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Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
Learning Goals
Learning Goal 1: Identify physical changes in early childhood.
Learning Goal 2: Describe three views of the cognitive changes that occur in early childhood.
Learning Goal 3: Summarize how language develops in early childhood.
Learning Goal 4: Evaluate different approaches to early childhood education.
Overview of Resources
Chapter Outline Resources You Can Use
Physical Changes Learning Goal 1: Identify physical changes in
early childhood.
Body Growth and Change Lecture Suggestion 1: Teaching Toddlers to

Draw
Motor and Perceptual Development Lecture Suggestion 2: The State of Illness and
Health in Your State
Sleep Classroom Activity 1: Sequences and Trends in
Verbal and Motor Development
Nutrition and Exercise Classroom Activity 2: What Should Parents Tell
Their Seriously Ill Child?
Illness and Death Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking
Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers
Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Essay
Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Answer the Essays
Personal Application 1: Tag, You’re It!
Personal Application 2: Have It Your Way
Research Project 1: Sleep in Early Childhood
Research Project 2: Not-So-Happy Meal
Cognitive Changes Learning Goal 2: Describe three views of the

cognitive changes that occur in early childhood.
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Lecture Suggestion 3: The Benefits of Being

Wrong
Vygotsky’s Theory Lecture Suggestion 4: Does Early Intervention
Have Long-Term Effects?
Information Processing Classroom Activity 3: Children’s Readiness to
Read
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking
Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 1
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Answer the Essays
Personal Application 3: I’m Sure You’ll Agree
Personal Application 4: Know Your Own Mind
Research Project 3: Memory Span
Language Development Learning Goal 3: Summarize how language

develops in early childhood.
Understanding Phonology and Morphology Lecture Suggestion 4: Does Early Intervention

Have Long-Term Effects?
Changes in Syntax and Semantics Classroom Activity 1: Sequences and Trends in
Verbal and Motor Development
Advances in Pragmatics Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking
Young Children’s Literacy Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Essay
Answer the Essays
Research Project 4: Language Errors
Research Project 5: Observations of Adult–Child
Conversations
Research Project 6: The Relationship between
Language Development and Emotional
Understanding
Early Childhood Education Learning Goal 4: Evaluate different approaches

to early childhood education.
Variations in Early Childhood Education Lecture Suggestion 5: Child-Centered

Kindergarten
Education for Young Children Who Are Classroom Activity 4: The Montessori Approach
Disadvantaged Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Essay
Controversies in Early Childhood Education Answer the Essays
Review Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking

Answer the Essays
Resources
Lecture Suggestions
Lecture Suggestion 1: Teaching Toddlers to Draw
Should children be taught to draw? Or should they be allowed simply to draw however they wish, letting
their motor, perceptual, and cognitive skills develop and enhance their drawing skills naturally? Tackle
these questions in a lecture that relates fine motor development during toddlerhood to children’s drawing
abilities. Consider inviting a child care or kindergarten teacher to present information on typical
experiences with young children’s drawing, and have them comment on whether they are concerned with
using training to enhance drawing abilities.
Are there reasons why we might want to teach children to draw? Can drawing skills be trained? What is
the nature of individual differences in drawing skill at these ages? Are these predictive of later skill?
Were great painters talented scribblers as toddlers? You may find that this information is very interesting
to students. Many suspect that drawing is something each of us wishes we could do better if we only had
the talent. But perhaps early training could enhance our subsequent artistic skills.
Drawing can be beneficial to developing children in a number of ways. Children often do not have the
necessary language skills to express what they are thinking and feeling or to organize the information they
obtain. Language limitations can be frustrating for children and art is a medium through which they can
demonstrate more of the nuances of their thoughts and feelings. Drawing allows young children to make
more detailed observations, thus improving their ability to compare and contrast, and strengthening their
memory. In addition, drawing aids the development of fine motor skills and spatial understanding.
Source:
http://www.zerotothree.org/early-care-education/early-language-literacy/writing-and-art-skills.html
Lecture Suggestion 2: The State of Illness and Health in Your State

The chapter section regarding the state of illness and health of the world’s children sparked this lecture
suggestion. Oftentimes, students assume that there are no problems in their own city or state—that is, that
problems happen elsewhere, but not in our community. Develop a lecture that focuses on demographics
and issues that pertain directly to your state. Interesting demographic statistics regarding child protection
(abuse, foster care, adoption, domestic violence), economics (poverty, public assistance, taxes, hunger,
homelessness), maternal and child health (low birth weight, infant mortality, sexually transmitted
diseases, mental health, substance abuse), juvenile justice (juvenile court, gang activity), and education
(dropout rate, child care, enrollment) can be presented. It is fascinating to compare state and national
statistics regarding these issues.
The Children’s Defense Fund publishes an annual analysis of the status of U.S. children, The State of
America’s Children. This publication provides a comprehensive examination of how children are faring in
our country. The State of America’s Children 2014 Report presents recent statistical data and analyses.
For example, the report provides a stark picture of childhood in the U.S.: children are the poorest age
group, with 16 million children—more than one in every five children in America—living in poverty, and
almost 60 percent of fourth and eighth graders from public schools reading or doing math below grade
level.
Data can also be obtained from both state and federal agencies, including the Office of Planning and
Budget, Demographic and Economic Analysis; the Department of Employment Security; the Department
of Human Services; the Traveller’s Aid Society; Planned Parenthood; the Division of Services for People
with Disabilities, Office of Education; and Administration on Children,Youth and Families. If you are
unable to obtain a sufficient breadth of demographic information, focus on one or two of the issues and
examine relevant public policy in your community and/or state.
Source:
Children’s Defense Fund. (2014). The State of America’s Children 2014 Report. Washington, DC: Children’s
Defense Fund. http://www.childrensdefense.org/library/state-of-americas-children/
Lecture Suggestion 3: The Benefits of Being Wrong

Generally, the holding of inaccurate beliefs is thought to be undesirable. That is, cognitive immaturity is
equated with inefficiency. The goal of education is to replace erroneous beliefs with accurate ones. Yet,
Bjorklund and Green (1992) have proposed that cognitive immaturity is adaptive for young children.
Their cognitive system is qualitatively different from older children, and it actually facilitates the
attainment of important cognitive milestones such as language.
Metacognition refers to a person’s knowledge of his or her own cognitions and the factors that influence
thinking (i.e., the ability to think about your own thinking). Young children tend to overestimate their
memory abilities and their metamemory is minimally influenced by their previous performance. They
know that they have failed to remember, but they assume that they can do it the next time. Unrealistic
optimism regarding their abilities and future performance is common at this age. Young children’s
overestimation of their abilities motivates them to keep trying to complete tasks at which they have
previously failed. This persistence allows for the eventual successful completion of tasks and the
development of a sense of mastery.
Bjorklund and Green also discuss the advantages of egocentricism (Piaget’s concept for the inability to
take the perspective of another). They speculate that interpreting events from one’s own perspective may
actually be advantageous. Memory research for both children and adults has found that memory recall is
actually enhanced when self-reference is used to encode or retrieve information. Thus, “egocentricism”
may enhance young children’s retention and comprehension of information.
Language acquisition may actually be easier for young children as evidenced by the ease and proficiency
in which young children acquire first and second languages. Johnson and Newport (as cited in Bjorklund
& Green, 1992) speculate that slow neurological development affords children the cognitive flexibility to
acquire language.
The goal of this lecture is to help students understand that young children’s cognitive immaturity may
allow them to learn the things they need to learn. Bjorklund and Green argue that the preschool years are
not just a waiting period, but a period of adaptive cognitive limitations that facilitate cognitive
development.
Source:
Bjorklund, D. F., & Green, B. L. (1992). The adaptive nature of cognitive immaturity. American Psychologist, 47,
46–54.
Lecture Suggestion 4: Does Early Intervention Have Long-Term Effects?

The purpose of this lecture is to examine a well-conducted experiment to determine if active intervention
techniques, beginning in infancy, boost IQ scores and school performance in children from impoverished
backgrounds. Campbell and Ramey (1994) studied 111 families from low SES (mothers had a mean IQ of
85) over an eight-year period. The newborns were randomly assigned to either a preschool experimental
group (E) or a preschool control group (C). The treatment intervention for the infants included child care
with infant programs designed to boost cognitive, perceptual–motor, language, and social skills. The
intervention program for the preschoolers focused on development of language and preparing children for
literacy tasks. The children in the preschool control group were provided with iron-fortified formula to
eliminate early nutritional differences as a potential confound. They did not receive any special programs.
The researchers implemented a second randomization after the children reached school age. Half of the
children from each group were assigned to either a school-age intervention or school-age control group.
The school-age treatment involved special attention from a resource teacher. The activities involved were
designed to increase specific learning skills (reading and math). Parents were visited twice a week to
discuss the learning activities and to invite them to school events. The children in the school-age control
group did not receive any treatment.
Based on the two random assignments, four groups were formed.

 Experimental–Experimental Group (EE): Children received both the preschool and school-age
interventions.
 Experimental–Control Group (EC): Children received only the preschool intervention.
 Control–Experimental Group (CE): Children received only the school-age intervention.
 Control–Control Group (CC): Children received neither preschool nor school-age interventions.
Campbell and Ramey found that children in the preschool intervention group maintained significantly
higher IQ scores and math and reading performance scores than the control group from age 18 months to
8 years. The researchers were interested to see if the early advantage held by the preschool intervention
group was maintained following an additional four years of school. The advantage was maintained:
Children in the preschool treatment had significantly higher IQ scores. The children that received the
school-age intervention, but not the preschool intervention, did significantly worse than both groups of
children who had had the preschool intervention. The researchers found that the intensity and duration of
the treatment intervention program significantly impacted how well a child performed across all tests.
There was an overall trend when looking at measures of IQ and test performance. There was a hierarchy
of benefits across the four groups (EE>EC>CE>CC). Thus, the EE group outperformed all other groups,
followed by the EC, CE, and CC groups. These findings suggest that attempts to foster intellectual growth
for children in impoverished environments within infancy may lead to longer-lasting and more
pronounced intellectual gains. Another conclusion from this study is that school-age interventions may be
too late to do much good.
In 2002, Campbell et al. reported further that those students—now young adults—who had received the
intervention during preschool showed marked gains over the controls. These gains included higher
cognitive test scores, more education, and fewer teenage pregnancies. In 2012, these same researchers
studied this cohort at the age of 30. At this point, the tested group still maintained their educational
advantage, but only some economic benefit and almost no social-adjustment benefit.
Sources:
Campbell, F. A., Pungello, E. P., Kainz, K., Burchinal, M., Pan, Y., Wasik, B. H., Ramey, C. T. (2012). Adult
Outcomes as a Function of an Early Childhood Educational Program: An Abecedarian Project Follow-Up.
Developmental Psychology, 48(4), 1033–1043. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0026644
Campbell, F., & Ramey, C. (1994). Effects of early intervention on intellectual and academic achievement: A
follow-up study of children from low income families. Child Development, 65, 684–698.
Campbell, F., Ramey, C., Pungello, E., Sparling, J., & Miller-Johnson, S. (2002). Early childhood education: Young
adult outcomes from the Abecedarian Project. Applied Developmental Science, 6(1), 42–57.
Lecture Suggestion 5: Child Centered Kindergarten

Provide a brief history of kindergarten. How have kindergartens evolved? What is the purpose of
kindergarten? What should the goals of kindergarten programs be? What should the content of
kindergarten programs be? Tackle these questions in a lecture. Consider inviting a kindergarten teacher to
discuss these questions.
Is play essential for development in early childhood? What may be considered as an appropriate physical
environment for kindergarten? What qualifications should kindergarten teachers have?
The following sites may provide some insight:

http://circle.adventist.org/files/jae/en/jae200568024408.pdf
http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/what-happened-kindergarten
Classroom Activities
Classroom Activity 1: Sequence and Trends in Verbal and Motor Development

Fernald and Fernald (1990) have developed a class activity (see Handout 1) that is well liked by students
and provides a good bridge between the chapters on infancy and the chapters on early childhood. This
activity, which requires students to identify the order of development for a list of motor and verbal
abilities, illustrates several principles of development such as the cephalocaudal and proximodistal
principles, prompts discussion of issues such as the relative roles of maturation and experience in
development, and gets students thinking about how to measure relative degrees of development.
The correct order is as follows:
2 months turns head to follow moving object

9 months sits alone for 1 minute; says “da-da”
1 year walks while holding onto something
1 year 3 months walks alone; says several words
1 year 6 months climbs stairs; says many words
2 years runs; uses simple word combinations
3 years puts on shoes
4 years laces shoes
5 years names penny, nickel, and dime
6 years describes the difference between a bird and a dog
7 years tells time to quarter hour
8 years tells how a baseball and an orange or an airplane and a kite are alike
Use in the classroom: After students have completed the task, you can have a class discussion about the
order of development. There is usually agreement on the abilities that develop first, with increasing
disagreement on the abilities that develop later. How are the cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles
illustrated by the order? Which abilities appear to develop mainly through maturation and which develop
through training? Is there an age-related pattern?
Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 1 (Motor and Verbal Abilities Activity).
 Group size: Small group discussion and full-class discussion.
 Approximate time: Small groups (15 minutes) and full-class discussion (20 minutes).
Source:
Fernald, P. S., & Fernald, L. D. (1990). Early motor and verbal development. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G.
Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Classroom Activity 2: What Should Parents Tell Their Seriously Ill Child?
Children with serious illnesses are usually better off when families deal with their illness directly and
openly. One overwhelming conclusion of a study of 117 childhood cancer survivors and their families
was that they believed it was best to tell the child, in honest comprehensible terms, about the cancer early
on and to provide the child with a sense of mastery over the disease.
The Kids Health website addresses how to explain serious illness to a child. Medical experts report that
while it was once believed that sick children should know as little as possible about their illnesses, this
protective posture is no longer the norm. They explain that honest communication is the most important
element in helping a child adjust to a long-term medical condition.
Ask students to consider the following questions:

Are there situations in which you would not tell a child that he or she has a serious illness? How would
you deal with the possibility of death? How would a child’s cognitive development influence his or her
understanding of the illness?
Logistics:
 Group size: Full-class discussion.
 Approximate time: Full-class discussion (15 minutes)
Source:
Hurley, D. (1987, August). A sound mind in an unsound body. Psychology Today, 34–43.
http://kidshealth.org/parent/system/ill/seriously_ill.html
Classroom Activity 3: Children’s Readiness to Read

This activity focuses on children’s readiness to read. Have students discuss what skills children should
have before they learn to read. They should discuss which activities help young children learn these skills.
Encourage them to give their opinion on the advantages and disadvantages of beginning to learn to read
before attending school.
According to the ReadingRockets.org (2015) website, prereading skills include:

 Matching – Children learn to match shapes, patterns, letters, and words.
 Rhyming – Research shows that children who can understand about rhyming words have a head start
in learning to read and, even more, in learning to spell.
 Letter Skills – Children need to learn what sounds the letters can make.
 Direction – Children need to learn that print goes from left to right.
 Motor Skills – Since reading and writing are best taught together, pencil control is important.
 Concepts of Print – Children need to learn how we look at books…following print the right way,
turning the pages, looking at pictures, where the words are, etc.
 Language Skills – The more experience children have with language, the more easily they will learn
to read. Children need to hear and join in conversations and listen to stories and poetry of all sorts.
Logistics:
 Approximate time: Full-class discussion (15 minutes).
Source:
http://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/prek_guide
Classroom Activity 4: The Montessori Approach

Have students discuss the pros and cons of the Montessori approach. Ask them to debate whether it
neglects children’s socioemotional development.
If any students in your class have experience with Montessori education, you could ask them to share a bit
of that experience with the other students.
Logistics:
 Approximate time: Full-class discussion (15-30 minutes).
Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori_education
http://www.montessori.edu/FAQ.html
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers

Discuss the critical-thinking multiple-choice questions presented in Handout 2. The answers are provided
in Handout 3. The point of the first two questions is to get students to integrate material in Chapter 7 to
see how language and cognitive development are related to each other, and how ideas about cognitive
development may or may not influence caregiving and teaching practices with young children. Although
questions for previous chapters have prompted students to do these types of tasks, you may still want to
discuss with them what to look for in the chapter that will help them deal with the issues.
Before assigning question 1, get students to talk about ways to assess egocentrism, other than with the
three mountains task, and have them discuss varieties of meaning for the phrase “take another’s point of
view.” You also may need to work with the class to distinguish different aspects of attention such as
processing multiple channels of information, maintaining attention, and avoiding distractions. Finally,
discuss alternative ways to assess the other cognitive characteristics or feats mentioned in the question.
Question 2 requires students to compare and integrate information. In some respects, this is mainly a
comprehension exercise and may not need as much discussion as the first question. Some students will be
sensitive to the fact that there are both similarities and differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s
theories. You may want to discuss them as a means of clarifying and strengthening their understanding of
both theories. Students have little difficulty with alternatives “b,” “c,” and “d,” but there are interesting
ambiguities for them to grapple within “e.” For example, the text documents quantitative changes in
memory and attention, but talks about children acquiring new strategies for enhancing memory and
improving attention. Those could be conceived of as qualitative changes, a point that should give both
you and the class pause as you seek the best answer.
Question 3 may be difficult in an unusual way, given that you are asked to distinguish inferences from
observations. The inference represents implications or extensions of material presented as observations.
What makes them inferences is that they are not directly stated. The observations are difficult to identify,
because they are not clearly identified by their source; what makes them observations is that Santrock
uses them as facts in his presentation. The assumption “a” is an assumption because it is an unexamined
proposition that appears to underlie the difference between children’s energy needs.
Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 2 (Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions) and Handout 3 (Answers).
 Group size: Small groups to discuss the questions, then a full-class discussion.
 Approximate time: Small groups (15 to 20 minutes), then 15 minutes for full-class discussion.
Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Answer the Essays
Discuss the critical-thinking essay questions that are presented in Handout 4. Several objectives can be
met with these questions. First, they facilitate students’ understanding of concepts in Chapter 7. Second,
this type of essay question affords students an opportunity to apply the concepts to their own lives, which
will facilitate their retention of the material. Third, the essay format also will give students practice
expressing themselves in written form. Ideas to help students answer the critical-thinking essay questions
are provided in Handout 5.
This activity can be modified based on how much time you have. Students could be asked to answer a
subset of the questions, or questions could be divided up among the class. Additionally, you could add a
small group component to the activity and have students answer the questions individually and then in
groups before returning to the full-class discussion.
Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 4 (Essay Questions) and Handout 5 (Ideas to Help Answer).
 Group size: Individual, then full class.
 Approximate time: Varied.
Personal Applications
Personal Application 1: Tag, You’re It!
The purpose of this exercise is to have students recall the physical elements of their childhood. Young
children are extremely active, both with regard to gross motor activities (running, jumping, climbing) and
fine motor activities (coloring, cutting, manipulating blocks). These activities are both the result of, and
the driving force behind, further physical development and agility—and children love them!
Instructions for Students: Recall your favorite early childhood activities. Did you prefer gross motor
oriented activities or fine motor oriented activities? How did you spend most of your time? Do you
remember any activity that you wanted to be able to participate in, but you were not physically
coordinated enough to do so? Can you recall a time of triumph, when you accomplished a particular feat
for the first time?
Use in the Classroom: Show a video or bring in some toddlers and/or preschool-age children and supply
them with a variety of toys and manipulatives and possible climbing opportunities (such as a chair or step
stool). Have students observe what activities children choose to engage in. Attempt to have children
engage in motor activities that are too advanced and watch what happens. Discuss with regards to motor
development.
Personal Application 2: Have It Your Way

The purpose of this exercise is for students to recognize and respond to the potential health hazards of a
poor diet for young children. Fast food has become deeply ingrained in our society. Most children not
only get their first taste of fast food during the toddler/preschool years, but many eat it on a regular basis.
Instructions for Students: Write a letter to the president of a major fast food chain. Explain, from a
developmental perspective, the hazards of a poor, high-fat diet for children’s development. Discuss the
inappropriateness of luring children (or their parents, rather) to purchase such meals, with the special
kid’s meal and accompanying toy. Elaborate by presenting the argument that spending advertising dollars
to highlight such meals and toys, along with offering popular, trendy toys, contributes to the poor
nutrition habits of children too young to understand the hazards.
Use in the Classroom: Have groups of students create public service announcements geared to parents for
the purpose of alerting them to the hazards of an inadequate, high-fat diet—particularly in young children.
Include society’s problematic propensity for turning to fast food for ease and convenience, and the lure of
receiving a toy with kids’ meals.
Personal Application 3: I’m Sure You’ll Agree

The purpose of this exercise is for students to more fully explore the concept of egocentrism by recalling
examples from adulthood. A predominant feature of preoperational thought is that children believe
everyone thinks and experiences the world exactly as they do. This is due to the fact that they are
mentally not able to consider someone else’s perspective. While children between the ages of
approximately 2 and 4 years have actual cognitive limitations to explain this, adults often exhibit the same
egocentric thinking without the excuse!
Instructions for Students: Familiarize yourself with Piaget’s concept of egocentrism—the notion that an
individual believes everyone else must think, see, hear, feel, and experience the world just as he does.
Now recall experiences you have had with adults who believe the same thing. It may be someone else, or
it may even be you. Many of our assumptions about those we work and live with result from egocentric
tendencies. If we have particular opinions, values, or expectations, we often function as though others
share those same notions. We may perceive particular situations in a way that we then expect others to do
as well. It is not until we are met with disappointment or shock that we come to realize (if we even do)
that just because we looked at something from a particular point of view, not everyone did that. Start
paying attention to how you initially assume other people experience the world—you may be surprised.
Use in the Classroom: Present some examples of adult egocentricism, and have students share their own.
Point out that many disagreements, arguments, and hurt feelings are often the result of people simply
assuming that others share their particular perspective on things. Discuss how, as adults, we are
cognitively able to avoid this—with increased awareness and sensitivity to others—but that children are
not cognitively capable of doing so. Also, clarify the difference between being egocentric and egotistic.
Personal Application 4: Know Your Own Mind

The purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate to students the concept of theory of mind. Developmental
psychologists have studied, and continue to be interested in, children’s recognition and understanding of
the presence and functioning of their own mind. Doing so provides an important developmental
milestone, and it is a phenomenon that continues to evolve over time, contributing significantly to
cognitive functioning.
Instructions for Students: Assess your own cognitive functioning. Think about the classes you are taking
this semester. How are you doing in each of them? Are you aware of your performance so far? Are you
aware of why you have performed at the level you have? Can you explain the difference in your
functioning and capabilities in your different classes? What are your strong mental areas? In which
subjects are you weaker? What has contributed to these strengths and weaknesses? What might you do to
improve in your weaker areas? What field might you pursue to capitalize on your mental strengths?
Use in the Classroom: Discuss the students’ awareness of their particular learning styles. Do they know
how they learn best? Can they delineate their cognitive strategies for the various aspects of information
processing (identifying important information, remembering information, communicating information)?
Provide tips on how students might work to improve their weaker areas of cognitive functioning.
Research Project Ideas

Research Project 1: Sleep in Early Childhood
Learning Goal 1: Identifying physical changes in early childhood.
In this project, students will create a webliography on sleep needs, issues, and concerns during early
childhood. After reading the section on sleep in the chapter, they need to find three to five related
websites. Then, they must summarize the material available on each website and draw connections
between the material on the website and the material in the text. They can either type this information up
as an essay, or they could share the information on a class Wiki page or discussion board.
Use in the Classroom: Students could share the information that they found in small groups and critique
each other’s webliography. They could then identify what information is missing from the Internet and
make suggestions for further website development.
Research Project 2: Not-So-Happy Meal

Learning Goal 1: Identifying physical changes in early childhood.
Nutrition and healthy eating habits are a major concern for today’s children. Unfortunately, children are
exposed to a variety of not-so-helpful messages about food from the media. The purpose of this project is
to have students think about the ways in which the media portrays food and eating, and if children (and
their parents) are susceptible to the advertising.
Ask students to watch a television channel geared towards children for an hour. During that hour, students
should be paying particular attention to the types of things that are being advertised during the
commercial breaks and to the manner in which the food items are described and shown. Advise students
to take notes as they watch to help them answer the following questions:
1. How many advertisements did you see during the hour? Of those advertisements, how many
were food related?
2. What types of food were being advertised in the commercials you saw? Were the commercials
generally for restaurants or for food to eat at home? Were most of the foods healthy or not?
3. What elements of the advertisments do you think would influence children? How did the
commercials try to make the food appealing to the viewer?
4. Is the food presented in a way that is inviting to children? Is the food presented as healthy
nourishment or as a fun “thing to have”?
Have students write a 1-3-page write-up based on their viewing experience. In class, have students share
what they observed – discuss any major themes or ideas that students noticed. In an online class students
could be asked to choose one commercial that they thought was particularly interesting and upload the
video (along with their comments on it) to a discussion board. Links to most commercials can be found
easily on YouTube.
For background information, have students explore the following site: http://www.apa.org/topics/kids-
media/food.aspx.
Note: This research project could be connected to Personal Application 2: Have It Your Way.
Research Project 3: Memory Span

The function of this project is to provide a demonstration of memory span. The students can pair up with
a classmate for this project. They will need to test four individuals: a 3-year-old, a 6-year-old, a 9-year-
old, and a classmate. The task is a digit-span task. They should present a list of digits to each subject at
the rate of one per second, and have each subject repeat as many digits as he or she remembers. One
student will present the digits and the other will record the subject’s response. The worksheets for data
collection and questions for them to answer are on Handout 6. In order to test the three children, the
project will have to be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and the students will
need to get a signed informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Use in the Classroom: Have students present their data from the research project in class. They should
discuss the developmental trend that appears in the class data. How does memory span for digits change
with age? Are there any variables besides age that could account for the data? You would expect digit
spans to be about 2, 4 to 5, 6 to 7, and about 7 with the increasing age groups.
Research Project 4: Language Errors

This class project exposes students to the kinds of errors that children make when they are acquiring
language. Have each student pair up with another student in the class. One student will act as the
experimenter, while the other will act as the observer. They should test two different children, one 3 to 4
years of age, the other 7 to 8 years of age. In order to test the children, the project will have to be
approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and students will need to get a signed
informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Handout 7 explains that the children will participate in three different tasks to evaluate their
understanding and use of the passive construction. The tasks include an act-out task, an imitation task,
and a production task. Students can use Handout 7 as a data sheet to record observations.
Use in the Classroom: Have students present the data from the research project in class. What kinds of
errors did the younger children make on the tasks? Were there individual differences within age groups
present? (That is, did some of the younger children perform all tasks well, while other children made
errors on all tasks?) How did the older children perform on these tasks? Were some tasks easier? What do
these findings tell us about children’s understanding of active and passive sentences? What strategies did
children use when they made errors?
Research Project 5: Observations of Adult–Child Conversations

From Jarvis and Creasey, “Activities for Lifespan Developmental Psychology Courses.”
Language is the predominant cognitive activity of children ages 2 to 7 years. This activity invites students
to visit places where children and parents can be found (public playgrounds, zoos, coming out of movie
theaters after child-oriented movies, etc.) and collect examples of conversational exchanges between
parents and children. (Note: Instructors will want to provide students with a letter on school letterhead
explaining the exercise and its purpose in case students are questioned regarding their attention to
children.) Students will then write a 3- to 5-page report analyzing child language. Reports will use
samples of conversations to support key points about language development learned in the course.
The Activity:
Course material on the development of language abilities in children should be covered and reviewed by
students prior to conducting this activity. Students should be encouraged to “listen for” instances of a
wide variety of linguistic forms prior to looking for such forms in “real-time” conversations. Such prior
preparation will allow students to listen more effectively and efficiently. Students should be encouraged
to be unobtrusive in “listening in” on others’ conversations. Data obtained from this activity can be
incorporated into a short written report (3 to 5 pages) analyzing child language. Examples from
conversations will provide support for the main points regarding language development.
Materials:
Students will need to be familiar with linguistic forms (holophrases, telegraphic speech,
overgeneralization, metaphors, etc.) to identify them as such upon hearing them. They should also listen
for parent language such as motherese, the extent to which parents correct word usage and grammatical
errors, and whether the adult assumes primary responsibility for sustaining conversational exchanges.
Procedures:
1. Before students conduct this activity, instructors should review language development with them to
be sure they are prepared to listen for various linguistic forms. Instructors should also review issues
surrounding field observations. Students must be sensitive to the fact that they must not invade
another’s personal space to “listen in” to a conversation or they will change the course of the very
conversation they are attempting to listen to. Students should not engage the parents in a
conversation beyond a smile or polite “hello” or the parent may turn their conversational focus away
from their child to the “stranger” and the observational opportunity is ruined.
2. Next, students should visit scenes where they are likely to overhear child–adult conversational
exchanges. We recommend parks, zoos, fast-food restaurants, theme parks, water-slide parks,
movies, toy and grocery stores, etc. This opportunity is one time when waiting in a line (perhaps to
enter the zoo when it opens) may be an especially serendipitous moment as this is a likely time for
children and parents to talk to one another. Ask students to visit two or three places where children
and parents are readily found.
3. In terms of the data, we suggest students use small notepads to very unobtrusively record what they
hear as they hear it or as soon after as is possible to make a written record of the observation. Such
notes may be appended at the end of the student report. The report itself should contain examples of
language that supports the key points of language development.
4. Instructors should encourage students to discuss their experiences with the class, focusing on what
they learned through actual field observations compared with reading about the development of
language.
Research Project 6: The Relationship between Language Development and Emotional

Understanding
This research project addresses material in both Chapters 7 and 8 and involves students reading some of
Harris’s research on the connections between children’s language and their ability to understand others’
mental states. Provide students with the following instructions:
All written work should follow APA format. Your paper MUST be typed, double spaced, with 12-point
font, and 1-inch margins. Also, please make sure you spell check and grammar check your paper prior to
the due date.
Read Harris, P.L., de Rosnay, M. & Pons, F. (2005). Language and children’s understanding of mental
states. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 69-73. Using both the article and your text,
answer the following questions. Each answer should be a paragraph in length – keep in mind that two
sentences does not a paragraph make! Rather, you are aiming for about a half page for each answer. In
total this paper should be about 2-3 pages of writing in length.
1. What is a theory of mind?

2. According to the article, how is language related to understanding of mental states in theory of mind
tasks? Make sure you address how deafness may affect theory of mind as well.
3. How can parental conversation affect a child’s developing theory of mind?
4.Based on the research described, how can parents or teachers foster the development of theory of mind?
Resources Available in Connect

The following are a selection of the resources available in McGraw-Hill Education’s digital
learning platform, Connect.
Chapter Learning
Resource Name Resource Type
Number Objective
7 Fine Motor Skills at Age 3 Video LO 7.1
7 Copying Shapes at Age 3-1 Video LO 7.1
7 Copying Shapes at Age 3-2 Video LO 7.1
7 Advanced Fine Motor Skills at Age 5 Video LO 7.1
7 Children and Nutrition Video LO 7.1
7 Piaget Preoperational Stage Concept Clip LO 7.2
Milestones: Symbolic Function, Amalia, 18-

7 Milestones LO 7.2
47mos
Lacking Concept of Conservation (Liquid)

7 Video LO 7.2
at Age 3
Lacking Concept of Conservation (Mass,

7 Video LO 7.2
Liquid, Number) At Age 4
7 Development of Concept of Conservation Video LO 7.2
7 Milestones: Scaffolding, Amalia, 18-47mos Milestones LO 7.2
7 Milestones: Instructions, Ryan, 28-32mos Milestones LO 7.2
7 Milestones: Numbers, Amalia, 40-47mos Milestones LO 7.2
Milestones: Imitative Learning, Del, 6-

7 Milestones LO 7.2
15mos
7 Limits to Memory at Age 3 Video LO 7.2
7 Memory Ability at Age 3 Video LO 7.2
7 Levels of Processing Interactivities LO 7.2
Milestones: Language Challenges,

7 Milestones LO 7.3
Jasmine, 2-4yrs
7 Milestones: Pre-literacy, Amalia, 18-44mos Milestones LO 7.3
What Makes a Successful Preschool

7 Video LO 7.4
Teacher
7 Preschool Environment with 4-Year-Olds Video LO 7.4
Preschool Teacher's Philosophy of

7 Video LO 7.4
Teaching
Videos
Linguistics as a Window to Understanding the Brain
Floating University: Steven Pinker
Steven Pinker has a one-hour lecture online where he discusses language acquisition and cognition:
http://www.floatinguniversity.com/lectures-pinker
Feature Films
In this section of the Instructor’s Manual, we suggest films that are widely available on sites like
Amazon.com, DocumentaryWIRE, Hulu, Netflix.com, PBS video, etc.
Lorenzo’s Oil (1992)
Starring: Nick Nolte, Susan Sarandon, Peter Ustinov, Kathleen Wilhoite, Zack O’Malley Greenburg,
James Rebhorn, Laura Linney
Directed by George Miller
Lorenzo is a normal child until the age of 7. He begins to have blackouts, memory lapses, and other
mental problems. He is diagnosed with ALD, a rare incurable degenerative brain disorder. Frustrated at
the failings of doctors and the limited options concerning this disease, his parents begin to educate
themselves in the hope of halting the progress of the disease.
The Secret Life of the Brain: The Child’s Brain (2001)
This is a PBS 5-part series that tracks brain development from conception through old age. The second
episode is the development of language in early childhood and epilepsy. It can be purchased from PBS or
Amazon but is also on YouTube.
Website Suggestions
At the time of publication, all sites were current and active; however, please be advised that you may
occasionally encounter a dead link.
Child Nutrition
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/childnutrition.html
Children Now
http://www.childrennow.org/index.php/
Early Childhood Sleep

http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=14294&cn=462
Healthy Schools (CDC)

https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/index.htm
Language Development
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtml
Lead Exposure during Early Childhood

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11815762
Relation of Mild-to-Moderate Malnutrition to Human Development

http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food2/uid04e/uid04e0b.htm
UC Davis Mind Institute

http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/mindinstitute/
United Nations Children’s Fund

http://www.unicef.org/
Steven Pinker
http://stevenpinker.com/
Handout 1(CA 1)
Motor and Verbal Abilities
1. Study the list of verbal and motor accomplishments given below, and list the order in which you
think each accomplishment occurs:
Order of Development Motor and Verbal Ability

Walks alone; says several words
Describes the difference between a bird and a dog
Turns head to follow moving objects
Names penny, nickel, and dime
Climbs stairs; says many words
Laces shoes
Sits alone for 1 minute; says “da-da”
Tells how a baseball and an orange or an airplane and a kite are alike
Puts on shoes
Tells time to quarter hour
Runs; uses simple word combinations
Walks while holding on to something
2. Study the order of accomplishments that you have identified. Describe any rules or patterns that you
think apply to the order. Justify your conclusions with appropriate examples from the above list.
3. Which of the above accomplishments do you think come about chiefly through maturation? Which
involve training? Do you see any trends here? Identify the trends and justify your conclusions with
appropriate examples.
Source:
Fernald, P. S., & Fernald, L. D. (1990). Early motor and verbal development. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L.
G.Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Handout 2 (CA 5)
Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. This chapter makes many claims about diverse aspects of the cognitive functioning of preschool
children. Although the picture of their cognitive skills is fairly consistently presented, some of the
studies contradict one another. Which of the following statements is contradicted by information
elsewhere in the chapter? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer
and why the other answers are not as good. Hint: Cite the specific finding (or findings) that confirms
or contradicts the claim in question.
a. As indicated by their performance on the three mountains task, young children cannot take the
perspective of others.
b. Young children find it difficult to pay attention to more than one feature, characteristic, or
dimension of a task at the same time.
c. An aspect of preoperational thought is that nonliving things are thought to have the characteristics
of living things.
d. Memory span increases rapidly between the ages of 2 and 7 years.
e. Around 3 years of age, children are able to talk about things that are not physically present.
2. Santrock devotes much effort in this chapter to describing the nature of cognition in early childhood
and to identifying the experiences presumed to promote cognition; however, he seldom directly
shows the relationship between ideas and observations. On the contrary, the job of synthesizing this
information is left to the reader. According to your synthesis of information in the chapter, which of
the following statements makes the most sense? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why
it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as good.
a. Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories contradict one another.

b. The Montessori approach is the most effective early education program.
c. The development of language is very different from, and unrelated to, the development of
thought.
d. The concept of a child-centered kindergarten is clearly based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
e. Both Piagetian tests and information-processing tasks reveal that the preschooler’s mind is
qualitative.
3. Tremendous research has examined physical development in early childhood, including research on
height differences, second-hand smoke, and brain development. Which of the following statements
best represents an assumption by researchers, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the
letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as
good.
a. Differences in physical activity, basal metabolism, and efficiency with which children use energy,
help explain the varying energy needs of individual children of the same age, sex, and size.
b. The two most important contributors to height differences around the world are ethnic origins and
nutrition.
c. Exposure to tobacco smoke increases children’s risk for developing a number of medical
problems.
d. Children’s brains experience rapid, distinct spurts of growth.

e. Myelination is important in the maturation of a number of children’s abilities.
Handout 3 (CA 5)
Answers for Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. This chapter makes many claims about diverse aspects of the cognitive functioning of preschool
children. Although the picture of their cognitive skills is fairly consistently presented, some of the
studies contradict one another. Which of the following statements is contradicted by information
elsewhere in the chapter? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer
and why the other answers are not as good. Hint: Cite the specific finding (or findings) that confirms
or contradicts the claim in question.
a. The statement that as indicated by their performance on the three mountains task, young children
cannot take the perspective of others is contradicted by information in the text. Santrock notes
that development of perspective taking is not uniform. A specific contradiction is that 2-year-olds
can hide objects so that another person cannot see them, which implies that 2-year-olds have
some idea of another person’s perspective. Other information about the child’s theory of mind
suggests a more abstract understanding of perspective taking as well.
b. The finding that young children find it difficult to pay attention to more than one feature,
characteristic, or dimension of a task at the same time is not contradicted. When Piaget observed
this, he called it centration. It is consistent with Gelman’s work, which showed that children can
be trained to pay attention to relevant task dimensions, but do not do so on their own. It is also
consistent with the difficulty young children have paying attention to television.
c. The statement that an aspect of preoperational thought is that nonliving things are thought to have
the characteristics of living things is not contradicted, although Santrock mentions that there are
alternative interpretations of the phenomenon, such as preschoolers may not be as concerned with
reality as older children, or they may be more fanciful and inventive. Consistent with the
statement are observations of children’s drawings (suns with faces). Also consistent is the
implication that children like books about such characters as Winnie the Pooh because they
portray toy animals that are alive.
d. Nothing contradicts the statement that memory span increases rapidly between the ages of 2 and 7
years. It is consistent with the estimate that the average child learns between 5 and 8 new words a
day during this period, and possibly with the ability to attend to multiple task features that
emerges at about the age of 7.
e. Nothing contradicts the statement that around 3 years of age, children are able to talk about things
that are not physically present. It is consistent with the claim that symbolic function develops
between 2 and 4 years of age. Symbolic function involves mental representation of objects not
physically present, which likely underlies the capacity, in language, to talk about things that are
not physically present.
2. Santrock devotes much effort in this chapter to describing the nature of cognition in early childhood
and to identifying the experiences presumed to promote cognition; however, he seldom directly
shows the relationship between ideas and observations. On the contrary, the job of synthesizing this
information is left to the reader. According to your synthesis of information in the chapter, which of
the following statements makes the most sense? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why
it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as good.
a. The statement that Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories contradict one another makes the most sense.
Piaget and Vygotsky differ in their interpretation of the nature and meaning of egocentric speech
as well as on the primary mechanisms of cognitive development. Vygotsky sees egocentric

speech as an internalized conversation that promotes cognitive development. Piaget sees
egocentric speech as a sign of immature cognitive development which interferes with more
advanced and appropriate communication.
b. The sentence stating that the Montessori approach is the most effective early education program
does not follow from information in the text. In fact, Santrock does not identify a single “best”
type of early childhood education program. There are many different types, each with different
strengths and weaknesses. The Montessori approach is seen as strong in fostering academic
outcomes but weak in fostering effective social outcomes.
c. The statement that the development of language is very different from, and unrelated to, the
development of thought does not follow from information in the text. There are many similarities
and parallels in the development of each. For example, displacement in language is similar to, and
probably requires, symbolic function. Language itself appears to involve perceptual and cognitive
processes. In both theories, language and thought are viewed as related but in different ways.
d. The concept of a child-centered kindergarten is clearly based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development is not supported in the textbook. Piaget’s theory focuses mainly on cognitive
development and tries to characterize all children. In contrast, child-centered kindergartens stress
individual differences and the importance of dealing with the “whole” child, which includes
physical, social, emotional, and personality development.
e. The statement that both Piagetian tests and information-processing tasks reveal that the
preschooler’s mind is qualitative does not follow information in the text. Piaget’s tasks reveal
qualitative changes in the sense that concrete operational children think about problems
differently from preoperational children. However, information-processing tasks tend to reveal
quantitative changes; for example, older children remember more from short-term memory,
process information faster, and attend longer.
3. Tremendous research has examined physical development in early childhood, including research on
height differences, second-hand smoke, and brain development. Which of the following statements
best represents an assumption by researchers, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the
letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as
good.
a. The statement that differences in physical activity, basal metabolism, and efficiency with which
children use energy, help explain the varying energy needs of individual children of the same age,
sex, and size is an assumption; thus, it is the best answer. These reasons have been proposed to
help explain this phenomenon, yet they have not been examined.
b. The statement that the two most important contributors to height differences around the world are
ethnic origins and nutrition is an observation. Santrock states, for example, that in the United
States, African American children are taller than white children.
c. Exposure to tobacco smoke increases children’s risk for developing a number of medical
problems is an observation. Research has found that exposure to tobacco smoke increases
children’s risk for pneumonia, bronchitis, middle ear infections, burns, and asthma.
d. The statement that children’s brains experience rapid, distinct spurts of growth is an observation.
Using repeated brain scans of the same children over a four-year period, researchers found that
the amount of brain material in some areas can nearly double within as little as a year, followed
by drastic loss of tissue, as unneeded cells are purged and the brain continues to reorganize itself.
e. The statement that myelination is important in the maturation of a number of children’s abilities is
an inference. Santrock implies that some developmentalists have reached this conclusion based on
research. Myelination in the areas of the brain related to hand–eye coordination is not complete
until about 4 years of age, which corresponds to the development of children’s motor abilities.
Handout 4 (CA 6)
Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed
in this chapter.
1. Explain why there is so much variation in the height of children.
2. What is myelination? What is its role in development?
3. Describe the major milestones in motor development in early childhood, and explain how this
information could be used by parents and teachers.
4. Explain what factors contribute to toddlers’ risk of illness and death.
5. What does Piaget mean by operations? Explain how preoperational thought differs from
sensorimotor thought.
6. Define and give examples of the symbolic function substage and the intuitive thought substage.
7. Explain at least two examples of a Piagetian conservation task. Compare and contrast Piaget’s and
Gelman’s analyses of children’s success or failure on a conservation task.
8. What is a zone of proximal development (ZPD)? Explain the respective activities of child and
teacher as a child moves through a ZPD.
9. Compare and contrast Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views about what causes the development of thought
and language.
10. Describe findings about the development of attention in early childhood. Discuss whether this
information confirms or contradicts aspects of Piaget’s description of cognitive development during
this time of life.
11. Describe short-term memory, and indicate how it changes in young children.
12. Outline the development of children’s theory of mind. How does this information relate to Piaget’s
claims about children’s cognitive functioning during early childhood?
13. Describe the major milestones of language development in early childhood.
14. Characterize the philosophy and activities of a child-centered kindergarten; explain whether they are
developmentally appropriate.
15. Imagine that you are a parent with a prospective preschooler. Explain what you would do before
attending a session with a preschool director and what kinds of questions you would ask during the
meeting.
Handout 5 (CA 6)
Ideas to Help You Answer Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
1. To effectively illustrate the phenomenon you will be explaining, collect some easy data. Visit a
preschool classroom, or ask parents at a playground if you can measure their child’s height. Graph
varying heights of children of the same age, and preface your discussion with what you found.
2. Describe neural functioning without myelin before you explain what myelin is and its role.
3. Approach this assignment as if you were addressing an audience of parents and teachers. Describe
the major milestones and incorporate the application(s) of this information relevant to each group.
4. Imagine you are presenting this information to a group of parents-to-be, individuals highly interested
in what you have to say.
5. After you explain what Piaget means by operations, present an example of a mental operation. This
will provide a good basis for your comparison of preoperational and sensorimotor thought.
6. Begin your answer by introducing Piaget’s conceptualization of the preoperational stage of cognitive
development followed by your discussion of the two substages.
7. Explain what is meant by the concept of conservation, then elaborate through your presentation of
two examples of conservation tasks and behaviors that would indicate passing and failing. This will
create a meaningful basis for a comparison between Piaget and Gelman.
8. Introduce Vygotsky and his theory, including the notion of zones of proximal development.
9. Outline each theorist’s view of the development of thought and language. From these, identify the
similarities and differences between them.
10. Begin by discussing what attention refers to with regard to cognitive functioning in children. Then,
present the findings and their implications for Piaget’s notions of cognitive development.
11. Describe developmentalists’ overall view of memory in order to put your discussion of short-term
memory development in context.
12. Explain theories of mind and the significance of studying this aspect of development. Then outline its
development and relevance to Piagetian theory.
13. Imagine you are presenting a talk on language development to new parents. It is, after all, one of the
most highly anticipated aspects of child development, and they will want to know everything that is
going to happen and when.
14. Imagine you are a developmental psychologist asked to make this presentation to the local school
board for their consideration in planning educational opportunities and curriculum for young
children.
15. Imagine being a parent and the implications of putting your child in preschool—she will be away
from you for the first time, this will be her first experience with “formal” learning and school, and
this will be the first structure placed on her valuable childhood play time. Address these issues.
Handout 6 (RP 3)
Memory Span
The purpose of this project is to provide a demonstration of memory span. Pair up with a classmate for
this project. You will need to test four individuals: a 3-year-old, a 6-year-old, a 9-year-old, and a
classmate. The task is a digit-span task. Present a list of digits to each subject at the rate of one per
second, and have each subject repeat as many digits as he or she remembers. One of you will present the
digits and the other will record the subject’s response. Use the following worksheet for data collection,
and answer the questions after you have completed the task. To test the children, the project will have to
be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and you will need to get informed
consent from the children’s parents.
Task Child 1 Child 2 Child 3 Adult

Age _____ Age _____ Age _____ Age _____
Sex _____ Sex _____ Sex _____ Sex _____
Digits Response Response Response Response
2
74
196
2389
64157
326890
7509621
92503184
849276304
Number of correct digits out

of:
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Questions:
 How many digits did the 3-year-old remember?
 Was it the same number regardless of the number of digits presented?
 How many did the 6-year-old, the 9-year-old, and the classmate remember?
 Was the number different depending on the number presented?
 In what way was the number different?
 Did you find age differences for memory span?

 What is the nature of the differences observed?
 Could anything besides memory span account for the differences?
 From your data, what statement could you make about the development of memory span from 3
years of age to adulthood?
 What qualifications, if any, would you need to make about your statement based on the limitations of
your data?
Handout 7 (RP 4)
Language Errors
This class project exposes you to the kinds of errors that children make when they are acquiring language.
Pair up with another student in the class. One of you will act as the experimenter, while the other will act
as the observer. Test two different children, one 3 to 4 years of age, the other 7 to 8 years of age. To test
the two children, the project will have to be approved by the human subjects review board at your school,
and you will need to get informed consent from the children’s parents.
The children will participate in three different tasks (an act-out task, an imitation task, and a production
task) to evaluate their understanding and use of the passive construction. Use the provided data sheet to
record your observations. After you have collected your data, answer the questions provided at the bottom
of the page.
Act-out task: Have several objects available—a toy car and truck, a doll, and a toy horse, cow, dog, and
cat. Read the sentences below, one at a time, and have the child act out the sentences with the toys.
Imitation task: State each of the sentences below, and have the child repeat the sentences back to you.
Production Task: Perform the actions in each of the sentences below with the toys. Ask the child to tell
you what happened starting with the first noun in the sentence. For instance, for item “e,” roll the car
along so that it hits the truck, and then ask the child to tell you what happened beginning with the truck.
a. The car hit the truck.

b. The dog was kicked by the cat.
c. The boy was bitten by the dog.
d. The boy hit the cat.
e. The truck was hit by the car.
f. The cow stepped on the horse.
g. The cat kicked the dog.
h. The cat was hit by the boy.
i. The dog bit the boy.
j. The horse was stepped on by the cow.
 What did the 3- to 4-year-old child do in response to the act-out task? The imitation task? The
production task? Was performance on one task better than on the others? If so, which? What sorts of
errors appeared in the act-out task? What about the imitation task? The production task? Were the
errors similar in the various tasks?
 What did the 7- to 8-year-old child do in response to the act-out task? The imitation task? The
production task? Was performance on one task better than on the others? If so, which? What sorts of
errors appeared in the act-out task? What about the imitation task? The production task? Were the
errors similar in the various tasks?
 Compare the two children. What differences, if any, did you see in their performances on these three
tasks? How would you account for the differences? What is the nature of language learning that
seems to be occurring during this time?
 What criticisms could be leveled at the procedures you used in this demonstration? For example, do
you think each task should have had different questions?
Task Child 1 Child 2

Sex _____ Age _____ Sex _____ Age _____
Act-out Task
Sentence A
Sentence B
Sentence C
Sentence D
Sentence E
Sentence F
Sentence G
Sentence H
Sentence I
Sentence J
Imitation Task
Sentence A
Sentence B
Sentence C
Sentence D
Sentence E
Sentence F
Sentence G
Sentence H
Sentence I
Sentence J
Production Task
Sentence A
Sentence B
Sentence C
Sentence D
Sentence E
Sentence F
Sentence G
Sentence H
Sentence I
Sentence J
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(Download PDF) Life Span Development 16th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual Full Chapter

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Life Span Development 16th Edition

Santrock Solutions Manual

Life Span Development 16th Edition Santrock Test Bank

Life-Span Development 14th Edition Santrock Solutions

Life-Span Development 15th Edition Santrock Solutions

Life Span Development Canadian 6th Edition Santrock

Essentials of Life-Span Development 3rd Edition

Essentials of Life Span Development 4th Edition

Life Span Development 17th Edition Santrock Test Bank

Life-Span Development 15th Edition Santrock Test Bank

Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

Body Growth and Change Lecture Suggestion 1: Teaching Toddlers to

Cognitive Changes Learning Goal 2: Describe three views of the

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Lecture Suggestion 3: The Benefits of Being

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 1

Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students

Language Development Learning Goal 3: Summarize how language

Understanding Phonology and Morphology Lecture Suggestion 4: Does Early Intervention

Early Childhood Education Learning Goal 4: Evaluate different approaches

Variations in Early Childhood Education Lecture Suggestion 5: Child-Centered

Review Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 2

Lecture Suggestion 2: The State of Illness and Health in Your State

Lecture Suggestion 3: The Benefits of Being Wrong

Lecture Suggestion 4: Does Early Intervention Have Long-Term Effects?

Based on the two random assignments, four groups were formed.

Lecture Suggestion 5: Child Centered Kindergarten

The following sites may provide some insight:

Classroom Activity 1: Sequence and Trends in Verbal and Motor Development

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 6

The correct order is as follows:

2 months turns head to follow moving object

Ask students to consider the following questions:

Classroom Activity 3: Children’s Readiness to Read

According to the ReadingRockets.org (2015) website, prereading skills include:

Classroom Activity 4: The Montessori Approach

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 8

Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers

Personal Application 2: Have It Your Way

Personal Application 3: I’m Sure You’ll Agree

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 11

Personal Application 4: Know Your Own Mind

Research Project Ideas

Research Project 2: Not-So-Happy Meal

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 12

Research Project 3: Memory Span

Research Project 4: Language Errors

Research Project 5: Observations of Adult–Child Conversations

Research Project 6: The Relationship between Language Development and Emotional

1. What is a theory of mind?

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 15

Resources Available in Connect

7 Fine Motor Skills at Age 3 Video LO 7.1

7 Copying Shapes at Age 3-1 Video LO 7.1

7 Copying Shapes at Age 3-2 Video LO 7.1

7 Advanced Fine Motor Skills at Age 5 Video LO 7.1

7 Children and Nutrition Video LO 7.1

7 Piaget Preoperational Stage Concept Clip LO 7.2

Milestones: Symbolic Function, Amalia, 18-

Lacking Concept of Conservation (Liquid)

Lacking Concept of Conservation (Mass,

Santrock, Life-Span Development: 16e IM 7 | 16

7 Development of Concept of Conservation Video LO 7.2