get out of the vessel."
"You didn't get out of her."
"Unfortunately I did not."
"I didn't mean you should," said the mate, chuckling over the
success of his efforts.
"I'm here, and I'm disposed to make the best of it."
"I have no doubt you will be meek enough now; but you needn't
attempt to play the hypocrite here. Your cant won't help you."
"Cant never helps any one."
"You are growing sensible as you grow older," said he, with a sneer.
"I see you have shipped as an able seaman."
"I was not aware that I had shipped in any particular capacity. I
signed the paper at the captain's request."
"You are a very innocent little lamb. Didn't you write able seaman
against your name?"
"I did not."
"Then somebody else wrote it there for you, because you neglected
to rate yourself."
"My signing the paper was a mere form. I came on board to work my
passage to Palermo; and the captain said he would let me go when
we got there."
"When we get to Palermo he will do so," chuckled the mate. "In the
mean time, as you are written down as an able seaman, we shall
regard you as such, and expect you to do duty as one."
I did not understand him then; but I afterwards learned that sailors,
when they ship, rate themselves as able seamen, ordinary seamen,
or boys, the latter term meaning green hands, whatever their age or
size. If a man claims to be an able seaman, he must do the work of
one; not only be able to hand, reef, and steer, but to perform all the
difficult problems in making and mending rigging. In a word, he must
be proficient in all the arts of seamanship. He receives the highest
rate of wages.
An ordinary seaman is required to hand, reef, and steer; to make the
usual knots, and to understand the ropes and sails so that he can
obey an order from the officers; but he is not expected to be
proficient in all the niceties of making and mending rigging. A boy, or
green hand, is not supposed to know anything except what is taught
him after he comes on board. It is a great nautical sin for a man to
ship above his proper rating. If he signs his name and takes his pay
as an able seaman when he is not competent to perform the work of
one, he is regarded as a cheat. As there are usually but few able
seamen in a ship, the work of one who has thus deceived the officer
has to be done by others, and he is generally punished severely for
the trick. The most unpopular hand before the mast is one who has
shipped above his rate; and all his shipmates feel that they have a
reasonable grudge against him.
The mate had evidently rated me on the ship's papers to suit himself,
intending thereby to draw down upon me the enmity of the crew. I
expected no favors from him, and was prepared to submit to any
indignities and hardships to which I might be subjected, consoling
myself with the belief that I had only three or four weeks of service in
the bark before me.
"I shall do my duty to the best of my ability," I continued. "I did not
expect to find you in the vessel, or I should not have been here."
"I suppose not; but I'm very glad you are here. I may say I wanted
you here, and it is not altogether by chance that you happen to be
here," he replied, shaking his head. "You have come athwart my
hawse once or twice too often, Phil."
"I have never had any malice or ill-will towards you."
"Tell that to the marines! If you had minded your own business, I
should have been a rich man, and the husband of Marian Collingsby
to-day. No matter, my lad; I mean to be both yet."
"I only did what I considered it my duty to do."
"None of your cant! I'm going to call all hands in a few minutes, and I
shall take care that you are in my watch."
"Wherever I am, I shall do the best I know how."
"You will wish you had always done so, and not meddled with my
affairs, before this cruise is up. You are not going to live in the cabin,
and have plum duff for dinner every day."
"I will submit as cheerfully as possible to my lot, whatever it may be."
Ben Waterford appeared to be angry because his threats did not
appall me. I hoped that God would give me strength to do my duty,
and enable me to bear all I might be called upon to endure. My tyrant
seemed to be disposed to torture me before he sacrificed me; but I
was determined not to be tortured by any mere words that he used. I
had already nullified a part of the mischief he had done me, for I had
my gold in my pocket. If I could retain this, my future seemed to be
tolerably secure.
"Do you know how you happen to be on board of this bark, Phil?"
said Waterford, the malice twinkling in his eye.
"The circumstances led me here."
"Not exactly! I led you here."
"Perhaps you did, for it looks now as though an evil spirit had guided
my steps."
"Good, Phil! That was well said. You hit the nail on the head. I won't
tell you yet where we are bound; but I must tell you that I saw you on
board of the ferry-boat when you came to New York, and that
Captain Farraday induced you to ship because I desired it. This will
be good news to you, and I wished you to know it. Before I have
done with you, I am going to teach you to mind your own business."
"You will find me a good scholar at that," I replied.
I asked no questions, as he evidently wished me to do. I had parted
with him when we left the Ohio, but I had no idea where he had been
since that time. His explanation showed me why Captain Farraday
had been so anxious to have me go with him, and I felt that I had
walked into the trap very blindly.
"That's all, Phil. We shall be even soon. Now we will go on deck.
Where's your trunk?"
"On deck, I believe."
I followed him on deck. The bark was under all sail, and driving
rapidly over the blue waves. Far away in the distance I saw some
hills, which the darkness soon shut out from my view. The drunken
crew had certainly improved wonderfully since I had seen them last,
for all were quiet and orderly. I found my trunk, and was ordered to
carry it to the forecastle. A bunk near the door was assigned to me,
and I put my trunk under it.
"How do you like this?" asked the mate.
"Very well," I replied.
"Very well? Is that the way you address your officer? If you ever
speak to me or the second mate without a 'sir,' you will get knocked
down for your impudence. Do you understand that?"
"I do, sir."
"That's better. Now open your trunk; and let's see what you have in
it."
"Open my trunk, sir!" I exclaimed, amazed at this requirement.
"Open it!" he added, sternly. "We look into every man's kit, to see
that he has no liquor concealed there."
I thought this was a reasonable requirement, after this explanation,
and I opened the trunk. The mate tumbled over my things very
rudely. I had tied up the relics of my childhood in little bundles, so
that he did not see their contents, and he only tossed them on the
deck. He picked up the bag which had contained my gold.
"What's this for?" he demanded.
"I had my money in it, sir."
"Where's your money now?"
"I lost it, sir."
"Lost it!"
"It was stolen from me, sir."
"Was it? Well, I hope you may find it again—that's all," chuckled he.
I made no answer; but I could not help foreshadowing the scene
when he examined the contents of his own trunk.
"Put back your duds, and stand by when all hands are called."
He left me, and I hastily restored my property to the trunk, and
locked it. I took up the bag which the mate had examined, and
dropped the handkerchief containing the gold into it. I dared not put
the treasure into my trunk, and I looked about me for some secure
place of deposit for it. An apartment frequented by twenty such men
as composed the crew of the Michigan was not a safe place for
fifteen hundred dollars in gold; but I had no alternative, and I thrust
the bag into a hole under my berth.
"All hands on deck!" shouted the second mate, whose name was
Tom York, though nautical courtesy compelled us to call him Mr.
York.
The men gathered in the waist, and the captain made a speech to
them, which I thought contained buncombe enough for a member of
Congress; but the speaker, whose grog had not been stopped, as
that of the crew had been, was still boozy. The men were then
divided into watches, the mates alternately selecting a hand until all
had been stationed.
"Call your man," said the captain to the chief mate.
"Phil Farringford, able seaman," replied Waterford.
"Your turn, Mr. York," added the captain.
"Ned Bilger."
"Jack Sanderson," continued the chief mate.
"Are you an able seaman, my hearty?" asked Sanderson, the man
who had been chosen second in the port watch with me.
"No, I am not. The mate is down upon me, and rated me as an able
seaman, because I did not know enough to rate myself," I replied.
"But we want the able seamen equally divided in the watches."
"The mate knows very well that I am not an able seaman," I added.
"Beg your pardon, Mr. Waterford, but this youngster says he's not an
able seaman," said Sanderson, stepping up to the mate.
"He shipped as such, and we take him at his word. You must do the
same."
"That will never do, my hearty," growled Sanderson to me.
"I can't help it."
"You are honest, my lad," said the old sailor, who was at least fifty
years old. "I don't see why the mate should make his first choice of a
youngster like you, though."
"I know something about a vessel, but not much. I am willing to do
what I can to learn; but I don't pretend to be what I am not."
"That's honest," added old Jack, slapping me on the back. "I'll make
an able seaman of you. There, pipe down. Now come with me, and
we will overhaul the matter."
I went to the forecastle with Sanderson, and told him my story, so far
as it related to my connection with the vessel.
 CHAPTER X.
IN WHICH PHIL STANDS HIS WATCH, AND TAKES
HIS TRICK AT THE WHEEL.
Jack Sanderson was an old sailor. I had noticed, when I first came on
board of the bark, that he was very drunk. But he had a kind heart,
and was a person of great natural ability. If he had let liquor alone, he
might have been the master of a vessel. He was much interested in
my story, and gave me such good advice as the circumstances
required. He counselled me to obey the officers in all things, to be
respectful, and to perform every duty with care and attention. I had
already resolved to do all this, but I was strengthened by the advice
of the old salt.
"I'm afraid the captain won't discharge you when we get to Palermo,"
said Jack.
"Then I shall discharge myself," I replied, decidedly.
"That's easy to say, my hearty, but not always easy to do. You signed
the shipping papers."
"The captain told me that was a mere form, and that he would let me
go when the bark arrived at Palermo."
"Perhaps he will let you go, and then again perhaps he won't. You
can't always tell the night beforehand how the wind's going to blow.
You've walked right into a scrape, and all you can do is to make the
best of it."
"I intend to do that; and I think the best thing I can do will be to leave
when we reach Palermo."
"There goes one bell, and we must turn in, for we shall be tumbled
out at midnight," added Jack.
My bunk was next above that of my new friend. I knelt, as I always
did, before my bed, and prayed for strength and grace. I had been in
the habit of uttering my prayer audibly, and in a low tone. I did so on
the present occasion. The rest of the port watch had all turned in, and
most of them appeared to be snoring.
"So you say your prayers, Phil," said Jack Sanderson, as I climbed
into my berth.

Phil Prayed for Strength and Grace.

"Yes, sir; I always do that, and I do not feel like neglecting it here."
"That's right, my lad. I don't do so myself, but I like to see others do it;
I wish I could. I always feel safer in a vessel when somebody prays."
"If you think it is right to do so, I hope you will do it yourself."
"I don't think I could now. I was brought up to do so; but I've drank
liquor enough to float this bark from New York to Palermo, and that's
knocked all the good out of me."
"I would stop drinking liquor."
"Stop! But I'm an old sailor."
"Have you any liquor on board?"
"Not a drop."
"Then you will drink none on this cruise."
"Not a thimbleful."
"If you can get along without it for three or four weeks at sea, why can
you not do without it when you go ashore?"
"You are green, my lad. By the time you can take your trick at the
wheel, and parcel a stay, you will know all about it. But batten down
your peepers, and go to sleep, Phil."
It was not so easy for me to go to sleep after the excitement of the
evening, and I wasted half of my watch below in thinking over the
events of the day. Certainly I had enough to reflect upon, enough to
regret, and enough to dread in the future. I was completely in the
power of my enemy. I could only submit, and suffer. It was possible
that Captain Farraday, after he was sober, would save me from
absolute abuse; but I did not expect anything from him. I went to
sleep at last, because I could think of nothing to mitigate my hard lot.
"All the port watch!" rang through the forecastle before I was ready to
hear the call, for I had not slept two hours.
However, I was one of the first to hear the summons, because I had
no drunken debauch to sleep off. I turned out instantly, and shook
Jack Sanderson till he came out of his drunken stupor. He leaped
briskly from his bunk, and we were the first to report ourselves on
deck. The chief mate had not yet appeared, and I wondered whether
he had discovered the loss of a part of his specie. I expected a
tremendous storm when he ascertained that his ill-gotten gold had
disappeared. He could not unlock his trunk without the use of the
pick-lock; but, as he had found no difficulty in opening mine, I did not
think he would in opening his own. The only thing that troubled me
was the insecurity of the hiding-place I had chosen for my treasure. I
was looking for a better place, and I hoped the storm would not come
till I had found it.
The bark was still under all sail, with the wind from the south-west. I
noticed a change in the sails, and that the vessel rolled now, instead
of pitching. Either the wind had changed, or the course of the bark
had been altered; I could not tell which. I liked the motion of the
vessel; and, as she sped over the waves, I could have enjoyed the
scene if I had not been in the power of an enemy. While I was looking
at the sails and the sea, the chief mate came on deck. By this time
the starboard watch had roused their sleepy shipmates, and the
whole port watch were at their stations.
"Phil Farringford!" called the mate.
"Here, sir," I replied, stepping up to the quarter-deck; and I observed
that Jack Sanderson followed me as far as it was proper for him to
go.
"You are an able seaman, Phil; take your trick at the wheel."
"Ay, ay, sir," I replied, using the language I had heard others use
when ordered by an officer to do anything.
"Beg your pardon, sir; but Phil does not pretend to be an able
seaman," interposed my salt friend.
"Who spoke to you?" growled the mate. "Go forward, and when I
want anything of you I'll call for you."
"I only wanted to say, sir—"
"Shut up!"
Jack went forward, followed by a shower of oaths from the mate.
"Relieve the helm, Phil," repeated Waterford.
"Ay, ay, sir."
I went to the wheel.
"You are down on the shipping papers as an able seaman, and you
ought to be able to take your trick at the wheel."
"I will do the best I can, sir," I replied.
"You will steer the bark, or take the consequences," said the mate, as
if satisfied that he had put me in a position where I must make a
failure, and call down upon my head the wrath and contempt of my
shipmates.
There were but two able and three ordinary seaman in the port watch.
The others, like myself, were green hands, who had never stood at a
wheel. The five seamen, therefore, would be obliged to do all the
steering; and of course it put more of this duty upon them than the
other watch had, in which there were three able and three ordinary
seamen. Five men would have to do the work which properly
belonged to six; and these men, in the common course of life on
shipboard, would hate and annoy, to the best of their ability, the one
who imposed this extra labor upon them.
I had never steered at a wheel, but I was perfectly at home at the
helm of a yacht. I knew the compass, and understood when a sail
was drawing properly. Perhaps it was presumptuous in me, but I
made up my mind, when ordered to do it, that I could steer the bark.
She was going free, with the wind a little abaft the beam, and this
made it easy for a beginner. While I stood listening to the mate, I
noticed that the helmsman steered very "small;" indeed, the bark
seemed to take care of herself.
"South-east," said Ned Bilger, whom I relieved at the helm.
"South-east," I repeated, as I had heard the wheelman say when the
course was given to him.
I placed myself on the weather side of the wheel, and grasped the
spokes with a firm hand. Fixing my gaze upon the compass in the
binnacle, I determined to make a success of my first attempt to steer.
I was a mechanic, and I fully comprehended the working of the
machinery of the compass. All I had to do was to keep the point
south-east on the notch; or, in other words, to keep south-east in
range with the bowsprit. I was cool and self-possessed, for I felt that I
could do all that was required of me.
Waterford walked forward, as I took the helm, to look after the men.
Doubtless he expected the bark would come up into the wind in a
moment, and that he should have an opportunity to lay me out. I soon
found that the vessel carried a weather helm; or, if left to herself,
would throw her head tip into the wind. As the compass appeared to
turn, though in reality it was the bark that varied, I met her with the
helm. I steered small, thus avoiding the usual mistake of
inexperienced helmsmen; and I found that a single spoke brought the
compass back to its proper position. In five minutes I felt entirely at
home; but I thanked my stars that the bark did not happen to be
close-hauled, for, between laying a course and keeping all the sails
drawing, I should have been badly bothered.
As soon as I understood the wheel, I rather liked the work. I was so
interested in my occupation that I ceased to gape, and felt very much
like an old sailor. The mate, who was evidently waiting for me to
make a blunder, said nothing more to me. He occasionally walked aft
and glanced at the compass; but I was very careful not to let the bark
vary a hair from her course. As the mate said nothing, I imitated his
example. It is not proper for any one to talk to the man at the wheel,
and Waterford showed that he was a good officer by holding his
tongue. I kept up a tremendous thinking; and, among other things, I
tried to explain why, if the bark was bound up the Mediterranean, her
course was to the south-east. I knew about the variation of the
compass; but, as it was less than a point to the westward, it did not
account for the present course. My theory was, that the vessel ought
to be headed about east, in order to reach the Straits of Gibraltar. But
I did not venture to express any opinion on this subject to the captain
or the mate.
Waterford planked the deck, and I fancied that he was not at all
pleased to find that I could steer the bark. While I congratulated
myself that I was able to do so, I knew there were a hundred other
things I could not do, and therefore his revenge was only deferred for
a few hours. At four bells, Dick Baxter, one of the able seamen of our
watch, came aft and relieved me.
"What do you mean, Phil?" demanded Jack Sanderson, when I went
forward. "You said you wasn't a seaman."
"I never steered a square-rigged vessel before in my life," I replied. "I
have been at the helm of a yacht."
"You steered like an old sailor, my hearty, and kept her as steady as a
judge on the bench."
"I am going to do the best I can. I know something about a vessel, but
I have a great deal to learn."
"I'll learn you, my lad."
"Thank you. I shall be very grateful to you."
I spent the remaining two hours of my watch on deck in learning the
names and uses of the various ropes of the running rigging. I studied
on halyards, sheets, buntlines, and clew-garnets, and I thought I
made good progress. But the next day I was introduced to a cringle,
and found myself at fault.