Report

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/331089274
Compendium of MTC on Good Agricultural Practices for Forage Crop Production
Book · February 2014
CITATIONS READS
0 206
6 authors, including:
Sunil Kumar Dana Ram Palsaniya

Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute
117 PUBLICATIONS 723 CITATIONS 135 PUBLICATIONS 603 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
A.K. Dixit T. Kiran Kumar
32 PUBLICATIONS 94 CITATIONS
ICAR-Central Tobacco Research Institute
49 PUBLICATIONS 144 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Prabhu Govindasamy on 20 September 2020.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Chapter: 1
Forage Resources in India: Status and Issues
P.K. Ghosh and R. K. Agrawal

Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
Indian agriculture has traditionally been a mixed farming system where crop production and livestock
remained the major functional and complimentary components besides providing livelihood for more than
60% population in rural areas. The livestock not only provide products for human diets but also serve as
energy source for draught power in agricultural operations. Apart from being an important source of
human nutrition, livestock is also a source of crop nutrition, power for agricultural tillage and rural
transportation and a valuable asset, which can be easily encashed during emergencies. Livestock has a
direct influence on agricultural production. A wide range of products generated from livestock enable
farmers to diversity their sources of income and absorb risk. In arid and semi-arid regions, livestock is the
only source of livelihood, particularly when agriculture fails to withstand the drought. The country rears
>15 percent of the world’s livestock population on 2 per cent of geographical share. There are 1428
million cattle and 194 million buffalo in the world. As per the livestock census (2012), the country is
rearing 529.7 m livestock including 199 m cattle and 105 m buffaloes. The total milk production of the
country was 122m t in the year 2010. In recent past the growth rate has been in favor of buffalo (3.12% as
compared to cattle 1.83%). The census also revealed a positive sign that the growth rate of the crossbreds
increase @more than 8% during 2003-2007, whereas, the indigenous cattle increased @ of 0.85% during
the same period. Further, the increase is mainly concentrated in rural areas and the urban areas recorded a
negative growth. Urbanization has brought a shift in the dietary habits of people in favor of milk products,
meat and eggs with resultant increase in demand of livestock products. It is predicted that meat and milk
consumption will grow at 2.8 and 3.3 per cent per annum, respectively, in developing countries like India.
Unfortunately the productivity of livestock in the country is very low. The low productivity of livestock is
mainly attributed to poor fodder and feed resources and breeds. In India, livestock in intensive cropped
areas obtain only about 25 to 30 percent of their feed from grazing in nearby uncultivated lands and
fodders grown in the patches, the balance comes from crop residues and byproducts (Faruqui et al., 2006).
Peri-urban livestock farms and emerging fodder markets are indicators of fast changing economic scenario
in livestock sector. Production efficiency of the Indian livestock in many states of the country is low as
compared to the states like Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana. Balanced nutrition through quality feed and
fodders to livestock is available only in sporadic milkshed pockets of the country, where intensive fodder
production strategies have been adopted. Rest of the farming community maintains uneconomic large
herds on grazing supplemented with stall feeding. Hence, looking at the pitiable scenario the possible
measures, technologies and opportunities are presented hereunder.
Forage Production Scenario
The requirement for fodder is mainly governed by the population and species of livestock, management
levels and climatic conditions (Faruqui, 2011). As per estimates of IGFRI, (Table 1) the availability of
green fodder from cultivated areas and pastures is estimated to be 590.4 million tones against the demand
of 851.3 mt in the country by 2020. Similarly, in case of dry fodder, estimated total availability will be
467.6 million tones (from dry residues and byproducts of grain, commercial and pulse crops and dry grass
from grazing lands and forests) against the requirement of 530.5 million tones (IGFRI, 2013).
Forage resources
The major fodder and feed resources for livestock are the variety of herbage from cultivated forages, i.e.
cultivated forage crops, crop residues from crop lands, green/dry fodder from self owned or community
land and grazing on wasteland, degraded land and forest lands. The total area under cultivated fodder is
only 8.4 mha on individual crop basis which is static since last two decades.
MTC on “Good Agricultural Practices for Forage Crop Production” Feb.18-25th, 2014 held at IGFRI, Jhansi Page 1
Table 1: Demand and supply estimates* of dry and green forages (million tons)
Demand Supply Net Deficit % Deficit
Year Dry Green Dry Green Dry Green Dry Green
2010 508.9 816.8 453.2 525.5 55.72 291.3 10.95 35.66
2020 530.5 851.3 467.6 590.4 62.85 260.9 11.85 30.65
2030 568.1 911.6 500.0 687.4 68.07 224.2 11.98 24.59
2040 594.9 954.8 524.4 761.7 70.57 193.0 11.86 20.22
2050 631.0 1012.7 547.7 826.0 83.27 186.6 13.20 18.43
*Source: based on the estimates in IGFRI Vision: 2050
The scope for further increase in area under forages seems meager due to demographic pressure of human
population for food crops. In the diverse climate of India, variety of forage species, range grasses and
legumes and trees as well shrubs finds their place in the natural vegetation. Enough scope exists to grow
crops like sorghum, maize, pearl millet, cowpea and guar in Kharif and oats, berseem, lucerne and barley
in Rabi season and guinea grass, stylosanthes, napier-bajra hybrid and anjan grass as perennial forage.
Crops like berseem, oats, maize and napier-bajra hybrid are suitable for irrigated intensive production
areas while sorghum, pearlmillet and clusterbean are suitable for moisture stress areas. With respect to dry
arid climates, grasses like Lasiurus indicus, Panicum antidotale and P. turgidum are suitable for sand-
dunes and sandy plains, while Dichanthium annulatum for clay loam to clay soils and Cenchrus ciliaris
and C. setigerus for well drained sandy alluvial soils. A substantial number of cultivated and range forage
crop varieties have been released till date to cater the needs of the livestock keepers owning varied
resource base, dwelling in different agro climatic and geo morphological situations Apart from cultivated
forages, range grasses supplements the fodder demand in Himalayan region (Zone 1, 2) and western
region (Zone 13, 14). In coastal and Island region (Zone 11, 12 & 15) forages are grown under plantation
crops in multi-tier system. The production potential of important forages and their varieties is given in
Table 2.
India’s huge livestock population still sustains to a larger extent on the grazing resources. Grazing based
animal husbandry plays significant role in rural economy of an agrarian country like ours. The grazing
activity is mainly dependent on the availability of the grazing resources from pastures and other grazing
lands, viz. forests, miscellaneous tree crops and groves, cultivable waste lands and fallow lands. According
to Wasteland Atlas of India (2000), the total area available for grazing accounts for about 40 per cent of
the country’ geographical area and the area available for grazing is highly variable. Grazing resources and
grazing pressure based on livestock units (ACU)* in important states is given in Table 3.
Production Economics of Forage Based Systems

Forage production techniques, besides giving higher yields maintain the flow of green fodder throughout
the year and ensure effective utilization of land and other production inputs. The farm economy can
remuneratively be sustained in different seasons/ months under round the year fodder. Moreover, such
production systems are less expensive and offer continuous employment potential. At Jhansi, a study was
conducted to compare the production economics of perennial grasses based round the year fodder
production systems. The results revealed that guar-oat-cowpea grown in perennial based guinea grass
system produced the highest green fodder/ha recording a net income of Rs. 28910 (Table 4). The gross
income from the rotation was Rs. 71322.00, which was 9.66 and 41.78 % higher over setaria based and
napier bajra hybrid based rotations, respectively (Singh et al., 2002). As regards to comparative
economics of seasonal fodders, the multicut sorghum (Table 5) yielded 95.2 t fresh fodders per hectare
giving a net return of Rs. 39380.00 (B: C ratio - 1.47). Among the Rabi season forages, berseem (wardan)
yielded 65.44 t green forage with net return of Rs.15356 per hectare (B: C ratio - 0.64) in comparison to
oat (net return Rs.10359.00, B: C ratio - 0.55).
Table 2: Important forage crop varieties for central India and their yield levels
Crop and Variety Green forage (q/ha)
I Cultivated Fodder – Legumes
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L)
Wardan (S-99-1), UPB-103 900-1500
Mescavi, JB-2 900-1000
Bundel Berseem –2 (JHB 146), Bundel Berseem –3 580-850
Lucerne (Medicago sativa L)
Type-9 900-1000
Anand-2 850-900
RL –88 700-1000
SS-627 800-950
Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata (L) Walp.)
Russian Giant 350-400
NP-3 (EC-4216) 300-350
UPC-287 350-400
UPC-5286 350-450
UPC 8705 300-420
C-30 300-350
Kohinoor (IGFRI-S-450) 250-300
Shweta (No.998) 300-350
Bundel Lobia – 1 (IFC-8401) 250-300
Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub.
HFG –156 200-250
FS-277 175-250
Bundel Guar-1(IGFRI –212-1) 220-350
Bundel Guar-2 (IGFRI –2395-2) 280-400
HFG-119 250-300
Lablab Bean (Sem)
Bundel sem –1 (JLP – 4) 220-350
II Cultivated Fodder – Cereals
Oats (Avena sativa L.)
Kent, OS-6, UPO-94 450-500
UPO-212 370-520
OL-125 350-480
JHO-822 (Bundel Jai-822) 450-550
JHO-851, JHO 99-1, JHO 99-2, JHO 2000-4 500-550
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench)
Pusa Chari-6, Pusa chari-9, HC-308 400-450
HC-136, M.P. Chari 400-500
Meethi Sudan (SSG-59-3) 500-550
Jawahar Chari-6, Jawahar Chari-69 350-450
Pro-Agro chari (SSG-988), PCH –106 600-900
MFSH-3 500-850
Bajra (Pennisetum americanum (L) Leek.)
Giant Bajra, Raj Bajra Chari-2 (UUJ-IV-M) 350-400
K-677 400-500
L-72 400-550
Fooder cumbu-8 (TNSC-1) 270-400
AVKB 19 350-500
Maize (Zea mays L.)
African tall 500-600
Vijay composite, Jawahar 350-450
Moti composite 350-425
Manjari Composite, Pratp makka Chari 400-450
III Cultivated fodder – perennial grasses
Hybrid Napier (Napier- Bajra hybrid) (Pennisetum purpureum x P. americanum)
Pusa Giant 1000-1300
NB-21 1200-1500
Swetika-1 (IGFRI-3) 1100-1200
IGFRI-7, IGFRI-10 1300-1500
Yeshwant (RBN-9) 1300-1400
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) Jacq.
PGG-9 900-1100
JHGG 96-5 900-1100
BG-2 1000-1200
Deenanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum)
IGFRI-3808 500-600
Bundel-1 (IGFRI-43-1), Bundel-2 (IGFRI-4-2-1) 550-700
Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)
Bundel Anjan –1 (IGFRI- 3108) 220-400
Bundel Anjan 3 230-420
Table 3: Grazing resources and grazing pressure based on livestock units (ACU)* in important states
State Geographic Total grazing Livestock Lives-tock Grazing ACU/ha (Net
al Area area (m) density pressure sown area)
(m ha) (m ha) (ACU/ha)
Andhra Pradesh 27.51 7.47 32.91 1.20 2.63 2.58
Bihar 17.39 3.42 47.93 2.76 7.71 3.42
Gujarat 19.60 4.89 18.60 0.95 2.39 1.68
Haryana 4.42 0.52 9.14 2.07 12.11 2.56
Jammu & Kashmir 10.14 6.82 8.71 0.86 0.56 6.71
Karnataka 19.18 2.92 29.57 1.54 5.73 1.99
Madhya Pradesh 44.34 9.05 46.74 1.05 3.72 2.14
Maharashtra 30.77 6.83 36.39 1.18 3.19 1.54
Punjab 5.04 0.27 9.45 1.88 28.64 2.60
Rajasthan 34.22 13.04 48.41 1.41 1.57 1.72
Tamil Nadu 13.01 3.28 25.01 1.92 3.66 2.63
Uttar Pradesh 29.44 4.26 64.80 2.20 10.18 3.38
West Bengal 8.88 0.69 35.09 3.95 25.77 3.95
Total (India) 316.64 80.51 470.15 1.48 3.42 2.52
* ACU includes cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats
Table 4- Production economics of promising fodder production system
Crop Sequences Production Gross Total cost Net return Benefit:
(t/ha) income (Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) cost ratio
(Rs./ha)
Round the year fodder production system
NB Hybrid + ( Berseem + 112.5 50305 41519 8785 0.21
Mustard – Cowpea)
Guinea + (Guar-Oat-Cowpea) 144.1 71322 42412 28910 0.68
Setaria + (Cowpea-Berseem + 118.8 65039 41005 24034 0.59
Mustard –Cowpea)
Source: (Singh et al., 2002)
Table 5 - Production economics of important forage crops
Crops Production Gross Total cost Net returns Benefit:
(t/ha) Income (Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) cost ratio
(RS./ha)
Oat (JHO 822) Rabi 51.8 28500 18340 10159 0.55
Sorghum Summer/ 95.2 66141 26761 39380 1.47
multicut Kharif
Berseem Rabi 65.4 39266 23910 15356 0.64
Source: (Singh et al., 2002)
The economic viability of forage crops as a component in grain/ commercial crop based rotation is still
debated. Agrawal and Sharma (2001) compared the yield & productivity of three crop rotation namely
groundnut – wheat + mustard, maize (cob – berseem) and soybean – wheat + mustard. Due to different
nature of products & by products from systems, they were compared in terms of wheat equivalent yield
calculated on the basis of prevalent price. After 3 years field experimentation it was observed that maize –
berseem system recorded highest wheat equivalent yield (110.6 q/ha) followed by groundnut – wheat +
mustard (Table 6). Further, maize – berseem rotation also proved best in terms of soil fertility constants &
recorded 14.6 & 11.4% improvement in organic carbon and available nitrogen content of soil, respectively
over initial value.
Table 6: Wheat Equivalent Yield and soil fertility status
Treatments Wheat Equivalent Yield (t/ha) Post experimentation soil
fertility status
Kharif Rabi Total O. C. (%) Avail. N. (kg/ha)
Groundnut- wheat+ mustard 5.31 3.62 8.93 0.51 209.3
Maize – berseem 6.61 4.45 11.06 0.55 225.11
Soybean – wheat + mustard 3.02 3.85 6.87 0.54 211.0
Approaches for enhancing forage production

The forage production per unit area is a consequence of the interactions between genotypes and
environment. A crop environment may be regarded as having two components, the gross environment,
which takes into environmental factors affecting crop growth, and the current environment, which takes
into account the general soil and atmospheric conditions surrounding the crop plants and also the changes
caused by the plant community. However, the phenomenal increase in productivity is possible mainly
through better varieties, seeds and agronomic management.
Improved varieties
The forage crop production aims at increasing yield along with improvement in quality traits to enhance
ultimately the secondary productivity (animal products). Therefore, there is need to develop the forage
crop varieties having early bulkiness, quick regeneration potential and matching physiology for higher rate
of dry matter accumulation and longer leaf area duration. Since, forages are grown as mixed, inter/ catch
crop, hence, compatibility with associated crops, flexibility to defoliation management, high nodulation
and non-structural carbohydrates reserve are the other positive traits. High palatability, greater
digestibility, better nutritive value and free from anti-quality constituents and suitable for making good
quality silage and hay are the quality traits which determines the value of a herbage to be fed as hay.
Cultural Management
The following points should be considered to realize the optimum productivity of a forage crop.
v Timely sowing is very important in forage crops as these have very limited growth period.
v The seed rate and spacing should be adjusted depending upon the soil and other resource conditions.
v Growing of multi cut forage crops/varieties results in the saving of seeds, fertilizers and tillage
operations. Moreover, continuously supply the green forage throughout summer and rainy period.
v Mixed cropping of graminaceous and leguminous fodder crops better to improve the herbage quality
and maintenance of soil fertility. Both the crop components of the system should be of similar
duration to facilitate harvesting at one time.
v Maximum crop-weed competition is faced up to 4-5 weeks in most of the seasonal forages. Weed
menace should be checked from very beginning through proper land preparation, use of clean seed
and well decomposed FYM, pre-emergence application of herbicides and growing of smoother
intercrops.
v The requirement of fodder crops for nutrients particularly nitrogen is comparatively higher. This is
due to the fact that fodder crops are desired to produce luxuriant vegetative growth with succulent and
nutritive herbage in a short period. Thus, the fertilizer management strategies in fodder crops aim at
increasing the herbage production per unit area and time along with improvement in quality
parameters. the fertilizer recommendations for important fodder crops is given in Table 9.
v The judicious water management aims to provide suitable moisture environment to the crops to obtain
optimum yields commensurate with maximum economy in irrigation water and maintenance of soil
productivity. The Irrigation schedule offers an important approach to water saving because timely
supply of water to crops in adequate quantity. Irrigation management practices vary with season, soil
type, crop growth stage and fertilizer practices. Water requirement of fodder crops is usually greater
because of dense stand and higher vegetative growth in a short period.
v The optimum soil moisture regime for berseem, oat, maize, teosinte, sorghum, hybrid napier and
cowpea has been found to be 75% available soil moisture (ASM). Lucerne, cluster bean and barley
may be irrigated at 50% ASM, whereas triticale can be grown at 25% ASM with acceptable yield. The
irrigation at 25, 50 and 75% ASM corresponds to 10-12, 14-18 and 26-30 days intervals, respectively
in medium textured soils.
v For controlling insect pests and diseases, it is better to avoid the use of chemicals particularly when
the harvesting is due. However, if any pesticide is applied on the crop, the forage should not be
harvested for 3-4 weeks to avoid the risk of residual toxicity in animals.
v Cutting management influences not only the yield but also the forage quality. The fodder crops,
should therefore, be harvested at appropriate growth stage to obtain adequate fresh fodder with
acceptable dry matter nutrients particularly the crude protein.
v Multi cut forages especially those regenerating from auxiliary buds should be harvested leaving 8-10
cm stubbles to promote quick regeneration and adequate stand of the ratoon.
Epilogue
With from the forgoing discussion, it can be concluded that the changing economic scenario, mindset of
the farmers and their diversified needs, farmers’ decision on land use would be based on comparative
advantages readily markets, rather than house hold needs. The future areas of R & D are to be focused on
following aspects:
C Due to limitation of area expansion, the suitable forage ideotypes need to be sketched in terms of crop
morphology, canopy, fertilizer and water efficiency for appropriate integration with existing systems
as sole/mixed or intercrop.
C The exploitation & evaluation of non-conventional forage resources for minimizing the growth &
weight loss of livestock in lean periods.
C Developing and standardizing alley cropping system in terms of crop geometry, hedge crop interaction
for light, moisture and nutrients, integration with food/fodder/ association with fodder bushes for
regular supply of green forage under rainfed conditions.
C Management techniques for organic fodder production in view of emerging needs for organic animal
products.
C Secondary and micronutrient management for yield, quality and soil health improvement through
integrated plant nutrient supply approach including compounds like PGPR.
C Assessment of climatic variability, impact assessment of interaction of their elements on crop growth
& productivity and contingent crop planning to cope with unusual conditions.
C Blending knowledge for an inclusive approach towards innovation for demand led participatory
technology development and facilitating the access to knowledge and technology through website and
other IT tools as well as various TOT efforts.
C Development and adoption of crop-livestock integrated farming system models for optimal use of land
and other available resources.
C Development of forage based cropping systems along with soil management strategies for minimizing
the mining effects of nutrients caused by intensive cropping.
C Development of non-competitive land use alternative involving forage component in the hills and
intensively cropped regions of the country.
Chapter: 2
Prospects of forage production and GAP in changing scenario
Sunil Kumar, Kiran, T. and Prabhu, G.

Livestock production is backbone of Indian agriculture contributing 7% to national GDP and source of
employment and ultimate livelihood for 70% population in rural areas. Livestock provides stability to
family income especially in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country. Livestock population is around
500 million and is expected to grow at the rate of 1.23% in the coming years. The progress in this sector
will result in a balanced development of the rural economy. On the other hand, there is emphasis on
intensive and diversified cropping systems, and transformation of sustenance farming (synergy between
animal husbandry and crop cultivation) into market oriented contract farming. Although India is leading in
production of milk, meat and eggs but the productivity of our animals is 20-60% lower than the global
average due to improper nutrition, inadequate health-care and management, and most of the losses in
livestock productivity are due to inadequacy in supply of feed and fodder. There is tremendous pressure of
livestock on available total feed and fodder, as land available for fodder production has been decreasing.
At present, the country faces a net deficit of 35.6% green fodder, 10.95% dry crop residues and 44%
concentrate feed ingredients. The area under cultivated fodder production is limited only to 4.60% of the
total cultivable land in India and the livestock continues to be raised on crop residues and agricultural bi-
products.
Demand for agricultural produce is expected to double as the world's population reaches 9.1 billion by
2050. Increasing the quantity and quality of food in response to growing demand will require increased
agricultural productivity. Good agricultural practices, often in combination with effective input use, are
one of the best ways to increase smallholder productivity. Many agribusinesss are building sustainable
supply chains to increase production and improve quality. A multiplicity of Good Agricultural Practices
(GAP) codes, standards and regulations have been developed in recent years by the food industry and
producers organizations but also governments and NGOs, aiming to codify agricultural practices at farm
level for a range of commodities. Their purpose varies from fulfillment of trade and government
regulatory requirements (in particular with regard to food safety and quality), to more specific
requirements of specialty or niche markets.
Forage scenario
In India over 69.4 % of farmers are being marginal and 21.75 % small land holders and 90-95 % of
livestock owning by marginal and small farmers. These farmers are unable to devote their land resources
totally to cultivation fodder crops, as their priority is to produce food-grains. Besides, non-availability of
good quality seeds, potential marketing, lack of awareness about quality fodder production and importance
of bovines to our daily life are some of the critical reason for shortage of fodder. Therefore area under
fodder cultivation has remained stagnant for a long period. At present it is only 4.4 % of total cropped area
is devoted to fodder production. Economic viability of dairy is dependents on many factors, Viz., genetic
potential of livestock’s, efficient management of livestock’s from diseases, balanced feeding of animals in
particular small ruminants like goat and sheep, efficient marketing of the produce. The major fodder crops
grown in India in Kharif Napier bajra hybrid, guinea grass, fodder maize, sorghum, bajra, cowpea and in
Rabi lucerne, berseem, oats, barley etc., Among these crops, sorghum, maize, oats, lucerne and berseem
are more popular because of easy availability of seeds of improved varieties and well developed
technology to increase the forage yield and quality. However these crops require fertile land, good
irrigation, sufficient dose of organic and inorganic fertilizers and regular care, apart from good quality
seeds from reliable sources. While fertile lands with assured irrigation are diverted for growing high value
crops, large stretches of marginal and wastelands are lying underutilised across the country. There are
also opportunities to introduce fodder as an intercrop or as a soil binder under the watershed development
programme. Most of the fodder varieties presently released for cultivation, are not the most ideal for the
cultivation of such low productive lands. Identification of suitable fodder species for such areas and
developing suitable cultivation practices are necessary to boost fodder production on marginal and
wastelands in the future.
Prospects of fodder production

Indian agriculture can largely be characterized as rain fed small holders production system, putting a
special significance to livestock in attaining sustainability, resilience (hedging risk) and creation of
livelihood. Crop-livestock system is one way of optimizing output from limited land and other resources
of production. In mixed crop- livestock production system, dairy production contributes 20 to 50% of
family income. The share of livestock for underprivileged marginal and landless livestock owner is as
high as 70 to 80% during drought year. Livestock rearing is drought-proofing strategy for farmers of arid
and semiarid region. It also provides input for crop production, transport of produce and people as well as
fuel cakes, which largely remains, unaccounted. In recent years, suicide cases are increasing due to sole
cash crop based agricultural practice. On the other hand, situation is different due to crop-livestock
integrated farming in many states including chronic drought affected Rajasthan and Gujarat. There are
many options which if attempted may substantially reduce the gap in fodder demand and supply.
Cereal-legume intercropping
Farmers can adopt the cultivation of fodder crops in system mode like intercropping, mixed cropping,
sequential cropping, relay cropping and overlap cropping system. Findings at IGFRI, Jhansi revealed that
the NB hybrids + (Cowpea-Berseem + Mustard) system could be a better option to have throughout year
availability of quality fodder (Table.1)
Table.1 Potential intensive forage crop rotations under irrigated conditions in semiarid regions of India
Crop rotations Green fodder yield (t/ha/year) Dry matter yield (t/ha/year)
NB hybrids +(Cowpea- 273.1 44.3
Berseem + Mustard)
Sorghum (multi cut)-Turnip- 190.1 37.4
oat
Sorghum+ Cowpea- 180.5 33.3
Berseem+Mustard-
Maize+Cowpea
Sorghum (multi cut)+ 172.0 32.3
Cowpea-Berseem+Mustard
Food- fodder cropping system

This system has many advantages
· Sufficient supply of food grains to human beings and fodder to animals (Fig.1)
· Fodder legumes can Improve the soil fertility
· Balanced supply of nutrients to livestock’s
Alternate land use system
Fruit and forest trees provide enough space to grow fodder crops. Sunil kumar et al.(2013) reported that
the aonla fruit production was not influenced with intercropping of fodder crops under rain-fed and
produced fruit yield of 13.65 t/ha. Pearl millet (multicut) + cowpea produced significantly higher yields
21.6 t green fodder as compared to 18.4 t green fodder obtained from Pearlmillet (single cut) + cowpea.
Fodder production in association with tree was also higher (20.75 t green fodder) as compared to sole
crop. Higher B: C ratio 2.48:1 and 4.02:1 respectively of aonla based fodder production was recorded in
1st year and 2nd year when aonla trees were intercropped with Pearlmillet multicut + cowpea. The soil
nutrient build up was also noticed in fodder intercropped in association with aonla tree (Table. 2).
Wheat +Lucerne CP yield (t/ha)
Wheat + Berseem (3+1) DFY (t/ha)
Rice-Wheat GFY (t/ha)
Rice-Oat FEY (t/ha)
Rice-Berseem Total grain yield (Kharif +Rabi)

(t/ha)
0 20 40 60 80
Fig. 1. Intensive Food based fodder cropping system
Table:2 The economics of horti-pastural system
Inclusion of forages in existing system

Rice cultivation is a predominant mono cropping system in southern and northeastern parts of India.
Which provide plenty of opportunities to grow Rabi season fodder crops under residual moisture
condition. Similarly in many existing systems, forages can be accommodated.
Table.3 Yield of crops before or after rice

Cropping pattern Crop before or after rice
Yield (t/ha)
Rice-barley 2.2
Irish potato –rice 13.1
Rice-rye (Forage) 33.8
Rice-fallow -
Source: A. Ghosh (2008)
Forage production in problematic soils
The soils which owe characteristics that they cannot be economically used for the cultivation of crops
without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problem soils. The identification of varieties
suitable for problem/ degraded lands of India could be a one of the prospects of forage production.
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)

Good Agricultural Practices are "practices that address environmental, economic and social sustainability
for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural products" (FAO
COAG 2003 GAP paper).
Table. 4 Different forage crop varieties suitable for saline soils
Crops Varieties GFY (t/ha)
Saline soils
Sorghum HC- 136, HC-171, SSG-59-3 35-50
NBH IGFRI-3, IGFRI-6, IGFRI-10, 70-110
CO-1, CO-3
Cowpea EC- 4216, UPC-5286 25-35
Guinea grass Gutton 45-60
Oats Kent, JHO-851, JHO-822 35-40
Lucerne T-9, RL-88 60-80
Sodic soils
Sorghum MP chari, PC-6 , PC-9 35-40
Bajra Raj Bajra Chari-2 35-45
Oat Kent, JHO-822 35-45
Berseem Mescavi, Bundel berseem-3 60-80
Acidic soils
Cowpea EC-4216, UPC-5286, UPC- 25-30
4200
Oats Kent , JHO-99-1, JHO-99-2, 35-40
JHO-851
Maize African tall 30-35
Guinea grass Hamil, PGG-9, PGG-14 80-90
NBH NB-21, IGFRI-3, IGFRI-6, CO- 90-120
2, CO-3
Concept
The concept of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) has evolved in recent years in the context of a rapidly
changing and globalizing food economy and as a result of the concerns and commitments of a wide range
of stakeholders about food production and security, food safety and quality, and the environmental
sustainability of agriculture. GAP applies recommendations and available knowledge to addressing
environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm production and post-production processes
resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products. A broadly accepted approach using
GAP principles, generic indicators and practices will help guide debate on national policies and actions
and on the preparation of strategies to ensure that all stakeholders participate in and benefit from the
application of GAP in the food chain. The implementation of GAP should therefore contribute to
Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD).
Genesis of GAP
GAP primarily involve the application of good management practices to maintain the consumer
confidence in food quality and food safety by taking into account the optimal use of inputs to ensure
worker health and minimizing detrimental environmental impacts on farming operations. To set standards
for the certification of agricultural products around the globe, Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group
(EUREPGAP) was initiated during 1997 and which later evolved into GLOBALGAP. GLOBALGAP is a
private sector body that aims to establish ONE standard for GAP with different product applications
capable of fitting to the whole of global agriculture. It is a pre-farm-gate standard, which means that the
certificate covers the process of the certified product from farm inputs like feed or seedlings and all the
farming activities until the product leaves the farm. GLOBALGAP is a business-to-business label and is
therefore not directly visible to consumers. Its certification is carried out by more than 100 independent
and accredited certification bodies in more than 100 countries. It is open to all producers worldwide. It
includes annual inspections of the producers and additional unannounced inspections. It consists of a set
of normative documents. These documents cover the GLOBALGAP General Regulations, the
GLOBALGAP Control Points and Compliance Criteria and the GLOBALGAP Checklist. It has now been
established as a key reference for GAP in the global market place, by translating consumer requirements
into agricultural production in a rapidly growing list of countries – currently more than 100 from every
continent. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has launched Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS)
Certification IS/ISO 22000:2005 scheme which envisages grant of FSMS Certification license to
organizations according to IS/ISO 22000.
A multiplicity of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) codes, standards and regulations have been
developed in recent years by the food industry and producers organizations but also governments and
NGOs, aiming to codify agricultural practices at farm level for a range of commodities. Their purpose
varies from fulfillment of trade and government regulatory requirements (in particular with regard to food
safety and quality), to more specific requirements of specialty or niche markets.
In India, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has taken initiatives to develop its own standards to be
followed by institutions and companies, etc. The draft Indian Standard Good Agricultural Practices –
IndiaGAP (Part 1- Crop Base) takes into account not only the quality and quantity of the crop obtained
from a unit area but also the care and attention gone into integrating pre-harvest practices like soil & water
management, nutrient management and pest management, harvesting, post harvest handling and other
logistics (Anon., 2008). The objective is to ensure food safety, occupational health/safety/welfare, and
wherever possible, animal welfare. The entire operation is intended to make farming practices
environment friendly. For the purpose of verification, a graded pattern given below shall be followed for
grant of IndiaGAP licence (Table 5).
Table 5: Graded pattern followed for grant of IndiaGAP licence

Category of license Major compliances Minor compliances
IndiaGAP - A 100% 90%
IndiaGAP - B 100% 80%
IndiaGAP - C 100% 75%
BIS India GAP certification shall be as prescribed under the provisions of Bureau of Indian Standards Act,
1986 and Rules and Regulations framed there under. The details of the conditions under which the licence
may be granted to producer (individual grower and/or member of a grower group) may be obtained from
the Bureau of Indian Standards. Food and Agriculture Department of Bureau of Indian Standards has
formulated various standards since inception and has so far developed around 1800 standards in the
following areas including – pesticides, sugar, apiary, tobacco, livestock feeds, equipment, stimulant foods,
soil quality and fertilizers, food additives, spices and condiments, processed fruit and vegetable,
agricultural tractors, fish and fisheries products, oil and oilseeds, drinks and carbonated beverages, food
hygiene, safety management food grains, starches and ready to eat foods, irrigation systems, farm
implements, slaughter house and meat, dairy products and equipments, agriculture and food processing
equipments, agriculture management and systems, biotechnology and specialized products. These
standards are for products, methods of test, code of practice, terminology, symbols and systems.
The objective of these GAP codes, standards and regulations include, to a varying degree:
v Ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain,
v Capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance,
v Improving natural resources use, workers’ health and working conditions, and/or
v Creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in developing countries.
Four Pillars of GAP:
v Economic Viability
v Environmental Sustainability
v Social Acceptability
v Food Quality and safety
Major Principles of GAP
1. Traceability
2. Record keeping and self inspection
3. Varieties and rootstocks
4. Site history and site management
5. Soil and substrate management
6. Fertilizer use
7. Irrigation/Fertigation
8. Crop protection
9. Harvesting
10. Produce handling
11. Waste & pollution management, recycling & re-use
12. Worker health, safety and welfare
13. Environment issues
14. Complaint form
Why GAPs are required?

Resource constraints (soil and water)
Widespread, serious and continuing degradation of India’s natural resource base is now reflected in
increasing difficulties in achieving growth rates in agriculture. Over 120 million ha have been declared
degraded or problem soils (NAAS, 2010) and massive and prolonged loss of organic matter and C in most
of the arable lands in India. Crop response or incremental yield per unit of nutrients tends to be lower with
increasing fertilizer use per hectare, the evidence for soil organic matter depletion being a prime cause for
declining soil health and soil productivity is mounting (Sharda et al, 2010). In addition, the water
resources primarily groundwater is declining at a greater pace threatening the sustainability of Indian
agriculture. The latest reports from the GRACE Mission of NASA (Rodell et al, 2010) show decline at a
mean rate of 4.0+/- 1.0 cm/yr, equivalent height of water (17.764.5 km3/yr) over the Indian states of
Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. Other forms of loss include water lost due to salinity and
alkalinity, and due to overdraft from groundwater sources, way beyond the recharge capacities of the
aquifers (Planning Commission, 2010).
Environmental pollution
Concern has also grown in recent years that the use of fertilizers and pesticides, particularly inorganic
fertilizers can lead to serious environmental consequences. The nutrients and pesticides attached to soil
particles, or dissolved in runoff, affect water quality in ways that can affect the suitability of water for
many uses (Baker 1987).GAP in addition to improving the yield and quality of the products, also has
environmental and social dimensions. Implementation of GAP would promote optimum utilization of
resources such as pesticides, fertilizers, and water and eco-friendly agriculture. Its social dimension would
be to protect the agricultural workers’ health from improper use of chemicals and pesticides. It is a
particularly opportune time to promote GAP when second generation of reforms in agriculture which
would have a major impact on Indian agriculture, are planned by the Indian Government.
Climate change
The warming trend in India over the past 100 years (1901 to 2007) was observed to be 0.510 C with
accelerated warming of 0.21oC per every10 years since 1970 (Krishna Kumar 2009). The projected
impacts are likely to further aggravate yield fluctuations of many crops with impact on food security and
prices. Cereal productivity is projected to decrease by 10-40% by 2100 and greater loss is expected in
rabi. The predicted changes in temperature and their associated impacts on rainfall and consequent
availability of water to crops and extreme weather events are all likely to affect substantially of crops and
cropping systems. About 74% of annual rainfall occurs during southwest monsoon (June to September).
This rainfall exhibits high coefficient of variation particularly in arid and dry semi-arid regions.
Aberrations in South-West monsoon which include delay in onset, long dry spells and early withdrawal,
all of which affect the crops, strongly influence the productivity levels (Lal 2001). These aberrations are
likely to further increase in future. The risk of crop failure and poor yields always influence farmers’
decision on investing on new technologies and level of input use. Numerous technological e.g. cropping
patterns, crop diversification, and shifts to drought resistant varieties factors will come into play in
enhancing the productivity of crops in vulnerable areas.
Increasing input costs

Productivity is dependent on the level of input use such as seed, fertilizers and pesticides. The growth in
input use would contribute to productivity growth. However, the levels use of inputs is determined by the
relative prices of inputs as well as by the response of yield to the inputs. While the latter is a function of
technology, weather and environment, the former reflects the market and policy environment. Availability
of quality input e.g. seed at right time and at affordable prices is critical. The prices of seed are increasing
considerably over time and in many cases the private sector is playing a significant role.
Marketability and profitability

Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy. India’s basic strength lies in agriculture. But its vast
potential has not been fully exploited. While World Trade Organization (WTO) poses some challenges, it
also offers tremendous worldwide market opportunities for Indian agriculture produce. This market
potential can be realized by reforming agriculture and making its produce internationally competitive in
quality and food safety. To enable farm produce to be internationally competitive innovative farming
practices incorporating the concept of globally accepted Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) within the
framework of commercial agricultural production for long term improvement and sustainability is
essential.
Quality of produce
In recent years there is growing concern among the public particularly on quality food used for
consumption due to more use of pesticides and inorganic fertilizers. There are different systems and
standards available for control measures in value addition through processing of food meant for human
consumption. Although grade standards on size, shape, colour and local preferences are available for most
of the fruits and vegetables marketed and consumed in India, their quality in terms of maturity standards,
residues of pesticides and other contaminants, microbial loads, etc. have not been adequately addressed.
The Indian Good Agricultural Practices (INDGAP) takes into account not only the quality and quantity of
the produce obtained from a unit area but also the care is taken in integrating pre-harvest practices like soil
& water management, nutrient management and pest management, harvesting, post harvest handling and
other logistics. It is therefore necessary to have a comprehensive view while defining control and
compliance systems for different farm produce covering horticulture, floriculture, food grains, etc. The
areas where appropriate control measures need to be strengthened are farms producing raw material such
as food grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, floriculture, etc. to ensure sustained supply of produce of the
desirable quality.
GAP in fodder production

Selection of suitable cultivars and varieties
There are wide range of varieties grown in our country but the variety has to be selected based on
understanding of varietal characteristics, response to sowing or planting time, productivity, quality, market
acceptability, nutritional value, disease and stress resistance, edaphic and climatic adaptability, and
response to fertilizers and agrochemicals. Among the fodder crops barley is most suitable for drought as
well as salinity followed by other fodder crops (sorghum, pearlmillet, maize, oat and berseem). Due to
selection of suitable crops, particularly forage legumes and other forage crops in the system improved the
resilience to climate change.
Crop diversification
Inclusion forage species in cropping systems optimize use of labour, farm machinery and maximize the
biological benefits of weed control by competition, mechanical, biological and herbicide options,
provision of non-host crops to minimize disease and inclusion of legumes to provide a biological source of
nitrogen. The desirable characteristics in forage crop/variety may fit very well to different situations
includes short growing season and higher dry matter accumulation, compatibility with associated crops in
mixed/intercropping systems, quick regeneration potential, greater persistency, ability to withstand
aberrant weather and adverse soil conditions such as drought, water logging, problem soil conditions,
suitable for fitting in prevalent cropping systems and acceptable seed production ability and dual purpose
type.
Improving soil health

Soil physical and chemical properties, organic matter content and biological activity and their functions
are fundamental to sustaining agricultural production and determine the soil fertility and productivity.
Appropriate soil management with good agricultural practices aims
v Maintaining and improve soil productivity by improving the availability and uptake of water and
nutrients through enhancing soil biological activity
v Improving soil moisture, minimizing losses of soil, nutrients, and agrochemicals through erosion,
runoff and leaching into surface or ground water.
v Improving soil organic matter through the use of soil carbon-build up by appropriate crop
rotations, manure application, pasture management and other land use practices, rational
mechanical and/or conservation tillage practices
v Maintaining soil cover to provide a conducive habitat for soil biota, minimizing erosion losses by
wind and/or water; and application of organic and mineral fertilizers and other agro-chemicals in
amounts and timing and by methods appropriate to agronomic, environmental and human health
requirements.
v No or minimum mechanical soil disturbance and seeding or planting directly into undisturbed or
untilled soil, in order to maintain or improve soil organic matter content, soil structure and overall
soil health.
v Apply fertilizers, organic and inorganic, in a balanced fashion, with appropriate methods and
equipment and at adequate intervals to replace nutrients extracted by harvest or lost during
production; maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-cycling crop and other
organic residues.
Water management
Agriculture carries a high responsibility for the management of water resources in quantitative and
qualitative terms. Careful management of water resources and efficient use of water for rainfed crop and
forage production, for irrigation and for livestock, are criteria for GAP. Efficient irrigation technologies
and management will minimize waste and will avoid excessive leaching and salinization. Water tables
should be managed to prevent excessive rise or fall.
Good practices related to moisture conservation will include those that
v Maximize water infiltration and minimize unproductive use of surface waters from watersource
v Efficient use of ground water or avoidance of drainage where required
v Improve soil structure and increase soil organic matter content through green manuring and soil
covering through mulching
v Adopt techniques to monitor crop and soil water status, accurately schedule irrigation, and prevent
soil salinization by adopting water-saving measures and re-cycling where possible
v Enhance the functioning of the water cycle by establishing permanent soil cover
v Manage water tables to prevent excessive extraction or stagnation
v Provide adequate, safe, clean watering points for livestock.
v
Integrated weed management
In fodder crops weeding is an important operation at early stages of crop growth for better establishment
and stand. Maximum crop-weed competition occurs up to 4-5 weeks in most of the seasonal forages.
Weed infestation in forages needs to be checked starting from land preparation. The strategy includes
adoption of stale seed bed technique, use of well decomposed FYM, clean seed, application of pre-
emergence herbicides and growing of smother crops as intercrop. There are several approaches of weed
control in forage crops but each approach have its own limitations due this no any single approach is
capable to efficiently control the weed in fodder crops. Growing concern over herbicide resistance and
their residual effect and declining profitability are major challenges of high input agriculture. Therefore,
Integration of all the available weed control methods may be helpful to sustainable weed management.
Integrated weed management is the deployment of suitable methods of weed control in right proportion
and at appropriate time against the target weeds without damaging the environment in any way.
Components of IWM are viz., cultural management: enhancing crop competitiveness, optimum plant
population, planting pattern, crop diversification, etc. mechanical management, chemical management and
biological management.
Crop protection strategies

Maintenance of crop health is essential for successful farming for both yield and quality of produce. This
requires long-term strategies to manage risks by the use of disease and pest resistant crops, crop and
forage rotations, and the judicious use of agrochemicals to control weeds, pests, and diseases following
the principles of Integrated Pest Management.
Good practices related to crop protection will include those that
v Use resistant cultivars and varieties, crop sequences, associations, and cultural practices that
maximize biological prevention of pests and diseases
v Maintain regular and quantitative assessment of the balance status between pests and diseases and
beneficial organisms of all crops
v Adopt biological control practices where and when applicable
v Apply pest and disease forecasting techniques where available
v determine interventions following consideration of all possible methods and their short- and long-
term effects on farm productivity and environmental implications in order to minimize the use of
agrochemicals, in particular to promote integrated pest management (IPM);
v Rates, timings, and pre-harvest intervals; ensure that agrochemicals are only applied by specially
trained and knowledgeable persons;
v Ensure that equipment used for the handling and application of agrochemicals complies with
established safety and maintenance standards; and maintain accurate records of agrochemical use.
Harvesting and post harvest operations

Product quality also depends upon implementation of acceptable protocols for harvesting, storage, and
appropriate processing of farm products. Harvesting must conform to regulations relating to pre-harvest
intervals for agrochemicals. Proper stage of harvesting in forages crops determines the herbage yield and
quality. Frequency of cutting also significantly influences the yield and quality of herbage produced.
Forage crops invariably are harvested at appropriate growth stage to obtain adequate fresh biomass with
acceptable dry matter and nutrients particularly the crude protein. The number of cuts depends upon rate
of growth and temperature during the life cycle of the crop. In most of the forages this stage is achieved at
50 per cent flowering stage to dough stage. In single cut this is followed strictly but in multi-cut types,
pre-flowering stage is preferred to get more subsequent cuts. In forages, cutting management influences
not only the yield but also the forage quality. Multi-cut forages should be harvested leaving 8-10 cm
stubble for quick regeneration and adequate recovery from ratoons.
Integration of crop-livestock components
Integrate livestock into crop rotations and utilize the nutrient cycling provided by grazing or housed
livestock to benefit the fertility of the entire farm. The combination of livestock with crop production is an
effective risk aversion mechanism, developed out of generations of experience of farmers in rainfed areas.
The system is a very good example of recycling of all the products of the farming operations, local
material, household waste, etc., with little dependence on outside resources. This is an appropriate and
sustainable approach for remote rural areas, where accessibility to outside resources or services is
difficult.
Sustainability through GAP

v Soil conservation/Rehabitalization
v Integrated pest, disease and weed management
v Efficient water management through micro irrigation/ fertigation
v In-situ and Ex-situ moisture conservation
v Employment challenges
v Total number of people engaged in agriculture is reducing drastically due to countries shifting
from agriculture to industry.
v Mechanisation of field operations
v Reducing cost of cultivation: labour, inputs (water, fertilizer and energy).
Chapter: 3
Introduction to Concept of Good Agricultural Practices
D. R. Palsaniya
Good Agricultural Practice is a concept evolved by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United
Nations (FAO). Good Agricultural Practices are "practices that address environmental, economic and
social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural
products" (FAO COAG 2003 GAP paper).
The concept of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) may serve as a reference tool for deciding, at each step
in the production process, on practices and/or outcomes that are economically viable, environmentally
sustainable and socially acceptable. A multiplicity of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) codes, standards
and regulations have been developed in recent years by the food industry, producers, NGOs and research
organizations to codify agricultural practices at farm level for a range of commodities. Their purpose
varies from fulfillment of trade and government regulatory requirements (in particular with regard to food
safety and quality), to more specific requirements of specialty or niche markets.
Objectives of GAP
The aim of Good Agricultural Practice should be to achieve development that is both humane and
sustainable. The objectives of these GAP codes, standards and regulations include, to a varying degree:
· ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain
· capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance
· improving natural resources use, workers health and working conditions
· creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters
· provide jobs with fair incomes for rural communities, and/or
· provide high standards of animal welfare
The four pillars of GAP

There are four 'pillars' of GAP included in most of private and public sector standards. However, the scope
which they actually cover varies widely. These pillars are:
· Economic viability
· Environmental sustainability
· Social acceptability and
· Food safety and quality
Good agriculture practices aim to deliver to the consumer healthy and safe high-quality food and nonfood
products in manner that permits sustainable yields and ensures the livelihoods of producers and processors
while protecting or enhancing the environment.
Livestock production and agriculture are complementary to each other and both are crucial for overall
food security. Although, great potential for growth of livestock sector exists, low livestock productivity is
a matter of great concern in the country. In fact, the availability of feeds and fodder in adequate quantity
and quality is one of the key inputs for better growth of livestock sector, but development of this sector
has not received the required level of attention in the past. Also the demand for animal based quality food
products is increasing due to changing food habits of people. The agreement on agriculture under WTO
has opened new areas for trade in such products. There is also increased health and environment
consciousness among the people. Under such scenario, there is need for GAP for forage – animal
production system and the quality fodder in high quantity can be produced by adopting appropriate good
agricultural practices.
Potential benefits of GAP
· Appropriate adoption and monitoring of GAP helps improve the safety and quality of food and other
agricultural products.
· It may help reduce the risk of non-compliance with national and international regulations, standards
and guidelines (in particular of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE) and the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) regarding permitted
pesticides, maximum levels of contaminants (including pesticides, veterinary drugs, radionuclide
and mycotoxins) in food and non-food agricultural products, as well as other chemical,
microbiological and physical contamination hazards.
· Adoption of GAP helps promotes sustainable agriculture and contributes to meeting national and
international environment and social development objectives.
Challenges related to GAP

· In some cases GAP implementation and especially record keeping and certification will increase
production costs. In this respect, lack of harmonization between existing GAP-related schemes and
availability of affordable certification systems has often led to increased confusion and certification
costs for farmers and exporters.
· Standards of GAP can be used to serve competing interests of specific stakeholders in agri-food
supply chains by modifying supplier-buyer relations.
· There is a high risk that small scale farmers will not be able to seize export market opportunities
unless they are adequately informed, technically prepared and organised to meet this new challenge
with governments and public agencies playing a facilitating role.
· Compliance with GAP standards does not always foster all the environmental and social benefits
which are claimed.
· Awareness raising is needed of 'win-win' practices which lead to improvements in terms of yield and
production efficiencies as well as environment and health and safety of workers. One such approach
is Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM).
Basics of Good Agricultural Practices

Guidelines for good practices can cover all aspects of farm production—whether in the field, in a
greenhouse, or in a barn—including crop and seed choice, watering and fertilization, pest and disease
control, disposing of manure, harvesting, and handling after harvest, in food processing, and in a retail
setting. GAP will be a valuable tool for lecturers, educationalists, vets, farmers, students of agricultural
and veterinary science and for all who make decisions which affect the welfare of farm animals.
GAP principles are: clean soil, clean water, clean hands, and clean surfaces. These principles must be
applied to each phase of production (field selection, pre plant field preparations, production, harvest, and
post-harvest).
“Clean soil” involves taking steps to reduce the possibility of introducing microbial contaminants into the
soil, particularly via manure and other animal excrements. GAPs address the need to properly compost,
apply and store manure. Additionally, the exclusion of domesticated animals from production fields is
essential in helping to reduce the possibility of faecal contamination. Taking steps to minimize the
presence of wild animals in fields is also important.
“Clean water” entails making sure all water used in washing, cooling and processing is of drinkable
quality. Packing ice should also be made from drinkable water. Ground and surface water sources need to
be protected from runoff and animal contamination. Water used for irrigation and foliar applications also
needs to be free of human pathogens. Regular water quality testing may be necessary, particularly for
surface water sources.
“Clean hands” applies to workers and the use of good personal hygiene in the field and packing house.
Providing washing facilities for customers at U-Pick operations is also an important consideration.
“Clean surfaces” means ensuring that all packing bins, work surfaces, storage areas, and transportation
vehicles are properly washed and sanitized on a regular, often daily, basis. Farm equipment should also be
routinely cleaned and sanitized. An essential aspect of GAPs procedures is accurate record keeping. While
keeping records is an important part of any farm operation, it can become critical in cases of food safety
issues. When food-borne illnesses do occur, attempts are made to trace the contamination back to the point
of original. Growers who document their GAPs procedures will be able to provide evidence that their farm
is an unlikely source of the outbreak.
GAP related to soil

The physical and chemical properties and functions, organic matter and biological activity of the soil are
fundamental to sustaining agricultural production and determine, in their complexity, soil fertility and
productivity. Appropriate soil management aims to maintain and improve soil productivity by improving
the availability and plant uptake of water and nutrients through enhancing soil biological activity,
replenishing soil organic matter and soil moisture, and minimizing losses of soil, nutrients, and
agrochemicals through erosion, runoff and leaching into surface or ground water. Though soil
management is generally undertaken at field/farm level, it affects the surrounding area or catchment due to
off-site impacts on runoff, sediments, nutrients movement, and mobility of livestock and associated
species including predators, pests and bio control agents.
Good practices related to soil include maintaining or improving soil organic matter through the use of soil
carbon-build up by appropriate crop rotations, manure application, pasture management and other land use
practices, rational mechanical and/or conservation tillage practices; maintaining soil cover to provide a
conducive habitat for soil biota, minimizing erosion losses by wind and/or water; and application of
organic and mineral fertilizers and other agro-chemicals in amounts and timing and by methods
appropriate to agronomic, environmental and human health requirements.
· Reducing erosion by wind and water through hedging and ditching
· Application of fertilizers at appropriate moments and in adequate doses (i.e., when the plant needs
the fertilizer), to avoid run-off
· Maintaining or restoring soil organic content, by manure application, crop rotation
· Reduce soil compaction issues (by avoiding using heavy mechanical devices)
· Maintain soil structure, by limiting heavy tillage practices
· In situ green manuring by growing pulse crops like cowpea, horse gram, sun hemp etc.
GAP related to water
· Practice scheduled irrigation, with monitoring of plant needs, and soil water reserve status to avoid
water loss by drainage
· Prevent soil salinization by limiting water input to needs, and recycling water whenever possible
· Avoid crops with high water requirements in a low availability region
· Avoid drainage and fertilizer run-off
· Maintain permanent soil covering, in particular in winter to avoid nitrogen run-off
· Manage carefully water table, by limiting heavy output of water
· Restore or maintain wetlands (see marshlands)
· Provide good water points for livestock (FAO : GAP : FAO GAP Principles : Water)
· Harvest water in situ by digging catch pits, crescent bunds across slope
GAP related to plant protection

The principles of good plant protection practice constitute a framework of action for those concerned with
plant protection measures in agriculture, horticulture and forestry. The principles of good plant protection
practice guarantee the consumer safe plant production by means of established plant protection measures.
Possible risks to man, animal and environment are at the same time reduced to a minimum. Good plant
protection practice (GPPP) is a basic strategy in plant protection and means the application of plant
protection measures that: are safe for humans, animals and the environment from a scientific point of
view, have been recognised by the competent authorities as suitable, appropriate, and necessary in
practice, are recommended by official extension services or recognised and qualified consultants, and are
practised by skilled users.
GPPP is therefore a process of a wider concept known as Good Agricultural Practice. Good plant
protection practice does not selectively concern solely the usage of plant protection products, but all those
other aspects that lead to plant protection.
General principles of GAP for plant protection

· Plant protection measures shall be carried out so as to fit the site, the crop, and the situation, and
the use of plant protection products shall be reduced to what is absolutely necessary.
· Proven cultural, biological and other non-chemical measures to reduce damage from pests and
diseases shall be used as far as possible wherever practical and economically feasible.
· The aim shall be not to eliminate harmful organisms, but to reduce infestation so that there is no
economic damage. There may be cases, however, which require zero tolerance such as for
quarantine pests or vectors of quarantine pests and quality pests associated with certification
schemes.
· Growers shall use the diverse assistance of official and other extension services, look for
advanced training and any other decision aids.
Principles of measures to prevent infestation by harmful organisms

· The growers should consider the possibility of prevention of infestation by harmful organisms
through choice of adequate cropping systems, resistant seeds, crops, crop rotation, physical
barriers and tillage.
· Cultivars and origins which are resistant or have atleast a certain tolerance of important site-
specific pest organisms should be considered especially in known cases of soil-borne diseases.
· Hygienic measures must be taken to create the conditions for healthy and vigorous crop stands.
Hygienic measures in agriculture and horticulture have the aim of reducing the potential spread of harmful
organisms and of preventing or delaying the first infection with harmful organisms as much as possible.
This is done by preventing the introduction and spread of harmful organisms, such as nematodes and virus
diseases through seeds, planting stock, contaminated soil, substrates, propagation containers, tools or
diseased plants. The most important hygienic measure to be taken by the grower is to use healthy seed and
planting material. This means regular purchase of certified seeds and planting stocks and confining
replanting to seed and planting material from healthy and vigorous stocks. If several growers share
agricultural machinery, this must be carefully cleaned. Important hygienic measures in glasshouses and
propagating centres are regular cleaning, steaming of substrates, disinfection of cultivation facilities if
necessary, and clearing of weeds, crop residues and decayed plants. Newly imported plants should be
quarantined for some time if necessary.
· Growers should not resort to calendar spraying, instead, regular monitoring should be carried out
on the crops to determine the degree of infestation before a decision is made on what method is
used to control any possible harmful organism.
· In making a decision on what control measures to apply, growers should be aware of the
availability of other official information included in informative leaflets, information by the
meteorological office, grower meetings, radio broadcasts, training courses and laboratory/
extension office advice.
Principles of application of non-chemical plant protection measures

· If there are effective and environmentally friendly non-chemical measures, they should be
preferred.
· Non-chemical measures of plant protection can be very special methods, which are often
expensive and difficult to handle.
· They must be adapted to the site and to the situation.
· Biological methods in a more narrow sense, that have a selective effect and are environmentally
friendly, are often very expensive, require adequate training prior to introduction and are practical
only for use under protected cropping.
· Mechanical weeding techniques are an example of non-chemical plant protection measures in
agriculture and horticulture.
Principles of correct and intended use of plant protection products

· Authorised plant protection products, well maintained suitable equipment and competent users are
the fundamental conditions for proper use of plant protection products.
· Plant Protection Products should only be used on listed crops approved for that product.
· The operator has an obligation to use particular care when handling, storing or disposing of plant
protection products.
· Operators who misapply plant protection products, e.g., applications other than for their intended
purpose, will be prosecuted according to law.
· Defective equipment should be repaired or put out of service.
· Plant protection products are chosen after consideration of the target organism, their efficacy and
cost, the site, and the crop. The most suitable products for the specific circumstances should be
chosen.
· If various products are suitable for one intended use, the grower should prefer those which are less
toxic, spare beneficial organisms, e.g., harmless to bees, and not restricted by special use
conditions. Selective products should be preferred to broad spectrum ones unless several pests
occur simultaneously or are likely to occur. Selective Plant Protection Products are ecologically
less damaging.
· Using a product as a general precaution without prior ascertainment (as is calendar spraying) of
the need of control is not good plant protection practice. Products which are most suitable for the
crop and to control the pest in question must be used according to the situation with preference to
opt for the lower indicated dosage rates.
· Site and weather conditions should be carefully noted to avoid drift of pesticide products.
Measures should be taken to reduce the frequency and rate of application and at the same time
reduce the cost of crop protection and contribute to minimising the general risk arising from use
of plant protection products.
· Treatments and dose rates should be adapted to the given conditions. The grower should be aware
of the possibility of reducing the maximum indicated number of applications and application
rates.
· This is carried out following careful monitoring of pest infestation, collection of other reliable
information, including advice from official extension service and grower experience; all of which
help in the decision making.
· Resistant pest populations develop through selection pressure caused by repeated application of
pesticides belonging to the same family. How often and how fast resistant populations develop
depends on the active substance’s mode of action and on the harmful organism (its life cycle,
feeding habits, natural spread and so on).
· Appropriate strategies of resistance management, namely use of different families of active
substances, combination of active substance and other chemicals, e.g. mineral oil shall be used to
try and prevent development of resistance.
· The use of plant protection products containing active substances with different modes of action
during the vegetation period, can be a suitable measure to prevent development of resistant pest
populations. The measures to be taken should be clarified with official extension services, case by
case.
Principles and instructions for correct and intended use of plant protection equipment
· Plant protection products can be applied in various ways using various technologies depending on
the purpose and field of use. It is known that the majority of plant protection products are applied
by spraying using motorised knapsack sprayer equipment and water as the carrier medium.
· Only suitable plant protection equipment in good working order should be used. During
applications of plant protection products, smoking, eating and drinking should not be permitted.
These principles must be followed when employing field sprayers:

· Spraying equipment serves the purpose of evenly depositing plant protection products on target
areas in exact doses and with as low-target losses as possible. Possibly loss reducing technology
should be used (for example drift-reducing nozzles). The water application rate per hectare must
be determined before starting operation. It depends on the walking speed of the operator, the
growth stage of the crop and on the weather.
· When mixing the spray liquid, the instructions on the product label with regard to product
application rates, miscibility and necessary precautions and measure of operator protection must
be followed. For measuring and filling chemicals into the sprayer tank or into the chemical
introduction bowl, only suitable calibrated measuring containers and appropriate methods
reserved for that purpose must be used.
· Attention must be paid to the filling of sprayers. Tanks must not be over-filled above the indicated
level and must not foam over. It must be ensured that no spray liquid can return when the tank is
filled with water from a water pipe.
· Empty pesticide containers must be thoroughly rinsed. The wash water is added to the spray
liquid. Empty pesticide containers must be perforated, crushed and safely disposed of in an
appropriate site.
· To avoid having any spray liquid leftover at the end of treatment, the spray liquid consumption is
to be estimated from the rate of application, and the size of the area to be treated. The number of
tank fillings is calculated from the spray liquid consumption and the tank size. The last filling
must be metered correctly or even so as to fall a bit short of the needed amount. The grower
should consider the possibility of allocation of a small field patch which will remain untreated.
Such field patch shall be used for the spraying of pesticide mix left over that will inevitably
remain in the tank after every treatment.
· To achieve even horizontal distribution, the walking speed should be uniform and not more than
one km/h. In the case of tractor operated spraying, the driving speed should be six km/h. A higher
speed distribution causes many problems.
· Spraying during strong wind spells, very hot temperatures or relatively low humidity under 30%
will cause high losses through drift and volatilisation and should therefore be avoided.
· If objects neighbouring the treatment area might be endangered, the current wind direction must
be considered. When treating the nearest lengths along a body of water (for example a stream
valley), in addition to following the label instructions, drift reducing measures, namely slowing
down the speed, and applying coarser drops should be taken. The same measures should be taken
when spraying in the vicinity of residential areas, gardens, amenity and sports grounds and tourist
areas. If pesticide spray drifts to neighbouring areas, despite all precautions, the user of these
areas must be immediately contacted and informed. Special precautions such as waiting periods
or, if necessary, a ban on consumption should be applied.
· Spraying equipment must be regularly calibrated and nozzles checked before every use.
· After finishing spraying, the spray residue in the tank is diluted by 1:10 with clear water and
sprayed over the remaining untreated area. In the case of tractor operated sprayers, the water
should also be used to clean the tank from inside.
· Small residues, which have been repeatedly diluted, may be left in the tank and applied with a
later spray if this is compatible with the product being used.
· The outside of the sprayer should be cleaned somewhere in the field that is treated.
· Sprayers should be carefully cleaned and maintained on a regular basis.
Principles of storage and other handling of plant protection products

· Storage of plant protection products should be limited to the necessary minimum in time and
amount, and is subject to particular legal responsibility to exercise caution.
· Storage of plant protection products requires particular precautions to preclude dangers to
humans, animals and the environment. Storage and disposal of plant protection products by the
user are often unavoidable and are subject to particular legal prescriptions. Special legal
regulations apply.
· Common means of transport and traffic routes are used when plant protection products are
transported from distribution centres to stores and from there to the fields. Therefore special
precautions must be taken to prevent damage to containers and contamination of man, animal or
the environment.
· Special safety precautions must be taken to protect the user and the environment when preparing
the spray liquid.
· The preparation of the spray mix and the handling of the concentration of plant protection
products can cause dangers both to the user and to the environment and are a critical phase in the
handling of these products.
· To avoid danger, the safety precautions described in the user instructions, in particular with
regards to protecting skin absorption and respiratory organs, must be followed when handling the
concentration and preparing the spray mix.
· The operator and his employer bears full responsibility for non-observance of the safety
precautions. Leakage and contamination during the preparation of the spray mix must be avoided
by competent handling and appropriate wear of protective garments. Prepared spray mixes,
pesticide residues, containers, and tools which have not yet been cleaned must not be left
unattended to preclude risks to third persons. Contaminated containers and tools must be protected
from rain. Appropriate hygiene at work helps to keep risks to the user as low as possible, for
example washing gloves thoroughly before removing them.
GAP related to Cropping

Sustainable crop production practices including farming activities, crop rotation and fertilization should be
the approach of field management practices.
· Select cultivars or varieties on an understanding of their characteristics, including response to
sowing or planting time, productivity, quality, market acceptability, disease and stress resistance,
edaphic and climatic adaptability, and response to fertilizers and agrochemicals,
· Devise crop sequences to optimize use of labour and equipment and maximize the biological
benefits of weed control by competition and herbicide options, provision of non-host crops to
minimize disease, fully explore soil, and where appropriate, include legumes to provide a
biological source of nitrogen,
· Maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-cycling crops and other organic residues,
· Reduce the amount of nitrates in the soil lost by leaching by avoiding bare soils.
Crop Rotation
Agricultural crops should be cultivated in crop rotations. Crop rotation solves economical, land use
planning and agritechnical questions at the same time. Crop rotation is the type of arable land use in which
crops are rotated on divided fields according to a predetermined order and taking into consideration farm
natural, economic and organisational conditions. The order of crop change is called the crop rotation
scheme and the time period in which all crops are planned in the scheme pass one crop rotation field is the
crop rotation period. Crop changes make the fight against weeds cheaper, because soil water and nutrients
are explored better and soil fertility does not diminish for long time. However crops such as potatoes
which do not exhaust soil fertility can be cultivated over a long period. The order of crop change should
protect crops from diseases and pests. Vegetable crops originating from the same botanical family cannot
be successively cultivated on the same field. Soil borne diseases are reduced mainly when resistant crops
are grown on the same field following a particular infestation.
Crops which exhaust soil fertility should not be cultivated one after another several times. This is achieved
when the crops are sown after a break of some years. Crops in crop rotation have their own core crops and
after crops. Crops can be divided into two groups according to their value to serve as core crops: some of
them exhaust soil fertility and do not contribute to its increase, while other crops restore, maintain and
increase soil fertility. Crops of the first type are, for example, cereals, while row crops, legumes cereals
and perennial grasses comprise the second type.
Different cultures, market- and forage crops have to cover the soil all year to avoid nutrient losses by
leaching. Should one crop leave a lot available nutrients in the soil, e.g. nitrogen after a legume harvest, it
is very important to fix these nutrients by sowing or planting an after crop with high nutrient uptake rates
as soon as possible. Catch crop cultivation can be helpful as well as under sown crops.
Intercropping in Permanent Cultures

· In permanent wide spacing cultures, soil between the plants should preferably be covered by
suitable intercrops or mulch.
· In order to avoid bare soils intercropping or inter-seeding covers the soil between rows,
decreasing weed competition for space and light.
· Intercropping or inter-seeding with legumes produces further benefit from nitrogen fixation.
Intercropped plants are harvested and inter seeded ones are either incorporated or left on the
surface.
Soil Protection
Soil Tillage
Soil tillage should be adapted as far as possible to soil conditions and crop needs. Soils are a scarce and
non-renewable resource. The productivity must be conserved. During the soil tillage by agricultural
machinery weeds, diseases and pests are eradicated, plant residues are incorporated and physical and
chemical soil conditions favourable for the growth of crops are provided. The soil tillage is usually related
to incorporation of organic and mineral fertilisers, sometimes to the application of pesticides. The tillage
of every field depends on the current grown crop, fore crop and after crop. The use of heavy equipment
and transport vehicles as well as the intensity of soil use and tillage support erosion by water and wind and
soil compaction. Soil cultivation should be carried out in such a way, that soils are not compacted, crushed
and ground. The fertility of compacted soil is always lower than non-compacted soil. Soil compaction risk
may be reduced if a better tillage time is chosen and the power of agricultural machinery and equipment
are adjusted to power needed for soil tillage. At high soil moisture compaction of soil surface is lower if
the weight of the tractor or of the equipment is spread over a greater ground contact area, e.g. using wider
tyres or doubling the tyres. The bearing capacity of wet soils will be increased. Agricultural machines
should be run on the same wheel tracks for all operations (fertilization, spraying and cultivation) on the
field. With this method fertilizers and pesticides are distributed more evenly and growth conditions for all
plants become more equal.
Soil Erosion
Crop cover practices should be increased in order to reduce soil erosion. Crop cover is managed by
leaving plant residual substances of the fore crop and/or catch crop near or on the soil surface. The
objective is to maintain surface coverage as long as possible during the year over an intact soil structure to
ensure protection against soil erosion by water and wind and puddled soil surface.
Soil tillage for fields situated at an inclination has to be carried out across the slope. Cultivating and
planting crops in fields on the contour is recommended for controlling erosion. For mechanised
agriculture, it is only likely to be effective for crops grown in gently sloping fields with simple slope
design. For steeper sloping field with complex slope patterns, it is not practical to follow the contours
accurately. In these fields, attempts at cultivations across the slope often lead to channeling of run-off
water, particularly in tramlines or wheels, which can cause severe erosion. Rubble walls and shelterbelts
should be preserved in order to reduce soil erosion by wind and water. Shelterbelts create a barrier which
reduces speed of wind, and lowers its ability to carry soil away from fields. Shelterbelts, e.g., trees, give
an added value for the reduction of soil erosion together with the preservation of rubble walls.
Mulching Strategies
Mulching should be resorted to whenever possible. Mulches cover the soil under the crop canopy,
physically suppressing weed growth. Mulch can be organic, plastic, or paper, all having similar
advantages but with different life expectancies. Organic mulches include live crops (cover crops), as well
as organic materials such as straw. Mulching is widely used for intensive cropping systems, including
horticultural crops, and also for protected crop cultivation, e.g., tomatoes. Its good agricultural practices
are:
· Mulches protect the soil from the impact of rain drops and regulate soil surface temperatures.
· Organic mulches improve soil structure and stimulate soil life.
· Mulches retain soil moisture.
· Aid in moisture retention during dry periods and avoid evaporation.
· Crop roots may exploit topsoil more efficiently under organic mulches.
· Mulches improve infiltration of rainfall and irrigation water and therefore improve the efficiency
of irrigation.
GAP and Crop and Fodder Production

Crop and fodder production involves the selection of annual and perennial crops, their cultivars and
varieties, to meet local consumer and market needs according to their suitability to the site and their role
within the crop rotation for the management of soil fertility, pests and diseases, and their response to
available inputs. Perennial crops are used to provide long-term production options and opportunities for
intercropping. Annual crops are grown in sequences, including those with pasture, to maximize the
biological benefits of interactions between species and to maintain productivity. Harvesting of all crop and
animal products removes their nutrient content from the site and must ultimately be replaced to maintain
long-term productivity.
Good practices related to crop and fodder production will include those that select cultivars and varieties
on an understanding of their characteristics, including response to sowing or planting time, productivity,
quality, market acceptability and nutritional value, disease and stress resistance, edaphic and climatic
adaptability, and response to fertilizers and agrochemicals; devise crop sequences to optimize use of
labour and equipment and maximize the biological benefits of weed control by competition, mechanical,
biological and herbicide options, provision of non-host crops to minimize disease and, where appropriate,
inclusion of legumes to provide a biological source of nitrogen; apply fertilizers, organic and inorganic, in
a balanced fashion, with appropriate methods and equipment and at adequate intervals to replace nutrients
extracted by harvest or lost during production; maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-
cycling crop and other organic residues; integrate livestock into crop rotations and utilize the nutrient
cycling provided by grazing or housed livestock to benefit the fertility of the entire farm; rotate livestock
on pastures to allow for healthy re-growth of pasture; and adhere to safety regulations and observe
established safety standards for the operation of equipment and machinery for crop and fodder production.
GAP and Animal Production

Livestock require adequate space, feed, and water for welfare and productivity. Stocking rates must be
adjusted and supplements provided as needed to livestock grazing pasture or rangeland. Chemical and
biological contaminants in livestock feeds are avoided to maintain animal health and/or to prevent their
entry into the food chain. Manure management minimizes nutrient losses and stimulates positive effects
on the environment. Land requirements are evaluated to ensure sufficient land for feed production and
waste disposal.
Good practices related to animal production will include those that site livestock units appropriately to
avoid negative effects on the landscape, environment, and animal welfare; avoid biological, chemical, and
physical contamination of pasture, feed, water, and the atmosphere; frequently monitor the condition of
stock and adjust stocking rates, feeding, and water supply accordingly; design, construct, choose, use and
maintain equipment, structures, and handling facilities to avoid injury and loss; prevent residues from
veterinary medications and other chemicals given in feeds from entering the food chain; minimize the
non-therapeutic use of antibiotics; integrate livestock and agriculture to avoid problems of waste removal,
nutrient loss, and greenhouse gas emissions by efficient recycling of nutrients; adhere to safety regulations
and observe established safety standards for the operation of installations, equipment, and machinery for
animal production; and maintain records of stock acquisitions, breeding, losses, and sales, and of feeding
plans, feed acquisitions, and sales.
GAP and Animal Health and Welfare

Successful animal production requires attention to animal health that is maintained by proper management
and housing, by preventive treatments such as vaccination, and by regular inspection, identification, and
treatment of ailments, using veterinary advice as required. Farm animals are sentient beings and as such
their welfare must be considered. Good animal welfare is recognized as freedom from hunger and thirst;
freedom from discomfort; freedom from pain, injury or disease; freedom to express normal behaviour; and
freedom from fear and distress.
Good practices related to animal health and welfare will include those that minimize risk of infection and
disease by good pasture management, safe feeding, appropriate stocking rates and good housing
conditions; keep livestock, buildings and feed facilities clean and provide adequate, clean bedding where
livestock is housed; ensure staff are properly trained in the handling and treatment of animals; seek
appropriate veterinary advice to avoid disease and health problems; ensure good hygiene standards in
housing by proper cleansing and disinfection; treat sick or injured animals promptly in consultation with a
veterinarian; purchase, store and use only approved veterinary products in accordance with regulations
and directions, including withholding periods; provide adequate and appropriate feed and clean water at
all times; avoid non therapeutic mutilations, surgical or invasive procedures, such as tail docking and
debeaking; minimise transport of live animals (by foot, rail or road); handle animals with appropriate care
and avoid the use of instruments such as electric goads; maintain animals in appropriate social groupings
where possible; discourage isolation of animals (such as veal crates and sow stalls) except when animals
are injured or sick; and conform to minimum space allowances and maximum stocking densities.
GAP and Harvest and On-farm Processing and Storage

Product quality also depends upon implementation of acceptable protocols for harvesting, storage, and
where appropriate, processing of farm products. Harvesting must conform to regulations relating to pre-
harvest intervals for agrochemicals and withholding periods for veterinary medicines. Food produce
should be stored under appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity in space designed and reserved
for that purpose. Operations involving animals, such as shearing and slaughter, must adhere to animal
health and welfare standards.
Good practices related to harvest and on-farm processing and storage will include those that harvest food
products following relevant pre-harvest intervals and withholding periods; provide for clean and safe
handling for on-farm processing of products. For washing, use recommended detergents and clean water;
store food products under hygienic and appropriate environmental conditions; pack food produce for
transport from the farm in clean and appropriate containers; and use methods of pre-slaughter handling
and slaughter that are humane and appropriate for each species, with attention to supervision, training of
staff and proper maintenance of equipment.
GAP and Energy and Waste Management

Energy and waste management are also components of sustainable production systems. Farms require fuel
to drive machinery for cultural operations, for processing, and for transport. The objective is to perform
operations in a timely fashion, reduce the drudgery of human labour, improve efficiency, diversify energy
sources, and reduce energy use.
Good practices related to energy and waste management will include those that establish input-output
plans for farm energy, nutrients, and agrochemicals to ensure efficient use and safe disposal; adopt energy
saving practices in building design, machinery size, maintenance, and use; investigate alternative energy
sources to fossil fuels (wind, solar, biofuels) and adopt them where feasible; recycle organic wastes and
inorganic materials, where possible; minimize non-usable wastes and dispose of them responsibly; store
fertilizers and agrochemicals securely and in accordance with legislation; establish emergency action
procedures to minimize the risk of pollution from accidents; and maintain accurate records of energy use,
storage, and disposal.
GAP and Human Welfare, Health and Safety

Human welfare, health and safety are further components of sustainability. Farming must be economically
viable to be sustainable. The social and economic welfare of farmers, farm workers, and their
communities depends upon it. Health and safety are also important concerns for those involved in farming
operations. Due care and diligence is required at all times. With regard to agricultural workers, the ILO in
collaboration with governments, employers and trade unions, has developed core conventions on labour
including codes of practice for agriculture, which have not been specifically included in the indicators and
practices.
Good practices related to human welfare, health and safety will include those that direct all farming
practices to achieve an optimum balance between economic, environmental, and social goals; provide
adequate household income and food security; adhere to safe work procedures with acceptable working
hours and allowance for rest periods; instruct workers in the safe and efficient use of tools and machinery;
pay reasonable wages and not exploit workers, especially women and children; and purchase inputs and
other services from local merchants if possible.
GAP and Wildlife and Landscape
Agricultural land accommodates a diverse range of animals, birds, insects, and plants. Much public
concern about modern farming is directed at the loss of some of these species from the countryside
because their habitats have been destroyed. The challenge is to manage and enhance wildlife habitats
while keeping the farm business economically viable.
Good practices related to wildlife and landscapes will include those that identify and conserve wildlife
habitats and landscape features, such as isolated trees, on the farm; create, as far as possible, a diverse
cropping pattern on the farm; minimize the impact of operations such as tillage and agrochemical use on
wildlife; manage field margins to reduce noxious weeds and to encourage a diverse flora and fauna with
beneficial species; manage water courses and wetlands to encourage wildlife and to prevent pollution; and
monitor those species of plants and animals whose presence on the farm is evidence of good
environmental practice.
Chapter: 4
Documentation, Certification and Capacity Building Issues in GAP
D. R. Palsaniya
Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy. But its vast potential has not been fully exploited. While
World Trade Organization (WTO) poses some challenges, it also offers tremendous worldwide market
opportunities for Indian agriculture produce. This market potential can be realized by reforming
agriculture and making its produce internationally competitive in quality and food safety.
To enable farm produce to be internationally competitive innovative farming practices incorporating the
concept of globally accepted Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) within the framework of commercial
agricultural production for long term improvement and sustainability is essential. GAP in addition to
improving the yield and quality of the products, also has environmental and social dimensions.
Implementation of GAP would promote optimum utilization of resources such as pesticides, fertilizers,
water and eco-friendly agriculture. Its social dimension would be to protect the agricultural workers’
health from improper use of chemicals and pesticides. It is a particularly opportune time to promote GAP
when second generation of reforms in agriculture which would have a critical impact on Indian
agriculture, are planned by the Indian Government.
There are different systems and standards available for control measures in value addition through
processing of food meant for human consumption. Although grade standards on size, shape, colour and
local preferences are available for most of the fruits and vegetables marketed and consumed in India, their
quality in terms of maturity standards, residues of pesticides and other contaminants, microbial loads, etc.
have not been adequately addressed. The Indian Good Agricultural Practices (INDGAP) takes into
account not only the quality and quantity of the produce obtained from a unit area but also the care is
taken in integrating pre harvest practices like soil & water management, nutrient management and pest
management, harvesting, post harvest handling and other logistics.
It is therefore necessary to have a comprehensive view while defining control and compliance systems for
different farm produce covering horticulture, floriculture, food grains, etc. The areas where appropriate
control measures need to be strengthened are farms producing raw material such as food grains, fresh
fruits and vegetables, floriculture, etc. to ensure sustained supply of produce of the desirable quality. With
the opening up of the world market, there is a flow of trade in these agricultural products. It is, therefore,
necessary to define certain minimum standards with a well-defined certification and accreditation
mechanism for the implementation of INDGAP to facilitate national and international trade in farm
produce. Under such conditions, proper documentation, certification and capacity building are the major
issues in GAP.
Documentation
The growers need to maintained proper records of each and every activity right from field preparation to
selection of crops, varieties, production and protection practices, harvesting and post harvesting handling
and processing. Field files for each individual field supports the farmer by:
· Getting information about the historical field management.
· Planning of field management in future.
· Preparation of field balances.
The field files should contain at least:
· Soil nutrient content, pH-value.
· Soil tillage practices.
· Current crop: name, sowing date and density.
· Fertilization: fertilizing practice, fertilizer material, nutrient compound, application rate and date.
· Plant Protection: plant protection measure, pesticide name and active ingredient, application rate and
date.
· Harvest: date and data about yield and nutrient removal.
Farmers must record all sales and purchases of animals, animal feedstuff, fertilizers, manures and animal
products and the use of sewage water for irrigation. Nutrient budgeting is a suitable instrument for
checking if the farming strategy is good and if the nutrient budget on farm level is balanced. If the nutrient
budget is negative, a deficiency can be detected. If the nutrient budget is high over a long period, it
indicates a nutrient accumulation inside the farm and a risk for environmental pollution. Based on
unbalanced nutrient budgets, the fertilization recommendation authorities can provide advice on how to
adjust the nutrient budget. Authorities may monitor Good Agricultural Practice in farms by periodically
reviewing records kept by farmers. Beside these records, farmers must keep each bill about sales and
records. The records and the relevant bills must be stored for at least 10 years and must be made available
to the authorities for inspection. Based on these records, nutrients balances can be calculated on the farm
level by the authorities. Excessive nutrient input onto a farm over several years indicates nutrient
accumulation in the soils and a risk for ground water pollution.
Farmers should use the official form provided by the authorities for recording the farm sales and
purchases. The records must be made on annual basis and must be finished by the end of the year. The
following data have to be filled in the form by the farmer
· For each type of animal purchased during the year: the number of animals, type of animal, the live
weight
· For each type of feed stuff , the amount purchased
· For each type of manure purchased or imported into the farm from other farms or from contractors, the
amount of manure (in m3 or t) and the nutrient analysis
· For each type of organic fertiliser (e.g. municipal waste composts), the amount and the nutrient
analysis
· The amount of sewage effluent applied to his fields during the year, and the source of the effluent
water and the nutrient content (delivered by the effluent delivering company)
· For each type of mineral fertiliser, the amount purchased during the year and the nutrient content as
indicated on the label
· For each type of legume cultivated on the fields, the area on which the legume is grown, and the
yield/ha Sales
· For each type of animal, the number of sold animals and the live weight
· For each type of animal product, the amount sold from and exported from the farm
· For each type of plant product, the amount that has been sold or has been exported out of the farm for
free
· For each type of manure that is sold or exported out of the farm in any way
The success of plant protection measures should be verified by suitable means. Every plant protection
measure should be followed by an inspection to see whether it was successful. This allows competent
decisions about further steps and gathering experience about the effect of plant protection measures in
certain situations. Growers should inspect treated crops and assess infestation some time after treatment
to verify the efficacy of a plant protection measure and its effect on the crop. If the treatment was not
sufficiently effective, the possible causes for the ineffectiveness or damage have to be carefully weighed,
and it must be considered whether repeated treatments are possible and make sense. Plant protection
experts should be consulted for that decision. If there is some particular concern about the efficacy of a
spray application, or a grower has applied pesticides while unsure about its success, it is recommended to
leave an untreated patch. This allows for the monitoring of the natural development of
infestation/infectivity and an assessment of the advantages of the measure over time after treatment in
comparison with the rest of the field. However, leaving untreated patches cannot be recommended for all
plant pests and diseases because they may represent a focus of re-infection/infestation that would later
require additional treatments. Potato late blight would be such a case.
The usage of plant protection products must be documented by the growers as a minimum for all edible
crops. Documenting plant protection measures serves critical analysis, and in the long run, the
optimization of plant protection at the location concerned. Growers may document plant protection
measures in different ways in the framework of general book-keeping, for instance, in a kind of logbook
or in a computer database.
Recording at least the following is recommended:
· Name of product,
· Justification for application,
· Date and time of application
· Name of user,
· Details of spray quantity and dose,
· Equipment used,
· Prevailing weather conditions.
BIS IndiaGAP CERTIFICATION

BIS IndiaGAP certification shall be as prescribed under the provisions of Bureau of Indian Standards Act,
1986 and Rules and Regulations framed there under. The details of the conditions under which the licence
may be granted to producer (individual grower and/or member of a grower group) may be obtained from
the Bureau of Indian Standards. Accreditation of certification shall be as prescribed by national or
international accreditation bodies.
Control Points and Compliance Criteria required to be followed by the applicant producer (individual
grower and/or member of a grower group) as well as by the Certification Body for independent
verification of the agricultural practices that have gone into the production of the produce are given in
Table 1. In addition, the applicant producer (individual grower and/or member of a grower group) shall
demonstrate compliance with all applicable statutory and regulatory requirements. These criteria are
marked as ‘Major’ or ‘Minor’ or ‘Reco’. The criteria marked as ‘Major’ have a definite effect on the
quality of the produce and should, therefore, be complied with, or shall give adequate assurance about the
safety and quality of the produce. The criteria marked as ‘Minor’, though have a bearing on quality, are
those which, if implemented, would provide an advantage to the assessment for IndiaGAP certification.
The criteria marked as ‘Reco’, are those, which though may not have direct bearing on safety and quality
of produce but may have other benefits to the producer and are recommended for implementation and are
advisory in nature.
Capacity building
As far as the awareness level of Indian growers is concerned, it is very poor and it will take considerable
time to take the advantage of the opportunities offered by GAP. There is need for sufficient capacity
building of the entire stakeholder regarding GAP.
Chapter: 5
Good Management Practices in Forages for High and Quality Forage Production
A.K Dixit and T. Kiran Kumar

Livestock production is an important source of income and employment in the rural India. The sector
employs eight per cent of the country’s labour force, including small and marginal farmers, women, and
landless agricultural workers. In India, 25 % of the agricultural GDP is contributed by this sector. The
present level of fodder production in the country is not meeting the requirements of the growing livestock
population and also the forages offered to animal are mostly of poor quality. Milk and milk products
consumption is an important component of diet for Indian population and India is also leading in
production of milk, meat and eggs but the quality of these products depends upon feed and fodder
material. Now days it was noticed that there was significant increase in the number of food borne disease
outbreak associated with fresh produce. There were few cases where documented evidence had shown
that the food borne illness could be traced back to poor agricultural management practices. The food
retailers have enforced their growers to follow certain growing practices which could eliminate pesticide
residue in forages and reduce the microbial contamination in milk. Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs)
are those procedures designed to minimize the contamination of fresh produce with microbial pathogens
and presence of pesticide residue in fodder and milk in every step from production to food preparation.
The concept of Good Agricultural Practices has evolved in recent years in the context of a rapidly
changing and globalising food economy and as a result of the concerns and commitments about food
production and security, food safety and quality and the environmental sustainability of agriculture and
animal husbandry. The goal is prevention of contamination; once contaminated the removal or killing of
pathogens on produce is very difficult. Prevention is strongly favoured over treatments to eliminate
contamination. Documentation of implementation of prevention programs and food safety awareness
training for workers are key components of a food safety program.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), GAP is the application of available
knowledge to addressing environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm production and
post-production processes resulting in safe and healthy agricultural products. Many farmers in developed
and developing countries already apply good management practices through sustainable agricultural
methods such as integrated pest management, integrated nutrient management and conservation
agriculture. These methods are applied in a range of farming systems and scales of production units,
including as a contribution to food security, facilitated by supportive government policies.
Sources of on-farm contamination

v Soil
v Seeds and propagating material
v Irrigation water
v Animal manure
v Inadequately composted manure
v Wild and domestic animals
v Inadequate field worker hygiene
v Harvesting equipment
v Transport containers
v Unsanitary handling during packaging, in packing facilities, in wholesale or retail operations
v Equipment used to soak, pack, or cut produce
v Transport vehicles
v Improper storage conditions (temperature, moisture)
Adherence to good agricultural practices is encouraged in the production of natural, improved and
cultivated pastures and in the production of forage and cereal grain crops used as feed or feed ingredients
for food producing animals. Following good agricultural practice standards will minimize the risk of
biological, chemical and physical contaminants entering the food chain. If crop residuals and stubbles are
grazed after harvest, or otherwise enter the food chain, they should also be considered as livestock feed.
Most livestock will consume a portion of their bedding. Crops that produce bedding material or bedding
materials such as straw or wood shavings should also be managed in the same manner as animal feed
ingredients. Good pasture management practices, such as rotational grazing and dispersion of manure
droppings, should be used to reduce cross-contamination between groups of animals.
1. Site selection
Land or site for forage production should be selected on the basis of land history, previous manure
applications and crop rotation. The field should be away from animal housing. Farmers should make sure
that livestock waste should not enter the produce fields via runoff or drift.
v Production fields should not be located where they may receive runoff or drift from animal
operations.
v All potential sources of contamination should be identified and eliminated.
v Domestic animals and livestock should be excluded from fields during growing and harvesting
operations.
v Wild animal presence should be minimized to the degree possible by methods identified by
wildlife experts.
v Establish and maintain a pest control program such as removal of debris that might provide a
habitat for pest populations.
2. Selection of appropriate crop/variety

Farmers should avoid growing leafy crops in the year that manure is applied to a field. Manure should be
applied to perennial crops in the planting year only. The long period between application and harvest will
reduce the risks. There are wide range of forage crops and their varieties grown in our country but the
selection of suitable crop/variety depends upon soil type, climatic condition, varietal characteristics,
response to sowing or planting time, productivity, quality, market acceptability, nutritional value, disease
resistance, adapted to edaphic and climatic adaptability, and response to fertilizers and agrochemicals.
3. Nutrient management
v Incorrect application of nutrients can contaminate crops.
v Apply all nutrients in a way that will not pose a hazard to food or fodder.
v Use only fertilizers and soil additives that comply with the legal limits for heavy metals.
v Use an application method or growing practice that minimizes the chance of contamination by
preventing the nutrient source from coming into direct contact with the edible part of the crop.
v Check purchased nutrients for documentation from the supplier that identifies the origin, treatment
used, tests performed and the results.
v Schedule applications in relation to both weather forecasts (i.e. rain) and current soil moisture
levels to avoid run-off.
v Estimate soil fertility levels and crop needs by regular soil sampling and analysis, and follow
recommended rates to avoid excess nutrient application.
v Chemical fertilizers should be handled, stored and applied in a manner such that they do not have
a negative impact on the safety of foods of animal origin.
Livestock manure can be a valuable source of nutrients, but it also can be a source of human pathogens if
not managed correctly. Proper and thorough composting of manure and incorporating it into soil prior to
sowing of forage crop are important steps toward reducing the risk.
v Manure should be stored as far away as practical from areas where forage is grown and handled.
v Physical barriers or wind barriers should be erected to prevent runoff and wind drift of manure.
v Manure should be actively compost so that high temperature achieved by well-managed, aerobic
compost can kill most harmful pathogens.
v Manure should be applied at the end of the season preferably when soils are warm, non-saturated,
and cover-cropped. If manure is being applied at the start of a season, then the manure should be
spread two weeks before planting, preferably to forage crops.
v Apply only properly composted manures.
v Document manures used, the dates and methods of composting, and application dates.
v Incorporate manure into soil.
4. Irrigation practices
Irrigation practices with waste water or with other water sources are similar and depend on the local
conditions, including climate, physical and chemical soil properties, drainage conditions and the salt
tolerances of the crops to be grown. Ideally, water used for irrigation or chemical spray should be free
from pathogen. However, potable water or municipal water is not feasible for extensive in forage crop
production. Hence, surface water used for irrigation should be quarterly tested in laboratory for pathogen.
Farmers can filter or use the settling ponds to improve water quality.
v Drip irrigation method should be used, whenever possible to reduce the risk of crop contamination
because the edible parts of forages are not wetted directly. Plant disease levels also may be
reduced and water use efficiency is maximized with this method.
v Ensure that all water used for irrigation is not contaminated with animal or human faeces and
meets the standards for recreational use.
v Identify potential sources of contamination of irrigation water and control those within your
ability.
v Become familiar with the routes and handling of surface waters.
v Ensure that wells are designed and maintained in a manner that prevents surface runoff.
v Water used for all foliar applications should be pathogen-free.
v Allow for approved water treatment methods to bring water into compliance with required
standards.
v Document the source of irrigation water for each crop.
v Maintain records of testing of agricultural waters.
5. Field sanitation and animal exclusion

Farmers should stay out of wet fields to reduce the spread of plant or human pathogens. Tractors that
were used in manure handling should be cleaned prior to entering produce fields. Animals, including
poultry or pets should not be allowed to roam in crop areas, especially close to harvest time.
6. Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals

Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals should be obtained from safe sources. Where a regulatory
system is in place, any chemical used must comply with the requirements of that system. Pesticides should
be stored according to the manufacturer’s instructions and used in accordance with safety rules. It is
important that farmers carefully follow the manufacturer’s instructions for use for all agricultural
chemicals. Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals should be disposed of responsibly in a manner that
will not lead to contamination of any body of water, soil, feed or feed ingredients that may lead to the
contamination of foods of animal origin which could adversely affect food safety.
v Make sure pesticides are used properly
v Use only pesticide products registered for use in India.
v Use only on crops specified and for weeds or pests indicated on the label.
v Read and follow all label directions. Even if the product has been on the market for years,
application rates and usage information may change.
v Apply pesticides under the right environmental conditions to reduce the possibility of spray drift,
run-off or leaching that may contaminate other crops.
v Check the product label for details.
v Maintain and calibrate the application equipment to deliver the correct rate.
v Double-check calculations to make sure the application rate is correct according to the rate given
on the label.
v Clean and rinse equipment using the manufacturer’s recommended procedures between
applications to prevent carry over and contamination.
v Follow the pre-harvest interval (PHI) and the pre-grazing interval (PGI) requirements on the label.
This ensures that no produce is harvested and that no animals graze on a treated field until the
legal number of days after the application has passed. Failure to wait may result in residues
exceeding the maximum residue limit in the crop or contamination of the milk and/or meat.
v In the event that harvesting or grazing occurred before the PHI or PGI, segregate the product.
Pre-Grazing Interval (PGI): The amount of time that must pass between the application of pesticides to
a crop and the grazing of animals on that crop.
Pre-Harvest Interval (PHI): The amount of time that must pass between the application of pesticides to
a crop and the harvesting of that crop.
7. Worker facilities, hygiene and training

Ideally, farm workers should be provided clean, well-maintained and hygienic toilet facilities around the
farming areas. Farmers should get proper training to make them understand the relationship between food
safety and personal hygiene. These facilities should be monitored and enforced. Good personal hygiene is
particularly important during the harvest of crops. Sick employees or those with contaminated hands can
spread pathogens to produce. Employee awareness, meaningful training and accessible restroom facilities
with hand wash stations encourage good hygiene. Workers should be properly educated about the
importance of restroom use and proper hand washing. Encourage proper use of disposable gloves on
packing lines. Sick employee should not be given food-contact jobs.
Ø Establish and communicate a clear policy that will allow ill workers to be reassigned to activities
that do not involve farm produce (forage) contact.
Ø Establishing a training program on worker hygiene including hand washing and the importance of
using toilet facilities.
Ø Document and monitor worker hygiene and sanitation practices and improve practices through
additional training.
Ø Provide instruction on proper use of gloves to prevent pathogen transfer.
Ø Properly service portable toilets in the field.
8. Transportation of forage from farm to market

Proper cleanliness of the transportation vehicles should be ensured before loading. Farmers have to make
sure that fresh fodder is not shipped in trucks which have carried live animals or harmful substances. If
these trucks must be used, they should be washed, rinsed, and sanitized before transporting fresh produce.
For traceability norms, it must be ensured that each package leaving the farm can be traced to field of
origin and date of packing.
9. Pasture grazing
The grazing of pastures and crop lands should be managed in a way that minimises the avoidable
contamination of foods of animal origin by biological, chemical and physical food safety hazards.
v Adequate period should be observed before allowing livestock to graze on pasture, crops and crop
residuals and between grazing rotations to minimise biological cross-contamination from manure.
v Where agricultural chemicals are used, operators should ensure that the required withholding
periods are observed.
Conclusion
The above discussed good management practices in forage production are still at infantry stage in India.
There are very few farmers who may be practicing it because of compulsion from the international
buyers. But it should be thoroughly emphasized that food safety, from farm to fork, is the responsibility
of everyone involved directly or indirectly in food chain.
Chapter: 6
Forage crops and their varieties suitable for different situations
P. Kaushal and V. K. Yadav

Evolution and adaptation of agriculture, since ancient world, has mainly been governed by the weather
and climate variables. The morphology and yield (phenotype) is a function of genotypic variation and the
interaction effects between genotype and the environment. These interactions have been limiting factors to
select a ‘universal variety’ suitable to varied climate, which on the other hand also enriched the diversity
in cultivars. Present day concern is now on significant differences between yesteryears and today’s’
climate, which may in turn effect the crops and cropping patterns. Climate change is a significant and
lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to
millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather
around the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by
factors that include oceanic processes (such as oceanic circulation), variations in solar radiation received
by Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world; these
latter effects are currently causing global warming, and "climate change" is often used to describe human-
specific impacts.
Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical
models. Borehole temperature profiles, ice cores, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial
processes, stable isotope and other sediment analyses, and sea level records serve to provide a climate
record that spans the geologic past. More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. Physically
based general circulation models are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make
future projections, and link causes and effects in climate change. These factors, arising because of climate
change and global warming will affect agriculture in aspects such as modifications in life periods,
adaptability, biomass and grain yield and more importantly change in disease-pest scenario, in addition
to increased adverse soil conditions (salinity, alkalinity, sodicity).
Climate change is estimated to drastically affect crop productions. Estimates are available quoting more
than 30 percent yield drops in major crops ranging from corn to wheat to rice and cotton. Warmer climate
will shorten the length of the frosting season necessary for many crops to grow in the spring. Aside from
yields, climate change will also affect food processing, storage, and transportation—industries that require
an increasing amount of expensive water and energy as global demand rises—leading to higher food
prices. Crop production under drought results in low yield, high production costs and less than desirable
agronomic practices. Irrigation, a means to mitigate drought, has its own environmental and economic
costs, making it an option not suitable to all scenarios. One of the effective ways for crop production to
grow or at least to stay stable under new challenges from climate change is through improved varieties
developed by plant breeding. Plant breeding has been developing varieties for heat, drought and flood
stresses, but with more severe and frequent challenges from aggravated climate change it needs extra
immediate support to overcome the challenges. A breeders’ perspective would be to identify genes and
genetic mechanisms to combat these changes either by imparting resistance (plasticity) to these abiotic
and biotic stress conditions or by changing the plant type concept in major agricultural crops to tailor them
for modified environments. The genetic diversity of crop plants is the foundation for the sustainable
development of new varieties for present and future challenges.
To look for desirable genes under climate change conditions, we need to resort to germplasm resources
and their effective utilization. Grasses are the largest reservoirs of such desirable genes. Perennial grasses,
in additional to provide fodder security, also offer scope for utilization of degraded lands under low or
reduced input conditions. Annual grasses, suitable for forage, grain or dual purpose also offers advantages
to be utilized for stress conditions and specific breeding requirements by virtue of their wide diversity and
adaptability. For example Corn genetic resources have been used in breeding varieties adapted to
cultivation from sea level to over 3,000 MSL. Growing population, shrinking agricultural area, changing
climate, migration and sustainable nutritional and food security are the overriding challenges in Indian
agriculture. For sustainable growth and development of agriculture, integration of different components is
essentially required. The harmonization between food and fodder supply is the biggest challenge. India is
largest milk producer of the world, however, to sustain, fodder resources have a competition with other
agricultural commodities both in availability of land resources and identifying suitable varieties to
overcome changing climate.
Statistics on fodder crop cultivation and utilization show alarming trend. Even after substantial
improvement in production, the gap in demand and supply is likely to be vast (see following tables).
Additionally, newer niches are required to be identified for growing fodder crops, as they always have a
competition with grain and cash crops. Though grasses are one of the biggest reservoir of desirable genes
especially for stress tolerance, their potential in breeding are still untapped. One of the ways to strengthen
such activities is through efficient utilization of available biodiversity in available Plant genetic Resources
(PGR). Out of a total of 8.3 M ha area being utilized under fodder crops cultivation, emphasis has now
shifted towards utilizing fodders with multi-purpose use. Dual purpose fodder crops are one of such areas,
where in additional to fodder yield, there is possibility of generating other utilization. The most accepted
practical explanation of dual purpose fodder crops would list the crops with potential of utilization for
food (grains) and fodder, though other applications would also be included in dual purpose types such as
‘grain and graze’, fuels, biofuels, and other value added products or commercial utilization (such as baby
corn, sweet corn, pharmaceutical values, etc). Some major dual purpose fodder crops include grain crops
such as sorghum, maize, pearl millet, oats, barley, millets, etc., as well as legumes such as cowpea, pigeon
pea, ground nut, etc., although there may be substantial regional variation in preference due to agro-
ecology and community values.
Table: Supply and demand scenario of forages (in million tonnes)
Year Supply Demand Deficit as % of demand (actual demands)
Green Dry Green Dry Green Dry
199 379.3 421 947 526 59.95(568) 19.95 (105)
5
200 384.5 428 988 549 61.10(604) 21.93(121)
0
200 389.9 443 1025 569 61.96(635) 22.08(126)
5
201 395.2 451 1061 589 62.76(666) 23.46(138)
0
201 400.6 466 1097 609 63.50(696) 23.56(143)
5
202 405.9 473 1134 630 64.21(728) 24.81(157)
0
202 411.3 488 1170 650 64.87(759) 24.92(162)
5
(Adapted from Handbook of Indian Agriculture
Breeding objectives and procedures in fodder crops

Major breeding objectives in dual purpose fodder crops include:
1. High dry matter yield
2. Promise in quality components- CP, IVDMD, NDF, ADF, Lignin
3. High response to inputs
4. Tolerance to adverse soils- acidic/saline soils,
5. Tolerance to extreme weather conditions – high rainfall/ low moisture regime
6. Resistance to diseases and insect pests
7. Greater persistence- summer persistence in annual multicut forages,
8. Greater aggressiveness/fast growth and
9. Competing ability or complementation with the companion crop
Table: Forage crops grown and their area and productivity in India
With special emphasis on:

1. Multiple utilization
2. Stay green
3. Abiotic stress tolerance
4. Climate change
5. Stress tolearnce
6. Quality improvement
7. Fit in cropping systems
Looking into the present fodder crops scenario, it becomes imperative to identify novel areas for fodder
crops cultivation and utilization, and also effective characterization of fodder genetic resources and
biodiversity. Multifarious use of such genetic resources will hold potential for their improvement. In
recent years several high yielding varieties have been developed suitable to particular climatic regions as
well as for stress conditions. Genes for wide adaptability and multiple stress tolerance needs to be
incorporated into these lines to enhance the elasticity of varieties for better adaptation to changing climate
and their related effects. These varieties need to be popularized in respective areas, in addition to continue
efforts for further improvement. Some of the potential areas include perennial cereals, interspecific
hybridization, molecular markers aided plant breeding, apomixis in hybrid development and developing
multiple stress tolerant varieties. A list of high yielding varieties is provided alongwith their potential and
desirable features that can be suitably utilized for region specific dissemination of technology. A
synergistic mode of action between researchers, extension agencies, communities and farmers is required
to cope up with challenge of growing demand for fodder crops.
Table: Important forage crop varieties with area of adaptation and yield levels
Crop and Variety Areas of adaptation Green forage
(q/ha)
I Cultivated Fodder – Legumes
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L)
Mescavi Northern and Central India 800-900
Wardan (S-99-1) All India 900-1500
BL-1 Punjab and H.P. 100-1200
BL-10 Punjab, Haryana and H.P. 1100-1150
BL-22 Temperate zone of India 900-1000
JB-2 Northern and Central India 900-1000
Bundel Berseem –2 (JHB 146) North West and Central zone 580-850
UPB-110 Southern zone 500-650
BL-2 Northern India 650-900
Bundel Berseem –3 (JHTB 96-4) North eastern Zone, Eastern UP, Bihar, Orissa and 600-700
W.B.
UPB-103 Northern, Central and part of South India 1000-1150
Lucerne (Medicago sativa L)
Type-9 Whole of India 900-1000
Anand-2 Gujrat, Rajasthan, Haryana, M.P. ,U.P. 850-900
LL composite-3 Punjab 900-950
LL composite-5 Punjab 900-950
Anand –3 Himachal Pradesh 600-900
RL –88 Whole of India 700-1000
CO-1 Tamil Nadu and Karnataka 600-800
SS-627 Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, U.P., Rajasthan, H.P. and M.P. 800-950
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp.)
Russian Giant Northern India 350-400
NP-3 (EC-4216) Northern, Western and Central India 300-350
CO-1 Tamil Nadu, A.P., Kerala and Karnataka 275-325
UPC-287 Whole of India 350-400
UPC-5286 Whole of India 350-450
Gujarat Lobia-3 Gujarat 250-400
UPC-4200 North east zone 270-420
Lobia-88 Punjab 250-350
Bundel Lobia-2 (IFC-8503) North West Zone 220-350
Haryana Lobia –88 North West zone 280-350
UPC 8705 Whole of India 300-420
UPC-5287 Northern India 350-400
C-30 Whole of India 300-350
Kohinoor (IGFRI-S-450) Whole of India (for summer) 250-300
Shweta (No.998) Whole of India 300-350
Bundel Lobia – 1 (IFC-8401) Whole of India 250-300
Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub.
HFG –156 Guar growing area of India 200-250
FS-277 Guar growing area of India 175-250
Bundel Guar-1(IGFRI –212-1) Guar growing area of India 220-350
Bundel Guar-2 (IGFRI –2395-2) Guar growing area of India 280-400
Bundel Guar –3 Guar growing area of India
HFG-119 Guar growing area of India 250-300
Guara-80 Punjab 300-320
Rice been (Vigna umbellata)
RBL-1 Punjab 250-400

RBL-6 Punjab 220-450
K-1 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, N.E. region of A.P. and 200-300
Kerala
K-15 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, N.E. region of A.P. and 200-300
Kerala
Lablab Bean (Sem)
Bundel sem –1 (JLP – 4) Whole of India 220-350

Shaftal (Persian clover)
SH –48 Himachal Pradesh 800-1050
White clover
Palampur Composite –1 Himchal Pradesh 350-500

Gobhi Sarson
GSL-1 Punjab 250-350
Sheetal (HPN-1) Himachal Pradesh 180-300
Fenu greek (Metha)
ML-150 Punjab 270-350
II Cultivated Fodder – Cereals

Oats (Avena sativa L.)
Kent Whole of India 450-500
OS-6 Whole of India 400-500
UPO-212 Whole of India 370-520
OL-125 Whole of India 350-480
UPO-94 Whole of India (Multicut) 450-500
OL-9 Northern and North-Western India 450-550
JHO-810 Kashmir valley 500-600
JHO-822 (Bundel Jai-822) Central India (Multicut) 450-550
JHO-851 Whole of India (Multicut) 500-550
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench)
Pusa Chari-6 Whole of India 400-450
Pusa chari-9 Whole of India 400-450
SL-44 North India 350-450
HC-136 Whole of India 400-500
M.P. Chari North India 400-500
Meethi Sudan (SSG-59-3) Whole of India (Multicut) 500-550
IS-4776 Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and A.P. 350-400
Jawahar Chari-6 M.P. 350-450
Jawahar Chari-69 M.P. (Multicut) 350-450
JS-20 Punjab, Haryana, Delhi 350-400
JS-263 Punjab, Haryana, Delhi 400-450
GFS-4 Gujarat 320-500
Pro-Agro chari (SSG-988) Whole India 600-900
855 F Whole India 600-900
HC-308 Whole India 350-550
PCH –106 Whole India 650-900
Pantchari –3 (UPFS-23) U.P. 350-450
Gujarat Forage Sorghum –1 (AS-16) Gujarat 400-700
MFSH-3 Whole India 500-850
LS-250 Punjab 600-950
Bajra (Pennisetum glaucum (L) Leek.)
Giant Bajra Entire bajra growing tract 350-400
K-677 Entire bajra growing tract 400-500
Raj Bajra Chari-2 (UUJ-IV-M) Entire Bjara growing tract 300-450
L-72 Entire bajra growing tract 400-550
Rajko Gujarat and Rajasthan 400-450
Fooder cumbu-8 (TNSC-1) Entire Bajra growing tract 270-400
Maize (Zea mays L.)
African tall Whole of India 500-600
Vijay composite Whole of India 350-450
Jawahar Whole of India 350-450
Moti composite Whole of India 350-425
J-1006 Punjab 350-450
Manjari Composite Whole of India 400-450
Teosinte
TL-1 Punjab 380-
500
III Cultivated fodder - perennial grasses
Hybrid Napier (Napier- Bajra hybrid) (Pennisetum purpureum x P. glaucum)
Pusa Giant Whole of India and tropics abroad 1000-1300
NB-21 Whole of tropical humid part 1200-1500
CO-1 Tamil Nadu and Karnataka 1100-1200
Swetika-1 (IGFRI-3) U.P., M.P., NE hills, Punjab and hills of 1100-1200
North India
IGFRI-6 U.P., H.P., NE hills, Punjab and hills of 1200-1300
North India (intercropping)
PBN-83 Punjab 1250-1700
CO-2 Tamilnadu and Southern part 1200-1800
CO-3 Tamilnadu and Southern part 1300-2000
IGFRI-7 Whole of India (acid soils sub-temperate 1300-1500
regions)
IGFRI-10 Whole of India (acid soils sub-temperate 1300-1600
regions)
Yeshwant (RBN-9) Whole of India 1300-1400
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) Jacq.
Macuenii Kerala 600-700
Hamil Kerala, Tamil Nadu, A.P., West Bengal, 700-800
Bihar and North- Eastern States
PGG-1 North-West 900-1100
PGG-19 Punjab 750-1300
PGG-101 Punjab 800-1450
PGG-3 Northern, North-West and Central India 800-1000
PGG-9 Norther, North-West and Central India 900-1100
Deenanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum)
P.S.-2 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North region of 600-700
Maharashtra and A.P.
Bundel-1 (IGFRI-43-1) Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North region of 600-700
IGFRI-3808 Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North region of 500-600
Bundel-2 (IGFRI-4-2-1) Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, North region of 550-700
TNDN-1 Tamil Nadu 550-780
Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)
Bundel Anjan –1 (IGFRI- 3108) Arid and semi-arid region 220-400
Neel kolu kattai (Co-1) Blou buffel (FS- Tamil Nadu and other semi-arid areas 280-470
391)
Setaria Grass (Nandi Grass)
PSS-1 Sub –temperate hill region 750-1100
Tall Fescue Grass
Him –1 Himachal Pradesh 400-450
Table2 : Crops and varieties with their specific characters for use under different situations
Crop Variety Specific exploitable characters
Berseem BL –2 Long extended growth period (Oct.-May), suitable north western
part and subtropical region
BL –22 Long extended growth and low temperature and frost resistance
suitable sub-temperate hills
Lucerne Co.1 A good perennial variety which can remain in field up to 5-6 years
suitable for irrigated arid and semi arid environment
Persian Clover SH –48 Persian clover as a crop is suitable for late planting and rice fallow.
Suitable for northeast, tarai region stretches in the entire length of
Himalayas and also a better crop than berseem in sub-temperate hilly
areas. Most suitable crop for alkali soil.
Cowpea UPC –4200 Suitable for humid, temporary water logged and high humid and
strong acid soil areas.
S –450 Drought resistant and suitable for summer season
Rice bean K –1 This is a good legume material for humid and sub humid region
including hills. Rice bean is much tolerant crop to strong acid soil
than cowpea, hence a preferred crop in such environment.
Oats OL –125 A good variety for calcareous soil, rocky-gravelly soil and also under
shaded conditions (Agro forestry use)
JHO –851 A good multicut (4-5 cut) with excellent herbage quality.
Pearl millet Giant bajra A very good regenerating material capable of giving five cuts, wide
adaptability from high pH to low pH, salinity and alkalinity conditions
of soil.
Maize A-de-Cuba Non- lodging type, most suitable for north region. Maize as a crop
most suitable for acid soils.
Teosinte Improved Good material for temporary water logged soils (10-15 days), saline
soil, calcareous soils.
Sorghum PC –9 Most suitable variety for low land and withstands temporary water
logging.
Barley DL –454 & Most suitable variety for dual purpose with first cut for fodder
Azad followed by grain (Fodder cum grain)
DL –36 Most suitable variety for saline, alkali and water stress environments
as fodder-cum-grain crop.
Brassica Chinese Suitable for shaded conditions (Agro-forestry use).
cabbage
Napier bajra IGFRI –3 & Erect type and most suitable for intercropping. IGFRI –6 is also
IGFRI -6 suitable for agro forestry as it is shade tolerant.
IGFRI –7 Specially suitable acid soils and hilly areas.
Guinea grass Hamil, Guinea grass as a crop is most suitable for shaded conditions. These
PGG-13 varieties are best suited for agro forestry use.
and
KVKHPGG
–14
Dinanath grass IGFRI-4-2- Most suitable variety for use in degraded lands including forests.
1
Setaria Kazungula Suitable for agroforestry use.
PSS –1 Most suitable for sub-tropical grasslands, frost resistant and suitable
for shaded conditions.
Yellow anjan CAZRI –76 Best suited for arid areas.
Anjan grass CAZRI –75 Best suited for arid areas.
Dharaf grass GAU –D –1 Suited for ravines (Earth mounds) and hill out crops.
Table3: Agronomic adaptations of some tropical grasses

Grass Common name Tolerance to Seed rate Min. rain fall (mm)
Frost Drought Water logging Kg/ha
Brachiaria Signal grass Poor Fair Good 3-6 1000 (high rain fall
documbens areas)
B. Mutica Para grass Poor Fair V. good 2-5 1250 (Coastal low
land)
Cenchrus ciliaris Buffel grass Fair V. good Poor 1-4 350 (drier areas)
C. setigerus Birdwood Fair V. good Poor 1-4 200 (erosion
grass control)
Chloris gayana Rhodes grass Fair Good Fair 1-6 650 (Saline soil)
P. maximum Guinea grass Poor Fair Fair 2-6 1300 (high rain
P. maximum Green panic Good Good Poor 1-6 600 (shade tolerant
legume companion)
P. antidotale Blue panic Poor Good Poor 2-6 400 (drier areas)
Digitaria Pangola grass Good Good Fair 1-4 1000 (wet tropics,
decumbens high sugar)
Pennisetum Kikui grass Good Fair Fair 1-2 850 (erosion
clandestinum control)
Setaria anceps Setaria grass Good Fair Good 2-5 750 (coastal belt)
Sorghum almum Columbus Fair Good Fair 1-10 450 (salt tolerance,
grass cynide problem)
Chapter: 7
Good agricultural practices for quality seed production in forage crops
DR Malaviya and D Vijay

Green fodder is the most crucial input for the sustainability of the livestock. There is a huge gap between
the demand and supply of green fodder with deficit mounting up to 40%. To meet the existing large gap,
there is an urgent need to enhance its production. One of the main reasons reported to stumble the green
fodder production is non-availability of quality seed in sufficient quantities. In forages, availability of
quality seed is only 25-30% in case of cultivated fodders and 20% and 15% in range grasses and legumes
(Vision 2030 document, IGFRI).Seed production in forages is challenging and is encountered with several
intrinsic problems. The fodder group basically contains two types of crops viz., cultivated species and
range species. The production system is different for both the groups. There are certain practices which
need to be adopted to attain quality seed production.
Principles of quality seed production:

To attain quality seed production in cultivated fodder crops certain principles similar to other cultivated
crops (Vijay, 2008) are to be followed. The important practices for fodder crops are,
i) Selection of crop: The selection of crop is to be done based on its suitability to the prevailing climate
and season of growth particularly based on its duration. The improper selection leads to loss of genetic
purity of the crop over long period through genetic shift/ developmental variations.
ii) Selection of variety: The selected variety is to be verified for its release to that zone/ state and should be
of high yielding one. Seed certification will be done only for notified varieties hence; only notified
varieties are to be selected for quality insurance.
iii) Selection of site: The seed production site should be easily approachable with good transport facility.
iv) Selection of field: Fertile, non-problematic field with good irrigation facility should be selected for
seed production and it should be ensured that the previous crop grown should be of same variety and class
to avoid off types.
v) Seed source: The seed needs to be procured from authenticated source and of suitable class to ensure
proper quality as per generation system of production.
In range species certain additional points are to be considered while taking up seed production.
· The seed production needs suitable climate such as congenial day length which controls flowering
in many forages and sunny weather which is required for rapid growth, flower opening and
increased bee activity.
· Suitability of forage: grasses can be produced in wide range of climates and soils than legumes
and for tropical species temperature is very important factor. So based on the site of production
suitable species should be identified.
· Crop establishment is the most difficult phase in range species. It requires good conditions for
germination, emergence and growth. Pasture seed crops warrant more care during establishment
with better land preparation, more precise sowing techniques, higher seeding rates and even
additional operations (e.g. herbicides, irrigation) not normally used with pastures.
· Land clearing, seed bed preparation weed control in the initial stages, fertilizer application, time
of sowing, choice of propagating material (rooted slips/ seeds), inoculation in case of legumes are
some of the factors to be taken care.
· Sowing type: rows in case of tussock grasses and vigorous sprawling legumes, broadcasting in
creeping legumes and stoloniferous grasses. The depth of sowing should not be more than 1cm
depth in small sized seeds.
· Under crop management, during defoliation of grasses bulk of the stubble should be removed at
the beginning of the season so that the final clean cut can be less severe. In case of legumes
defoliation should be done early enough to allow complete recovery of canopy and to avoid
excessive vegetative growth. Nitrogen fertilization is necessary in grasses after defoliation.
· Seed harvesting: The choice of harvesting is complicated in range species due to their
indeterminate growth and variation in the maturity levels within the inflorescence. Based on
visual indicators and experience harvesting has to be done mostly either through hand picking or
though cutting machines.
Good crop management practices for quality seed production

The selected field should be properly levelled as it ensures uniform growth and maturity of the crop apart
from easy identification of off type plants.The seed production field is to isolated form other fields where
other varieties of the same crop are being grown. The isolation distance is based on the pollination
mechanism of the crop. The isolation can be maintained either by time/ space/ barrier based on feasibility.
In time isolation, for example in Maize crop, the differential date of planting of different varieties with in
standard isolation distance ensures genetic purity. In space isolation, which is the most commonly
followed isolation methodology, based on reproductive mechanism proper isolation distance should be
followed from other varieties. The barrier isolation using dense crops/ forests/ hillocks also ensures
genetic purity by providing hindrance to the pollen movement.
The general crop management practices viz., sufficient seed rate, spacing, irrigation, fertilizer application
etc. should be done timely in recommended doses to have a good crop.The seed crop should be protected
from pests and diseases using integrated plant protection methods. The quality seed production requires a
special operation called rouging for ensuring the genetic purity of the crop. Rouging is one of the crucial
step for checkingpurity at field level. Rouging is a process where all off types, volunteer plants, rogues,
weeds, and diseased plants are removed from the seed production plot. Rouging should be followed
invariably during vegetative, flowering and maturity stages of the crop. The time of rouging and direction
of rouging are important for its effectiveness. Special care id required during harvesting and post-harvest
operations like threshing, drying, grading, bagging etc. to avoid mechanical mixtures. The harvested seed
is to be stored under low temperature and humidity conditions for quality preservation.
Field inspection
The inspection of standing seed crops to verify whether they meet the standards or not is called field
inspection. The field inspection is done at different stages of crop to main purity of the seed crop. Field
inspection is carried out by the producer in truthfully labeled seed production and by an independent
agency viz. State Seed Certification Agency (SSCA) during foundation and certified seed production.
Stages of field inspection: The three main stages for filed inspection are vegetative, flowering and
maturity stages. During vegetative / pre-flowering stage off types or rogues are to be identified based on
morphological characters like plant type, height, leaf colour, leaf shape, stem colour, anthocyanin
pigmentation, stipules/ auricle colour, stem and leaf hairiness, etc. The isolation distance, seed source and
seed class verification are to be checked during the first field inspection. During flowering stage the
phenological characters viz., days to fifty percent flowering, no of days to flower (early/ late flowering)
and floral characters like inflorescence type, its compactness, colour, length, shape, florets size,
pigmentation if any, presence/ absence of awns, etc. should be observed. During Maturity/ Pre-harvesting
stage the grain characters like length of grain, width of grain, grain type, colour, awns and the duration of
maturity, plant height, type, etc. should be observed for identification of off types and rogues. If at any
given field inspection, the seed crop does not confirm the standards as provided in Table 1, then the field
should be rejected unless there is a scope for rectification and re-inspection. Post-harvest inspection is also
important to notice contamination/ mechanical mixtures at threshing floor and during drying, processing
and storage.
Table 1: The Field inspection standards in fodder crops
Min. Isolation % Off
No. of Distance (m) types
Sl. Stages for Field
Name Scientific Name Field
No Inspection
Inspecti F C F C
ons
I Cultivated Fodder
· Before flowering
Sorghum &
1 Sorghum bicolor 3 · Flowering 200 100 0.1 0.2
Sudan grass
· Maturity
· Before flowering
2 Bajra Pennisetum glaucum 3 · Flowering 400 200 0.05 0.1
· Maturity
· Before flowering
3 Maize Zea mays 2 400 200 1 1
· Flowering
· Before flowering
4 Teosinte Zea mexicana 3 · Flowering 200 100 0.1 0.5
· Maturity
· Flowering
5 Oats Avena sativa 2 3 3 0.05 0.2
· Maturity
· Before flowering
6 Cowpea Vigna ungiculata 2 · Flowering and 10 5 0.1 0.2
fruit stage
Guar/ Cluster Cyamopsis · Before flowering
7 2 10 5 0.1 0.2
bean tetragonaloba · Flowering
· Flowering
8 Berseem Trifolium alexandrinum 2 400 100 0.2 1
· Maturity
· Flowering
9 Lucerne Medicago sativa 2 400 100 0.2 0.1
· Maturity
· Before flowering
10 Indian Bean Lablab purpureus 2 · Flowering and 10 5 0.1 0.2
fruit stage
· Before flowering
Chickling
11 Lathyrus sativus 2 · Flowering and 10 5 0.1 0.2
vetch
fruit stage
· Before flowering
12 Rice Bean Vigna umbellate 2 50 20 0.1 0.2
· Flowering
· Before
marketable head
Chinese Brassica pekinensis/ B.
13 3 · At marketable 1600 1000 0.1 0.2
cabbage chinensis
head
· Flowering
· Before flowering
14 Sugar beet Beta vulgaris 2 1600 1000 0.1 0.2
· Flowering
II Pasture species
· Before flowering
15 Buffel grass Cenchrus ciliaris 3 · Flowering 20 10 0.1 1
· Maturity
· Before flowering
Birdwood
16 Cenchrus setigerus 3 · Flowering 20 10 0.1 1
grass
· Maturity
· Before flowering
Chrysopogon fulvus
17 Daaraf Grass 3 · Flowering 20 10 0.1 1
(Andropogon montanus)
· Maturity
· Before flowering
Pennisetum
18 Dinanath grass 3 · Flowering 20 10 0.1 1
pedicellatum
· Maturity
· Before flowering
19 Guinea grass Panicum maximum 3 · Flowering 20 10 0.1 1
· Maturity
· Before flowering
20 Marvel grass Dichanthium annulatum 3 · Flowering 20 10 0.2 1
· Maturity
Pennisetum purpureum
Napier grass & · Flowering
21 & P.glaucum x 2 10 10 0.01 0.3
Hybrid Napier
P.purpureum · Maturity
· Before flowering
Pigeon /
22 Setaria anceps 3 · Flowering 400 200 0.1 1
Setaria grass
· Maturity
· Flowering
23 Indian Clover Melilotus 2 50 25 0.2 0.1
· Maturity
· Before flowering
24 Stylo Stylosanthes. spp 3 · Flowering 50 25 0.1 1
· Maturity
Source: Tunwar and Singh, 1988
Chapter: 8
Good Manure Handling Practices for Soil Health and Quality Forage Production
Manna, M.C. and Asha Sahu

Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal
India, a densely-populated country generates a very large quantum of by products and wastes. It has been
estimated that about 679.3, 369.5 and 64.8 million tonnes of crop residues, animal dung and urban solid
wastes respectively are produced annually. Out of these, around one third of crop residues, half of the
animal dung and 14% of urban wastes are available for recycling and use in agriculture, including
horticulture and plantations. It is also estimated that for every million tonnes increase in food grain
production, 1.2-1.5 million tonnes of crop residue are produced and for every million increase in cattle
population an additional 1.2 million tonnes of dry dung per annum are produced. In many areas, the city
wastes are still disposed most unhygienically on an open low-lying areas or landfill sites around cities.
These dumping sites emit foul odors and are potential breeding grounds for houseflies, insects, rodents
and pathogens.
Recycling of such wastes in agriculture provides the much-needed organic and mineral matter to the soils.
Since most recyclable wastes are organic, they directly add organic matter and the plant nutrients
contained in them. While the nutrient input improves soil fertility, the organic input has a profound and
vital role to play in improving soil physical health such as its tilth, water holding capacity and providing a
more favorable environment for root growth. They are also a source of energy, carbon and nutrients to
microorganisms in soil and thus also improve the soils biological health as well. Thus, proper waste
recycling leads to an improvement in overall soil productivity, of which soil fertility is a key component.
Waste recycling is neither a modern concept nor an eye-catching passing fad. The concept is centuries old.
Only the urgency, the scale and the complexities of recycling have gone up many folds in the recent past
and may continue to go up. In addition, more efficient and versatile recycling processes and the
technologies have become available, which if applied on the required scale, can bring recyclable wastes
into the mainstream of farm input management strategies. Stabilization of organic wastes is often done
with composting, which is a microbiologically mediated process.
Why good manure?

The major reasons for good manure are (i) it improve the physical characteristics of agricultural wastes
making them easy to handle and use, (ii) manure lowers the C:N ratio (10-15:1), (iii) it reduces the final
volume of waste by about half of its original volume, (iv) it facilitates the recycling of humus and
nutrients into the soil, (v) it protects and improves the microbiological diversity and quality of cultivated
soils, (vi) the high temperatures produced during decomposition process sterilize weed seeds, kills
pathogens and pests in the wastes, thus reducing the cost of production, health hazards and control of pests
and diseases, and (vii) it minimizes problems arising from poor aeration. When directly applied without
decomposition of agricultural wastes that may exude toxic substances such as H2S, phenolic compounds,
methane etc. composting minimizes and even eliminates such problems during decomposition, various
microorganisms promote biodegradation of toxic compounds and pollutants (bioremediation).
Some other advantages of good manure are (i) it helps in reducing pollution of the environment, (ii) it
boosts both the biological and physico-chemical soil health, (iii) it acts like a slow-release fertilizers,
particularly for its N which becomes slow-release humic nitrogen after one-third is used, (iv) it is claimed
to have a growth-promoting phyto-hormone which accelerates root development, (v) it minimizes nutrient
loss as negatively charged humic material maintains and holds nutrient cations by adding to the soils CEC,
and (vi) it also provides for high buffering capacity which aids better soil management.
Good manure production inspite of its overwhelming advantages is not devoid of its challenges and
problems in waste recycling. For example, the end product is still very bulky and has low plant nutrient
content. This result in problems related to handling, storage and transportation for a longer time.
Transportation becomes expensive and inconvenient. Human wastes can carry many kinds of pathogens
which can cause serious health hazards. However, most pathogens are killed if the wastes are properly
decomposed. Bio-gas slurry is a rich source of plant nutrients but its transport and application far away
from the plant site to field is a problem.
Recyclable Resources
Crop residues left over after the harvest of crops and not used as animal feed or for other purposes provide
a cost-effective means for composting and supplying organic manure. In recent years, the estimated
annual production of agricultural byproducts/wastes of field crops is about 679 million tonnes (Table 1)
The major contributors to this figure are cereals including millets (469.1 Mt), pulses (29.6 Mt), oilseeds
(47.2 Mt) and commercial field crops (133.4 Mt). Out of 679 Mt, about one-third or 226.3 Mt are
considered to be available for recycling back to the farmland, directly or through composting.
In addition to field crops, the estimated annual generation of byproducts/wastes from the horticultural and
plantation sectors is estimated at 263.4 Mt out of which, 134 Mt is considered to be available for recycling
(Table 2).
Table 1: Estimated amount of crop residues produced in India during 2008-09
Estimated
Main product: Total production
Sl. Crop Main production of
By- product By product of main product
No. residue product byproduct in
ratio in million tonnes
million tonnes
Straw, husk 1:1.3 143.92 125.36
Rice grain
1. Grain and rice 1:0.73 70.82
(Paddy)
bran
2. Wheat Grain Straw 1:1.5 78.40 117.60
3. Sorghum Grain Stalk 1:3 7.78 23.34
4. Pearl millet Grain Stalk 1:4 9.79 39.16
Stalk , 1:4 19.30 77.20
5. Maize Grain spent and 1:0.5 9.65
cobs
Other
6. Grain Straw 1:1.5 3.96 5.94
cereals
Bengal
7. Grain Straw 1:1.3 5.75 7.47
gram
8. Pigeon pea Grain Stalk 1:4 3.08 12.32
9. Lentil Grain Straw 1:2 0.81 1.62
Other
10. Grain Straw 1:1.5 5.48 8.22
pulses
Straw, 1:1.1 9.18 10.30
11. Groundnut Kernels
Shell 1:0.5 4.59
Rapeseed
12. Grain Stalk 1:2 7.37 14.74
& mustard
13. Soybean Grain Straw 1:1 10.97 10.97
Grain Stalk, 1:2 1.46 2.88
14. Sunflower
flowers 1:1 1.46
Other
15. Grain Straw 1:1 2.24 2.24
Oilseeds
16. Cotton Cotton Stalk 3t/ha 25.81 million bales 28.39
17. Jute Fiber Stalk 3t/ha 11.18 million bales 2.88
Trash, 340.56 34.06
Sugarcan green tops, 10% of stalk 68.11
18. Sugarcane
e stalks bagasse 20% of stalk
stalk
Total (1-18) 679.32 Mt
Source: Anonymous (2009)
Table 2: Estimated production of crop residues from the horticultural and plantation sectors during 2008-
09
Total production of Estimated production of Estimated availability of

Crop
main product in Mt by-product in Mt surplus by-products in Mt
Fruits 69.45 83.34 41.67
Vegetables 133.07 173.00 86.50
Plantation crops 12.08 7.00 5.48
Others crops/items 4.25 <1 <1
Total 218.85 263.36 134
Livestock and Poultry wastes

Wastes of animal origin are one of the major resources on agricultural farms. Animal wastes include dung
and urine along with bedding material and mixed soil. The other byproduct/animal wastes include hair,
feathers, hides, skins, bones, horns, hoofs, tallow, blood and non-edible meat etc. The scattered and bulky
nature of these wastes and their smell pose problems of collection and transportation although many of
these are valuable sources of organic matter and plant nutrients. Three major types of recyclable animal
wastes are dung, poultry waste and slaughter house waste.
Dung: According to the latest data available based on the 2003 livestock census, India had a livestock
population of over 485 million consisting of 185.18 million cattles, 97.22 million buffaloes, 61.47 million
sheeps, 124.36 million goats and lesser number of other animals. Although reliable data on the annual
availability of animal and poultry wastes are not available, based on the average quantity of dung and
excreta produced/animal, annual production of dung and other excreta have been estimated as 369.50 Mt
(Table 3).
Table 3: Estimated annual production of dung/excreta by animals and poultry (based on their population in
2003)
Species Population in millions production of dung/excreta

in million tonnes (DM)
Cattle 185.18 203.70
Buffaloes 97.92 132.20
Sheep, goats 185.83 27.85
Horses, Ponies 0.75 0.38
Mules, Donkeys 0.83 0.41
Camels 0.63 0.51
Pigs 13.52 3.38
Yaks 0.07 0.07
Mithuns 0.28 0.31
Total (Animals) 485.00 368.80
Poultry 489.01 0.69
Grand Total 974.01 369.47
Mineral enriched manure production through composting

Use of suitable minerals, fertilizers and microbial cultures to enrich the compost so that the end manure
product contains more nutrients per unit volume or weight. For the heap method, the floor should be
temporarily cemented about 1.5 feet above the floor so that nutrients will not leak in to the soil. About
1000 kg of wastes can be accommodated in a 12′ x 7.5′ x 3.5′ (L x W x H) heap. To prepare 1000 kg of
good manure, the input required are 1000 kg organic wastes, 200 kg cow dung, 333 kg phosphate rock,
120 kg pyrites, 13 kg urea and 50 kg soil. In addition, suitable fungal and bacterial cultures are also
employed in the process.
Method of preparation: 30 kg of wastes (dry wt. basis) are spread on the floor followed by 30 kg of cow
dung (fresh cow dung), 660 g urea (0.5 % N basis) is then added. For this, dissolve urea in 20 liter water
and spray apart of solution of urea over the layer. 17 kg Mussouri rock phosphate or MRP (5% P2O5 basis)
is spread over the layer. As MRP not now mined, another suitable rock phosphate can be used. Then 6 kg
of pyrites (22% S content) is added at the rate of 10% on materials dry weight basis. A portion of finely
powdered soil is then spread at the rate of 5% on materials dry weight basis. Water is sprayed over the
layer to attain 60-70 % moisture. All above steps are repeated in the stated sequence until the heap is 3-4
feet high. To accelerate the decomposition process, fungal culture is added at the rate of 500 g mycelial
mat/tonne of material where as bacterial culture having 108 viable cells/ml is added (50 ml/kg of material).
To further accelerate the process, the multi-bio-inoculum containing cellulose decomposers (Paecilomyces
fusisporus and Aspergillus awamori), P-solubilizers (Bacillus polymyxa and Pseudomonas striata) and N-
fixer (Azotobacter chroococcum) etc. were added 5 and 30 days of decomposition @ 500 g mycelial
mat/1000 kg material on dry weight basis. After 3-4 weeks of decomposition, the first turning is done
which is followed by a second turning two weeks later. Moisture is to be maintained at 60-70% of
materials on dry weight basis. Finally, the upper side and all boundaries of the heap are covered with cow
dung slurry to maintain optimum moisture content inside the heap. To avoid rain, wind, and to maintain
the moisture and temperature the heap should be covered with a polythene sheet.
Fungal bioinoculum treated wastes decomposed faster and attained maximum maturity criteria (C:N ratio,
lignin/cellulose ratio and CEC/TOC ratio) in four months as compared to the usual six months in compost
prepared from vegetable waste, soybean straw and wheat straw (Table 4). However, cotton stalk and
sugarcane trash may need more time to attain maturity criteria for good quality of compost production. For
faster decomposition of cotton stalk and pigeonpea woody tissue, the size of the materials would be
reduced to 3-4 cm.
Table 4: Chemical parameters of microbial enriched phospho-sulpho-nitro compost
Soybean Wheat Cotton Sugarcane Vegetables Pigeonpea

Parameters straw straw stalk trash wastes residue
-I +I -I +I -I +I -I +I -I +I -I +I
TOC (%) 34 28 30 25 36 31 36 30 30 22 32 29
Total N (%) 1.8 2.4 1.3 1.9 1.4 2.0 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.7 2.4 2.8
C:N ratio 19 11 22 12 25 15 20 13 14 8.6 13 10
Lignin (L)
42 40 37 42 34 45 33 36 29 39 21 39
(%)
Cellulose (%) 25 21 22 18 26 24 25 26 24 14 16 15
L:Cellulose
1.7 2.0 1.8 2.3 1.4 1.9 1.3 1.4 1.2 2.7 1.3 2.6
ratio
CEC:TOC 3.9 5.0 4.1 5.3 2.4 4.0 2.9 4.2 4.6 7.4 2.9 4.6
- I = without bioinoculum; + I with bioinoculum after 120 days of decomposition
Quality evaluation of good manure: There is a noticeable improvement in available nutrient content in
good manure as compare to ordinary compost. After 110 days of decomposition, it contained 3.2- 4.2 %
total-P. The content of NH4-N and NO3-N varied from 0.12 to 0.54 and 0.28 to 0.90 g/kg respectively
(Table 5). In addition, the C:N ratio in good manure was 17-28 as compared to 22-25 in FYM and
ordinary compost. Higher values were recorded in the compost prepared from wheat straw, which has
been considered as nutritionally better quality manure among all the sources of materials used. Although,
soybean straw is a leguminous crop with narrow C:N ratio, but it was observed that wheat straw was
decomposed much faster than soybean straw and thus resulted in higher CEC, citrate soluble P and Total P
as compared to soybean compost. Citrate-soluble P in enriched manure ranged from 2.3 to 8.8 g/kg, the
highest being in wheat straw compost and the lowest in the city garbage compost.
Table 5: Chemical composition of enriched manure prepared from four types of wastes (mean of 3 years)
Chemical Parameters/Maturity Index Soybean straw Wheat straw Mustard City garbage
straw
TOC (%) 28 24 32 13
Total N (%) 2.32 1.93 1.47 1.58
C/N ratio 12.1 12.4 21.7 8.2
CEC (C mol (p+) kg-1) 68 113 53 66
CEC/TOC 2.32 4.70 1.65 6.0
Lignin (%) 31 37 30 13
Cellulose (%) 10 11 12 4
Lignin/cellulose ratio 3.1 3.4 2.5 3.2
Water-soluble C (%) 0.28 0.25 0.30 0.26
Water-soluble carbohydrates (%) 0.30 0.23 0.43 0.23
Available nutrient status
Available NH4-N (g/kg) 0.54 0.45 0.26 0.12
Available NO3-N (g/kg) 0.76 0.88 0.35 0.28
Water soluble-P (g/kg) 0.88 0.82 0.48 0.31
Citrate soluble-P (g/kg) 7.85 8.83 3.15 2.31
Total-P (%) 4.13 4.25 3.43 3.23
Source: Manna et al. (2003)
Soil health sustenance
The sustenance of soil health depends on an understanding of how soils respond to agricultural use and
practices over time. In order to develop best management practices, it is necessary to develop method to
assess the soil health over a period of time. There is a great need both to determine the status of and to
enhance our soil resources. Assessment and monitoring the soil health must also provide opportunity to
evaluate and redesign soil and land management systems for sustainability.
Imbalanced use of fertilizer

Fertilizer consumption in India is generally imbalanced since beginning. It is tilted more towards N
followed by P and K. In many areas in India the imbalanced use of fertilization is the root cause of poor
crop yield (Manna et al., 2005). The negative yield trends were observed under long-term imbalanced
used of N and NP fertilizer application in rice-wheat-jute, soybean-wheat and sorghum-wheat system of
Inceptisol, Alfisol and Vertisol. The reasons for yield decline are mostly location specific but depletion of
soil organic carbon (SOC) seems to be general cause.
Insufficient use of organic inputs

Continuous applications of balanced NPK fertilizer minimized the yield decline and soil quality
parameters. It was observed that decline in yields is more pronounced with concomitant decrease in SOC
content under imbalanced fertilizer application. Long-term application of NPK and NPK+FYM
maintained or improved SOC content over initial (Manna et al. 2006, 2007). Further they reported that
active fractions of SOC viz., particulate organic carbon, water-soluble carbon and hydrolysable
carbohydrates, soil microbial biomass C and N, dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase activity,
improved significantly with the application of NPK and NPK+FYM . The biological activity of soil is the
reservoir of plant nutrients, especially N and P, both cause of the large amount of soil microbial biomass
in soil and also because of more labile component of soil organic matter fractions (soluble phase of carbon
and carbohydrates) than most other fractions (passive pool of carbon).
Development of soil acidity

Acidification in soils resulted in loss of exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+, a decrease in effective cation
exchange capacity, and an increase in exchangeable Al3+. Long-term application of imbalanced nutrients
and sub-optimal or no use of organic and inorganic fertilizer into soil are the main reasons for low
productivity in acid soils Solubility of Al, Fe and Mn being high in acid environment, these elements are
available quite in excess at times causing toxicity to microbes. Ordinarily, B should be available under
acid conditions but porous nature of topsoil allows the soluble B to leach down in the profile beyond the
reach of the plant roots. Excess of Al in soil solution reduce the uptake and transport of P in plants.
Soil salinization and alkalization

In north and west part of India, salts present in soil and ground waters are of fossil origin and under
favourable conditions, get accumulated at or near the surface rendering many productive soils into barren
lands. The salt affected soils of Indo-Gangetic Plains are characterized by the presence of electrolytes
capable of alkali hydrolysis with or without the dominant presence of neutral salts and often impregnated
with calcium carbonate at some depth in soil profile. The other major occurrence of salt affected soils is
the inland saline soils mostly in arid and semi-arid regions of the country including areas affected by
secondary salinisation in different canal command areas. The third important group of soils is coastal salt
affected soils which are subject to inundation by sea water during high tides. Excessive amounts of salts
present in the soil have an adverse impact on soil microbial biomass, soil respiration and dehydrogenase
activity. The decrease of microbial biomass C was evident at ECe> 32 and 19 dS m-1 in the 0-15 cm and
0-30 cm soil layer. Dehydrogenase activity decline by 71 to 87% at ECe of 28 and 40.8 dS m-1 (Batra and
Manna, 1997). It was shown that soil microbial activities in alkaline soil suffer due to carbon stress, and in
high saline soils low biological activity is predominantly due to exo-osmosis in microbial cell (Batra and
Manna, 1997; Batra et al., 1997). In practical, growing of Karnal grass (Leptochloafusca) is a better
biological reclamation than chemical reclamation applying of gypsum in alkaline soil due to higher
organic C improvement that enhance the greater biological activities. Nitrogen is the most limiting
nutrient in these soils because of low inherent fertility, low amounts of organic matter, poor symbiotic
fixation of atmospheric N and higher volatilization losses leading to low efficiency of applied fertilizer N.
Heavy metal and toxic element contamination, on the other hand, is generally more identifiable as a soil
health problem. Such problems may results from geological factors such as high natural occurrence of the
elements of interest in bedrock, or be related to poor agricultural management. Application of sewage
possess excellent manurial value and act as a good source of organic matter, these being rich in toxic
metals that have the potentialities of transmitting and accumulating substantial amount of these metals in
soil. Continuous application of the heavy metals rich sewage might be responsible for deterioration of soil
biological activity. However application of sewage with crop residue during decomposition counteract the
toxicity of heavy metals.
Conclusions:
Well decomposed humified organic manure is a potential source of plant nutrients. Further, to accelerate
the decomposition process microbial inoculums is a better option as compared to farmer practices. To
improve soil biological health regular application of nutritionally enriched manure in combination with
balanced fertilizer substantially improve nutrient supplying capacity of soil resulted in improving better
produced quality in a long-run.
Chapter: 9
Bio-fortification and Balanced fertilization practices in forages
Arvind K. Rai, T. Kiran Kumar, Manoj Chaudhary and A.K. Dixit

Increasing productivity and accessibility of nutritious food is the key means to attack hunger, poverty, and
improve the health status of the poor in least developed countries where most of the world’s 800 million
malnourished people live (Myers, 2002). Although forages are not directly used for human consumption
but they are the source of protein and fat i.e. meat, egg, milk and other dairy products that become
available to human beings through intermediaries like cattle, sheep, goats, poultry etc. Since feeding alone
accounts for 60-70% of the total cost of milk production, availability of adequate nutritious fodder coming
from cheaper sources assumes greater importance. Trace elements are a crucial component of animal
diets. Deficiencies in one or more trace elements will cause a well-described reduction in animal health.
Since the beginning of the green revolution micronutrients are playing important role in enhancing crop
production in India (Fig 1). It is estimated that nearly half of the soils on which food crops are grown are
shown with Zn deficiency. In India about 50% soils are classified as Zn deficient (Katyal, 1985). In
several study at Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi it was observed that most of the
cereal crop residues are deficient in the Cu and Zn (Anonymous, 2004-05). Lactating and mature cows
were found malnourished and unable to meet its requirement of Ca, P, Cu and Zn from the feed and
forages. Specially, availability of Cu and Zn was below the requirement in the entire feeding situation.
The intensive crop production practices with aims at increasing production per unit area depleted greater
amounts of micronutrients from soils. Micronutrients also lost through different processes like erosion,
leaching, liming of acid soil, decreased use of farm yard manure are some of the reasons for micronutrient
deficiencies in our country. The forage crops grown in micronutrient deficient soils contain low level of
micro nutrients in plants to meet the demand of animal and human beings. These micronutrient
deficiencies are also affecting the food chain, because end users are human beings. Continuous cropping
without proper nutrient management schedule, indiscriminate use of fertilizers, agro-chemicals are also
main reasons for these deficiencies.
Fig 1. Impact of green revolution technologies on the emergence of micronutrient deficiencies in crops of
India (Singh, 2008).
These deficiencies can be successfully eliminated through recent interventions that are supplementation
and feed fortification is not always an ideal solution for every livestock farmers because it does not reach
all those affected due to various reasons. Agronomic and genetic approaches of biofortification can help in
solving the wide spread problem micronutrients malnutrition. Biofortified food is now reality for human
consumption. HarvestPlus, a part of the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and
Health (A4NH) is dedicated to develop biofortified food. It is coordinated by the International Center for
Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). In 2004, the
HarvestPlus Challenge Program was officially launched when it became the first recipient of funding for
biofortification research granted by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. HarvestPlus has since
emerged as a global leader in developing biofortified crops and now works with more than 200
agricultural and nutrition scientists around the world. In the agronomic approaches combined application
of S + micronutrients (Zn, Mn Cu and Mo) had been found to improve fodder production and quality,
significantly in micronutrients constrained soil of the Bundelkhand. But, low solubility of micronutrients
in soils rather than low total amount is the major reason for the widespread occurrence of their deficiency
problem in crop plants. Therefore, agronomic fortification through application of fertilizer nutrient alone
may not be effective in many situations constrained due to alkalinity, calcareousness, reduced levels of
organic matter and soil moisture. On the other hand large variation has been found in many crops with
respect to root characteristics and nutrient acquisition from relatively non available pool. Hence,
combining the genetic fortification approach with medium to long term plan and agronomic fortification
with short term plan may provide a win-win opportunity.
Status of micronutrient deficiencies in India

Micronutrient deficiency has become the major constraint to limit the productivity and sustainability of
crops and cropping systems in Indian soils. Problem of micronutrient deficiency especially Zn in soil and
plant is widespread across the globe including India (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Global distribution of Zn deficiency affected Areas (Alloway, 2004)

The nature and extent of deficiencies varies with soil type, crop genotype, management and agro-
ecological situations (Singh, 2001) and these problems are more intense particulrly in areas like arid and
semi arid regions where soil pH and CaCO3 content are high and organic matter content is low (Singh,
2008). Total and available content of micronutrients vary considerably in different soils (Table 1). Except
Zn, Cu and B all other nutrients are present in sufficient range in most of the soil of the country. The plant
usable micronutrient pool is low to moderate depending upon soil properties, cropping pattern being
followed and environmental conditions. Based on the data from 2.56 lakh soil samples analyzed from 20
states, during 1967-97 under AICRP of micro and secondary nutrients and pollutants elements in soil and
plants, about 49, 12, 5 and 3 per cent soil samples were deficient in Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu, respectively
(Singh, 2006). In most of the states the Zn deficiency was reported to be within 50-60% except
Maharashtra and Punjab showing 30% Zn deficiency. The deficiency of Zn is showing declining trend in
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Deficiency of Fe, Mn, B
and Mo are also appearing, about 10, 6, 24 and 49 per cent samples tested from different states showed
deficiency of these nutrients, respectively.
Soil under forages and grasses are generally deficient in Zn content, while other nutrients like Fe, Mn and
Cu are found in adequate quantities. Zn availability is very low in calcareous soil particularly under high P
application. The deficiency of Mn occurs in well-drained light textured soil at neutral to alkaline reaction.
Availability of boron also reduces due to low organic matter, fixation at higher pH and intensive leaching
process. Mo content is reduced because of fixation with Fe in acid soils and with P in alkaline soil (Tiwari
and Pathak, 1984).
Table 1: Status of available and total micronutrients in Indian soils
Micronutrient Total content in surface Available content in surface soil
soil (mg kg-1 soil)
-1
(mg kg soil)
Sulphur 10-6319 5-83 (41)
Iron* 0.4-27 0.8-138 (19)
Manganese 37-11500 0.97-108 (21)
Zinc 2-1600 0.1-5.9 (0.87)
Copper 2-960 0.8-26.16 (2.1)
Boron 3-630 0.08-2.6
Molybdenum 0.1-11.6 0.07-7.67
Cobalt - 0.1-5.0
Zinc deficiency is also prevalent in the Bundelkhand region. Most of the soil samples analyzed from
Banda (66%), Jhansi (60%), Hamirpur (49%) and Jalaun (48%) districts have shown zinc deficiency. Cu
(10%) and Mn (20%) deficiency has also been reported in the region. Zn availability is very low in
calcareous soil particularly under high P application. Micronutrient status of soils of forage growing areas
showed that the available Zn was 1125 and 1250 ppm in red soils and 1208 and 2259 ppm in black soils
by 0.1N HCL and ammonium acetate dithiozone buffer, respectively. The available Mn content was
highest (80 ppm) in the surface soil and it declined with depth. In mixed red and black soil profile Mn
was lowest (20 ppm) in surface layer and continued to increase with depth and the available Fe was
equally distributed. Widespread deficiency of the Mn has been reported in the wheat and berseem crop
after rice in the coarse textured alkaline soils of the Firozepur district of Punjab.
Most common nutrient deficient in feed and fodders

Most of the feed and fodder resources are deficient in Ca, P, Cu and Zn from animal nutrition point view.
All the lactating and mature cows were found malnourished and unable to meet its requirement of Ca, P,
Cu and Zn from the feed and forages. In our survey we collected dry and green forage sample from all five
regions, these samples showed that green leguminous fodders were generally good source of almost all
macro and trace elements, while green non-leguminous fodders were low in Cu and Zn. Dry leguminous
forages/crop residues were poor source of Zn, dry non-leguminous forages/crop residues were also poor
source of Mg, Cu and Zn.
Effect of soil micronutrient deficiencies on crop and animal micronutrient nutrition

Our survey results showed that 40% soil samples tested for inadequate level of Zn availability, 26-69%
samples of forage crops in different regions were also deficient in Zn. The deficient level of Zn
availability in forages and crop residues reflect it effect on poor Zn nutrition of about 20-60% livestocks
of the sampling area. For successful crop production these deficient micronutrients should be applied in
soil as given in appendix-II. Apart from soil applications micronutrient can be applied by foliar spray,
seed priming and seed coating. In livestock production mineral deficiency is generally managed by
mineral supplementation using area specific mineral mixtures. Alternatively this can also be managed by
biofortification of feed and forages.
Biofortification
Biofortification is the process of increasing higher levels of essential nutrients, either through selective
breeding/ genetic modification or soil/agronomic manipulation. When a biofortified food is eaten it is
expected that the target nutrient will be absorbed in a form into the blood stream. For example, provitamin
A carotenoids must be released from the plant matrix during food digestion, absorbed into the blood
stream and converted into retinol – the form in which provitamin A is active in humans. This conversion is
seldom completed at 100% and therefore the efficiency with which the provitamin A carotenoids are
converted to retinol in humans is often expressed as the retinol activity or equivalency. It has generally
been assumed that 12 µg of all trans-β-carotene is required to produce 1 µg of retinol. However, a
bioavailability study of cassava conducted at Iowa State University indicated a 3-to-1 conversion rate of
provitamin A to retinol, four-fold as efficient as the 12-to-1 rate assumed in setting the original target of
15 ppm. More recently, the USDA/Western Human Research Center confirmed better-than-expected
bioconversion efficiency with or without additional vegetable oil added to the boiled cassava prior to
consumption. This research found that the vitamin A equivalence of biofortified cassava with oil was 3.7-
to-1 while that of biofortified cassava without oil was 4.3-to-1 and confirmed provitamin A to be
bioavailable. So, micronutrients in plants are bioavailable. Many hyper accumulator plants have been
identied for many nutrients, these hyper-accumulator plants biomass can be suitably mixed with feed and
fodders to achieve the minimum level required for livestock feeding. This will be win-win approach for
managing polluted soils and livestock nutrition. In food crops economic product is grain in grain the
translocation of micronutrient from other plant part are controlled by several source-sink controlling
mechanisms in plants. Therfore, sometimes desired level of the fortification is not possible in grains. But
in forage crops plant aboveground biomass is economic product and all the nutrients absorbed and
translocated in aboveground (belowground in some crops) plant parts contributes to biofortification.
Genetic approach for biofortification

The potential to increase the micronutrient density of staple foods by conventional breeding exists.
Adequate genetic variation in concentrations of β-carotene, other functional carotenoids, iron, zinc, and
other minerals exists among cultivars, making selection of nutritionally appropriate breeding materials
possible. In all crops studied, it is possible to combine the high-micronutrient-density trait with high
yield, unlike protein content and yield, which are negatively correlated; the genetic control is simple
enough to make breeding economic. Therefore, it will be possible to improve the content of several
limiting micronutrients together, thus pushing populations toward nutritional balance.Sweet potato,
cassava, maize, bean and pearl millet have the potential to produce and store micronutrients in addition to
macronutrients in the edible parts. The level of micronutrients in crops that is required to make health
impacts need to be determined in advance in a breeding program. Nutritionists and plant breeders often
work together to set breeding targets for specific nutrients. These targets are initially based on gross
assumptions about staple food intake (grams/day), bioavailability (percent nutrient absorbed), nutrient
retention level in foods and the estimated daily requirement (EAR) of the nutrient by the target group.
This will be followed by crop germplasm screening to identify genetic materials that can be used as
parents in the breeding program. Breeders then recombine genes through simple hybridization to produce
new segregating populations from which promising progenies are selected in a series of field evaluations
to become new varieties.
Progress in breeding to achieve target levels of nutrient contents has been very promising for several crops
including sweet potato, cassava, beans, pearl millet and maize. In other crops it has been comparatively
slower probably due to a narrow or absence of natural genetic variation for the traits of interest thus
making
Agronomic biofortification
To augment the micronutrient concentration in forages in a field experiment, it was observed that soaking
the seed in 0.05% solution of the ZnSO4 and CuSO4 for 12 hr were effective in increasing plant groth and
without affecting the seed germination. To augment the micronutrient concentration in forages in a field
experiment, it was observed that soaking the seed in 0.05% solution of the ZnSO4 and CuSO4 for 12 hr
were effective in increasing plant groth and without affecting the seed germination. At higher
concentration seed germination was severely reduced in case CuSO4 but it was unaffected by ZnSO4 (data
not shown (Plate 1 and 2). Pooled data based on two years of experiment showed that seed priming and
VAM - aplication with 50% recommended dose of micronutrients (RDM) were effective in producing
green and dry forage yield of sorghum+cowpea and oat equivalent to 100% RDM (20 kg Zn, 10 kg Mn
and 5 kg Cu /ha), resulting in 50% saving of the micronutrient fertilizer recommended for these crops.
Season of micronutrient application was non significant, indicating that it can be applied in crop rotation
in any season with good residual effect on subsequent crop.
Plate 1. Effect of different concentration of ZnSO4 in solution used for seed prining on growth of oat in
pot experiment (numbers 1-8 denotes concentration of ZnSO4 solution in the order of 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15,
0.20, 0.25, 0.50, and 1.0 percent w/v basis.
Balanced fertilization in forage crops

Forages are generally grown on low fertility soil conditions and their production can be increased
markedly with balanced fertilization. The effectiveness of fertilizers on forages in increasing dry matter
yield and economic returns is dependent upon the levels of nutrients in soil, climatic conditions, soil type
and forage type. Annual and perennial crops harvested as forages remove more nutrients from the soil than
do grain harvest values. The reason for this is the large amount of nutrients in the above ground biomass
that is not grain, in particular the straw, chaff and leaves. This increased nutrient removal should be
considered in integrated nutrient management (INM) programme. INM is the only way for balanced
fertilization for achieving higher sustainable yields while maintaining soil health and environment.
Integrated nutrient management
Integrated nutrient management may be defined as the technical and managerial component of achieving
the objectives of integrated plant nutrition system (IPNS) under farm situations i.e. maintenance or
adjustment of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop
productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an
integrated manner.
Plate 2. Effect of different concentration of ZnSO4+CuSO4+MnSO4 in solution used for seed priming on
growth of oat in pot experiment (numbers 1-7 denotes concentration of solution in the order of 0, 0.05,
0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.50 percent w/v basis)
Components of Integrated Nutrient Management

Organic manure
Organic manure act in many ways in augmenting crop growth and soil productivity. The direct effect of
organics relates to the uptake of humic substances or its decomposition products affecting favorably the
growth and metabolism of plants. Indirectly, it augments the beneficial soil microorganisms and their
activities and thus increases the availability of plant nutrients for higher yields.
Chemical Fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers have played a significant role in increasing crop productivity. However, their use
limited in forage crops due to preferential need for food and cash crops on one hand and on the other,
nutrients removal from the soil pool by forage crops specially multicuts and perennial ones is much
higher. Some of the studies conducted at IGFRI, Jhansi, India have revealed that on an average perennial
grasses remove 9.40 kg N, 1.45 kg P, 14.2 kg K, 4.61 kg Ca, 2.65 kg Mg and 1.85 kg S per tones of dry
herbage production. Such high removal of nutrient, if not replenished, would widen the gap between
addition and removal. Besides increasing fertilizer application, the nutrient use efficiency must also be
improved through balanced fertilizer application, as per soil test values, at proper times, through proper
sources along with other management practices like irrigation, use of amendments and other agro-
chemicals etc.
Crop residues
Crop residues are good source of plant nutrients and are important components of integrated nutrient
management. In regions where mechanical harvesting is done, sizeable quantities of residues are left in the
field. Similarly major portion of the residues is used as animal feed and about 33% of these residues are
available for direct use. About 200 million tones of crop residues are produced from different crops
annually. The potential of these has been estimated to be around 100 million tonnes annually for
recycling in agriculture. The leguminous plant residues are degraded as a faster rate than wide C: N ratio
cereal crop residues. The uses of residues are generally most effective for water conservation when
managed as surface mulch. Green manuring consists of turning over a fast growing legume crop mainly to
improve soil fertility and soil physical conditions. It is one of the most effective and environmentally
sound methods of organic manuring that offers an opportunity to cut down the dose of chemical fertilizers.
Introduction of legumes in cropping system

Introduction of leguminous crop in multiple cropping systems has been well recognized for improving soil
fertility build up. Symbiotic association of the legumes with different species of Rhizobium has been
proved useful in sequestering atmospheric N2 in the soil plant system. It is estimated that about 25-50% of
the fertilizer N requirement of the succeeding cereal crops can be met by introduction of legume. The
yield of oats proceeded by the legumes increased by 30, 8 and 13 percent under sunhemp, guar and
cowpea, respectively. Having smothering effect on weeds, legumes also help in better nutrient use
efficiency and crop yield.
Biofertilizers
Biofertilizers are the products containing living cells of different type of microorganisms that have ability
to fix/mobilize nutrients from non usable form through biological processes. These include nitrogen fixers
(symbiotic and nonsymbiotic bacteria), phosphate solubilizers (bacteria and fungi), mycorrhizal fungi and
sulphur and iron oxidizing bacteria etc. These microorganisms are capable of mobilizing non-labile
nutrients to mobile form. The beneficial effect of inorganic fertilizer and organic manure alongwith
biofertilizer on productivity of sorghum-cowpea cropping system has been reported.
Crop Responses to Integrated nutrient applications

Very recently reports clearly indicated the importance of combination of organic and inorganic source of
nutrient in respect of higher productivity of crops and fertility of lands. Integrated use of fertilizer and
FYM not only increase higher yields but also maintain greater yield stability. It has been observed that the
fertilizers having both the forms of N (NO3- and NH4+) are more efficient than those having either of the
forms. The application of N and P in combined form gave better yield of various crops. The most of the
soils are rich in total phosphorus but its availability is very less due to high fixing capacity of soil. The
use of organic + inorganic forms of P in 50:50 could perform better in solubilizing and mobilizing more P
with producing higher crop yield and quality of produce. The Indian soils suffer from multi nutrients
deficiencies and their productivity can only be sustained by integration of diverse sources for all such
nutrients, which the soil cannot provide. Yield of many crops are declining mainly due to continuous use
of fertilizers. This decline in yield is contributed mainly due to insufficient or non-availability of
micronutrients to crop plants. Recommended NPK with S and Zn increased grain yield significantly over
NPK by 17.9 and 15.9% respectively.
With passage of time the responses to N declined while those of P&K improved. The response to N
dropped because over the years other nutrient deficiencies (P&K) became important and did not allow N
to perform. Long term fertilizer experiments carried out in various agro-ecoregions of the country have
amply demonstrated that neither chemical fertilizers nor organic manure alone can achieve and sustain the
desired level of crop production. However, conjoint use of fertilizers and manures would not only impart
sustenance to the production and improve soil health but also enhance the use efficiency of applied
nutrients. The integrated plant supply system appears to be most potential and promising strategy for
restoration and sustaining soil health and productivity.
The yield increases due to combined application of NPK&S or NPK+Zn or NPK+S+Zn have been
reported in number of crops (Table2&3).The grain and fodder yield of kharif sorghum obtained maximum
in 150% NPK + S, Zn followed by 100% NPK+S, Zn. Likewise, in specific areas boron has become
necessary for obtaining higher yield, greater nutrient use efficiency and enhanced profits. The application
of borax @10kg/ha +ZnSO4 @ 20 kg/ha or organic manure 10 t/ha coupled with 100% recommended
dose of NPK @ 80-40-40 kg/ha is advocated. (Table 4)
Table 2.Effect of combined dose of nutrient application on grain yield of various crops (q/ha)
Treatement Maize Wheat Cowpea
Control 11.9 25.0 3.0
100% NPK 20.9 46.2 5.3
150% NPK 23.7 48.4 6.0
100% NPK+FYM 24.3 49.9 6.3
100% NPK+Zn 22.9 46.5 5.3
100% NPK+S 22.4 46.3 5.3
Table 3. Effect of combined application of nutrients on yield of different crops (t/ha)
Treatment Finger Millet Maize Cowpea
100% NPK 0.89 0.34 0.56
100% NPK + ZnSO4 3.17 0.60 2.47
100% NPK + FYM @ 10 t/ha 3.89 0.67 2.95
Control 0.86 0.37 0.35
CD 5% 0.23 0.40 0.26
Table 4.Effect of combined application of nutrients on crop yields of sorghum and sunflower (t/ha)
Treatments Sorghum Sunflower
Grain Fodder Seed Stalk
Control 1.89 5.36 0.80 2.51
100% NPK 2.60 7.79 1.28 3.67
100% NPK + S + Zn + B 2.60 7.37 1.32 3.82
(50% FYM N)
100% NPK + S + Zn 2.65 7.52 1.17 3.32
100% NPK + S + Zn + B 2.90 7.93 1.27 3.58
Higher crop yields were obtained for the integrated use of FYM along with fertilizer NPK, Apparently,
integrated use of FYM with optimal dose of fertilizers had provided the best nourishing soil medium with
release of nutrients from it besides effecting improvements in soil physical properties. Microorganism
help in crop production by way of promoting plant growth, improving the availability of plant nutrients in
the soil (Table 4).
Strategies for balanced fertilization

For efficient and eco-friendly balanced fertilization, following points have to be kept in mind
v Soil test based fertilizer application and the time of fertilizer application has to be synchronizing
with the physiological stages at which for nutrient demand is maximum.
v Maximum possible exploitation of FYM, on-farm and off-farm crop residues, biofertilizers,
vermicompost and non-conventional sources of nutrients
v Apply FYM/organic manures in such a manner that the mineralization of organic nutrients occurs
at the peak period of their demand by the plants.
v Maximize crop productivity with highest use efficiency and lowest avoidable losses of nutrients.
v Minimize the losses of nutrients through volatilization, leaching runoff, denitrification etc.
v Use of suitable amendments to minimize the toxicities of elements and pollutants.
Table 4. Effect of bio fertilizers with and without inorganic nutrient application on crop yield (t/ha)
Treatment Berseem Lucerne
Nodules Yield Nodules Yield
Control 10.5 30.8 12.5 25.5
25 kg N 18.5 38.5 14.5 29.2
Rhizobium + 25 kg N 32.5 45.0 40.0 35.0
Rhizobium + A. brasilence 29.0 45.5 35.0 38.5
+ 25 kg N
CD at 5% 4.8 5.2 6.2 3.8
Conclusion
Micronutrient deficiency is spreading in all the region of country and the primary reason for unsustainable
growth in productivity or decline in factor productivity. Deficiency in the soil-plant also reflected in the
animal health and about 20-60% animals of different stage of growth showed deficiency of Zn in blood
serum. Seed priming in 0.05% solution of ZnSO4 and /or MnSO4 and CuSO4 and VAM application with
50% recommended dose of micronutrients (RDM) was found to be effective in increasing the
micronutrient content of the forages without any adverse effect on yield in comparison to 100%
recommended dose of micronutrient fertilizer. Bioavailability of the fortified forages was significantly
higher than the normal fodder. Bio-fortification is today widely described as a technique to mitigate
human disease and health conditions that are potentially caused by a dietary lack of essential
micronutrients, but the technology can potentially also play a role in animal nutrition. This finding can be
utilized for effective micronutrient management with increased productivity, NUE and bioavailability.
Chapter: 10
Biofertilizers for Nutrient Management in Low External Input Sustainable Forage
Production
Srinivasan, R*, Prabhu, G., Anita Kumari

Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi.
Since very long time, farmers practising rainfed agriculture followed a low intensive sustainable farming
system with indigenous knowledge by integration of crops-trees-pastures and livestock. However, from
1970s, with the introduction of hybrids and high yielding varieties particularly in important food crops, the
farmers who for generations have relied on agricultural systems using low quantities of external inputs
have been urged to adopt modern agricultural technologies to increase food supplies resulted in a shift of
cropping pattern took place towards monoculture and corresponding increase in the use of chemical inputs
in crop production. At the same time, various developmental schemes of the Government of India under
different missions have also contributed towards increased use of chemical inputs and higher cost of
production. Though Green Revolution drove our country to again become an exporter of food grains in
90s, in due course of time the ill effects started surfacing. The lands started losing fertility and demanding
larger fertilizers use. There is rapid degradation of water and land resources leading to reduction of use
efficiency of fertilizer, irrigation, tillage etc, along with rising emission of pollutants and green house
gases which is one of the major cause for climate change. Indiscriminate use of chemical inputs over the
years resulted in accumulation of toxic chemical substances in the soil, depletion of organic carbon
content, microflora and fauna, and soil fertility having deleterious effects on crop productivity. Pests
became immune requiring stronger pesticides. ILEIA, the Information Centre for Low External Input
Agriculture, was among the first to identify this crisis. It was established in 1981 by a small group of
‘practical visionaries’ in the Netherlands. ILEIA wanted to better understand the extent and nature of this
agricultural crisis, but it was also keen to learn more about alternative practical strategies towards
agricultural development. In 1981 a fact-finding survey was carried out to learn about organisations and
individuals involved in developing low external input sustainable technologies. In the course of this search
process for a different, more self-reliant type of agriculture, ILEIA crafted the term LEISA: Low External
Input Sustainable Agriculture. Similarly, Japanese microbiologist, Masanobu Fukuoka, devoted his 60
years towards developing a radical no-till method for growing grain and other crops, now known as nature
farming or Fukuoka farming. Fukuoka’s first book, ‘The One-Straw Revolution’, advocates for a
meticulous balance of local farming system and minimum human interference. The British botanist Sir
Albert Howard who is often referred to as the father of modern organic agriculture documented traditional
Indian farming practices as superior to the conventional agriculture.
At the pace of present growth rate of population, India needs to meet the expected food demand of 300
million tons of cereals by 2050 from continuously shrinking land resources and having more than 1/3rd
farming families with marginal, low fertile lands as well as not in a position to afford to high cost inputs
for the farming itself on which their lives depend. There are various systems of crop production being
advocated for various purposes, soil types, agroclimatic conditions, socioeconomic conditions,
marketability, etc. Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is a system of agriculture which is
based on principles and options which are ecologically sound, economically feasible and culturally
acceptable. It can be defined as “agriculture which makes optimal use of locally available natural and
human resources (such as soil, water, vegetation, local plants and animals, human labour, knowledge and
skills) and which is economically feasible, ecologically sound, culturally adapted and socially just. The
use of external inputs is not excluded but is seen as complementary to the use of local resources and has to
meet the above mentioned criteria” (Reijntjes et al. 1992). Adoption of the term “low input” had an effect
rather different from that originally intended. The term was chosen to try to correct the view held by some
agricultural groups that sustainable agriculture was just another name for chemical-free or organic
farming.
Types of low external input technology (LEIT)
Though there is no standard classification of LEIT, the following technologies are among the most
prominent examples:
1. Soil and water management
• Terraces and other physical structures to prevent soil erosion
• Contour planting
• Hedgerows and living barriers
• Conservation tillage
• Mulches, cover crops
2. Soil fertility enhancement
• Biofertilizers
• Organic Manures and composts
• Biomass transfer and green manures
3. Crop establishment
• Planting pits
• System of rice intensification
• Intercropping
4. Controlling weeds and pests
• Intercrops and rotations
• Integrated pest management
This LEIT include a wide range of crop management techniques that use local inputs and resources and
that take long-term environmental consequences into account. It is well established that many of these
techniques can contribute to increasing production and conserving resources, if they are compatible with
farmers’ socioeconomic conditions. To enable farm produce to be internationally competitive innovative
farming practices incorporating the concept of globally accepted Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
within the framework of commercial agricultural production for long term improvement and sustainability
is essential. GAP in addition to improving the yield and quality of the products, also has environmental
and social dimensions. Implementation of GAP would promote optimum utilization of water resources
such as pesticides, fertilizers, water and eco-friendly agriculture. Its social dimension would be to protect
the agricultural workers’ health from improper use of chemicals and pesticides.
Many of rainfed farmers in remote areas still practice low external input or no external input farming
which is well integrated with livestock, particularly small ruminants. The average use of chemical
fertilizers in rainfed areas based on a survey of non-irrigated semi arid tropics was found to be very low
(1/4th) as against the irrigated areas. Based on several surveys and reports, it is estimated that up to 30% of
the rainfed farmers in many remote areas of the country do not use chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Thus, considerable number of resource poor farmers is practicing LEISA by default. Meanwhile, Ministry
of Commerce, GOI, had launched a National Organic Programme in April 2000 and since then the
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) is implementing the
National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) (Bhattacharyya and Chakraborty, 2005). Application
of organic inputs revives soil health and brings about ecological balances, reducing pollution and
increasing the quality and quantity of crop yield. This is more important in view of the fact that soil
having low organic matter content is generally poor in fertility. Repeated use of chemical fertilizers
destroys the soil biota, which is essential for good soil health. Agricultural land is also suffering from
multiple nutrient deficiencies. The solution of this problem is merely through the proper use of both
organics and inorganics, i.e. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) system. This system holds promise in
sustaining crop yields and improving soil health. Holistic use of manures (farmyard manures, compost,
green manures, vermicompost), crop residues and bio-fertilizers alone or in combination with chemical
fertilizers would result in 25–50% economy in fertilizers (N, P and K) applied to the crops.
The basic concept underlying the integrated nutrient management system (INMS), nevertheless, remains
the maintenance and possible improvement of soil fertility for sustained crop productivity on long term-
basis and also to reduce inorganic (fertilizer) inputs use. The objective of nutrient management strategies
is to achieve the required crop yield in an efficient, economical and sustainable manner. There is a world-
wide consensus now that sole dependence on chemical inputs based agriculture is not sustainable in the
long run and that only efficient Integrated Plant Nutrient Systems (IPNS) involving a combination of
fertilizers, organic and/or green manures, and biofertilizers are essential to sustain crop production,
manage soil health and soil biodiversity. The economic burden and environmental cost of applying such a
huge quantity of additional fertilizer is enormous. Even if a part of this increase in the need for nitrogen
and phosphorus can be met from Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) and mineral phosphate solubilization
(MPS) the likely savings are enormous. This is especially important for developing countries where
farming will continue to be in the hands of small farmers. Because biofertilizers are low cost inputs also
requires in less quantity (LEI) for application. In this situation it may be possible to integrate the use of
more than one bio fertilizer for increasing crop/fodder yield. Rhizobium, Azotobactor, Mycorrhiza,
Phosphate solubilizers etc. could be used together or separately. In many places mixed cropping and
double cropping, etc are followed. So, in such systems, the combined application of more than one bio
fertilizer may be more beneficial.
Biofertilizers
The term biofertilizer or also called 'microbial inoculants' can be generally defined as a preparation
containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing or cellulolytic
microorganisms used for application of seed, soil or composting areas with the objective of increasing the
numbers of such microorganisms and accelerate certain microbial processes to augment the extent of the
availability of nutrients in a form which can be assimilated by plant. In large sense, the term may be used
to include all organic resources (manure) for plant growth which are rendered in an available form for
plant absorption through microorganisms or plant associations or interactions. Biofertilizers from
microorganisms can substitute (fully or partly) chemical fertilizers to increase crop production. In
principle, biofertilizers are less expensive and are more environmentally-friendly than chemical fertilizers.
Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India, New Delhi,
vide their order Dated 24th March, 2006 included biofertilizers and organic fertilizers under section 3 of
the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955), in Fertilizer (Control) Order, 1985. These rules were
further amended in respect of applicability, specifications and testing protocols vide Gazette notification 3
November, 2009.
Definition of biofertilizer (Clause 2 a, aa) (FCO, 1985): Biofertilizer means the product containing
carrier based (solid or liquid) living microorganisms which are agriculturally useful in terms of nitrogen
fixation, phosphorus solubilization or nutrient mobilization, to increase the productivity of the soil and/or
crop.
The biofertilizer industry began production of inoculants in the 1970’s. Initially imported cultures and
carriers (peat) were used but with isolation of effective, indigenous cultures for various crops, these along
with indigenously available carrier materials like lignite and powdered charcoal are used for the
production of inoculants.
Most Important Microorganisms Used in Biofertilizers

Organisms that are commonly used as biofertilizers component are nitrogen fixers (N-fixer), phosphorus
solubilizers (P- solubilizers), and potassium solubilizers (K-solubilizers) or with the combination of molds
or fungi. Most of the bacteria included in biofertilizer have close relationship with plant roots. Rhizobium
has symbiotic interaction with legume roots, and Rhizobacteria inhabit on root surface or in rhizosphere
soil.
S. No. Groups Examples
N2 fixing Biofertilizers
1. Free-living Azotobacter, Beijerinkia, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Anabaena, Nostoc,
etc.
2. Symbiotic Rhizobium spp., Bradyrhizobium, Frankia, Anabaena azollae
3. Associative Symbiotic Azospirillum
P Solubilizing Biofertilizers
1. Bacteria Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum, Bacillus subtilis
Pseudomonas striata, Bacillus circulans, etc
2. Fungi Penicillium sp., Aspergillus awamori, etc
P Mobilizing Biofertilizers
1. Arbuscular mycorrhiza Glomus sp., Gigaspora sp., Acaulospora sp.,
Scutellospora sp. & Sclerocystis sp.
2. Ectomycorrhiza Laccaria sp., Pisolithus sp., Boletus sp., Amanita sp.
3. Ericoid mycorrhizae Pezizella ericae
4. Orchid mycorrhiza Rhizoctonia solani
Biofertilizers for Micronutrients
1. Silicate and Zinc Bacillus sp.
solubilizers
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
1. Pseudomonas Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas spp., Alcaligenes,
Arthrobacter, Actinoplanes, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Rhizobium, etc
While Rhizobium, Blue Green Algae (BGA) and Azolla are crop specific, bio-inoculants like Azotobacter,
Azospirillum, Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB), and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) could be
regarded as broad spectrum biofertilizers. AM is fungi that are found associated with majority of grasses,
fodder and agriculture crops and enhance accumulation of plant nutrients as well as stimulate plant growth
by physiological effects or by reducing the severity of diseases caused by the soil pathogens. The example
of K- solubilizer is Bacillus mucilaginous while for P-solubilizer are Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus
subtilis, Pseudomonas striata and Bacillus circulans. N fixer-Biofertilizers can provide 25-30% of
chemical fertilizer equivalent N (For eg. Rhizobium @ 25-35 kg/ha/yr, Azotobacter / Azospirillum @ 20-
25 kg/ha/yr) PSB biofertilizer can provide 12-20 kg P2O5/ha/season, Mycorrhiza can provide adequate, P,
other micro nutrients and help in increased water absorption.
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)

A group of rhizosphere bacteria (rhizobacteria) that exerts a beneficial effect on plant growth is referred to
as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria or PGPR. PGPR belong to several genera, e.g. Agrobacterium,
Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter, Actinoplanes, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium,
Bradyrhizobium, Erwinia, Enterobacter, Cellulomonas, Flavobacterium, and Streptomyces. Inoculation
with PGPR mainly Azospirillum, Pseudomonas and Bacillus in major field crops can save about 25%
nutrients application.
Effective Microorganisms (EM)

EM solution contains combination of Phototrophic Bacteria, Lactic acid bacteria and Yeast.
Photosynthetic bacteria synthesize useful substances from secretions of roots, organic matter and/or
harmful gases (e.g. hydrogen sulfide), by using sunlight and the heat of soil as sources of energy. Lactic
acid bacteria produce lactic acid from sugars and other carbohydrates, developed by photosynthetic
bacteria and yeast. Yeast synthesizes antimicrobial and other useful substances required for plant growth
from amino acids and sugars secreted by photosynthetic bacteria, organic matter and plant roots.
Promoting biofertilizer use:
There is an ongoing attempt to promote biofertilizer in Indian agriculture through public intervention, and
in keeping with the spirit of the times, the policy motivates private sector and profit motive to propel the
new technology. The Government of India and the various State Governments have been promoting the
nascent biofertilizer market both at the level of the user-farmer and the producer-investor through the
following measures:
1. Farm level extension and promotion programmes,
2. Financial assistance to investors in setting up units,
3. Subsidies on sales and
4. Direct production in public sector and cooperative organizations and in universities and research
institutions.
Factors affecting performance of biofertilizers (inoculant strains)

Crop responses to inoculation with biofertilizers are not as visible as those with fertilizer N. Being
biological agents, these are subjected to a range of hostile environments and their survival and efficiency
is governed by several factors (Wani, et al., 1995). Generally, there is a decline in the rhizobial population
on seeds but conventional wisdom is that multiplication should occur, accelerated germination can assist
in ensuring an adequate population. The seed coat of a dicot is often carried on the top of the cotyledons
into the open air, so that only a part of the inoculum may be left to multiply within the rhizosphere. In the
case of crops grown on residual moisture, such as chickpea, the inoculated rhizobia cannot move
downwards with the growing root from the top soil where inoculated, resulting in poor nodulation. Deep
sowing results in a good crop stand but affects nodulation adversely. Consistency in gains is the major
hurdle in the trials conducted by All India Coordinated Pulse Improvement Project. The responses usually
depend on several environmental factors viz.,
· The type of soil as measured by its water holding capacity, its levels of other nitrates,
phosphate and even calcium and molybdenum (that help in protein synthesis in Rhizobia) and
the alkalinity, salinity and acidity of soil all affect the response. Higher dose of mineral
nitrogen as starter suppresses nodulation, reducing response of Rhizobium but phosphate
deficiency can be an inhibitor also.
· The inadequacy of organic matter especially common in dryland agriculture is a deterrent
more for the non-symbiotic strains, which essentially depend on soil organic matter for
energy. Phosphobactrin response was found to be positive only in soils with high organic
content and low available phosphorous.
· Soil water deficit and high temperature (hyper-thermia) are prominent factors in rainfed or
dryland agriculture.
Other factors like, Unavailability of appropriate and efficient strains - Lack of region specific strains is
one of the major constraints as biofertilizers are not only crop specific but soil specific too. Mutation
during fermentation – losing their potential, Lack of awareness of farmers – most of the farmers donot
have any idea about biofertilizers, Native microbial population – lack of competitiveness in some of the
biofertilizers, Lack of quality assurance – lack of quality biofertilizers in the market, Seasonal and
unassured demand in the market etc.
Liquid Biofertilizers
Liquid biofertilizers are special liquid formulation containing not only the desired microorganisms and
their nutrients but also special cell protectants or chemicals that promote formation of resting spores or
cysts for longer shelf life and tolerance to adverse conditions. Biofertilizers manufactured in India are
mostly carrier based and in the carrier-based (solid) biofertilizers, the microorganisms have a shelf life of
only six months. They are not tolerant to UV rays and temperatures more than 30°C. The population
density of these microbes is only 108 (10 crores) c.f.u/ml at the time of production. This count reduces day
by day. In the fourth month it reduces to 106 (10 lakhs) c.f.u/ml and at the end of 6 months the count is too
low. Hence, the carrier-based biofertilizers are not effective and has not become popular among the
farmers. These defects are rectified and fulfilled in the case of Liquid biofertilizers. Liquid biofertilizer
technology now, shares more advantage over conventional carrier based biofertilizers and can be
considered as a breakthrough in field of biofertilizer technology and should find greater acceptance by
farmers, extension workers and commercial biofertilizer manufacturers. The shelf life of the microbes in
these liquid biofertilizers is about two years. They are tolerant to high temperatures (up to 50°C) and ultra
violet radiations. The count is as high as 109 c.f.u/ml, which is maintained constant up to two years. So,
the application of 1 ml of liquid biofertilizers is equivalent to the application of 1 kg of 5 months old
carrier based biofertilizers (1000 times). Since these are liquid formulations the application in the field is
also very simple and easy. They are applied using hand sprayers, power sprayers, fertigation tanks and as
basal manure mixed along with FYM etc.
The advantages of Liquid biofertilizers over conventional carrier based biofertilizers are listed below:
· Longer shelf life -12-24 months.
· No contamination.
· No loss of properties due to storage up to 50º C.
· Greater potentials to fight with native population.
· High populations can be maintained more than 109 cells/ml up to 12 months to 24 months.
· Easy identification by typical fermented smell.
· Cost saving on carrier material, pulverization, neutralization, sterilization, packing and transport.
· Quality control protocols are easy and quick.
· Better survival on seeds and soil.
· No need of running biofertilizer production units throughout the year.
· Very much easy to use by the farmer.
· Dosages is 10 time less than carrier based powder biofertilizers.
· High commercial revenues.
· High export potential.
· Very high enzymatic activity since contamination is nil.
· Automation of production is possible.
Do’s and Donot’s for Entrepreneurs, Dealers and farmers

Do Don’t
Keep Biofertilizers bottles away from direct heat Don’t store Biofertilizers bottles under heat and
and sunlight. Store it in cool and dry place. sunlight
Sell only Biofertilizers bottles which contain Don’t sell or use Biofertilizers bottles after their expiry
batch number, the name of the crop on which it period is over.
has to be used, the date of manufacture and
expiry period.
If the expiry period is over, then discard it as it is Don’t prick holes into the bottles or puncture them to
not effective. pour the content
Keep Biofertilizers bottles away from fertilizer or Do not mix the Biofertilizers with fungicides,
pesticide containers and they should not be mixed insecticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers.
directly.
Application of biofertilizers as low external input for fodder production

In the studies carried out at IGFRI, Jhansi on host genotype - Bradyrhizobium (Stylosanthes species)
interaction effect on compatibility and herbage yield showed that JSR-4 was most compatible and gave
maximum herbage yield of S. hamata and S. humilis and JSR-3 in case of S. scabra. The native strain
(JSR-4) among Bradyrhizobium strains (native-JSR-3, JSR-4 and JSB-4, exotic TAL-309 and ISI-2) was
found superior in producing higher green (95.2 t/ha) and dry biomass (28.0 t/ha) with Stylosanthes pure
and mixed pasture with Cenchrus ciliaris. The increase in green biomass with imported strains over
uninoculated control ranged from 17.5 to 19.7 per cent.
The following table shows Results on field response of fodder legumes to Rhizobium
Green yield (q ha-1) Per cent increase in yield with
Crop
Uninoculated Inoculated Rhizobium
Lucerne (3 cuts) 284 416 46
Berseem (3 cuts) 570 698 23
Cowpea 312 357 15
Pea 200 240 20
Guar 130 152 17
Source: Pahwa and Yadav, 2002
Simple inoculation of Azospirillum showed marked improvement in green forage yield with an average
increase of 26.1, 19.5, 28.1, 31.4 and 35.5% in oat, sorghum, pearl millet, barley and maize, respectively,
over the uninoculated control.
Field and pot studies conducted on fodder oat, barley and sudan sorghum to Azospirillum and N
fertilization indicated a saving of about 20 kg N ha-1 in the form of urea, without affecting the gain in
forage yields. Beneficial associations between A. brasilense and three grasses viz. Cenchrus ciliaris,
Cenchrus setigerus and Dicanthium annulatum led to increased biomass yield to the extent of 22-32%.
The highest forage yield of C. setigerus was obtained by the combined treatment of 30 kg N ha-1 +
inoculation; produced 38% more forage yield over 30 kg N ha-1 + uninoculation.
The following table shows the combined effect of Rhizobium and Azospirillum with and without N on
berseem yield and nodulation.
Treatment No of nodules Forage yield (q ha-1)
/ Plant Green Dry
Uninoculated 17.0 524.4 65.1
-1
20 kg N ha 21.2 600.0 76.2
Rhizobium alone 33.0 671.6 87.3
20 kg N ha-1+ Rhizobium 40.0 698.7 91.5
Azospirillum brasilense 18.5 590.3 73.7
A. brasilense + 20 kg N ha-1 20.0 626.0 79.5
Rhizobium+ A. brasilense 41.3 711.2 91.9
Rhizobium+ A. brasilense + 20 kg N ha-1 46.0 724.8 93.1
CD at 5% 12.1 30.2 3.9
Source: Pahwa, 1995
Yield of fodder sorghum on fresh and dry weight basis from RDF and half RDF along with biofertilizers
was not only highest but also significantly higher than that of half RDF and control (Ramanjaneyalu et al.,
2007). Rock phosphate and biofertilizer (PSB + VAM) in chickpea showed significant residual effect on
the succeeding fodder sorghum (Thenuja et al., 2010). Seed inoculation of chickpea with Rhizobium and
PSB increased dry matter accumulation, grain yield and protein content of chickpea, dry fodder yield of
succeeding maize (Jat and Ahlawat, 2006).
In a study by Mishra et al. (2008), the effect of inoculation of N fixer (Azospirillum brasilense) and P
solubilizers consortia and inoculum of Glomus intraradiaces) in single as well as mixed inoculation on
forage yield and quality in guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.) at different cuttings under the cut-and-
carry system showed that the dual inoculation, i.e., Azospirillum with indigenous AM consortia,
significantly improved fodder growth, production and quality in terms of crude protein (CP) content,
while neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) content decreased after treatment. The
density of soil microbes (number of Azospirillum colony-forming units, number of AM spores) was
enhanced in mixed inoculation. N fixer and P solubilizer inocula had a synergistic effect which enhanced
overall fodder production, quality and also beneficial microflora in the rhizosphere soil.
In another field experiment at CAZRI, Jodhpur, response of clitoria to biofertilizers viz., Rhizobium,
phosphorus solubilising microbes (PSM) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) applied as
seed treatment was assessed. PSM increased the dry fodder yield by 34.3%, closely followed by PGPR
(32.2%) and Rhizobium (15.8%) over the control. The maximum dry fodder yield of 3349 kg ha-1 was
obtained in case of N and P at 50% of RDF along with application of Rhizobium and PSM. The lowest
yield of 1193 kg ha-1 was recorded in control (Devidayal, 2010).
Some of the examples of biofertilizers available in the Indian market:

Solid carrier based biofertilizers: Phosphotica (PSB) (Agriculture Dept, U.P.), Rhizo, Azospi, Bihar
Phosphorus (Natural BF), Bhuparis PSB, TNAU – Bs1 MIXTURE, STANES SYMBION VAM PLUS,
Phosphobacteria VIJAY BIO, JEYPEE PHOSPHOMIN, PUSA MICROPHOS INOCULANT, Suman
Gold - Azotobacter, Rhizobium, PSB, etc
Liquid biofertilizers: Phosfert (Liquid phosphobacteria); Phophofix (Liquid phosphobacteria); Jai V Jai –
Biogold –Rhizobium liquid bf; GOI, MoAgri, Dept of Agri & Cooperation, Regional BF Dev. Centre –
liquid bf; Azosfer (TARI) – Azospirillum liquid bf; Adhar (Azospirillum) – liquid bf; Biofit, Phosphomax,
etc.
Conclusion
Biofertilizers thus help in increasing fodder crop productivity by way of N fixation, increased availability
or uptake of nutrients through solubilization or increased absorption stimulation of plant growth through
hormonal action, or by decomposition of organic residues. Furthermore, biofertilizers can replace part of
the use of chemical fertilizers, thereby can reduce cost of chemical fertilizers and the quantity required to
apply and thus prevents the environmental pollution from extensive application of chemical fertilizers.
The lower cost, the ability to restore soil fertility using leguminous plants and biofertilizers, sustaining the
production, no environmental pollution are some of the advantages of this low external input fodder
production (LEIA) system. However, adoption of this practice of applying biofertilizers for nutrient
management as a low external input for sustainable forage production has been very limited despite years
of effort to promote them.
Chapter: 11
Making better use of livestock manure nutrients through multi-crop
Forage Production
Manoj Chaudhary, G. Prabhu and Anita Kumari

Livestock manure is a useful and valuable source for soil amendment that can serve as a low-cost source
of organic fertilizer for crop production and as a soil conditioner that may improve the chemical and
physical conditions of the soil. Most crop rotations can be designed
to benefit from manure as the nutrient source. However, this remains realistic only as long as manure is
managed properly. Unrestricted repeated applications of large volumes of manure might deteriorate the
quality of soils and reduce crop production. Dairy manure can be an effective source of plant nutrients and
large quantities of nutrients can be recycled through forage production, especially when multi-cropping
systems are utilized. Linking forage production with manure utilization is an environmentally sound
approach for addressing both of these problems. Most of the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium
(K) in livestock diets is excreted in dung and urine. Manures contain useful amounts of these plant
available nutrients, as well as the other major nutrients sulphur (S) and magnesium (Mg), and trace
elements. Based on recent prices for N, P and K fertilisers, the slurry produced by 100 dairy cows over the
winter housing period has a potential value of almost £2000. With opportunity to apply to grassland on
several occasions during the growing season, this could provide up to 20%, 100% and 80%, respectively,
of the N, P and K fertiliser required by grassland used for hay or silage production. Bearing in mind the
overall costs of manure management, it is well worthwhile taking a little extra trouble to achieve these
savings and at the same time reduce pollution risks. Experience confirms that commercial dairy farms can
achieve such savings.
Organic Manure
It may be defined as material which is organic in origin, bulky and capable of supplying plant nutrients
and improving soil physical environment having no definite chemical composition with low analytical
value produced from animal, plant and other organic waste and by products. FYM and compost are main
and widely used diary manure in agriculture. These are the decomposed products of agricultural by-
products.
i) Farmyard Manure (FYM)

Farmyard Manure is traditional organic manure and its nutrient value in increasing crop production is
recognized from time immemorial. It can be prepared by three component, namely a) Solid excreta or
dung of animals, b) Liquid excreta or urine of animals c) Litter used as bedding material in shed.
ii) Compost
Composting is advocated for recycling of different types of biodegradable organic material by
converting them into valuable manure. It is basically biological process in which aerobic and anaerobic
microorganisms decompose organic matter and narrow down the C/N ratio of substrate used. The final
product formed after composting is an amorphous, brown to dark brown humified material known as
compost. Composting also takes care of killing most of pathogens present in the substrates. Basically,
FYM and compost are same, except the type of substrate. In FYM, the substrates are dung, urine and litter,
whereas in compost, the substrates are plant residue of different types.
Factors affecting quality of FYM
i) Source of Excreta
Sheep and poultry excreta are richer than those of cow horse and pig. Urine of cow, bullock and horse
contain nil or trace amount of P2O5.
ii) Food of animal
Manure from cattle fed on cereal straws and grass hay, is much less valuable than that from animal fed
on legume hays, grains and concentrates.
iii) Age and condition of animal
. Young and healthy animals consume more nutrients from the fodder fed than mature. Therefore, FYM
prepared from the dung from of latter is richer than former.
iv) Function of animal
Animal producing milk and wool consume more nutrient from their feed than animal at rest or
working. FYM prepared from milking animal having low nutrient value.
v) Manner of storage
If the cattle shed is having mud flooring, most of the N in urine lost due to leaching.
Chemical Composition of Farmyard Manure

The FYM contained considerable amounts of essential macronutrients and small amounts of
micronutrients. The nutrient value of organic manure such as FYM and compost depends upon the
composition of animal feed, fodder, bedding materials, methods of preparation, length and condition of
storage etc. They report that the nutrient content of FYM and compost prepared under farmers’ condition
may vary from 0.5-1.4 % N, 0.4-2.4 % P and 0.5-3.5 % K as calculated on oven dry basis.
Table 1: Plant Nutrients in FYM

N(%) P(%) K(%) pH Author
0.6 0.25 0.84 Gupta,1991
1.08 1.75 1.34 6.89 Karki, 2001
0.5-1.0 0.15-0.2 0.5-0.6 Uexull et.al., 1992
Table 2: Typical nutrient content of livestock manures (fresh weight basis)

Total nutrient (kg/t)
Manure Type Dry matter (%) Nitrogen (N) Phosphate(P2O5) Potash(K2O)
Cattle 25 6.0 3.5 8.0
Pig 25 7.0 7.0 5.0
Sheep 25 6.0 2.0 3.0
Duck 25 6.5 5.5 7.5
Broiler litter 60 30 25 18
Table 3: Typical sulphur and magnesium content of livestock manures ( kg/t or kg/m3)
Manure Type Dry matter (%) DM Total Total Mg as MgO
S as SO3
Cattle 25 1.8 0.7
Pig 25 1.8 0.7
Poultry layer 30 3.8 2.2
Broiler litter 60 8.3 4.2
Cattle slurry 10 1.1 1.0
Pig slurry 6 0.9 0.5
The application of FYM on field, soil nutrient available for first crop as 30% N, 50% P and 70% P and
remain for subsequent plant growth.
Figure 1: Comparison of nutrient content in different source of organic manure.
Manure sampling
The key point in a manure sampling strategy is to obtain a sample that is best representative of the manure
material to be applied. There is a continual change in the forms and concentrations of nutrients in manure
due to various processes from the time of excretion by animals to land application. This is true for manure
even within a storage unit. Furthermore, there can be considerable spatial variability in manure
composition depending on the position of the manure in the unit. For example, manure taken from the top
part of a liquid storage unit would typically be of lower solids content due to settling and with a higher
concentration of ammonia than at the bottom where higher solids content may contribute to higher
concentrations of total phosphorus and potassium. The potential for changes in manure composition over
time dictates that manure sampling is best performed just prior to or during its application to obtain the
most representative indication of manure nutrients being applied. Sampling near or at the time of
application allows accounting for possible changes in nutrient forms and concentrations resulting from
nutrient transformations, losses into the atmosphere via volatilization, evaporation, and dilution during the
residence time of the manure in the storage. Homogenization of the manure through mixing or agitation
prior to sampling will also enable a more representative sample to be obtained. The results of analysis of
manure samples taken can be used to determine the rates of manure nutrients applied in the year of
application, if additional inorganic fertilizers are required or not, and help make decisions on the next
year’s rate of manure application. However, analysis of manure collected near or at the time of application
poses challenges for determining the appropriate rate of manure application in the year of application
because it usually does not allow enough time for analysis of the manure in the laboratory to be completed
prior to the land application. There are some methods for conducting rapid field tests that can be used to
estimate nutrient contents of manure on site immediately prior to land application. The resulting estimates
can be used in the determination of the rates of manure application in the year of application. Barker
(1996) reported the hydrometer method and nitrogen meter method as two promising "quick-test" field
methods for determining the nutrient value of manure.
Effects of Manure on Soil and Crops

The effect of manure on soils is manifold. It can increase nutrient availability, and alter chemical
properties of the soil such as salinity, sodicity, pH, and organic matter as well as physical properties of the
soil such as bulk density, aggregation, aggregate stability, crust strength, and water infiltration. Manure
has been recognized throughout recorded history as an excellent soil amendment that can be used as an
organic fertilizer, providing plant macro and micronutrients to improve crop production ( Dormaar and
Chang, 1995).Major fertilizer and trace nutrients contained in manure as well as the benefits to the soil as
a conditioner, by raising the organic matter content of the soil, comprise the main value of manure for
crop production (White and Safley, 1984). However, there is a major difference between animal manure
and commercial fertilizers in terms of nutrient availability, in that some of the nutrients in animal manure
exist in the organic form and need to be converted to inorganic forms through mineralization before being
available for plant use. Hence animal manure, particularly cattle manure, is a slowly available source of
plant nutrients as compared to inorganic fertilizers. Nonetheless, manure has the advantage over inorganic
fertilizers of adding organic matter and multiple nutrients to the soil (Schoenau et al., 2000). The use of
manure or compost results in qualitative and quantitative differences in the transformation of nutrients in
the soil. This affects nutrient availability to crops, either directly by contributing to the nutrient pool or
indirectly by influencing the soil chemical and physical environment (Egrinya et al., 2001). If manure is
applied according to soil tests and crop nutrient requirement, it can optimize the availability of the
nutrients in the soil.Manure application also needs to be done using the appropriate method. Unnecessary
nutrient loading and losses can occur following overapplication and not using the appropriate method of
manure application.
Nutrient Availability
Based on his findings, Beauchamp (1983) developed a flow chart showing the contribution of liquid dairy
cattle manure N when applied to soil to N available to a crop (Figure 2).With the assumption that manure
would be applied and only incorporated after 1 week in the spring, he suggested that approximately one
half of the total N in the manure would be available to the crop in the year of application. Several authors
have reported increases in surface soil P levels following repeated feedlot and dairy cattle manure
applications.
Figure 2 : Flow chart showing the contribution of manure N when applied to soil to N available to a crop.
Olson et al. (1998) reported that the potassium content in the top 15 cm of a medium-textured soil
amended with cattle feedlot manure (four annual application sat the rate of 120 Mg.ha-1) was 11 times
higher than the soil with no manure addition. Chang et al. (1991) reported that the accumulation in the soil
of soluble SO4 due to repeated annual cattle feedlot manure applications was variable and was smaller as
compared to the effect on other parameters such as organic matter, pH and total nitrogen. They attributed
this occurrence to high SO4
content of the soil and the relatively low SO4 content of the manure applied. Similarly, soil sulfate levels
were not significantly affected by a single application of hog and cattle manure. Owing to its nature of
being a source of multi nutrients, manure can also increase availability of other macro and micronutrients
and contribute to plant nutrition when soil-applied. For example, Chang et al. (1991) observed increased
levels of soluble Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, and Zn following 11 annual cattle feedlot manure applications.
Forage Crops and Manure Application

Highly productive legume and forage crops use much more N than cereal crops and oilseeds. Although
legumes can meet their N requirements by fixing atmospheric N they are also capable of withdrawing N
from soil, manure or commercial fertilizer. As such, some legumes – such as alfalfa - are good recipients
for manure because they are high nutrient users. Other legumes which are poor fixers of nitrogen – such as
dry beans (e.g. navy, pinto, kidney) – may also benefit from manure application. However, manure should
not be applied directly to growing crops that are being produced for human consumption. There are some
potential disadvantages of fertilizing legumes with manure. They include:
Ø Elevated levels of available N early in the season may inhibit nodulation and reduce N-fixing
capacity.
Ø Elevated N levels early in the growing season may adversely impact growth, yield and quality of
soybeans.
Some high yielding forage and legume crops also use more P than annual cereal crops and Oilseeds. If
soils have elevated P levels and reduction is desired, crops with high P removal rates can be added to the
rotation and fertilization practices adjusted accordingly. Manure application may have to be rotated with
only commercial N fertilizer to adequately reduce soil P build-up.
Grazed forage land and pastures

Pastures generally respond well to manure application because their soil N fertility is often depleted after
years of grazing with little or no N supplementation. However, in contrast to mechanically harvested
forage lands, crop P removal from pastures is low as the P consumed is re-deposited on the field by the
grazing livestock. Soil P build-up on pasture lands should be monitored where manure is regularly
applied. It may become necessary to rotate manure application with commercial N fertilizer to reduce soil
P build-up or to harvest the forage mechanically on grazed fields with rising P levels.
Forage production and Nutrient Management with addition of FYM
Crops Applied FYM Inorganic Fertilizer Green Fodder

(t/ha) N-P-K (kg/ha) Yield (t/ha)
Sorghum 10 90:30:30 (single cut) 35-40
120:60:60 (multi-cut) 45-65
Pearl millet 10 80:30:30 (single cut) 35-40
(multi-cut) 55-100
Maize 12-15 80-100:40:0 30-80
Oat 15 120:40:40 (two cut) 40-60
180:60:40 (multi-cut)
Napier-Bajra hybrid 20-25 240:50:40 70-450
Guinea grass 20-25 60:50:40 (40 kgN after each cut) 60-280
Seteria grass 10-15 40:40:40 (20 kgN after each cut) 40-70
Anjan grass 5 60:20:0 -
Stylo 5-8 20:40:40 20-30
Lucerne 20-25 20:60-75:40 65-100
Berseem 20 20:80:0 100-120
Source: Handbook of Agriculture (ICAR) and Forage crops and their management(IGFRI)
Manure Management Strategies

Manure management is an important tool that strives to ensure that the balance between the beneficial and
detrimental effects of land application of manure is shifted toward the benefits. Along with the increased
productivity and economic gains that may be expected from manure application in agriculture, due
consideration must also be given to its effects on environment quality in the short and long-term. This
leads to the need for development and establishment of manure management strategies for safe and
sustained utilization of manure for optimum crop production. Perception amongst society towards the
material, not the least of which are issues related to odour control. Manure is also variable in its moisture
content and nutrient content, which makes it difficult to determine exactly how much of a nutrient is being
applied. Nonetheless, its agronomic importance as a source of plant nutrients is widely accepted. When
available in close vicinity to farms, manure contributes to reducing the cost of production by enabling
farmers to cut back the amount of commercial fertilizer needed on land.
Schoenau et al. (2000) indicated some of the challenges in effectively using manure as a nutrient source
for crop production. The challenges include:
Ø variability in nutrient content and form which makes it difficult to determine appropriate rates of
application to meet crop nutrient requirements;
Ø that manure is not an "off-the-shelf " source of nutrients and may not match the crop’s relative
requirement (example: manure with more phosphorus relative to nitrogen than the crop can use);
and
Ø Low nutrient content per unit volume limits the distance to which manure can be transported
economically.
Conclusion
Manure is an alternative to commercial fertilizer that can be integrated into most cropping systems. Forage
crops, particularly forage maize, provide an opportunity to apply manures prior to drilling in late spring
but they must not be regarded as a convenient ‘dumping ground’ for large amounts of slurry and FYM.
Although maize can apparently tolerate heavy applications of manures, without adverse effects on the
crop, nutrient losses via surface runoff and leaching are likely to occur. For forage crops, as with other
crops, manures should be applied with the aim of balancing nutrient supply and demand, topping up with
inorganic fertiliser as necessary.
Chapter: 12
Water management practices in forage crops for high water use efficiency
R.K. Agrawal and J.B. Singh

Water is the most critical input for enhancing forage productivity, and therefore expansion of irrigation
has been a key strategy in the development of agriculture in the country. The ultimate irrigation potential
of India has been estimated to be 139.5 mha, comprising 58.5 mha from major and medium schemes, 15
mha from minor irrigation schemes and 66 mha from groundwater exploitation. In irrigated agriculture
water management aims to provide suitable moisture environment to the crops to obtain optimum yields
commensurate with maximum economy in irrigation water and crop productivity.
Functions of water in plants

The various functions of water in plants include: maintaining cell
turgidity for structure and growth; transporting nutrients and
organic compounds throughout the plant; comprising much of the
living protoplasm in the cells; serving as a raw material for various
chemical processes, including photosynthesis; and, through
transpiration, buffering the plant against wide temperature
fluctuations. The moisture content in the soil regulates the water
availability and its status in the plant. Therefore, any stress in soil is
manifests its affects the physiological processed of the plants.
In forage crops, the water is required in huge quantities for
producing high tonnage of succulent biomass. Moreover, the
Interacting processes Involved in crop growth, water use and
mineral composition of forages are complex and do not easily lend
themselves to quantification in soil-water plant-atmosphere
continuum. It is in this context that irrigation management requires entirely different approaches in forage
production systems. To obtain maximum yields from agronomic crops, plants should remain relatively
free of water stress.
Scheduling Irrigation: Approaches

Appropriate irrigation scheduling is necessary to determine the time and quantity of irrigation water.
Development of suitable Irrigation schedules offers an important approach to water saving because timely
supply of water to crops in adequate quantity is the crux of the efficient water management for ensuring
optimum yield and quality of produce. Several approaches for scheduling irrigation have been used by
scientist and farmers. These are as under
Soil moisture depletion approach:

The available soil moisture in the root zone is a good
criterion for scheduling irrigation. When the soil moisture
in a specified root zone depth is depleted to a particular
level (which is different for different crops) it is too
replenished by irrigation.
For practical purpose, irrigation should be supplied when
about 50 percent of the available moisture in the soil root
zone is depleted. The available water is the soil moisture,
which lies between field capacity and wilting point. The
relative availability of soil moisture is not same between
field capacity to wilting point stage and since the crop suffers before the soil moisture reaches wilting
point, it is necessary to locate the optimum point within the available range of soil moisture, when
irrigation must be scheduled to maintain crop yield at high level. Soil moisture deficit represents the
difference in the moisture content at field capacity and that before irrigation. This is measured by taking
into consideration the percentage, availability, tension, resistance etc.
The total number of Irrigations for particular crop depends upon Interval of Irrigation and duration of
crop. The Irrigation requirement In terms of total delta of water is a function of amount of water at each
scheduling and number of Irrigations needed. Thus soil moisture characteristics, atmospheric evaporative
demand and crop characteristics are taken into account for developing technically sound and economically
feasible irrigation schedules. The suitable soil moisture environment for forage crops where objectives
focuses towards luxuriant vegetative growth, higher dry matter yield and better forage quality have been
worked out. The optimum soil moisture regime for berseem, oat, maize, teosinte, sorghum, hybrid Napier
and cowpea has been found to be 75% available soil moisture (ASM). Lucerne. Cluster bean and barley
may be irrigated at 50% ASM. Whereas, triticale can be irrigated at 25% ASM to obtain acceptable yields
(Menhi Lal and Shukla, 1988, & Shukla et al., 1990). The irrigation at 25, 50 and 75% ASM corresponds
to 10-12, 14-18 and 26-30 days Intervals, respectively in medium textured soils under the agroclimatic
conditions of Bundelkhand region. Under a particular moisture regime, the Irrigation interval needs to be
advanced during summer and delayed during rainy months by 3-5 days due to variation in evaporative
demand and associated environmental conditions.
Plant basis or plant indices:
Plants expressions can be taken as a guide for scheduling irrigation. The deficit of water will be reflected
by plants itself such as dropping, curling or rolling of leaves and change in foliage colour as indication for
irrigation scheduling. However, these symptoms indicate the need for water. They do not permit
quantitative estimation of moisture deficit.
Growth indicators such as cell elongation rates, plant water content and leaf water potential, plant
temperature leaf diffusion resistance etc. are also used for deciding when to irrigate. Some indicator plants
are also a basis for scheduling irrigation e.g. sunflower plant which is used for estimation of PWP of soil
is used in Hawaii as an indicator plant for irrigation sugarcane.
Critical Stages to Moisture Demand

The critical stages are those crop stages at which irrigation is most essential. The maximum water
economy in forage farming could be achieved through proper Irrigation scheduling In relation to plant
growth rhythm as crop may be particularly sensitive to water stress at certain stages of development. The
crop growth stages and water use are governed by environmental conditions. The result revealed that
moisture stress either at tillering or at jointing (4 irrigations) stage of oat was at par with adequate
moisture at all stages (5 irrigations) but significantly superior to other schedules of irrigation. The
treatment of 4 Irrigation also resulted in greater water use efficiency as compared to 5 Irrigations due to
higher dry matter accumulation and lower delta of water. Last week of October to first week of November
appeared to be optimum planting period for oat In Bundelkhand region (Shukla et al. 1981). The Optimum
soil moisture regime, interval of irrigation, irrigation requirement and water use efficiency of important
forage crops has been presented in following table.
Climatological approach:
Evapotranspiration mainly depends up on climate elements. The amount of water lost by
evapotranspiration is estimated from climatological data and when ET reaches a particular level, irrigation
is scheduled. The amount of irrigation given is either equal to ET or fraction of ET. Different methods in
climatological approach are IW/CPE ratio method and pan evaporimeter method.
In IW/CPE approach, a known amount of irrigation water is applied when cumulative pan evaporation
(CPE) reaches a predetermined level. The amount of water given at each irrigation ranges between 4 to 6
cm depending upon the soil characteristics. The most common being 5 cm irrigation. Generally, irrigation
is given at 0.75 to 0.8 ratios with 5 – 6 cm of irrigation water
Optimum soil moisture regime, interval of irrigation, irrigation requirement and water use efficiency of
important forage crops
Optimum soil Irrigation
No. of Irrigation WUE (kg dm
Crop moisture interval
irrigations Req. (mm) /ha /mm)
regime (%ASM) (days)
Berseem 75 10-12 16-18 710 22
Lucerne 50 14-18 11-13 600 14
Oat 75 12-14 6-8 340 32
Sorghum: Summer 75 9-12 8 380 30
Sorghum: Kharif 75 12-15 1-2 40-80 45
Teosinte 75 9-12 8 380 20
Cowpea 75 9-12 8 380 18
Cluster bean 50 14-18 5 270 22
Hybrid Napier 75 11-15 10 380 68
Triticale 25 26-30 2-3 110 30
Barley 25 26-30 2-3 110 30
Turnip 75 10-12 3-4 140 34
Carrot 75 10-12 - 7-8 380 27
Increasing the moisture regimes in tune with crop canopy development (Irrigation water to cumulative pan
evaporation ratio) of 0.60 from sowing to tillering. 0.85 from tlllering to panicle primordia initiation (PPI)
and 1.10 from PPI to flowering has been found as good as irrigating the crop at moist regime of 1.10
throughout the crop period. These observations lead to the following conclusions:
i) Irrigation In oat needs to be phytophased to avoid moisture stress at consecutive growth stages both
during vegetative and reproductive phases. Jointing stage appeared to be more sensitive to moisture
stress than tillering.
ii) Shortening the growing season or shifting it to a more favourable climatic period increases
efficiency of water use by crop.
iii) Moisture regime should take in to account both the evaporative demand of the atmosphere and
growth phases of crop to realize maximum economy in water use without adversely affecting the
forage yield.
Total and Phasic Evapotranspiration (ET)
Since the task of Improving Irrigation management rests upon better understanding of water in the soil-
water-plant-atmosphere continuum therefore, the timing and magnitude of reduction In ET crop become
important criteria for irrigation practices. Moreover, the soil moisture stress has a pronounced Influence
on evapotranspiration and the mechanism through which water deficit affects the forage yield varies with
crop growth stages. It is in this context though the Iysimetric approach becomes important. It provides
most realistic data on the following:
· To quantify the total and phasic evapotranspiration in forage crop
· To study the variation in crop ET In relation of growth stages and to identify the peak period of
water use.
· To establish relationship among interacting factors of meteorological parameters water use
efficiency and forage productivity.
The water use efficiency (WUE) expressed, as Dry matter produced/quantity of water used is a function of
agronomic manipulations influencing the yield and water supply under field conditions. The water use
efficiency of crops invariably increases with the application of fertilizers on deficient soils under adequate
soil moisture resulting in higher yields. The amount of water used remains practically the same or
increases slightly unless there is a significant change in crop surface roughness and the advection is high.
Chapter: 13
Integrated weed management and herbicide choice in forage production
Inder Dev
National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi
The birth of modern (conventional) agriculture in the world coincided with industrial revolution. Chemical
fertilizers and pesticides have existed since long, their use grew significantly in the early 20th century with
the invention of Haber-Bosch process for synthesizing harvester, farming tasks could be done with a speed
and on a scale previously impossible. These advances coupled with science-driven innovations in methods
and resources, led to efficiencies enabling outputs of high quality produce per unit area and time. Norman
Borlaug and other scientists began developing crops for increased yields in the 1940s. Their work led to
the ‘green revolution’, which applied western advances in fertilizer and pesticide use to farms worldwide
(Sharma et al, 2013).
Weed: “A weed is a plant growing where it is not desired” is a definition given by Jethro Tull (1731)
when he was writing a book on ‘Horse Hoeing Husbandry’. They can also be referred as plants growing
out of place. Conclusively it can be defined as “Weeds are plants growing in places where they are not
desired. They interfere with our activities be it a crop field, playground or a pond. In commercial angle
they involve expenditure on control and reduce profit. However some plants termed as “weed” are
beneficial to mankind. They find use in ayurvedic medicine, animal feed, compost making etc. and are rich
source of genes with resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses”.
Weeds compete with crops for soil nutrients, water and light; they host insects and plant pathogens
harmful to crop plants, and their root exudates and/or leaf leachates may be toxic to crop plants. Weeds
also hinder crop harvest and increase the costs of such operations. In addition, at harvest, weed seeds often
contaminate the crop produce. Thus, the presence of weeds in crop areas reduces the efficiency of inputs
such as fertilizer and irrigation water, enhances the density of other pest organisms, and finally severely
reduces crop yield and quality (Labrada and Parker 1999). Weeds usually compete with the crops for
water, light, space and nutrients. These resources are obtained in a certain 'biological space'. Competition
between weeds and the crop is variable and depends on the capacity of plants to occupy this space.
Various characteristics are related to the success of weed species:
· long dormancy period
· high seed scattering ability
· high genetic diversity so adapted to wide range of conditions
· high rate of reproduction
· reproduction through both seeds and vegetative material
· vigorous and rapid growth
· abilty to survive and reproduce under environmentally unfriendly conditions
In crop lands and forest, weeds compete with the beneficial and desired vegetation reducing the yield and
quality of produce. Undesirable vegetation also flourishes in aquatic system, forestry and non-cropped
areas like industrial sites, road sides, railways and airfields, landscapes, water tanks, water base etc. Thus
any plant may be a weed in a particular situation. It has been estimated that of all the total annual loss of
agricultural produce from various pests in India, weeds account for nearly 25-30% of the total damage
caused by total pests.
Weeds listed below are divided into 4 groups: annual grasses, perennial grasses, broadleaf weeds and
miscellaneous weeds.
Annual grasses Perennial Grasses
Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name
Goose grass Eleusine indica Quack grass Agropyron repens
Large Crabgrass Digitaria sanguinalis Creeping bentgrass Agrosis palustris
Smooth Crabgrass Digitaria ischaemum Tall fescue Festuca arundinacea
Annual bluegrass Poa annua Nimble will Muhlenbergia shreberi
Yellow foxtail Setaria lutescens Bermuda grass Cynadon dactylon
Green foxtail Setaria virdis Bahiagrass Paspalum notatum
Running grass Brachiaria repens Broom sedge Andropogon virginicus
Crowfoot grass Dactyloctenium aegyptium Carpet grass Axonopus compressus
Canarygrass Phalaris minor Dallis grass Paspalum dilatum
Barnyard grasss Echinochloa crusgalli Jhonson grass Sorghum halepense
Fall Panicum Panicum dichotomiflorum Kikuyu grass Pennisetum cladestinum
Witch grass Panicum capillare Knot grass Paspalum distichum
Love grass Eragrostis pilosa Orchard grass Dactylis glomerata
Sandbur Cenchrus pauciflorus Poverty grass Danthonia spicata
Signal grass Brachiaria plantaginea Rescue grass Bromus catharticus
Sudan grass Sorghum sudanense Smooth brome grass Bromus inermis
wildoats Avena ludoviciana Smut grass Sporobolus poiretti
Avena fatua Wild Barley Hordeum leporinum
Windmill grass Chloris verticillata
Broadleaf Weeds Perennial Grasses

Yellow Oxalis stricta Common yarrow Achillea millefolium
woodsorrel
Creeping oxalis Oxalis corniculata Wild garlic Allium vineale
Broadleaf plantain Plantago major Shepherd’s purse Capsella bursa-pastoris
Buchorn plantain Plantagolanceolata Mouse-ear chikweed Cerastium vulgatum
Prostrate Polygonum aviculare Canada thistle Cirsium arvensis
knotweed
Common porslane Portulacea oleracea Prostrate spurge Euphorbia supine
Red sorrel Rumex acetosella Ground ivy Gleochoma hederacea
Curled dock Rumex crispus Henbit Lamium amplexicaule
Sheep sorrel Rumex acetosella Round leaf mallow Malva neglecta
Broadleaf Weeds Broadleaf Weeds
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Scarlet pimpernel Anagallis arvensis
White clover Trifolium repens Saw thistle Sonchus oleraceus
Red clover Trifolium pratense Bull thistle Cirsium arvensis
Bind weed Convolvulus arvensis Wild carrot Daucus carota
Chicory Cichorium intybus Garden spurge Euphorbia hirta
Carpet weed Mollugo verticiilata Slender amaranth Amaranthus viridis
Black medic Mollugo luulina Carpet weed Trianthema portulacastrum
Bur clover Medicago hispida Bur weed Xanthium strumarium
Day flower Commelina communis Pod rush Chorchorus acutangulus
Lambsquarters Chenopodium album Caor buttons Tridax procumbens
Low hop clover Trifolium procumbens Beggar ticks Bidens pilosa
Rabbit foot clover Trifolium arvense
Pigweed Amaranthus retroflexus
Prostrate pigweed Amaranthus blitoides
Prickly sida Sida spinosa
Purselane Potulaca oleracea
Source: Singh, 2013.
Weed Bio-Ecology
It is vital to know the patterns of the different phases of the main weed species. These phases
include:
· dormancy
· germination
· seedling development
· emergence
· vegetative growth
· flowering
· seed setting
· maturity, and
· seed dispersal
Favourable or unfavourable influences of biotic and abiotic factors on each phase need to be
understood.
Integrated Weed Management

Integrated Weed Manaement (IWM) is defined as a system of sustainable weed management that
combines judiciously various control strategies in order to reduce the impact of the weeds to an
economically acceptable level. The concept of integrated weed management (IWM) has been around for a
long time but has not been taken very seriously. The major reason is that herbicides have generally been
effective and relatively non-laborious means for weed control in crops. Traditionally, tillage and other
control operations have been integrated with herbicide use as a means of weed control. Producers adopting
reduced or zero tillage systems can no longer depend on these practices as components of an IWM system.
The goals of an IWM system should be to reduce the movement of weed seeds into the soil and to reduce
the impact of weeds on crops to an economically acceptable level. The emphasis should be on
management rather than eradication.
There are two major approaches for weed control:
· preventive weed control
· control techniques pre and post crop planting
Preventive methods
Prevention and sanitation are very important components of an IWM system. The use of clean crop seeds
free of weed seeds and preventing the entry of machinery from heavily infested fields into low infested
ones are among the major preventive activities to be undertaken. The problem is the weed seed bank in the
soil, and anything done to reduce it, will undoubtedly result in less weed interference and better crop
growth. Seeds of most crops are contaminated with weeds, especially where weed seeds resemble the
shape, size of crop seeds, and have similar life cycles. To obtain weed free crop seeds, cultural and
mechanical methods need to be adopted. In undisturbed or no-till systems, seeds of weeds and volunteer
crops are deposited in the top soil. Therefore, an appropriate strategy is needed to avoid high weed
infestations, and to prevent unacceptable competition with the emerging crop.
Other control strategies
The main weed control methods applied before and during the crop cycle are:
1. Cultural methods (crop rotation, good crop stand and row-spacing, intercropping, cover crops,
mulches and others).
2. Physical control (mechanical and manual weeding).
3. Chemical control through the use of herbicides.
Crop rotation:
This is a key method for controlling weeds. With the introduction of herbicides it was thought that crop
rotation could be avoided, but life has demonstrated the opposite. Good preceding crops are important in
the reduction of weed infestation and helps crops to compete better with weeds. Normally certain weeds
are better adapted to the environment created by a particular crop. Monocropping tends to increase
population of those weeds well adapted to the crop. Crop rotations that include crops morphologically and
physiologically different, serve to break the cycle and adaptation of several weed species.
Cultural Practices
The stale seedbed practice can be a valuable way of reducing weed pressure. This practice has been found
very effective in zero-till wheat in the north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains (Mahajan et al., 1999). The
main advantage of the stale seedbed practice is that crop emerges in weed free environments, and acquires
a competitive advantage over late- emerging weed seedling. Studies have suggested a small difference in
weed populations between conventional and zero-till conditions (Derkson et. al., 1993), and in (Hobbs and
Gupta, 2001; Singh et al., 2001; Malik et al., 2002). In conservation agriculture (CA), time of sowing can
be manipulated in such a way that ecological conditions for the germination of weed seeds are not met. In
the north western part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains farmers advanced wheat seedlings by 2 weeks to get a
head start over noxious weed, Phalaris minor (Singh et al., 1999). Shrestha et al. (2002) concluded that
long-term changes in weed flora are driven by interception of several factors including tillage,
environment, crop rotation, crop type and the timing and type of weed management practice. Continuous
zero tillage (ZT) increased the population density of Echinochloa colona and Cyprus iria inrice but
reduced the population of Avena ludoviciana and Chenopodium album in subsequent wheat (Mishra and
Singh, 2012). Rotational tillage systems significantly reduced the seed density of C. iria, A. ludoviciana
and M. hispida compared to ZT or conventional tillage (CT). It was concluded that continuous ZT with
effective weed management using recommended herbicide+ hand weeding was more remunerative and
energy efficient in rice-wheat cropping system (Sharma, 2013).
Crop Residues
Crop residues present on the soil surface improve soil and moisture conservation, and soil tilth. The
germination response of weeds to residues depends on the quantity, position (vertical or flat and below-or
above- weed seeds), allelopathic potential of the residue and the weed biology (Chauhan et al., 2006) Crop
residues, when uniformly and densely present, could suppress weed seedling emergence, delay the time of
emergence, and allow the crop to gain an initial advantage in terms of early vigour over weeds. Cover
crops, such as Sesbania can produce green biomass of up to 30 t ha-1 within 60 days and control most of
the weeds, leaving weed-free. In addition to reducing weed emergence, high amounts of residues may
prolong or delay emergence, which may have implications for weed management. Delayed weed
emergence allows the crop to take competitive advantage over weeds and these weeds seedlings are likely
to have less impact on crop yield loss and weed seed production. Plants emerging earlier produce greater
number of seeds than the emerging ones (Chauhan and Jhonson, 2010).
Intercropping
Intercrops can be more effective than sole crops in pre-existing resources used by weeds and suppressing
weed growth. Intercropping of short-duration, quick-growing, and early-maturing legume crops with long-
duration and wide-spaced crops leads to covering ground quickly and suppressing emerging weeds
effectively. Maize-legume intercropping results in higher canopy cover and decreased light availability for
weeds, leading to reduction in weed density and dry matter compared with sole crops. Brown manuring
involving growing of Sesbania by 2,4-D spray or mechanical means has been found to be a highly
beneficial resource conserving technology for soil and water conservation, weed control and nutrient
supplementation (Sharma et al, 2010).
Crop diversification
Continuous cultivation of a single crop or crops having similar management practices allow certain weed
species to become dominant in the system, and over time, these species become hard to control. Therefore,
it is very important to rotate crops having a different growing period. Different crops require different
management practices, which may help in disturbing the growing cycle of weeds and prevent selection of
the weed flora toward increased abundance of problem species. Crop rotation is an effective practice for
management of Phalaris minor because selection pressure is diversified by changing patterns of
disturbances (Bhan and Kumar, 1997; Chhokar and Malik, 2002). Crop rotation also allows farmers to use
new herbicides and this practice may control problematic weeds.
Chemical Weed Management

Weed management using herbicides has become an integral part of modern agriculture. In conventional
tillage systems, crop residues generally are not present at the time of pre-emergence herbicide application.
However in, CA systems residues are present at the time of herbicide application and may decrease the
herbicide effectiveness as the residues intercept the herbicide, thus reducing the amount of herbicide that
can reach the soil surface and kill germinating seeds. The efficacy of herbicides may also depend on the
herbicide formulations. For example, pre-emergence herbicides applied as granules may provide better
weed control than liquid formations in no-till system. Depending on the herbicide chemical properties and
formulations, some herbicides intercepted by crop residues are prone to volatization, photodegradation
and other losses. As the effect of no-till system on weed control varies with species and herbicides used,
choosing an appropriate herbicide and appropriate timing is very critical in the systems (Chauhan et al.,
2006). Nevertheless, injudicious and continuous use of a single herbicide over a long period of time may
result in the development of resistant biotypes, shifts in weed flora, and negative effects on the succeeding
crop and environment. Therefore, for the sustenance of CA systems, herbicide rotation and/or integration
of weed management practices are needed.
Any single method of weed control cannot provide season-long effective weed control under any systems.
Therefore, a combination of different weed management strategies should be evaluated for widening the
weed control spectrum and efficacy for sustainable crop production. The use of clean crop seeds and
seeders and field sanitation (irrigation canals and bunds free from weeds) should be integrated for
effective weed management. Combining good agronomic practices, timeliness of operations, fertilizer and
water management and retaining crop residues on the soil surface improve the weed control efficiency of
applied herbicides and competitiveness against weeds. Approaches such as stale seedbed practice, uniform
and dense crop establishment, use of cover crops and crop residues as mulch, crop rotations and practices
for enhanced crop competitiveness with a combination of pre and post-emergence herbicides could be
integrated to develop sustainable and effective weed management strategies under CA systems (Chauhan
et al., 2010)
Based on extensive field experiments on conservation agriculture systems in diversified cropping systems
at IARI, New Delhi during the last decade, the following have been concluded:
· Zero-tillage along with residue has beneficial effects on soil; moisture, temperature moderation
and weed control.
· Zero-till systems cause shift in weed flora, and may result in emergence of perennial weeds like
Cyperus and Cynodon
· Restricting tillage reduces weed control options and increases reliance on herbicides.
· Altering tillage practices change weed seed depth in the soil, which play a role in weed species
shifts and affect the efficacy of control practices.
· Integrated weed management involving chemical and non-chemical methods (residues, cover
crops, varieties etc.) is essential for success of any systems in the long-run.
Weed management in forage crops:

Weeding at early stages of crop growth of forages is an important operation for better establishment.
Maximum crop-weed competition occurs up to 4-5 weeks in most of the seasonal forages. The losses
caused by the weeds vary with the season, crop and variety. The loss in fodder yield due to weed
competition has been reported to the extent of 11.7% in lucerne and 8.3% in oat. In crops like sorghum,
magnitude of loss was as high as 54 %, while uptake of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium by weeds
was to the extent of 48.8, 22.0 and 55.0 kg/ha, respectively (Menhi Lal et al., 1994). Therefore the
infestation of weed in forages needs to be checked starting from land preparation. The strategy includes
adoption of stale seed bed technique, use of well decomposed FYM, clean seed, application of pre-
emergence herbicides and growing of smother crops as intercrop.
Earlier work on chemical weed control in forages is sporadic. The use of herbicides in forages is very less
but weed menace can be effectively controlled at initial growth stage through pre- emergence and pre-
plant incorporated herbicides. With the development of new herbicides, the doses and application strategy
changed in nineties. Trials on weed management in kharif forages indicated that among weed control
techniques in sorghum, inclusion of green gram or cowpea as inter crop, inter cultivation at 30-35 DAS +
1 kg fluchloralin or 0.75 kg metolachlor gave higher green fodder yield. Recently efforts by AICRPFC
centre are being made for generation of eco-friendly and cost effective weed management practices in
forages (Sunil Kumar and Faruqui, 2010). In pastures of hill regions and other non-cropped areas,
perennial obnoxious weeds if controlled, these lands can be put in to productive use. The importance of
such studies was realised long back. Recent work on such lines indicated that in pastures and grasslands of
mid Himalayan region, chemical management of lantana (cutting of lantana bushes in November and
spray of 1% glyphosate on regenerated growth in December) and planting of improved grass species viz.
Setaria anceps, Napier-bajra hybrid, green panic, kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) resulted in
significantly higher forage yields (Kumar et al., 2007).
Chapter: 14
Integrated Pest Management in Forage crops
N. K. Shah
Nutritional security for livestock population plays a decisive role in Indian farming system. At present
India has 6.9 million ha land for cultivation of forage crops. Based on the fodder prerequisite an additional
3.1 million ha of land would be further required in future (Tripathi and Hazra, 1996). Forage crop
production in its entire ramification is of major importance to agriculture. It is not only the cheapest
source of protein and palatable nutrients to livestock but is also valuable in re-establishing and
maintaining soil productiveness and structure. Moreover, recently in the milk shed areas where the major
enterprise of the farmer’s centers around the milk production, continuous supply of green fodder round the
year has become the basis for success of such industry. Therefore, cultivation of nutritive fodder crops as
such or as a part of the normal crop rotation practices has gained importance in India and elsewhere in the
world.
Forage crops virtually in every part of the world are impaired to a greater or lesser extent by pests
(including diseases, insects and nematodes) in the same way as in other crops. However, the most evident
damage may occur in tropical and subtropical regions where crops are grown round the year without a
vegetative rest period. Our all efforts of increasing crop productivity have disturbed the naturally evolved
homeostasis. In such condition the pests, particularly the polyphagus ones get the opportunity of
uninterrupted food supply and thus multiply in high population resulting with severe crop losses. The
plant damage is sustained in several ways which together lead to poor growth, low yield and impaired
quality.
Forage Crop Production in India

India is one of the tropical countries where large populations of farm animals are not commensurate with
limited supply of feed and fodders. This is because of the fact that the country has only about 4.9 per cent
of the cultivated area under fodder production in addition to about 25 per cent of the total land area under
natural grassland. Therefore, fodder production have been given consideration in recent past and about
16.5 million hectare irrigated area was earmarked for fodder production which is about 6 times more than
the area under fodder production earlier.
Pest Problems
Among various biotic factors insects and micro-organisms play an important role in forage ecosystem.
Pests and disease may lead to depressed fodder production, problems in seed production and even the
abandonment of cultivated species. A large number of pests have been found associated with a variety of
fodder crops grown in different parts of the country. India has only 4.9 per cent of its cropped area under
fodder cultivation and there is very remote scope for horizontal expansion of arable land. The only
alternative left is the vertical expansion through increased crop productivity. In the present situation one of
the ways to augment forage production is to reduce the losses inflicted by various pests and diseases.
Forage crops are subjected to the depredations of pests and diseases in the same manner as in other
agricultural produce. These pests and diseases hamper crop establishment, impair forage quality and
reduce green fodder and seed yield.
Owing to limited scope of horizontal expansion to augment fodder production, the alternate is to move
with vertical growth through development of high yielding varieties, adoption of improved agronomic
practices recommended for forage production and minimizing the crop losses inflicted by pests and
diseases. In the present situation one of the ways to augment forage production is to minimize the losses
imposed by various insect pests and diseases which altogether tolls 25-30 per cent of green forages
(Ahmad et al, 1996). The sustainability of the fodder production system largely depends upon overcoming
biotic stress factors like insect pests, plant pathogens and plant parasitic nematodes. Several promising
fodder crop production systems with recommended agronomical and plant protection package of practices
are available that confer higher forages and are incredibly valuable for intensive dairy production units
(Tripathi and Gill, 1988).
Management Strategies
Under prevailing systems of fodder production chemical pesticides are generally not recommended.
Chemicals although provide quick and satisfactory control of many pests and diseases but these are not
recommended as a blanket because of low economic returns, residual toxicity and related health problem
to livestock and human beings. These issues restrict the scope of pest control through chemicals and call
for the management approaches of co-existence with pest, pathogens and bio-control agents. This requires
a close understanding of both the organism and environment. Different methods of pest management have
been experimented in forage crops with varying degree of success. The general progress made in this
direction is described in the following method:
The cultural control methods are prophylactic in nature and are considered as the first ditch defense
around which to build other control options (Coaker. 1987). Though, these methods are unlikely to reduce
pest infestation to desirable levels but within the frame work of IPM systems these can very well be used
to reduce overall levels of infestation.
Tillage Practices: - Tillage practices create conditions not suitable for pest survival, expose pests to their
natural enemies, inflicts direct physical injury by exposing to sun and other abiotic factors. One or a
combination of these factors reduces the population. Deep summer ploughing twice during May and June
at an interval of 15 days reduced the population of Meloidogyne spp. and Rotylenchulus reniformis
infecting cowpea and field bean (Ahmad et al, 1996).
Time of Sowing: - The choice of sowing dates in relation to crop pests has one principal aim to reduce the
period to a minimum over which infective agents meet to susceptible stage of the host. Favorable
environments (temperature, moisture, light, soil reaction, age of the host) are essential for growth and
pathogenicity of pests. In vector transmitting viruses, the peak population of the vectors is reached at a
particular period. Cowpea crop sown between 3rd week of June and last week of July escapes incidences
of leafhoppers and other defoliators (Shri Ram et al. 1989), Lucerne sown early 3rd week of October
escapes the incidence of jassids and lucerne weevil (Shri Ram et al,, 1989).
Inter Cropping: - Introduction of polycultures like mixed cropping, rows inter cropping, stripes inter
cropping, rely inter cropping and alleys inter cropping in fodder production systems can help in reducing
pests. Inter cropping of cowpea in sorghum reduces leaf hopper and defoliator damage in cowpea (Shri
Ram, et al, 1989). Intercropping of mustard in wheat and Barley was found to reduce number of cyst/
plant and nematode infestation in barley (Rajvanshi et.al, 2002).
Crop Rotation: - From a plant protection point of view a good crop rotation is that which reduces the pest
load by reducing the nutrition of pest in every subsequent year or totally deprive them of food, reducing
the initial infection by disease and ensures unfavorable stratum for the development of pests. This method
may not be very successful against insects having strong power of dispersal yet is very effective against
nematodes and soil borne plant pathogens.
Organic Amendments: - Organic amendments are traditionally used to improve soil structure and plant
nutrition but there are numerous reports that their addition can also lead to control of pathogens.
Incorporation of various kinds of crop residues or agricultural wastes like neem oil cake (15-20 q/ha), saw
dust (30 q/ha) or chopped Parthenium plant (50 q/ha) have been found to be effective in reducing
nematode population to a considerable level (33-66 %) besides improving the dry matter yield (45-78 %)
in cowpea, sorghum and bajra.
Host Plant Resistance

Spectacular successes have been achieved in protecting different crops from insect damage and
consequently reduce losses by using one of the relatively less emphasized methods, the host plant
resistance. It is now being increasingly realized that this method deserves more attention than it has
received so far. In crops with relatively low economic returns like forages, the development of resistant
varieties can be the most ideal method for minimizing losses due to pests and pathogens. The
farmer/cultivator is provided with a built in insurance against pests and pathogens and thus he is not
hassled about the additional input for management of pests and diseases. Potentially the most economic
and effective method of pest management in forage crops is to use pest resistant varieties. The primary
objective is to develop crop varieties resistant to one or more pest species along with other desirable yield
characters.
Biological control
Biological control is effective, environmental friendly and combines well with cultural control and host
plant resistance. Although the use of biocontrol agents have not been taken up in our country in a large
scale. In forage crops a number of workers have obtained control of soil borne plant pathogens through
nematodes (Barnes et al, 1981), fungi like Trichoderma viridae, T. harzianum (Bhaskar and Ahmad,
1997). Exploitation of entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis
indica indicated alfalfa grub (Hypera postica) population was significantly reduced in H. indica and S.
carpocapsae treatment at a concentration of 1 billion Ijs/acre. A decrease of 72.10% and 49.66% grub
population over untreated control were noticed in H. indica and S. carpocapsae treatment respectively
(Shah and Azmi 2005; Shah et al, 2011).
Management through ITK’s

Work carried out at IGFRI have shown that crude water extracts, essential oils and certain chemicals
isolated from several higher plants like neem, karanj, eucalyptus and castor have shown their potential as
an insecticide, fungicide and nematicide. Aqueous extracts of neem (Melia azadirachta), karanj
(Pongamia pinnata) and castor have revealed promising results for the management of insect pests,
diseases and nematodes in sorghum, maize, cowpea, berseem and lucerne. Under laboratory bioassay
asafoetida was appraised to be a potential pesticide.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Our past experience in the pest management indicated multifaceted problem associated with ecology,
behavior, environmental condition and biology of the pest/pathogen and inherent limitations of each
control method. It is now almost universally accepted that ultimate solution lies in an integrated control.
The connotation of the approach is to utilize all the possible methods of control including maximum
exploitation of naturally existing populations and regulating factors in as compatible manner as possible
and keep the population levels below economic threshold.
Integrated pest management or IPM is a systematic approach to crop protection that uses increased
information and improved decision-making paradigms to reduce procured inputs and improve economic,
social and environmental conditions on the farm and in the society. Moreover, the concept emphasizes the
integration of pest suppression technologies that include biological, chemical, legal and cultural controls.
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a pest management strategy that focuses on long-term prevention or
suppression of pest problems with minimum impact on human health, the environment and non-target
organisms. Preferred pest management techniques include: encouraging naturally occurring biological
control agents, using alternate plant species or varieties that resist pests, selecting pesticides with lower
toxicity to humans or non-target organisms; adoption of cultivating pruning, fertilizing or irrigation
practices that reduce pest problems or changing the habitat to make it incompatible with pest
development.
Thus Integrated pest management is a sustainable approach to manage pests/pathogen by combining
biological, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks.
IPM benefits can be realized if the following steps are taken:
(i) Identify problems correctly
(ii) Determine the extent of the problem by sampling
(iii) Critically assess the importance of the problem
(iv) Evaluate and select appropriate management alternatives
(v) Implement selected management actions in a timely manner
(vi) Evaluate the effectiveness of control actions.
Key Components of Integrated Pest Management:
Knowledge: Understanding the biology and ecology of the pest and the crop is essential. Information
about interactions within agricultural ecosystems is also important. IPM draws on the fundamental
knowledge of plant and pests.
Monitoring: Farmers can use relatively simple techniques to keep track of what pests are where. This
information, combined with knowledge of pest life cycles, can enable farmers to implement control
measures at the most effective times. Monitoring on a broader scale can also be used to predict pest
outbreaks and to forewarn farmers to proceed for action.
Economic threshold: This takes into account the revenue losses resulting from pest damage and the costs
of treatment to prevent the damage. Below the economic threshold, the presence of the pest is tolerated.
Only when pest numbers increase above the economic threshold level the farmer can proceed for its
management.
Adaptability: Farmers must keep informed about what is happening in their fields so that they can adapt
their strategies to changing circumstances. Research scientists, too, must aim to keep at least one step
ahead of the pest, which is also undoubtedly changing and adapting over time.
Control Techniques in IPM

A wide range of pest control techniques are available to farmers. Some of them are as old as agriculture
itself – rotating a crop to avoid a build-up of host-specific pests. Some are new – in recent years, genetic
engineering has opened up many possibilities in pest control that were unavailable to agriculturists earlier.
The simple philosophy is that the control will be more effective and resistance will be less likely to build
up, when a range of measures are deployed against a pest. Wherever possible, different pest control
techniques should work together rather than against each other. In some cases, this can lead to synergy –
where the combined effect of different techniques is greater than would be expected from simply adding
the individual effects together. Integrated pest management involves the integrated use of four basic
control techniques (physical control, biological control, Genetic modification and of course, chemical
control.
Physical Control
Physical controls are those that can be carried out by the farmer to alter environmental factors in a way
that reduces pest populations. A simple and common example of this is crop rotation, which is the
practice of planting different crops each year in a given field. This interrupts the normal life cycle of some
pests/pathogens by changing their environment to one in which their favourite host plant does not feature.
It is a strategy that has been used successfully for years by farmers. Another physical control method
sometimes called 'mating disruption' involves the use of sex pheromones. These chemicals are produced
by female insects to attract males for mating. For many insects, scientists have been able to analyze the
chemistry of the sex pheromones and reproduce them synthetically in the lab.
Biological control
The principle behind biological pest control is that a given pest has enemies – predators, parasites or
pathogens. By introducing or encouraging such enemies, the population of pest organisms should decline.
It is not a new concept. The ancient Chinese encouraged ants in citrus orchards because they attacked
many citrus pests.
Genetic Modification
Crop plants can be bred to be resistant to pests. Farmers have been doing this for centuries, selecting the
seeds of those plants least affected by a pest for use in the next year's crop. This preferential selection is a
form of genetic modification. With advancement in biotechnology and molecular biology, it is becoming
increasingly easy to transfer resistance genes into a plant – this is called gene transformation or genetic
engineering. An example of genetic engineering is the insecticide-producing Bt gene in cotton. Scientists
took the gene from a bacterium and inserted it into the plant, consequently making the plant resistant to
insect attack. Similarly, potato plants have been genetically modified to increase their resistance to potato
leaf roll virus.
Chemical Control
The use of chemical pesticides often forms part of an integrated pest management strategy. The key is to
use pesticides in a way that complements rather than hinders other elements in the strategy and which also
limits negative environmental effects. It is important to understand the life cycle of a pest so that the
pesticide can be applied when the pest is at its most vulnerable stage – the aim is to achieve maximum
effect at minimum levels of pesticide.
IPM in India
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a decision making process that identifies and reduces risks from
pests and pest management strategies. It coordinates the use of pest biology, environmental information
and multiple pest management tactics to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most
economical means. Several organizations are actively involved in developing IPM techniques for adoption
by farmers. Consequently, comprehensive IPM programs are developed for rice, cotton, sugarcane, pulses,
oilseeds, vegetables and forage production system.
Most of the work on IPM has been conducted in developed countries. In India integration of various
components of IPM for insect pest management have been worked out at IGFRI for cowpea, lucerne and
Chinese cabbage (Shri Ram and Gupta, 1989). Substantial efforts have been made to combine several
methods to manage nematodes in forage crops also, though on limited experimental stage. For instance
certain intensive rotation combined with fertility management (sorghum) bajra wheat-cowpea x 50 kg N
(Urea) was reported to be mostly associated with lower nematode population (Chawla and Prasad, 1973).
Experiments carried out at this Institute revealed that combination of either deep summer ploughing with
saw dust; neem cake (furrow application), carbofuran, aldicarb, phorate (furrow and seed treatment) or
nematicide in reduced doses with neem cake sufficiently reduce nematode populations.
Plant protection researches established the efficacy for botanicals and bio rational insecticides on various
crops including forages. Various commercial formulations of azadirachtin (the active ingredient of neem),
neem seed kernel extract (NSKE), neem seed oil suspension (NOS), insecticidal soap, narrow range
mineral oil and pyrethrins were tested on immature and adult life stages of insects in laboratory and
greenhouse experiments. The results indicate that bio rational insecticides may be integrated into organic
systems for insect pest suppression along with the conserving of predator field populations. Scrupulous
investigations have yet to be done to optimize application timing, frequency and sprayer delivery methods
to increase pest insect coverage.
Intercropping of leguminous and non-leguminous forages may result in lower insect populations as both
share different pest species. Establishing alfalfa or alfalfa/grass with oats as a companion crop can provide
excellent early season weed control, soil erosion protection and added forage. In years when insects reach
in outbreak densities foliar insecticide must be incorporated to attain a successful IPM for profitable yield.
Amalgamations of various botanicals were evaluated at this institute for their comparative bio-efficacy for
the management of pests/diseases in summer sown cowpea + sorghum fodder production. Seed coating
with neem seed kernel (NSK) powder (50g/kg seed) + sprays of neem seed kernel (NSK) extract (3%)
provided maximum protection in which a reduction 45.81% in A. soccata incidence, 8.70% in C.
trachypterus and H. nigrorepletus intensity, 56.06% in C. graminicola, 69.87% in G. sorghi incidence in
sorghum, 40.95% in P. signata infestation and 40.86% in C. sorghi incidence in cowpea were recorded.
This treatment also provided maximum protection against PPN, T. vulgaris (41.62% reduction) and there
was an increase of 14.06% GFY over control (Shah et al, 2007). Similarly neem seed powder (50g/kg
seed treatment) resulted significant control of root rot of berseem (Bhaskar et al, 2003).
Various combinations of botanicals were evaluated for the management of pests/diseases in berseem
mixed with mustard fodder production. Seed coating with NSK powder + sprays of NSK extract (3%)
provided maximum protection (a reduction of 68.22% in the root rot intensity in berseem and a reduction
of 70.28% aphid population in mustard) consequently an increase of 33.61% in GFY over control. This
combination provided maximum protection against plant parasitic nematode (PPN), Tylenchorhynchus
vulgaris (a reduction of 42% PPN) and harbored maximum number of beneficial soil micro-arthropods
viz. Folsomia sp., Brachystomella sp. (Collembolans) and Prostigmeta, Mesostigmeta and Cryptostigmeta
(Mites) (approximately triple the population of beneficial collembolans and mites in comparison with
untreated check) (Shah et al, 2011).
Various IPM modules were studied at IGFRI for the management of biological stress factors in an
intensive forage production system (berseem mixed with mustard + hybrid Napier). The treatments were
factorial combinations of sowing dates and environmentally safe foliar sprays. Of various sowing dates
first sowing date in middle of October was found to be most appropriate time of sowing. This sowing date
in combination with seed treatment of thiomethoxam + pencycurone (0.5gm/kg seed) along with foliar
spray of imidacloprid + tebuconazole (0.025% conc.) was found to be the most effective IPM module as
this combination significantly reduced biotic pressure on the crop ( 58.06% reduction in the root rot
intensity caused by Sclerotinia trifoliorum in berseem, 78.65% reduction in aphid population (Lipaphis
erysimi Kalt) and 52.55% reduction in plant parasitic nematodes (Tylenchorhynchus vulgaris) and yielded
maximum GFY (89.52t/ha, an increase of 17.05% over control). This was followed by seed treatment with
thiram + carbendazim + carbofuran and spray of endosulfan (0.07%) + mancozeb (0.09%) (88.38t/ha
i.e.15.99% increase), seed treatment with tricho XP (5gm/kg seed) + foliar spray of azacel 0.15%conc.
(86.38t/ha i.e.14.6% increase) and seed treatment with N S P 50gm/kg seed + foliar spray of NSKE 3 %(
80.27t/ha i.e.7.5% increase) (Shah et al, 2011).
Attempts are also being made through All India Coordinated Research Project on Forage Crops to collect
information on various factors like pest status, damage thresholds in various agro-climatic regions of the
country.
Major Constraints to IPM in India

A major limitation is the lack of trained personnel. Many farmers are not trained adequately in
augmentative biological control, leading to misunderstanding of its potential efficacy. Logistical problems
such as improper timing and delays in shipment can alter the effectiveness of natural enemies. Farmers
often believe that natural enemies do not work well and that low pest populations will cause losses. The
use of biopesticides is limited due to moderate toxicity, slow action, host specificity and photo-instability
as well as a higher cost. Many farmers are not yet aware of the proper usage and available suppliers of
biocontrol agents and biopesticides. A number of botanicals such as karanj, mahua, nuxvomica, custard
apple, ipomoea, garlic and tobacco have been found to be effective against insect pests and diseases;
however in absence of detailed scientific data, except for neem, most of them are localized to rural
pockets. IPM adoption is influenced by the cost versus efficacy of products, need for sophisticated
information for decision making, ability to integrate new products and techniques into existing farm
management practices and managerial skills.
Conclusive Remarks
It can be concluded that although significant progress have been made, however much remains to be done
before existing and new IPM options can be used in an optimal manner; therefore there is a need for
further research on some of the following aspects of IPM considered to be more critical and significant.
(1) Research on the applied ecology through detail studies of population dynamics to provide the
biological basis for determining appropriate management tactics for the economic suppression of pest
species.
(2) The compatibility of control measures is needed to be tested during the early stages of an IPM
programme.
(3) Identification and utilization of multiple pest and disease controlling agents (chemical, varieties etc.)
capable of managing insects, nematodes and pathogens.
Chapter: 15
Forage production through pasture, hortipasture and silvipasture systems
S N Ram
In India, vast area (107.43 m ha) is classified under various types of degraded land (MOA, 1994) where
one or more limiting factors render the cultivation of crops economically unviable. In such situation,
pasture, hortipasture and silvipasture systems have been accepted as an alternative land use option for
degraded land in India. These systems not only produce fodder, fuel, fruit and timber but also conserve
resources.
Establishment of silvipasture systems

Suitable species of trees, shrubs, grasses and legumes for different regions
An account of promising forage trees, shrubs, grasses and legumes for various climatic regions of India is
given in Table 1.
Table 1. Suitable species of trees, shrubs, grasses and legumes for different regions
Regions Trees and shrubs Grasses Legumes
Humid Albizia lebbeck, A. procera, Chrysopogon fulvus, Desmodium

regions Azadirachta indica, Bauhinia Chloris gayana, uncinatum, Clitoria
purpurea, Moringa oleifera, Dichanthium annulatum, ternatea,
Morus alba, L. Eremopogon faveolatus, Macroptilium
Leucocephala, Sesbania Iseilema laxum, Setaria atropurpureum and
grandiflora and S. sesban anceps and Sehima Stylosanthes
nervosum guianensis
Semi arid Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. Desmodium intortum,

regions Ailanthus excelsa, Albizia setigerus, Dichanthium Macroptilium
lebbeck, A. amara, annulatum, Sehima atropurpureum,
Azadirachta indica, nervosum, Chrysopogon Stylosanthes spp. and
Dichrostachys cinerea, fulvus Heteropogon Lablab purpureus
Hardwickia binata, L. contortus and Panicum
Leucocephala, Parkinsonia antidotale
aculeata, Prosopis juliflora
and Sesbania sesban
Arid Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. Atylosia

regions Ailanthus excelsa, Albizia setigerus, Lasiurus scarabaeoides,
lebbeck, A. amara, Bauhinia sindicus and Panicum Stylosanthes hamata
variegata, Casuarina antidotale and S. seabrana.
equisetifolia, Dichrostachys
cinerea, Hardwickia binata
and Ziziphus mauritiana
Temperate Betula alboides, Celtis Bromus inermis, Dactylis Lespedeza ceraces,
and sub australis, Morus serrata, glomerata, Lolium Lotus corniculatus,
temperate Robinia pseudoacacia, and multiflorum, L. Perenne, Lupinus augustifolius,
regions Salix spp. Phleum pratense and Poa Trifolium pratensis, T.
pratensis repense and T.
subterraneum
Planting
After selection of suitable species of trees planting are done at the onset of monsoon. Pits of 45
cm3 size at 5x5 m or 6x4 m spacing should be dug during May-June for weathering of soil so as to
minimize the attack on seedlings by insect and pests. At the time of plantation of saplings, in each pit a
mixture of urea, single super phosphate and potash (125 g in the ratio of 1:4:1) along with 30-40 per cent
farm yard manure of the total volume of the pits may be given. Chloropyriphos at the rate of 0.30 % may
be applied in soil to prevent termite attack. 5-11 months old tree seedlings may be planted during
monsoon in the pits depending on growth of saplings of tree species.
Hortipasture systems
Hortipasture system is a promising land use system in which fruit trees are grown in association
with perennial forage grasses and legumes considering both ecological and economic interactions among
different components. Animals also form part of hortipastoral system starting after three-year growth of
the system. Hortipasture systems supply the protective food (fruit) for human being and fodder for animal.
Establishment of hortipasture systems

Selection of suitable fruit tree
Following are recommended fruit trees and their varieties for different rainfall zones (Table 2).
Table 2. Suitable fruit trees and cultivars for different rainfall zones .
Rainfall Fruit trees Cultivars
(mm) zone
Less than Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) Seb, Gola, Mundia

350
Gonda (Cordia myxa) Local strain

Ker (Capparis decidua) Local strain
Pilu (Salvadora oleoides) Local strain
350-500 Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) Katha, Maharawali, Bagwadi, Seb,
Gola, Mundia
Aonla (Emblica officinalis) Banarasi, Hathijhool, Chakaiya
Khirni (Manilkara hexandra)) Local strain

Jamun (Syzygium cumunii) Local strain
Mulbery (Morus alba)
500-700 Bael (Aegle marmelos) Faizabad selection
Mango (Mangifera indica) Seedlings
Custard apple (Annona spp.) Balanagar, Mammoth, Washington
Sour lime (Citrus aurantifolia)
Aonla (Emblica officinalis) NA-7, NA-6, Krishna, Kanchan
More than Mango (Mangifera indica) Bombay green, Chausa, Safeda and
700 local cultivar
Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Jalor seedless, Jodhpur red
Guava (Psidium guajava) Allahabad Safeda, L-49
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) Local strain
Wood apple (Limonia acidissima) Local strain
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Local strain
Aonla (Emblica officinalis) NA-7, NA-6, Kanchan, Chakaya
Planting
For planting pit with a minimum of 45 cm diameter and 60 cm depth should be dug. The common pit
mixture consists of original soil, FYM and small quantity of fertilizers. Chemical fertilizer generally
recommended are DAP and single supper phosphate with urea. Chloropyriphos at the rate of 0.30 % may
be applied in soil to prevent termite attack.
In dryland planting should be done in early rainy season when the soil profile gets charged with water to a
depth of 1 meter. For most part of country the optimum planting time is last week of June till mid
September. After correct root placement, good compaction of soil around the seedling must be done to
eliminate all air pockets. Weeding more particularly ring weeding twice in first year and once in later
years is must so as to improve survival and growth of seedlings.
Establishment of sole pasture or in interspaces of trees

After preparation of field perennial grasses and legumes are to be established as a sole pasture or in
interspaces of trees for forage production. In case of lighter seeds, the seed rate varies from 4-6 kg/ha and
slightly heavier seeds such as, Lablab purpureus, Clitoria ternatea etc. should be sown at the rate of 15-25
kg/ha. In case of pure stand, grasses are to be sown at the spacing of 50 cm while in mixture with legumes,
it should be sown at 100 cm row to row distance and in the interspaces of two rows of grasses, legumes
are to be sown. Suitable time for sowing of grasses and legumes is monsoon season.
Grasses can also be established by raising seedlings in nursery. The raising of grass seedlings is best done
in the middle of May. After well preparation of land, seed beds (6 x 1.2 m) are prepared. Grass seeds are
sown @ 40-50 g/ bed at 0.4-0.8 cm deep in lines at 10 cm apart. Beds are watered using a rose can and
covered with wet gunny bags till the seeds are germinated (3-4 days). Gunny bags are removed soon after
germination particularly in the evening time. Grass seedlings will be ready for transplanting after 4-6
weeks of sowing.
Seedlings/ rooted slips are transplanted in well-prepared field immediately after the onset of monsoon.
Application of 40-60 kg N/ha and 20-30 kg P2O5 /ha increased pasture production by 50-100% in majority
of grasses besides increasing crude protein content considerably. For getting the maximum forage, pasture
should be harvested at 60 days interval and 10 to 15 cm above ground level.
Management of pasture, hortipasture and silvipasture systems

Protections from biotic interferences are most vital for proper growth and productivity of grasslands. The
protection could be offered through barbed wire, chain links supported by angle iron, cement, stone or
wooden poles or through fencing by unpalatable bushes. For live-hedges, the suitable species are
Pithecolobium dulce, Lantana camera, Carissa carandas, Agave americana, Opuntia dillenii, Zizyphus
nummularia, Jatropha curcas, Saccharum spontaneum and vetiveria zizanoides.
Heavy infestation of unpalatable bushes in natural grasslands not only adversely affects the availability of
open space for growing grasses but also the forage production. The standard practice of bush cleaning
includes either manual or mechanical felling and removal of stumps or application of selective weedicides
on the cut stumps to kill them to stop coppicing.
Contour furrows, contour bunds and staggered contour trenches are found to be effective in soil and
moisture conservation in grasslands. The grasses and legumes are considered best vegetational means for
soil and water conservation. The grasses reduce soil and water loss to a great extent. Average soil loss
from bare soil is 18 t/ha in alfisols whereas, from the natural grassland it is only 2.5 t/ha from a protected
site. Suitable grasses for soil and water conservation for different types of problem soils are Eulaliopsis
binata, Cenchrus ciliaris, Dichanthium annulatum, Chrysopogon, fulvus, Vetiveria zizanoides, Saccharum
muja, Pennisetum species and Cynodon dactylon.
Studies conducted at Jhansi on the effect of different intensity and interval of cutting on various grasses
such as C. ciliaris, C. setigerus, Sehima nervosum, Dichanthium annulatum and Chrysopogon fulvus
revealed that for getting the maximum forage yield, it should be harvested at 60 days interval and 10-15
cm above ground levels. The larger the cutting interval the higher the biomass production from the
pasture, but the crude protein content of the herbage shows reverse trend.
Production from pasture, hortipasture and silvipasture systems

It has been possible to increase land productivity from 0.5-1.5 tonnes/ha/year to > 10 tonnes/ha/year (10-
year rotation) by developing silvopastures. The additional forage availability through systems is likely to
reduce grazing pressure and thus have important environmental implications. Intercropping of Guinea
grass with S. hamata in association with Hardwickia binata produced significantly higher dry forage yield
(8.26 t/ha) as compared to intercropping of Chrysopogon fulvus (6.27 t/ha) and Cenchrus ciliaris with S.
hamata (7.52 t/ha) during 4th year of establishment (Ram et al. 2012).
In Aonla based hortipasture system, maximum fruit yield (20.9 t/ha) was recorded under intercropping
with S. hamata. The forage production was higher in association with tree (3.9 t DM/ha) as compared to
sole pasture (3.6 t DM/ha) (Sunil Kumar and Shukla, 2010).
In ber based hortipasture system, pasture production under pruning of secondary branches of ber tree at 20
cm length from base was significantly higher (4.05 t DM/ha) as compared to pruning of secondary
branches of ber tree at 60 cm length from base (3.77 t DM/ha). Among pasture, Guinea grass + S. hamata
produced maximum yield (6.29 t DM/ha). Pruning of secondary branches of ber tree at 40 cm length from
base recorded significantly higher fruit yield (26.28 kg/tree) as compared to pruning at 20 cm length from
base (18.31 kg/tree) (Sunil Kumar and Ram, 2009). Six year old Guava based hortipasture system gave
6.75 t/ha dry forage yield and 6.25 t/ha fruit yield (Sunil Kumar and Shukla, 2013).
Intercropping of S seabrana with Guinea grass gave maximum dry forage yield 6.68 t/ha followed by S.
hamata (6.29 t/ha), M. atropurpureum (5.60 t/ha) and C. ternatea 5.41 t/ha (Ram and Trivedi 2012).
Harvesting of Guinea grass at 60 days interval along with application of 80 kg N/ha in combination with
10 t FYM/ha gave 6.31, 11.59 and 8.17 tonnes dry forage yield/ ha during first, second and third years of
establishment under semiarid rainfed conditions (Ram and Trivedi, 2013).
Thus, establishment of pasture, hortipasture and silvipasture systems on different types of degraded lands
are very much essential for increasing forage production on sustainable basis.
Chapter: 16
Farm machinery for forage crop production
CS Sahay, SK Singh, PN Dwivedi

Fodder production involves all the operations done in a crop production practice along with specific nature
of fodder crops. These include cultivation, sowing, weeding, harvesting and processing the fodder for
consumption of animals. Increased production and utilization of forage crops demand minimum but
critical and timely farm operation. This write up presents some of the commonly available machines and
equipment that are useful in production for production of fodder crops and efficient application of
nutrient. Use of these machines, their features of operation, capacity and salient points about a particular
machine are discussed as following.
A. SEEDBED PREPARATION MACHINES

1. Tractor drawn disc plough
Disc plough is used for primary tillage and is especially useful in hard and dry, trashy, stony or stumpy
land conditions and in soil where scouring is a major problem. The plough consists of common
mainframe, disc beam assemblies, rockshaft, a heavy spring loaded furrow wheel and a gauge wheel. It
consists of 2, 3 or 4 bottom. The disc angle ranges from 40 to 45° and width of cut could be increased by
adjusting it. Tilt angle ranges from 15-25° and is used to control the penetration of disc in the soil. The
discs of any plough are made of high carbon steel or alloy steel and their edges are hardened and
sharpened. The discs are mounted on tapered roller bearings. The scrapers are fixed above the discs to
prevent the soil built up in sticky soil. A disc plough contains following major items.
2. Tractor mounted mould board plough

Mould board plough is used for primary tillage operation. It cuts trash and buries it completely in the soil.
It is also used for turning of green manure crop into the soil for decaying to add humus to the soil. It is
also used to turn and mix the compost, farmyard manure and lime completely into the soil. A typical
mould board plough consists of a share point, share, mould board, land slide, frog, shank and hitch system.
The share point is of bar type and is made from high carbon steel or low alloy steel. The share is also
made from high carbon steel or low alloy steel. Both are hardened and tempered to suitable hardness
(about 45 HRC). The working of plough is controlled by hydraulic system lever and three-point linkage. It
is used in two bottoms or three bottoms depending on the power source capacity. It is operated by 30 to
40 hp tractor and has the capacity from 1.5 to 3.0 ha/day.
3. Tractor drawn cultivator

Cultivators are used for secondary tillage operation in both dry and wet soils. It is also used for
intercultural operation by adjusting the distance between two tynes in wider row crops. In wetlands this is
also used for puddling purposes. Based on the requirement they may be made of rigid tyne shovel type
cultivator, spring loaded tine cultivator, duck foot cultivator and bar point cultivator. Most commonly used
cultivators are rigid tyne shovel type however spring loaded tyne cultivators are an improvement over it
and they are recommended for use in place of rigid tyne cultivator. This cultivator consists of a frame,
tynes with reversible shovels, heavy duty spring and hitch system. The function of spring is to save tyne
from breaking when any hard object comes in contact with the shovel or under the tyne. The shovels are
made of heat-treated steel for longer life. The implement is mounted type and is controlled by hydraulic
system.
4. Tractor drawn channel –cum-bund former

It is used to form channels or bunds in the field. This is a suitable implement for the fields having rolling
slopes where bund forming is required to be done for providing irrigation. In the rain fed areas, this
implement is also used for making inter-field bunds for conservation of water in the field itself. Tractor
drawn channel-cum-bund former consists of inner wing, adjustable handle, frame, hitch system and outer
wing. The wings are reinforced or tensioned at the lower side and are made from thick mild steel sheet. It
is operated in the well prepared, pulverized seed bed condition and can be used under all types of soil and
crop conditions. It is used after sowing of the fields to make bunds. The distance between wings can be
adjusted according to the size of bund required.
5. Animal drawn Disc Harrow
It is used for secondary tillage operation. It is a single acting double gang type disc harrow suitable for
secondary tillage operations. The harrow is provided with an operator seat and a transport wheel which
aids in easy transportation. When operator sits on it while operation, the depth of penetration increases as
well as drudgery of operation reduces. By adjusting the disc angle with the help of a slotted bracket, depth
of operation can be increased and width of operation could be controlled. It saves 85-90 per cent labour
and operation time and also results in 75080 per cent saving in cost of operation as compared to
conventional method of Ploughing by bullock drawn country plough.
B. SOWING IMPLEMENTS
1. Animal drawn three row seed cum fertilizer drill
Animal drawn three row seed cum fertilizer drill is used to drill seed and fertilizer simultaneously in three
rows. This is suitable for crops like wheat, gram, sorghum, soybean, lentil, pea, sunflower, safflower etc.
It has two gauge wheels, which are useful for maintaining the depth of operation and also for ease in
transportation. Box section frame having many holes help in adjusting the row to row spacing at desired
value. Separate knobs are provided for the seed and fertilizer metering to adjust the rate of application.
The fluted roller mechanism, fitted in the unit, gets the drive from ground drive wheel of 300 mm
diameter through chain and sprocket. The shoe type furrow openers with non-clogging boot place the seed
at desired depth.
2. Tractor drawn zero till drill:
The zero till drill is used for sowing of the seeds directly into the uncultivated field just after the
harvesting of previous crop. The machine is operated by 35 hp tractor and consists of tubular steel section
frame on which other parts are mounted. The main parts are seed and fertilizer box made of steel sheets,
fluted roller metering mechanism for seeds, two depth control wheels for controlling the depth of
operation, inverted T type furrow openers made of medium carbon steel with high speed steel tip in the
front for opening a narrow slit in untilled soil. Ground drive wheels having lugs on its circumference acts
as power source for metering mechanism of seeds and fertilizers. The furrow openers are such that after
placing the seed at desired depth, the soil flows back in to the slit and covers the seed. In case where soil
moisture is more while sowing and it does not flow back in to the slit, a light plank is used behind the seed
drill to cover the seeds.
3. HARVESTING MACHINES
3.1 Engine operated reaper
This is used for harvesting and windrowing of erect crop like paddy, wheat, oat, barley and soybean.
Reapers are available in horizontal and vertical conveying type mechanism. In horizontal conveying
reaper, the crop is harvested and laid on a belt conveyor which then proceeds for dislodging. However, in
vertical conveying reaper, the harvested crop proceeds for dislodging in standing position. A typical
engine operated walk behind type of reaper consists of engine, power transmission box, lugged wheels,
operating controls, a sturdy frame, crop divider, cutter bar, two crop conveyor belt and star wheels driven
by the power of engine. The crop is bundled manually and transported to threshing floor.
3.2 Tractor rear mounted harvester
Tractor rear mounted harvester is used for harvesting of soft stemmed crop like berseem, guinea grass etc.
It cuts and leaves the crop on its place, which is then required to be collected manually and taken to the
required place. This harvester is mounted on the rear of the tractor and runs offset when harvesting the
field. The harvester uses a reciprocating type cutter bar powered by PTO shaft of tractor. For operating
this kind of machine, the headland needs to be harvested manually or by any other means so that there
exists the path for running one side of tractor tires. This is also said as cutter bar type harvester.
3.3 Tractor drawn grass slasher

The rotary mower utilizes the high tip speed of revolving knives for harvesting grasses by impact (Fig.
10). It consists of a main frame, standard 3-point hitch, two blades mounted on the rotor shaft and a bevel
gear assembly for power transmission from tractor pto to the cutting unit through universal coupling. The
machine is operated by a 45 hp tractor.
3.4 Flail Forage Harvester

Flail type forage harvesters are suitable for harvesting all types of forage crops and grasses for silage
making and fresh feeding. After cutting the crop at the base by impact of the rotating flails, it chops and
lacerates the crop for easy intake by the animals and places the chopped forage in the accompanying
trailer or forage wagon. The flail-type machine is simple in design and produces chopped lacerated fodder
which is suitable for fresh feeding and silage making.
4. THRESHER
Thresher is a machine used to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain without
much loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, un-threshed grain, blown
grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum. Bureau of Indian standards has specified that grain loss
should not be more than 5 per cent, out of which broken grain should be less than should be less than 2 per
cent. Based on the type of mechanism, the threshers are classified in to different types like rasp-bar type,
spike tooth type, axial flow type, wire-loop type etc. Some of the threshers in common use are described
as following.
4.1 Spike tooth thresher

Spike tooth thresher is used for separating the grains from panicles, cobs and pods and clean them. The
spike tooth cylinder consists of a spike tooth cylinder, aspirators, cleaning sieves and feeding system. The
threshing cylinder has angle iron bars on which rectangular flat iron pieces are mounted in staggered
fashion. These pieces act as spikes or beaters. Spacers are provided below angle bars for adjusting
concave clearance. Concave is made of square bars and rectangular openings are formed through which
threshed crop along with chaff falls on the cleaning assembly. The cylinder, aspirators and shaker
assembly receive power from an electric motor or PTO shaft of tractor through V belt and pulley
arrangement. The concave clearance, sieve clearance, screen slope and speeds of cylinder and aspirator
can be adjusted according to the crop requirements. For operation, the dry crop is fed continuously in
feeding hopper, loose in thin layer. The beaters or spikes on the threshing cylinder pull the crop, hit the
crop and the impact causes detachment of grain from the ear heads of the crop. The straw and some un-
threshed grains move around the cylinder. The rubbing action between the straw, threshing drum and
concave threshes the rest of the grains and the straw is broken in the form of chaff. Threshed grains, chaff
and other foreign matters pass through the concave opening and fall on the oscillating sieve assembly. The
aspirators suck and blow out chaff and lighter impurities through outlet. Cleaning sieves further separate
the heavy straw, bigger impurities, clean grain, broken grain through oscillating motion of sieve assembly.
The secondary inlet of aspirator does final cleaning and clean grain is obtained at the main grain outlet.
4.2 Axial flow thresher

Axial flow thresher consists of a threshing cylinder, concave, cylinder casing, cleaning system and feeding
chute. In axial floe concept, the crop is fed from one end and the straw is thrown out from the other end
after complete threshing of the crop. During threshing, the crop rotates three and half times around the
cylinder and all the grains are detached. The threshing cylinder is of peg type. The casing of cylinder has 7
louvers for moving the crop axially. Two aspirator blower and two sieves are provided for cleaning. It is
used for threshing of paddy crop. In the higher moisture content crop, chopper type knifes are used in
addition to spike tooth to have cutting action of wet straw that helps in threshing.
5. SEED COLLECTOR
5.1 Tractor front mounted grass seed collector
Tractor front mounted grass seed collector is used to harvest matured grass seeds from the seed crop. It
consists of a frame, seed sweeping assembly, height adjusting unit, seed collection box, flat belt and seed
sweeping assembly made by helical rubber reel and a curved iron sheet. The equipment is mounted on the
front of the tractor on a specially built bracket frame. Provisions are made to adjust the height of machine
and the sweeping pressure to make it suitable for the different plant heights and plant species. For
operation, the tractor with the machine is driven through the seed crop in the inter-row spacing. As the
tractor moves forward the reel starts revolving. The reel bats hold the plants and direct towards the
sweeping surface where the ripened seeds get detached from the ear heads due to rubbing and sweeping
action. These seeds are received in the seed box, from which the seed is dislodged when it is full. The
machine suitable for all tropical grasses like Cenchrus, Sehima, Dichanthium, Chrysopogan fulvus,
Iseilems luxum pedicellatum. The capacity of machine is about 100kg/day.
Chapter: 17
Post Harvest Value Addition and Management of Forages
PK Pathak, PN Dwivedi and SK Singh

Drought, floods, earth quake, and cyclone are becoming common phenomena in India. During such
natural calamities many efforts are done for survival of human beings and ignoring most of the times
animals due to poor management of forage resources and an unorganized sector of feed and fodder
resource management. Tremendous amount of different varieties of crop residues and grasses are available
in India for different uses like paper making, bio-energy generation, fiber extraction, briquetting etc. and
could also be well utilized for animal feeding. These feed and fodder resources are either in the form of
small size like wheat straw, thick stem plants like sorghum stock or in the form of whole dried crops like
paddy straw or dried grasses. All of these fodder resources are highly voluminous and having lower
density varying from 40-70 kg/m3 due to which there transportation, storage and handling are very
cumbersome and expensive and therefore cannot be utilized up to a maximum extent. Further, the
available fodders resources may also be categorized as low-grade roughage, which could be well enriched
through ammoniation (liquid ammonia or urea treatment), mixing molasses or changing their physical
shape and blending them with leguminous herbaceous additives for enhancing their nutritive value and
digestibility as per requirement of different groups of animals.
Need of the day!!!

Conserving the fodder resources scientifically, is therefore a need for animal feed sector to mitigate the
losses occurred in various steps, reduce the cost of handling, storage and transportation, serve timely the
needy group in case of natural disasters, to enrich the value of roughages and strengthen the economic
power of the farmers. This is possible only by creating fodder bank in different zones of the country after
assessing the balance sheet of fodder production. This will not only provide the timely supply of the feed
to the most affected area in the country but it will also serve as community based bank from where a
needy farmer can deposit his share, withdraw as per his requirement, sale his share or even he can take
loan from the bank with a promise to return with interest in term of fodder only and not in cash. The bank
would have to maintain its own products in the form of densified blocks, pellets, silage and hay and if
agreed by the members leguminous green fodder would also be produced and procured either for sale or
conserving as raw material for adding the value to the roughages. It has been observed that various post
harvest operations viz. material handling, drying, storage and transport and marketing system influences
the total fodder production and its fruitful utilization both in terms of quantity and quality. Being
agricultural commodity they are also affected by the surrounding environment resulting into loss of
quantity and nutritional quality. An urgent need to conserve the available forage resources is therefore felt
for developing a fodder bank in the different regions of the country. This paper presents briefly about
status of some important unit operations involved in developing fodder bank.
Practices in Material Handling, Transport and Storage

Various unit operations including size reduction and drying are involved in the development of a fodder
bank but material handling and transport and storage are the most important. Drying, size reduction and
baling/densification/pelleting etc. are practiced for specific product formulation or when crop residues are
wet or green fodder needs to be dried for adding in various products.
Material Handling and Transport

It includes a number of operations that can be executed either by hand (manual) or by mechanical means
or devices to convey materials and to reduce human drudgery. After harvesting the agricultural
commodity are moved, transported or conveyed from place to place e.g. grasses after harvesting are
conveyed for drying, size reduction, storage, feeding etc. Similarly wheat straw is collected after
harvesting and threshing wheat crop and is either conveyed for storage, marketing or for feeding. Thus the
material handling and transporting should aim to lighten the work of human labour. The important
material handling equipments for most of the agricultural commodities are belt conveyer, bucket elevator,
screw conveyer and pneumatic conveyer. Selection of these equipments depends upon the characteristics
of the products to be handled and design details of these equipments are available mostly for grains/
granular materials (Sahay and Singh, 1994). For horizontal moving of bagged or bulk material the belt
conveyer may have flat, V-shaped or some other enclosed shape. Bucket elevators with belts are employed
in food industries for vertical conveyance of grains, derivatives and flours. However the screw conveyor is
widely used in grain handling as well as in animal feed industries for conveying products generally for
distances and could be well applied for mixing of different products. Thus, treatment of straw with urea
(solid and liquid), steam, molasses etc. is possible using screw conveyor and could be used for
mechanizing the process of conveying as well as for treatment of the straw. The traditional conveying
equipments or a method for on farm conveyance with their conveying capacity was however not reported
in the literature, which may play greater role in costing of the process.
Similarly for rural transportation carts drawn by various animals viz. bullocks, horses, camels etc. are
available. According to agriculture research data book (2004) the growth of population of bullock drawn
carts has shown an increasing trend from year 1966-67 to 1991-92, which indicates the importance of rural
transportation by animal drawn carts specially for form operations. Bisen (1977) designed, fabricated and
tested an improved bullock cart and later Deshpande and Ojha (1984) presented the theory and design of
animal drawn vehicles. The design details of animal drawn carts are presented by Sahay and Singh (1994)
with the detailed design of bullock cart’s wheel, falleo, spoke, hub, yoke, cart frame and cart body. They
said that the design criteria should suit the size of bullocks, load to be carried and the kind of the road.
They however, did not define the effect of these factors in designing and also did not mention the
optimum load to be carried out by the different size of bullocks.
Crop residues being voluminous in nature and have lower bulk density than grains need more space,
labour, time in handling and farm operation causes more cost in the transportation. Traditionally the wheat
straw in loose form is transported by trucks, tractor trolleys and by bullock carts depending upon the
distance traveled. Transporting loose straw violated the traffic rules due to bulging and causes losses.
Transport losses of loose straw were not reported in the literature. However, transporting bales of different
products (grasses, wheat straw and paddy straw) causes 1.5 to 4.0% losses in weight and 15.5 to 43.9%
reduction in volume. The study reveled that about five times of the paddy straw when densified can be
transported in comparison to loose paddy straw in a single trip of truck (Pathak et al. 2008). The average
weight losses during transportation of bale crop residues for 200km distance is 4.51%. In a simulation test
at PAU Ludhiana a loss of 6% in the weight of paddy straw bales and 7-15% for wheat straw bales was
observed which could be accounted for the conveyance loss (Annon, 2003). Therefore it could be said
that type of crop transported, carrying capacity of transport modes, physical dimensions of transport
modes, filling methods, time and labour required in filling and emptying, distance to be transported and
physical dimensions of filled wagons/trucks/trolleys are the important factors, which affects the
economics and efficiency of material handling and transport.
Storage
Storage is a repeated phase during transit of agricultural produce and the product needs to be stored from
one harvest to next thus, demanding additional carry over as safe guard, against speculation in price and
market demand or against shortage and famine. The storage structures and or methods for crop residues,
grasses and fodders are different to those of grains due to variation in physical characteristics. Several
structures have been traditionally used for storing these crop residues, grasses and fodders and may be
classified into different groups. They may be permanent and temporary structures depending upon the
constructional material used, underground or above the ground depending upon ultimate use of the
product, on farm or at other places depending upon their marketing and use.
15.5
15.0
14.5
BULLOCK CARTS, in million
14.0
13.5
13.0
12.5
12.0
11.5
11.0
1966-67 1971-72 1976-77 1981-82 1986-87 1991-92
YEAR
Fig: Trends in growth of population of bullock drawn carts
Source: Agriculture research data book (2004)
However, most farmers prefer to construct their own storage structures depending on availability of
infrastructure and economic considerations. The method of storing crop residues, grasses and fodders also
differs depending upon their size and could either be stacked in case of long straw like from rice in the
north and finger millet and sorghum in the south or stored in the structures like room, ‘bonga’ or ‘dhar’
etc. as in case of wheat straw. Farmers use various others storage structures like earthen pits, wooden or
cemented clamps, cemented silos, and sacks. Earthen pits could be lined and plastered with mud and cow
dung and covered with jute bags. Storing straw in pits has difficulties for contamination of straw with soil
and seepage of water from the side of pit especially during the rainy season and is difficult to fill or to
unload and may not be suitable for digging in rocky lands. The traditional method of storage of rice straw
- making stacks on the ground in open area by putting layers of straw and making the shape like the dom
of mosque was reported by Mamun et.al. (2002) in Bangladesh. While surveying the existing practice of
storing rice straw they also quantified the losses of straw. The straw losses were reported in three stages -
during harvesting (about 8 and 10% for Boro and T. aus straw, respectively), processing (25 and 23% of
Boro and T. aus straw respectively) and storage condition (about 18-20% of straw). Loss of straw in
storage was mainly due to earthen evaporated gas, rat, termites, anjona (a reptile pest), poultry birds and
excessive rainfall and advocated to improve storage system. Suggestion for improving storage condition to
some extent is to build the stacks under trees to give some protection or on raised wooden platforms.
Polythene, corrugated iron or coconut tree leaves can also be used to improve storage condition.
In temperate zones of India bundles of dry grass from the grassland is carried by both men and women on
their back and is stored in pyramid shaped structure called toil. Farmers in the hilly region have evolved
safe, cheap and protective methods to store hay and fodder for use in dearth period. Hay or fodder is
stored in open fields from September to October for meeting needs in winter. These are piled up in a
circular shape of pyramid or telang. A cloth made of yak hair, called thobi is used for covering these
structures. Stones of heavy weight are used for pressing it and to keep the hay/fodder in place.
Paddy straw stack (on ground) Paddy straw stack (above ground)
Bonga for wheat straw Dhar for wheat straw and polythene covering
Some improved storage structures for crop residues, straw and grasses were also used. A improved store
houses of gable type tin shed with raised slate about 1½ ft height from the ground was built (Mamun et. al.
2002) and compared the quality with that of traditional method in Bangladesh. The size of the storage was
length- 22.5 ft., height- 9ft., and width- 13ft. It was found that improved storage method significantly
increased nitrogen free extract, in vitro dry matter digestibility and in vitro organic matter digestibility of
rice straw. No significant difference was reported in crude protein and organic matter. A cover and plinth
storage structure for storing bales/blocks of five different products of grasses, wheat stubbles and paddy
straw was made at IGFRI, Jhansi, which includes platforms of size 9Χ3 m with 0.76 m height from
ground and polythene sheet of 1000 gauge for covering the stored bales (Pathak et al 2007). Each platform
had storage capacity ranging from 1100 to 1600 bales weighing 13-32 t per storage platform depending
upon the density of individual block up to a height of 3 m. Ensiling green fodder is done in underground
fodder preservation cum storage structure of 900x1250 mm size having capacity 300 kg (Malaviya, 2002)
which could be used for making available the product for round the year and in lean period.
Economics of the process

Any process developed should be economically sound for success of any sector and it is true for fodder
bank too. The economics of fodder bank could be evaluated depending upon individual products as well as
the whole unit. In view of assessing the economics, the capacity of the bank could be established first,
depending upon the size of the targeted herd to be served and category of the herd like milch animal, draft
animal, small or large ruminants etc. The purpose of the bank could then be clearly identified according to
the product type, time of storage and ingredients added. The process line could then be drawn specifying
the different products and material and energy balance for each unit operation is given. Machine for each
operation be identified with the matching capacity of previous and next operation. In between two
operations suitable material handling equipments should also be identified depending upon the nature and
quantity of the material to be handled in view to mechanize the process. A list of all such equipments and
machine needs to be prepared with their cost. Housing of these equipments and storing the raw material
and final product is also essential which could be identified as per requirements and nature and type of the
materials. Such houses are to be well electrified with power backup and water supply. The expenditure on
purchasing all raw materials, manpower requirement (labour and supervisor), energy requirement etc. are
noted for cost assessment. Expected loans on all these expenditure are also recorded with different taxes
and insurances to be paid. The expected output with an assumption of 75-80% plant efficiency is recorded
for assessing the profit. All these expenditure are grouped into following headings and are used for
calculating process cost, cost benefit ratio, profit, breakeven point, payback period etc. The rates of banks,
insurances, taxes should be taken as per applicable in the area. Cost of safety should also be taken care.
Example of cost analysis: A work sheet

Plant details
Plant capacity -------- T/ day (to be decided depending upon herd size, type product, ingredients etc.)
Working days /year 300 with 80% plant efficiency (assumption)
24 in 3 shifts (decided by management depending upon machinery available and target etc.)
Continuous/batch (depending upon process)
1. Expenditure on Equipments
a. Baling machine 1 no. cost
b. urea molasses mixture 1 no. cost
c. conveyors 1 no. cost
d. water tank 1 no. cost
e. molasses tank 1 no. cost
f. other equipments like harvester, choppers etc1 no. cost
g. security machines/ equipment (because fire may attracts during operation)
(the no. of all these will be decided as per process line and matching capacity)
Total cost Rs.-------

10% of all above for installation Rs.-------
Total cost including installation Rs.-------
2. Expenditure on fixed capital
a. Building for -----m X -----m space @ Rs. -------/sqm of plinth area Rs.-------
b. Electrification @ 12.5% of (a) Rs.-------
c. Internal water supply @5% of (a) Rs.-------
Total Rs.-------
3. Total fixed capital investment including building nd machines = 1+2 (Rs)
4. Expenditure on annual working capital (all material required for continuous working of the plant
is added here) like below
a. cost of molasses -------l/day @Rs. ------/kg = Rs.-------
b. cost of other materials like leaf meal, concentrate,
mineral mixture etc added separately = Rs.-------
c. cost of crop residues -------kg/day @Rs. ------/kg = Rs.-------
d. Miscellaneous charges for handling etc. @ 10% of (a+b+c+ ---) Rs.-------
Total Rs.-------
A. Annual Fixed Cost
a. Depreciation
Machinery @10% Rs.-------
Building @ 5% Rs.-------
b. interest on loans
60% of total fixed capital @ 18% Rs.-------
75% of working capital Rs.-------
c interest on remaining money
40% of total fixed capital @ 10.5% Rs.-------
25% of working capital @ 10.5% Rs.-------
d. taxes and insurances
@ 2% of total fixed capital Rs.-------
Total Rs.-------
B. Daily Variable Cost

cost of raw material like straw
b. cost of binding agent (viz. molasses,
bentonite, gwargum powder etc ) should be Rs.-------
given separately)
cost of water Rs.-------
d. cost of value aided ingredients other than
molasses like concentrate, leaf meal, cake, mineral mixture, salt etc. Rs.-------
e. Electric charges Rs.-------
( add the total power consumption/day from all the sources in term of kwh/day)
f. repair and maintenance @ 5% of machine cost Rs.-------
g. man power
supervisor 1 no.@ Rs.------- Rs.-------
Labour ---no. @Rs.------- Rs.-------
h. miscellaneous @10% of all above Rs.-------
Total daily variable cost Rs.-------
C. Annual Variable Cost = Total daily variable cost X no. of days of operation in a year (say
300as given in plant detail) = Rs.-------
D. Annual Total Revenue

It is calculated in terms of production unit per day (or capacity of plant) X rate of the product per kg or per
unit X no. of days of operation (say 300as given in plant detail)
E. Net Profit is calculated using expenditure incurred in the process and the return obtained.
Conclusion
Many methods for crop residues handling, transport and storage are available in the country at farmers
threshold varying with location, type and size of crop residues, type of need (long term or short term),
animal type and economic condition of the farmer etc. and are modified as per the requirement by
researchers and farmers. An inventory for such methods is required to compare there benefits and bottle
necks. These methods could finally be selected depending upon cost economics, use and loss in quality
and quantity for development of a crop residues based fodder bank.
Chapter: 18
Role of GIS and Remote Sensing in Good Agriculture Practices
N S Ekka, Akram Ahmed and Kamalesh Kushwaha

Indian grassland & Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
Geography is the study of Earth’s features and patterns of their variations in spatial location and time.
Many questions of agricultural production are geographic in nature as the production depends on the
environment and prevailing socio economic conditions, both of which vary spatially and in time.
Examples are questions related to natural resources management, precision agriculture, agro ecological
classification, for land use planning, regional trends and patterns in technology adaptation, agricultural
productivity and income, non-pont source pollution from agricultural lands, etc. Answering these
questions requires access to large volumes of multidimensional geographical (spatial) information of
weather, soils, topography, water resources, socio economic status, etc. Further, answers to even
apparently simple questions require that the data from several sources be integrated in a consistent form.
Geographical Information Systems or GIS enable representation and integration of such spatial
information.
The traditional method of presenting geographical information in two dimensions is in the form of maps.
Maps are graphic representations of the earth's surface on a plane paper. They shape the way we visualize,
access and analyze spatial information. A map consists of points, lines and area elements that are
positioned with reference to a common coordinate system (usually latitude and longitude). They are drawn
to specified scales and projection. Map scales can vary and depend on the purpose for which the maps are
created. Projection is a mathematical transformation used to represent the real 3-dimensional spherical
surface of the earth in 2-dimensions on a plane sheet of paper. The map legend links the non-spatial
attributes (name, symbols, colours, and thematic data) to the spatial data. The map itself serves to
store and present data to the user. Such, analogue maps (on paper) are cumbersome to produce and use,
particularly when there are a large number of them to be used for analysis. Computer based GIS facilitates
both creation of maps and using them for various complex analyses. It allows working with geographic
data in a digital format to aid decision making in resources management.
GIS is a generic term implying the use of computers to create and display digital maps. The attribute data
which describe the various features presented in maps may relate to physical, chemical, biological,
environmental, social, economic or other earth surface properties. GIS allows mapping, modeling,
querying, analyzing and displaying large quantities of such diverse data, all held together within a single
database. Its power and appeal stem from its ability to integrate quantities of information about the
environment and the wide repertoire of tools it provides to explore the diverse data. The history of
development of GIS parallels the history of developments in digital computers and database management
systems on one hand and those in cartography and automation of map production on the other. The
development of GIS has also relied upon innovations made in several other disciplines – geography,
photogrammetry, remote sensing, civil engineering, statistics, etc.
In the beginning India was the agrarian country, still now it’s about 70 percent population involved in this
service. Agricultural practice is the back bone of the country economy. Before the 60s decade India has
big challenges to supply their huge population for food. After the 60s decades comes green revolution, this
time was the very plenty decades for agriculture sector, but it was not insufficient produce their production
because of population was growing very fast, than production.
Later on in the 70th decade comes a new technology which is takes role plays known as GIS (Geographical
information system) and Remote sensing techniques, which role was very important for agriculture
practices and management.
A. What is GIS?
A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing,
managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS allows us to
view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns,
and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. A GIS helps you answer questions and solve
problems by looking at your data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. GIS technology
can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework.
Definition:
GIS is a computer system capable of holding and using data describing places on the earth’s surface
- ESRI
GIS is computer hardware and software system designed to store, manage, analyze, and display spatially
(geographically) referenced data
- USGS
Components of GIS:
What we can create with GIS?
GIS Features:
v Building blocks: map layers and associated Tables
v Data structure: set of independent map layers with one layer for one feature (and associated
Feature Attribute Table) – single phenomenon/groups of similar objects mapped across space
(compare one table one theme in a DBMS)
v Common locational reference of different layers (long/lat grid – geographic coordinate
system): allows integration of layers by registering them to a common coordinate system
v Thematic layers: can be made visible - all at the same time or selectively - and linked by
common location
v Overlay: different layers can be overlaid to get homogenous land units and other types of
information
v Collation: data can be collated from several layers for any location
v Spatial analysis: buffering, kriging, Thiessen polygons, hydrologic analysis, models, market
/business analysis, etc
Benefits of GIS:
GIS benefits organizations of all sizes and in almost every industry. There is a growing awareness of
the economic and strategic value of GIS. The benefits of GIS generally fall into five basic categories:
v Cost Saving and Increased Efficiency:
GIS is widely used to optimize maintenance schedules and daily fleet movements. Typical
implementations can result in a savings of 10 to 30 percent in operational expenses through reduction
in fuel use and staff time, improved customer service, and more efficient scheduling.
v Better Decision Making:
GIS is the go-to technology for making better decisions about location. Common examples include real
estate site selection, route/corridor selection, evacuation planning, conservation, natural resource
extraction, etc. Making correct decisions about location is critical to the success of an organization.
v Improved Communication:
GIS-based maps and visualizations greatly assist in understanding situations and in storytelling. They
are a type of language that improves communication between different teams, departments, disciplines,
professional fields, organizations, and the public.
v Better Recordkeeping:
Many organizations have a primary accountability of maintaining trustworthy records about the status
and change of geography. GIS provides a strong framework for supervision these types of report with
full operation support and reporting tools.
v Managing Geographically:
GIS is becoming essential to understanding what is happening and what will happen in geographic
space. Once we know, we can recommend action. This new approach to management-managing
physically-is transforming the way that organizations operate.
What Can We Do with GIS?

GIS gives us a new way to look at the world around us. With GIS you can:
Ø Map Where Things Are: Mapping where things are lets you find places that have the features you're
looking for and to see patterns.
Ø Map Quantities: People map quantities to find places that meet their criteria and take action. A
children's clothing company might want to find ZIP Codes with many young families with relatively
high income. Public health officials might want to map the numbers of physicians per 1,000 people in
each census tract to identify which areas are adequately served, and which are not.
Ø Map Densities: A density map lets you measure the number of features using a uniform areal unit so
you can clearly see the distribution. This is especially useful when mapping areas, such as census tracts
or counties, which vary greatly in size. On maps showing the number of people per census tract, the
larger tracts might have more people than smaller ones. But some smaller tracts might have more
people per square mile—a higher density.
Ø Find what’s Inside: Use GIS to monitor what's happening and to take specific action by mapping
what's inside a specific area. For example, a district attorney would monitor drug-related arrests to find
out if an arrest is within 1,000 feet of a school—if so, stiffer penalties apply.
Ø Find what’s Nearby: GIS can help you find out what's occurring within a set distance of a feature by
mapping what's nearby.
Ø Map Change : Map the change in an area to look forward to future conditions, decide on a course of
action, or to evaluate the outcome of an action or guidelines. By mapping where and how things move
over a period of time, you can gain insight into how they behave. For example, a meteorologist might
study the paths of Cyclones to predict where and when they might occur in the future.
GIS Applications in Agriculture (indicative)
I. Precision farming
II. Land use planning
III. Natural resources management
IV. Watershed management
V. Pest and disease management
VI. Irrigation management
VII. Livestock management
VIII. Fisheries management
IX. Biodiversity/genetic resources management etc.
X. Resource inventory, mapping and modelling
XI. Yield monitoring and forecasting
XII. Agribusiness management
XIII. Climate change: adaptation/mitigation etc.
What is Remote Sensing?
EMR and Atmosphere Interactions - Concept of Atmospheric window
Ø Water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone are significant absorbers of EMR in specific wave-
length ranges
Ø Some wavelengths are almost completely absorbed
Ø Wavelength ranges (wavelength bands) with high transmission values (minimal absorption)
are suitable for use in remote sensing to detect and measure EMR from land surface features -
atmospheric windows
Ø Choice and design of sensors to detect EMR is based on available atmospheric windows
Existing Applications of Agriculture on Remote Sensing & Geographical Information Systems:

The existing projects are highlighting the how GIS and Remote Sensing techniques applies in those
applications that require comprehensive and geo-referenced data current up to seconds or instantly.
These applications include agriculture resources management and environmental monitoring,
emergency response, and mapping. The diverse methods for the integration of remote sensing and GIS
has been described in the above mentioned theories with practical, can be conceptualized and
summarized. The studies are reveals that the how these existing applications are integrated for the
identification, characterization and estimation of agriculture properties especially in grassland
management and land use / land classification.
EMR interactions with land surface features – spectral signatures for feature identification
ü Different materials have different patterns of wavelength specific absorption and reflection of
EMR – spectral signatures.
ü Property used to qualify spectral signatures is spectral reflectance – ratio of reflected to
incident energy as a function of wavelength.
ü Spectral reflectance of different materials can be measured to provide reference data to
interpret images.
ü Surface materials can be distinguished from each other by differences in spectral reflectance.
0.45-0.52 mm Blue Mapping coastal water, soil vegetation discrimination forest type
mapping
0.52-0.60 mm Green Vegetation discrimination and vigor assessment
0.63-0.69 mm Red Chlorophyll absorption region; plant species identification

0.76-0.90 mm Near Infrared Determination of vegetation types, vigor, biomass content; also
delineation of water bodies and soil moisture
1.55-1.75 mm Mid Infrared Plant moisture content and soil moisture; also differentiate snow
from clouds
2.08-2.35 mm Mid Infrared Discrimination of mineral and rock types. Sensitive to plant
moisture content
10.4-12.5 Thermal Vegetation moisture content, soil moisture discrimination, and
Infrared thermal mapping applications
Resolutions of images:
ü Spatial resolution –Ability to distinguish smallest size detail of pattern on image (relative to
ground)
ü Spectral resolution: Ability to distinguish between signals of different wavelengths
(wavelength bands)
ü Radiometric resolution: Ability to distinguish between signals of different strength for the
same wavelength band (number of discrete levels into which electrical signals can be
quantized - most satellites use 8-bit binary systems or 256 levels)
ü Temporal resolution: Time between images of same features of land surface
Examples: Grazing system and forage availability in northern district of Chhattisgarh:
This project has been taken in Chhattisgarh for identification and estimation of grazingland &
grasses species available in the area using GIS & RS techniques. Management of grazinglands for
both human and livelihood through pasture based livestock industry and environment conservation
requires an understanding of grazing resources and their production potential and natural
limitations to the sustained use.
Objectives:
ü To searched out the prevailing grazing system in the region.
ü To find out the grazing land in the region.
ü To assess the forage availability from grazing lands.
ü To generate database and thematic maps.
ü To provide management option for range resources.
Materials:
v SOI toposheet on 1:2,50,000, no. 64-E, I, J, M, N and 73-A, B
v Majmuli map of the district
v IRS-P6, LISS III data of year 2010 between September & October
v GIS software version 9.3
v Image Processor (Erdas Imagine 9.1)
v District statistical reports from project area.
v Livestock Census of Chhattisgarh data 2007
Methods:
Ø Collection of secondary data from district.
Ø Geo-referencing of the toposheet
Ø Digitization of layers.
Ø Generation of base map using SOI map.
Ø Image analysis and ground truthing.
Ø Rectification of digital data.
Ø Georeferencing and data transformation.
Ø Creation of digital geo-data base.
Ø Data analysis through GIS tools.
Ø Conversion of data from vector data to raster.
Ø Generation of final thematic maps and estimates the land use class.
The Study Area:

The northern tribal district of Chhattisgarh is fall under Jashpur, Surguja, Korea and Korba and this
region falls 36 blocks under these districts. Based on the Survey of India toposheet no. 64-E, I, J, M,
N and 73-A, B and Majhmuli Map used for the preparation of base map of all four districts and up to
block level. The extension of the research field geographical area is located between and 22000’00”
to 24002’00” N latitude 81 035’00” to 84022’00” E longitude (Map no.1). According to census 2001
the total population of this region is 19, 72,094 which is distributed in over an area of 42406 km2
with regard to population and livestock population 5232706. The livestock population distributed in
this region 123.39 animals /km2. The study areas geo-database has also been generated with the help
of Arc Map software. Assessment of extent and condition of the grassland/grazinglands is based on
IRS-P-6 LISS-III sensor, path 101, row 55, 102/55,56, 103/55,56 & 104/56 Bands 2,3,4, data used
from September and October 2010. Based on the tone, texture, pattern, color and associated markers,
grazinglands (grasslands, bushy lands, permanent fallow lands and wastelands etc.) were identified.
Map No.1
Analog Data / Toposheet:

The study areas geo-database has been generated into analog data (Toposheet & Majhmuli map) to
digital data with the help of Arc Map software. Each Toposheet Majhmuli map has been geo-
referenced, music and digitized and prepared base map (Map no.2) & (Map no 3) shows admistrative
map and Map No.4 Infrastucture map (rail, road and sattlements)of the project area .
Satellite data IRS-P-6 LISS-III sensor, row/path 101 /55, 102/55, 56, 103/55, 56 & 104/56 Bands 2, 3,
4, data used from September and October 2010 (Map no.5). Based on the DN value signature
calculated each class of the land use class and estimated all the class. Map no.6 shows how we can see
the attribute table and its charecters.
Map no.2
Map no.3
Map no.4
Map no.5
Map No.6
Map No.7
Table 1.District wise Land use /land class (LU/LC) estimation from
IRS P6, LISS III data Sep.-Oct.-2010(000 ha.)
Class Name District
Surguja Koria Korba Jashpur Total Percent
Grazingland(High ) 287 119 121 112 639 18.5
Grazingland(Moderate ) 25 24 14 0 63 1.8
Grazingland(Low ) 83 17 22 22 144 4.2
Dance Forest 74 19 22 29 144 4.2
Moderate Forest 234 119 103 72 528 15.3
Degraded Forest 273 153 129 106 661 19.1
Agriculture land 245 54 80 73 452 13.1
Shrubs & Bushes 250 95 89 114 548 15.8
Built up /Fallow Land 33 8 23 10 74 2.1
Water 65 49 53 41 208 6.0
Other 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
Total 1569 657 656 579 3461 100.0
The study areas geo-database has been generated using remote sensing and GIS. After the
supervised classification of satellite imagery following data has been estimated viz; Dense forest
4.19%, Moderate forest 15.23%, Degraded forest 19.06%, Grazingland (High Density) 18.41%,
Grazingland (Moderate) 1.87% and Grazingland (Low Density) 4.17%, water body 6.04%, agriculture
land 13.05%, Shrubs & Bushes 15.79%, Built up /Fallow Land 2.18% and others 0.01% areas
identified (Table.1).
After the land use classification, Green/dry bio-mass production also estimated of the Jashpur,
Surguja, Koria and Korba districts according to based on ground truthing and collected sample data.
Green/dry fodder data has been estimated from 136 samples from 41 villages, 36 blocks of the project
area of Chhattisgarh. After the ground truthing and sampling grasses data from the study area.
Average green fodder yield was found 755.27g/sq. m. and dry fodder yield 270.28 g/sq. m. The total
grazing land area explored is 854449.2 hectares and estimated green biomass production from that are
6451091.46 tones and dry fodder 2307012.84 tones from the project areas. The total average green
biomass production has been estimated 7.55 t/ha and dry bio-mass production was found 2.70 t/ha.
Conclusion:
GIS and remote sensing is the very most important role play in the good agriculture practice. We can
say without this technique, impossible to well manage to the large areas land, soil, irrigation and other
parameter of agriculture practice in India because of their waste geographical land to use properly
good agriculture practice.
Chapter: 19
Forage preservation, value addition and nutrient enrichment
P. N. Dwivedi
Majority of livestock population in India subsists on vegetation of natural grasslands where grasses are
cheap source of forage. Crop residues, straw and dry grasses form the basal roughage for feeding to
livestock which are poor in quality being deficient in protein, available energy and minerals.
Therefore, supplementation of green fodder and concentrate become essential for sustaining livestock
productivity. However, there exists a huge gap between demand and supply of both green fodder as
well as concentrate in our country. Moreover, green fodder is not available throughout the year.
Therefore, it becomes imperative to search for alternate source of protein rich forage supplement.
Supplementation of leaves of leguminous crops is an important and most practical feeding strategy for
improving the feeding value of such poor quality roughages. Leaf meal being rich in CP, carotene and
minerals could be an appropriate answer for providing nutritious diet to the livestock throughout the
year. Supplementation of leaf meal can meet the requirement of livestock particularly during dry
periods when availability of other protein rich forages is scarce. Thus it can bridge the gap between the
demand and supply of the green fodder and concentrate. In India, traditionally also tree leaves
particularly Zizyphus nummularia (Pala), Khejri (Prosopis cineraria), Ficus sp. and Neem leaves were
lopped, dried and fed to different categories of livestock.
1. Post Harvest Technology of Forages
Handling and utilization of forage resources involves various unit operations starting from harvesting,
collection and transportation, size reduction and processing (product formulation), drying and storage.
However, material handling, transport and storage are the most important operations due to bulky
nature of forage resources. Drying, size reduction and baling / densification / pelleting etc. are
practiced for specific product formulation or when crop residues are wet or green fodder needs to be
dried for conserving as hay or for adding in various products.
1.1 Forage Handling and Transport

Crop residues being voluminous in nature and have lower bulk density than grains need more space,
labour, time in handling and farm operation causes more cost in the transportation. Traditionally the
wheat straw in loose form is transported by trucks, tractor trolleys and by bullock carts depending
upon the distance travelled.
1.2 Harvesting and Collection

Harvesting of crop/tree leaves is important in view of time of cutting, which influences the dry matter
yield and quality. Cutting too early will give high quality meal but low yields and cutting too late will
decrease nutrient content and increase fiber content but give higher dry matter yield. Among the
leguminous fodder crops, Stylosanthes seabrana is first cut after 55 days whereas S. scabra and S.
guianensis after 60 days and 80 days respectively for leaf meal preparation, depending upon soil
fertility and water availability (Guodao et al. 2004). Lucerne has been observed to provide 9 t dry
matter yield per ha (Singh, 1988) and could also have a great potential for making meal.
The Leucaena, a leguminous fodder tree is cut first at 10–15 cm above soil level when it has grown to
a height of 1.2 metres. Thereafter 4–6 cuts can be taken per year when the plant reaches a height of 1
metre. The approximate yield under Cuban farming conditions without irrigation or fertilization is 12
tonnes DM/ha with 22–25 % crude protein. Rajput et al. (2004) assessed a Leucaena field and plant
base diameter above 2.5 cm (mean diameter 3.25 cm) was recommended to harvest for production of
leaf meal. Yield of fresh Leucaena leaves was estimated as 12.10 t/ha/year by them.
1.3 Conservation and Drying
Conservation of herbage is accomplished by drying the crop and it is the single way to reduce
moisture from the harvested plants. It could be through many ways including the simplest way of sun
drying. In sun drying the materials should be spread in a thin layer on a clean surface preferably
concrete and dried for two days, then turned over and dried for another day. Alternatively, drying
racks can be built using local materials such as bamboo to dry the materials above the soil surface and
avoid spoilage. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi has developed and evaluated
two tier drying structure made up of Subabool (Leucaena) logs for shed/ventilated drying of green
fodder and tree leaves. Use of racks can also hasten the drying process and improve quality through
increased protein and β-carotene content. Though sun drying is a more acceptable and feasible
alternative of many other drying methods, it is difficult to sun dry green forage crops/tree leaves, in
the rainy season when the production is large. Also, extending the drying period diminishes the
nutritional quality of the product. Hay production from stylo using sun drying resulted in loss of 15 -
40 % of the dry matter, mostly in the form of leaves (Amodu, 2004).
Heating air for drying reduces the drying time and maintains the quality of the product and is an
essential operation in making leaf meal commercially. The high temperature drying was reported to be
costly to dehydrate leaf meals due to expensive machinery used and the operational cost.
1.4 Densification of grasses/crop residues

Grasses/crop residues are densified with the help of high density forage baling machine developed by
IGFRI, Jhansi. The machine is equipped with crank-piston drive mechanism and has a rectangular
piston cross-section. It is operated by a 18.5 kW-3 phase, electric motor with V-belt and pinion-gear
power transmission system. Density of the bales can be adjusted with the help of a spring tension
mechanism provided at the outlet point of the machine. A force feed mechanism has been provided for
the pre compression of the loose herbage in the hopper, which, in turn, increases the hay input inside
the compression chamber. Feeding mechanism and tying of bales is manual. The capacity of machine
is 200 to 600 kg/h depending upon material.
1.5 Demonstration of silage making:

The grass from farmers pastures selected under study at IGFRI RRS Palampur was harvested and
wilted for 24 hours and chaffed. Silage of chaffed grass was made in the concrete pits at different sites.
The additives added in the chaffed grass during silage making are Urea: 1 % (on fresh weight basis) &
Molasses: 3 % (on fresh weight basis). The chaffed grass mixed with additives was pressed in layers in
the silo pits and was sealed with polythene sheet with the participation of farmers. The selected
farmers were involved through out the silage making process. The silage pits were opened after
ensiling period of 60, 90 and 120 days. Physical evaluation of silage was done in the presence of
farmers with following observations.
Colour : Green
Aroma : Pleasant
Mould growth : Traces
pH : 4.72
Dry matter : 34.55 %
Gas production/24 h : 17.9 ml ^
NH3- N/ 40 ml : 6.750 mg
Dry matter digestibility/ 24 h : 26.07 %
True digestibility : 67.80 %
2.1 Value addition of wheat straw through molasses

For densification of wheat bhusa, hot molasses (10 to 20 %)and urea (2 %) was mixed thoroughly
with bhusa and the admixture was densified thorugh IGFRI high density machine. The blocks were
tied by 1.25 cm wide plastic tape from top to bottom and the steel wire was tied across the bale. The
bales of molasses mixed wheat straw have the average density of 398.5 kg/m3.
2.2 Adding urea
Beneficial effect of adding urea (2 to 4%) in wheat straw are well established in literature. Wheat
stubbles are however baled by mixing 2 % urea with 20 % water. The tying of bales was done with
steel wire rope. The average density of bales achieved was 200 kg/m3.
2.3 Complete feed block

Complete feed blocks may also be developed in view to enhance nutritive value of forage through
mixing with molasses and blending with leguminous fodder, concentrate mixture, minerals and
vitamin additives. The composition of Complete Feed Blocks included wheat straw, molasses, dry
leaves of berseem-, concentrate mixture - and recommended level of mineral mixture and vitamin
additives .
3.0 Processing of Fodder

Fodder resources are subjected to various processing methods (Sharma et al., 1995; Das et al., 2009)
such as chaffing, grinding, pelleting, chemical and biological treatments especially for their
incorporation into complete feeds with the aim of enhancing palatability, intake and nutrient utilization
with the ultimate objective of improved performance. The most common and widely adopted methods
are processed in the form of reduced size (chopped or threshed), pellets, blocks etc. and are described
below:
3.1 Size reduction
In the feed industry the size reduction is usually referred for grinding and producing powdery like
material called meal. Commercial products must often meet stringent specification regarding the size
and same time the shape of the particle they contain. Reducing the particle size increases the reactivity
of solids, reduces the bulk of fibrous material for easier handling and is governed by the ultimate user
(animal). For example smaller particle size is required for small animals and birds whereas larger
particle size (straw) may be fed to the larger ruminants. Different mechanism involved in the size
reduction process could be compression, impact, rubbing or attrition and cutting. In general
compression is used for coarse reduction of hard solids, to give relatively few fines; impact gives
coarse, medium or fine products; attrition yields very fine products from soft, non abrasive materials
whereas cutting gives a definite particle size and sometimes a definite shape with few or no fines
(McCabe et al 1985).
Forages and fodder crops, being fibrous material, could be reduced in their sizes mostly by using chaff
cutter and concentrates by hammer mill type of grinder or beater type of pulveriser. Material passing
through a 1-1.5 mm sieve after grinding dried Stylosanthes in China was considered as stylo leaf meal
and ground material passing through 3 mm and 5 mm screen in India was considered as stylo leaf
meal. The size of meal influences the digestibility (Dwivedi and Pathak 2004).
3.2 Pelleting of fodder

Feed Material consisting of subabool leaves, berseem hay, lucerne hay or other top feeds, mixed with
wheat straw or dry grass is used for making feed pellets. Urea, molasses, concentrate mixture,
minerals and vitamins are also added to enrich the feed pellets. All ingredients should be mixed
thoroughly to make it a homogeneous mixture. Water is added to bring the moisture level of the
mixture up to 55 - 60%. This is required to make the material flow freely through the pelleting
machine. A power operated, auger type feed pelleting machine developed by Indian Grassland and
Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, is used for making feed pellets.
For making the feed pellets, the power is put on and the machine is operated. All well mixed material
containing moisture from 55 to 60% is fed into the machine through feeding chute. The mixture gets
ground and converted into dough while passing through auger and extruded out through the holes on
the pressure plate in the form of cylindrical bars. These bars break into 10 - 15 cm long pieces due to
their own weight which are known as "feed pellets". These feed pellets are then spread over the floor
for drying which is required to bring down the moisture level up to 10 – 15 % for safe storage.
4.0 Storage
Storage of crop residues is different than grains in view of physical properties, lower density (70-120
kg straw/m3), nature of crop, shape and size, location and ultimate use. Several structures have been
traditionally used for storing these crop residues, grasses and fodders and may be classified into
different groups. They may be permanent and temporary structures depending upon the constructional
material used, underground or above the ground depending upon ultimate use of the product, on farm
or at other places depending upon their marketing and use. However, most farmers prefer to construct
their own storage structures depending on availability of infrastructure and economic considerations.
The method of storing crop residues, grasses and fodders also differs depending upon their size and
could either be stacked or stored in any permanent or temporary structures.
5.1 Feed Processing
Feed processing includes the treatment (physical, chemical, thermal) of a feed prior to consumption by
animals. In general, the variability in processing effects is associated with the choice of equipment,
with processing conditions as well as with the processing system, e.g. the combination and sequence
of processing equipment . The commonly used process/equipments for production of animal feed are:
1. Cleaner
2. Destoner
3. Hammer mill / grinder or pulveriser
4. Mixer/Blender
5. Conditioner
6. Vertical pelletiser/Horizontal pelletiser
7. Extruder with pre-conditioner
8. Drier
9. Weighing and bagging.
5.2 Protein
The properties of proteins in foods or food – systems have been classified: (1) sensory and kinaesthetic
( e.g.,flavour, odor , color , texture ); (2) hydration , dispersibility, solubility and swelling ;(3) surface
– active properties (required for e.g., emulsion and /or foam formation); (4) rheological properties ,
including gelation and texturization; (5) other properties (e.g., Including the adhesions, cohesion,
dough making, film and fibre formation during extrusion). In feed manufacturing especially the
adhesive forces that protein may exert, are of interest. Protein can act as a binding agent between
different feed particulates. Processing involves the combined effect of shear, heat, residence time and
water resulting, among others in partial denaturation of the protein in the feed. As has been shown by
Wood (1987) partial denaturation of the protein during processing may positively affect the hardness
and durability of the feed pellets. Denaturation involves the breakdown of the (Spatial) three
dimensional structure of the proteins (the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures), thereby
changing the bioactivity of the protein. Upon cooling protein reassociate and so bonds can be
established between the different particles. No report could be found in which the effect of processing
variable on feed manufacturing has been described on denaturation of protein and consecutive effect
on physical quality.
5.3 Fibre
Fibre can be classified as water soluble part, which may cause a high viscosity, and a water insoluble
part. The classification may be useful in explaining the effect of different fibre sources on pelleting
characteristics.
Water-soluble fibre like glucans, arabinoxylans and pectin strongly raise the viscosity and may act as
filler in the feed; the viscous material embeds the more coarse particles, thereby reducing the porosity
in the feed. Subsequently, the structural integrity of the feed agglomerate is higher, resulting in higher
durability and hardness of the pellets. During processing, process variables, such as residence time,
moisture content, pressure and heat, alter the state of soluble fibre. To obtain the desired functional
properties, the effect of time, pH and temperature are of major importance (Keller, 1983). Due to the
complexity of the feed mash (blends of several raw materials that differ in composition and functional
properties) and processing conditions (heat, pressure and time relationships), quantitative description
of the effect of fibres, which forms with water a viscous solution /paste, on pellet quality are difficult
to acquire.
The effect of insoluble plant fibres may be two fold. Plant fibres may prove beneficial in the pelleting
process since they have the opportunity of entangling and folding between different particles or
strands of fibre. On the other hand, due to their stiffness and elasticity, they may impair problems to
the pellets-press operator since resilience characteristics of the material oppose good contact between
particle fibres. Moreover, when large fibres are present within the pellet, they might induce a weak
spot in the pellet. Large fibre particles may lead to homogeneity at which pellets are more likely to
break. Increasing the residence time in the die of the pellet –press would diminish the effect due to the
resilience the the material. This is in line with result, who found that an increase in hold time within a
wafering machine resulted in the further stress decay of the materials under investigation, and
subsequently increased durability of the formed wafer. found that expansion of wheat straw blocks
after compression was lower after a longer residence time
5.4 Fat
Added fat in the compound animal feed is known for its adverse effect on pellets hardness and pellets
durability. Since most binding of feed particles incorporates water or, when involved, solubilise
starches, protein, fibres, fat with its hydrophobic nature may interfere with binding properties of
water-soluble components in the feed. Moreover added fat (and to lesser extent, fat enclosed in the
matrix of cell walls) acts as a lubricant between particles and feed mash and the die-wall resulting in a
lowering pelleting pressure. This will already cause lower pellet quality in many cases. Also, as a
result of fat addition various properties of a raw material constituent might be influenced. For instance,
gelatinization of starch can be inhibited in the presence of lipids or delayed to higher temperatures.
This may directly lead to weaker pellets, vulnerable to deterioration in transport systems. Salmon
(1985) showed that more fat in the pellet (0, 30, 60, 90 g kg-1) significantly increased the amount of
fines returned; 2.7, 7, 10.3, 15.6 % with no bentonite added. Richardson and Day (1976) showed that
an increasing amount of fat added in mixer increased the amount of fines returned from the pellet mill
and decreased the amount of mechanical energy (kWh tonne-1) needed to convert 1 tonne of mash into
pellets .
Fat enhances the production rates in pellet mills, primarily because of the lubricating effects of fats
between the meal and die surface (Richardson and Day, 1976;). Because of low friction and pressure
in the die decreased which in turn, would result in feed pellets with lower hardness and durability.
However, some authors suggest that during blending, the feed mash with steam, natural oils and
waxes would accumulate at the contacting sites of two particles and create a binding point either solid
(waxes) or via liquid necking (oil or water), between particles upon cooling (Friedrich 1977). This
could have positive effect on pellet hardness and durability because of immiscibility of water and fats,
there would be an optimum in the amount of bonds established by waxes and fats on one side and
water on the other side.
5.5 Pellet blinders
When physical quality of pellet is not sufficient to obtain a saleable product or it does not meet the
manufacturer’s quality standards, binder material can be incorporated to increase the physical quality
of the pellets. For this purpose, different types of binders are available. The best known binders used
in the animal feed production are bentonite (a clay mineral), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC; modified
cellulose) and lignosulphonates. The effect of binder material depends on the presence of water, which
is required for a binding agent to become active.
Lignosulphonates are by product form the paper industry. During the process of delignifying of fibres,
NaHSO3 and or Na2SO3 is added to which the alkaline components (SO3)-2/ (HSO3)- react with
chemical bonds of the lignin to form water soluble lignosulphonates. Common inclusion levels range
form 0.5 % to 3 %.
Bentonite as binder is used in feed technology to improve physical pellet quality. Its main target is
acting as filler, thereby decreasing porosity in pelleted feed. In addition bentonite works as a lubricant
in the die hole it decreases pressure and subsequently energy requirement of the pellet press. postulate
the bentonite does not have any binding properties in itself. Especially with voluminous feed mashes
as, for instance , fibre – rich diets, bentonite may prove advantageous.
Carboxy-methylcellulose (CMC) can also be used as binder in animal feed production. CMC gives a
viscous solution/paste when mixed with water. Hydration occurs during conditioning. Subsequent
compaction brings particulates close together and allows for the development of ionic attractions
between the CMC and particulates.
6. Conclusions
The production of food grains is almost stagnant whereas the demand is on the rise. Under such a
situation nothing can be wasted. In order to feed the livestock in a productive manner it is very
important now to process /convert by-products, crop residues and agro-industrial wastes into animal
feed. It needs a holistic approach involving animal nutritionists, engineers, bio-chemists and
microbiologists to work together to process the various ingredients and agro-processing wastes and
by-products into feed for livestock, poultry, piggery, fisheries sector.
Chapter: 20
Cleaning and Grading of Forage Seeds
Sanjay Kr. Singh, PK Pathak and CS Sahay

Seed procured from fields have different foreign materials such as chaff, straw, awns, hulls, pods,
stone/clods/dust and other prohibited seeds. Seeds containing these materials cannot be marketed due
to less return and the deterioration in overall quality. The first operation after seed is received from
field is cleaning. The purpose of cleaning and grading of the seed is to get high quality seed which
should be of high grade with cultivar purity and free from inert materials.
Forage/grass seeds are different to those of common cultivated crops such as cereals and pulses in
view of their size, shape, weight, maturity of crops and their use. Some of the grass seeds are very
tiny, light in weight, fluffy and covered with short hairs while others are large and dense. The quality
of seeds could be upgraded by proper seed drying, removing foreign materials and under sized seeds,
grading of seeds and application of chemicals to protect the seed. For cleaning operation, various
available air and screen machines, specific gravity separators and surface texture separators may be
selected for those seeds which have easy flow/motion at the metallic surfaces of the machines. The
hairy grass seeds, which are collected by rubbing, may have the dried leaves and stems, which are
manually sorted in practice. It is also evident that some of the seeds may be de-awned or debearded
according to their specific use.
Pre-cleaning and Conditioning

Pre-cleaning the seed facilitates easy flow during various operations by removing stones, clods, chaffs
various operations. It depends upon the harvesting techniques. More sophistication in harvesting
means less effort on pre-cleaning. An inclined coarse screen moved with reciprocating action is used
as pre-cleaner and the process is called as "Scalping". Air blast systems are also used to remove
straws from Cenchrus ciliaris.
Conditioning is done to remove awns, bristles, hulls or hooks. In hard coat seeds scarification is
practiced to improve the germination. Generally, bullocks or tractors are used for scarification or for
removing awns, bristles etc. from the seeds. Centrifugal screening has abrasive effect and used to
remove soil and stones from Townville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis). In Townsville stylo complete
dehulling is achieved by scarifying which helps to separate the seeds of Crotalaria sp from the
townsville stylo seeds. Debearders are used for deawning the seeds, which constitute high speed
rotating arm. Alternatively, a hammer mill may be employed with care to use full capacity of
machine. A small lot of seed will lead to damage of seeds. Processing equipments involved in pre-
cleaning and conditioning operations were reviewed by Loch (1993).
(i) Hammer mill
Hammer mill have been used traditionally for deawning and dehulling the seeds. After the treatment,
the processed material is cleaned to remove light inert matter and return unprocessed seeds to the
hammer mill. Native grasses like Andropogon, Bouteloua, Sorghastrum, Stripa spp, Cenchrus ciliaris
and Chloris gayana and introduced grasses like Bothriochloa ischaemum were well adapted in USA,
Zimbabwe and Australia using hammer mill.
The capacity of mill depends upon cylinder speed, size and shape of screen perforations and feed rate.
Cylinder speed is reduced to half the normal to have good dehulling. For a 25cm cylinder the safe
operating speed is adjusted to 600-1400 rpm. Over aggressive processing can cause excessive
cracking or breakage of caryopsis, leading to lower germination and shorten the storage life. Rate of
processing depends upon grass varieties and is lowest for the low bulk density seeds having light and
fluffy masses and could range from 90 – 360 kg /h. Sufficient care is required to standardize so as to
minimize the effect of hammer milling on seed viability and ensure that the seed viability is not
adversely affected by the processing. Hammer milling the seed of Seca stylo (Stylosanthes scabra)
was done to reduce the hard seed content. Milling abraded hooks and thus improved seed flow
properties. It dehulled 52 per cent of seeds and when light materials were aspired off it reduced bulk
weight by about 20 per cent (Hopkinson and Paton, 1993). This method proved suitable for partial
dehulling and scarification showing better establishment. Seeds of Alopecurus pratensis and Stripa
comata must be run through a hammer mill or debearder to remove or reduce the awns prior to
cleaning (Smoliak et al, 2002).
Fig 1: Schematic view of a hammer mill

(ii) Debearder
It has a rotor with several steel fingers operating offset and among stationary fingers inside a steel
drum. Pulling and stirring action of chaffy seeds in between the stationery and rotatory steel fingers
results in breaking of awns and other appendages. Brown et. al (1983) used debearders followed by
standard air screen cleaners to improve purity, germination and handling qualities of Andropogon
gerardii, Sorghastrum nutans (Hovarth, 2001). The viability of the debearded seed is maintained upto
3 years.
(iii) Pebble mil
It is used for removing cob –webby hairs from blue grass and similar seeds. Mixture of seeds and
smooth half-inch pebbles is loaded in the rotating drum rotating at slow speed till fuzz gets separated
from the seeds. Pebbles are removed later by scalping.
(iv)Belt thresher
Seeds are passed in between the resilient surfaces of the two endless upper and lower belts moving at
different speed ratio of 8:1 in the same direction. The clearance and contact pressure is maintained by
adjusting the spring loads kept behind the belts. Differential speed induces the scarification action and
produces gentle hammer milling action as in Desmodium intortum (Linnett, 1977).
Cleaning and Grading

Cleaning of seed is aimed at achieving the physical purity by careful separation of extraneous
material, other crop seeds and objectionable weed seeds. Grading on the other hand is the process to
remove dead and diseased seeds from seed lot with aim to classify seeds of uniform size and shape to
facilitate mechanical planting as well for value addition to increase sales appeal.
Bringing the purity components as per the permissible standards is necessary for regulated marketing
of seed (Table 1). Tropical pasture seeds have peculiar seed structures and appendages which
interferes with the smooth flow of seeds this leading to increased cost of post harvest handling of
seeds. Admixture of objectionable weed seeds, similar to crop seeds with pasture crop seeds becomes
a source of spread to the uninfested fields. The presence of Cuscuta sp in Lucerne (Medicago sativa),
infestation of berseem (Trifolium alexadriun) field with (Chicorium intybus L.) weed and crotalaria
sp in Townsville stylo are example for weed seeds mixing with crop seeds. A number of cleaning and
grading machines are commercially available for major grain seeds which could also be utilized for
forage seeds with utmost care.
Table.1 Maximum permissible limits for objectionable weed seeds under Indian Minimum Seed
Certification Standards (IMSCS)
S.No. Crop Objectionable weed seeds Standards

Foundation Seed Certified Seed
1. Lucerne (Medicago Dodder (Cucucuta sp) 5/kg 10/kg
sativa)
2. Berseem (Trifoilum Chichory (Chicorium 5/kg 10/kg
alexandrium) intybus L.)
3. Oats (Avena sativa) Wild oats (Avena fatua L.) 2/kg 5/kg
(i) Air screen cleaners

These are the simplest one that separates the seed according to size and weight. It consists of two to
eight screens and a fan for air blast. In the machine, seeds are metered into hopper and passed through
sieves, which segregates the material into fractions and collected through openings. The set of screen
reciprocates horizontally due to eccentric attached to drive shaft. The fan is used either to blow off the
lighter material or suck them into a cyclone separator. Screens are made-up either of metal sheet
having round, oblong or triangular holes or of wire-mesh having rectangular or square mesh. For
proper cleaning, adjustments are required to the degree of air blast from fan, pitch or size of screens
and shaking of screens depending upon eccentric speed. The screens that are to be used with screen
cleaner and graders are recommended on the basis of shape and size of the seed (Table 2). Over 200
screens are available and their combination may be used with proper record keeping for decision-
making. For forage seeds some of the screen combinations are shown in Table 3.
Table 2 Recommended types of screens for various seed shapes

Shape of seeds Category of screens Type of screens
Round seeds Top screen Round hole
Bottom screen Slotted hole
Oblong seeds Top screen Oblong hole
Bottom screen Oblong hole
Lens shaped seeds Top screen Oblong hole
Bottom screen Round hole
Table 3 Screen perforation sizes for seed grading in forages
S.No. Crop Screen perforation size in millimeter

Top screen Bottom screen
1. Berseem- (a) Diploid 2.00r 1.00s
(b)Tetraploid 2.40r 1.20s
2. Forage Sorghum 4.00r, 4.75r 2.10s
3. Cluster Bean (Guar) 6.00r 1.80s
4. Guinea grass 2.10r 2.40 x 0.65m
5. Indian Clover (Senji) 2.10r 2.40 x 0.80 m
6. Lucerne 2.50r 0.80 s
7. Oats 7.50r 2.00s, 1.85s
8. Setaria Grass 2.40r 1.90 s
9. Sudan Grass 4.00r 1.20s
10. M.P. Chari 4.80r 2.00 s
11. Teosinte (Maize Chari) 6.40r 2.83 s
12. Dolichos 8.0 r 4.75 s
Two classes of screens in air screen cleaners viz. scalping and grading are available. The size of
scalping screens should be large enough to pass through all the seed components and scalp off the
coarse impurities while the size of grading screens should be just smaller than the optimum thickness
of good seed (as per sieve analysis) so as to pass other than good and ride over all the good seeds. In
general scalping screen is set steep slope for fast removal of trashes and weed seeds while grading
screen is set to flat slope as to hold the seed longer for close separation.
(ii) Sizing equipment
These are classified on the basis of seed width, thickness and length. For width and thickness
separators machine comprises of a feed hopper, moving screens and a screen clearing mechanism.
Round hole screens are used for width separator whereas slotted screens are used for thickness
separators. Length separators are based on lifting short seeds out of mixture and transferring them to a
separate chute. It can separate the impurities (especially broken seeds and weed seeds) that are longer
or shorter than the crop seed. Two types of length separators are used.
1. Disc type, have number of discs in series fitted on a shaft in a close housing, when
shaft revolves on horizontal axis seeds longer than width of pocket fall out.
2. Cylindrical type, have indented cylinder and receiving trough into which short seeds is
lifted.
The length separator comprises an inclined revolving cylinder with a fixed or interchangeable outer
shell, which is impressed or indented with hemispherical pockets on the inside. A trough runs the full
length inside the cylinder and collects seed discharged by gravity from pockets as the cylinder
revolves. The edge of the trough nearest the cylinder may be raised or lowered to alter the angle of
seed collection. In operation of machine the seed mixture is fed into the bottom of the cylinder where
only short seed fitting the shape and size of selected pocket is lifted and deposited in the trough. Long
and oversize seed remains behind. This unit is most commonly used unit for processing tropical seeds
such as Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) from green panic Panicum maximum), Linnett, 1977.
Fig 2 Schematic view of indented cylinder separator

1 lifting and dropping of shorter seeds into trough,
2 rejected longer seeds, 3 adjustable trough, 4 conveying augers
Fig 3 Schematic view of disc separator

(iii) Specific gravity separator
Specific gravity tables are used to separate seed of similar size, shape and surface texture on the basis
of differences in gravity. They raise the quality of otherwise similar seed viz. deteriorated, mouldy,
insect eaten or pinched seed may return similar dimensions to high quality seed but have lower unit
weight. Similarly gravel or soil particles of similar dimensions to seed will have higher unit weight
and are separated. This machine is helpful to enhance the germination capacity of seed lot to meet out
the minimum standards of seed certification. The machine has a triangular shaped perforated deck,
which is properly baffled underneath to insure uniform distribution of air. The materials are separated
sequentially according to gravity. Volume of air is responsible for proper stratification of seed mass.
It should be adjusted so that heavy seed lie on the deck and the lighter seed are lifted into the upper
layer of the seed mass.
Fig 4 Schematic view of gravity separator
(iv) Surface texture separators
Seeds already cleaned on the basis of size, weight or specific gravity can be upgraded further
on the basis of surface texture differences. A roll mill is a finishing device in which seed is fed onto
pairs of inclined velvet covered rollers rotating in opposite directions. Smooth seed slides down the
middle while the seed with a rough coat is deflected and falls over.
(v) Spiral separators
It separates the seed as per their roundness and is preferred for separating wheat from gram.
(vi) Inclined drapers
It has an inclined belt of varying texture and a hopper located in
the middle. When seed falls on belt the smooth seed revolves down and
rough-coated seed moves upwards and are collected separately.
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi has
developed Inclined Belt Draper in collaboration with Central Institute of
Post Harvest Engineering & Technology, Ludhiana. The essential parts
of the developed inclined belt draper are (1) a metering hopper which
feeds seed across the width of the belt, at its lengthwise centre; (2) a belt
made of canvas of width according to the machine model; (3) a tilt
mechanism which allows the slope of the belt to be adjusted; and (4) a
variable speed drive to permit adjusting the upward-moving speed of the
belt.
(vii) Colour separators

It separates the seed according to difference in colour brightness and is used to separate the
discoloured seeds when the density and dimensions of these seeds are same as that of good seeds and
the normal seed processing operations is not effective to cause separation. The machine uses the
photoelectric cells/ sensors to compare the seed colour with the background filter, which is selected to
reflect the light of same brightness as that of good seeds. The mass to be colour sorted is metered by
vibratory feeder and is fed to the sorting chamber in a single fine line. Seed which differ in colour is
detected by the photo electric sensors which generates an electric impulse which in turn activates an
air jet to blow out the discoloured seed. The efficiency of the machine depends upon the vibration of
feeder, speed of feeding belt, feed rate, position of discharge point, background colour filter, colour
range, ejector timings, lag time after which an ejector is activated. Discolored seed due to weather
damage or disease infection are separated by this machine. “Chicory” a weed seed in berseem may
also be effectively separated but the cost of such equipment is very high.
(viii) Species specific separators
Townsville stylo cleaner

It works on the principle of differences in the shape. Seed of S. humilis contains an appendage in the
form of a pronounced curl or hook which causes the seed to bunch together in a solid unmanageable
mass. The appendages obstructing the seed flow itself are taken advantage in separating the seed in
townsville stylo cleaner. The cleaner consists of a slightly inclined revolving cylinder covered with
small aperture wire mesh (about 1½ mm). A collection trough having a screw conveyer is mounted
inside the cylinder near the top for collecting the seed.
A rotary brush revolving in opposite direction is placed to disengage the seed in such a way that seed
falls into the trough to convey to the outlet. In the process the seed mass is forked into the bottom of
the moving mesh cylinder and the hooks of the townsville stylo seed after contacting with apertures
of mesh are lifted up to the location of brush and disengaged by its action and dropped into trough. It
is then conveyed to an outlet. All other material (weeds, other crop seeds, inert matter immature
seeds, soil and stones) is left behind in the bottom of the cylinder and discharged through an opening.
The separation process is however slow as cylinder rotating at 60 rpm produced very high quality
product. However some loss of seed and damage to the seed structures are inevitable. An alternative
faster process but less efficient process for cleaning such seeds are pretreating carefully in peged
drum or with abrasive rolls to remove and modify the appendages and then clean in normal process
line. Losses in this case are however higher and seed may have damaged as embryo is situated very
close to the base of appendages. In India, farmers practice are to collect the seed of S. hamata from
ground after sweeping the entire field and then clean it using series of wire mesh sieves, usually 3 to 6
times and winnowing (Fig 5).
Fig 5 Farmer practice in India for cleaning stylo seed
Buffel grass seed cleaner
Two principles viz. walker principle and Nisbet principle are applied for cleaning the buffel grass
(Cenchrus ciliaris ) on the basis of size and length differences. This is typically used for those grass
seeds which have flow problems due to long straw, leaf and similar inert material. In the walker
principle, the machine consists of a feed container connected to a pneumatic conveyor powered by a
centrifugal fan. Two wire mesh screens turning in opposite directions are placed vertically behind the
conveyor. Long straws and chaffy material in the seed mass when fed by pneumatic conveyor and
thrown against revolving vertical screen are intercepted by first screen and fall away. Most of the
seeds and inert matter pass through it. Any other straw or chaffy matters which pass through the first
are caught by the second screen. The seed then flows to a holding chamber, followed by one or two
interchangeable horizontal oscillating screens. The feed rate needs to be monitored to avoid bunching
of the seed mass. In the nisbet principal, a revolving cylinder (50rpm) covered with a small section of
close mesh for small seed removal and a large section of 6-9mm square mesh netting for trash
separation are used. A high velocity air stream passed through the meshed cylinder resulted the seed
to pass through the mesh to delivery point leaving trashes behind in the cylinder for discharge at the
end. These special units have the capacity to remove long straws from seeds like Cenchrus ciliaris,
which are otherwise unsuitable for treatment in the usual machines. The seeds of Cenchrus ciliaris
plucked manually however need little attention on cleaning as very little trashes are reported in such
cases depending upon individuals.
Floatation tank
Grevis James and Fusae (1974) developed a batch separator on the principle of density difference
using flotation of material in liquid for removal of the stones and soils from suction harvested siratro
(Macroptilum atropurpureum) seed. After reducing the soil and foreign materials from 90% to 10%
using conventional cleaning, seeds are introduced to the floatation tank containing perchloroethylene,
a non-phytotoxic industrial organic solvent. The specific gravity of the organic solvent allows siratro
seeds to float, while soil and stones sink as sludge. Siratro seed in surface is slimmed off and dregs of
liquid are centrifuged and then recovered seed dried (Linnet, 1977).
Other special separators viz. vacuum type grass separates and centrifugal separators were also
specifically developed (Linnet, 1977). The typical processing sequences for the tropical pasture seeds
are very specific for individual species that are shown in Table 4 and flow sequences in Fig 6 (Gregg,
1983).
Table 4 Suggested seed processing procedures for tropical seeds
Seed Pretreatment General processing sequence

S. hamata and S. humilis Centrifugal screen, scalper Screen/air-length separator
S. hamata and S. humilis Oat clipper or scarifier Screen/air-length separator-gravity as
necessary
Chloris gayana, P. a) Dry Screen/air-length separator
maximum b) Screen Vacuum
C. ciliaris Walker-treater
M.minutiflora - Screen/air-length separator (very slow)

M. minutiflora Oat clipper Screen/air-length separator-gravity
Sorghum spp - Screen/air gravity-length
Separator-treater (Where necessary)
Brachiaria spp. - Screen/air-length separator
M.atropurpureum - Screen, air-length separator (where
necessary) Gravity-flotation
D. intortus Gentle hammer milling Screen/ air-gravity
Other tropical species Screen (where necessary) Screen/air-length separator-gravity
If awns and other appendages are removed, it is better to embed the seed with pelleting technology or
suitable coating techniques to ensure their firm establishment in the field. Authors like Linnet (1977),
Purdy et al (1961), Strickland (1971) and Loch (1993) have extensively covered the principles,
practices of pasture seed processing followed in different countries. The seeds of the cultivated fodder
crops viz. Corn (Zea mays), Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), Oats (Avena sativa), Cowpea and lablab can
be easily processed using conventional machinery. On the other hand, handling non free flowing
grass seeds and interlocking bulk seeds as Townsville stylo seeds needs special processing machines.
The innovation and renovation of the appropriate processing techniques and machineries for the
effective removal of these seed appendages from the grasses and legumes are continuing till
economically viable and precise sequence is achieved.
Chapter: 21
Grazing management for sustainable production of quality forages
S.K. Mahanta
Grazing is the major feed resources for livestock. In fact, livestock management practices evolved
through forests with evolution of human and domestication of animals. Even today a sizeable portion
of livestock is being sustained on grazing resources. Grazing based animal husbandry plays important
role in rural economy in a country like India (Mahanta et al., 2007). Grazing activity of animals
mainly depends on the availability of grazing resources (Table 1) from pastures and other grazing
lands like forests, cultivable waste lands, fallow lands etc. According to wasteland atlas of India
(2000), the total area available for grazing accounts for about 40% of the country’s geographical area.
Table 1. Grazing resources in India
Resources Area (Million ha) Percentage

Forests 69.41 22.70
Permanent pastures, grazing lands 10.90 3.60
Cultivable wasteland 13.66 4.50
Fallow land 24.99 8.10
Fallow land other than current fallows 10.19 3.30
Barren uncultivable wastelands 19.26 6.30
Total common property resources other than forests 54.01 17.70
Source: Vision 2030, IGFRI (2011)
Total area available for grazing is highly variable among the states (Table 2). Rajasthan followed by
Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra and Madhya Pradesh constitute a major share of total grazing are in the
country. States like Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh in Western Himalayan region also have
a considerable area under grazing. Although the percentage of area under grazing to that of total
geographical area is maximum in Eastern Himalayan region covering states like Nagaland,
Meghalaya, Manipur, Skkim etc. Most of the states under Indo-Gangetic Plains are poor in respect of
grazing resources, but they are potentially rich in cultivated fodder being available from arable lands.
Population density of livestock per unit of geographical area of India was found 1.67 which indicated
high pressure on land. Among the states, West Bengal have the highest livestock population density
(4.22) followed by Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Assam, Andhra Pradesh etc, much
above the national average. On the contrary, all the North East States except Assam bear less pressure
of livestock on their respective geographical lands. When total livestock population was expressed in
terms Adult Cattle Unit (ACUs) and grazing pressure was calculated based on total grazing land
available, India had 2.95 ACU/ha, which is much higher than the optimum (1.0 ACU/ha). However,
situation varies among the states, ranging from 0.26 (Manipu/Sikkim) to 24.31 (West Bengal)
ACU/ha. Thus During the last few decades increasing domestic animal population has placed
enormous grazing pressure on grazing lands. This increasing pressure has resulted in grassland
deterioration and desertification. For restoration of such lands, now we urgently require judicious
implementation of grazing management practices (ICAR, 2009).
Table 2. State-wise grazing resources and grazing pressure based on Adult Cattle Units (ACUs)
States Geographical Total grazing Livestock Livestock Grazing

area (m ha) area (m ha) population density pressure
(m heads) (number/ha) (ACU/ha)
Andhra Pradesh 27.51 7.47 60.17 2.19 3.61
Arunachal Pradesh 8.37 2.19 1.41 0.17 0.29
Assam 7.84 2.53 17.22 2.20 3.05
Bihar 9.42 1.85 30.34 3.22 7.35
Chhattisgarh 13.51 2.76 14.41 1.07 2.34
Goa 0.37 0.07 0.17 0.46 1.09
Gujarat 19.60 4.89 23.51 1.20 2.16
Haryana 4.42 0.52 8.85 2.00 7.63
Himachal Pradesh 5.57 4.05 5.21 0.94 0.58
Jammu & Kashmir 10.14 6.82 10.98 1.08 0.72
Jharkhand 7.97 1.57 18.1 2.27 5.17
Karnataka 19.17 2.92 30.85 1.61 4.74
Kerala 3.88 0.21 3.58 0.92 7.64
Madhya Pradesh 30.82 6.29 40.69 1.32 2.90
Maharashtra 30.77 6.83 35.95 1.17 2.36
Manipur 2.23 1.36 0.78 0.35 0.26
Meghalaya 2.24 1.35 1.82 0.81 0.60
Mizoram 2.10 0.44 0.32 0.15 0.33
Nagaland 1.65 1 1.41 0.85 0.63
Orissa 15.57 3.14 23.05 1.48 3.29
Punjab 5.03 0.27 7.4 1.47 12.29
Rajasthan 34.22 13.04 56.63 1.65 1.95
Sikkim 0.71 0.46 0.27 0.38 0.26
Tamil Nadu 13.00 3.28 30.75 2.37 4.20
Tripura 1.04 0.19 1.86 1.79 4.39
Uttarakhand 5.34 0.77 5.14 0.96 2.99
Uttar Pradesh 24.09 3.49 60.27 2.50 7.74
West Bengal 8.87 0.69 37.41 4.22 24.31
Union Territories 1.09 0.09 0.95 0.87 4.73
Total 316.54 80.54 529.5 1.67 2.95
Source: Calculated based on livestock population (BAHS, 2012)
Grazing pressure and animal performance
There is a fundamental relation between gain per animal and gain per unit of area (Fig 1). At very low
grazing pressure/stocking rates animals can selectively forage with little competition from each other.
This promotes high gain or high body condition of individual animals but does not result in maximum
productivity per acre. As grazing pressure/stocking rate increases competition between animals for
forage increases resulting in a decrease in individual animal performance. At heavy stocking rates
individual animal performance also decrease because lower quality plants make up a larger portion of
the diet and total intake can be reduced. Between the extremes of light and heavy grazing there is an
optimum stocking rate that maximizes productivity per acre.
Effects of high grazing pressure

· Animal performance reduced
· Intake and forage quality reduced
· Desirable forage plants replaced by less desirable species
· Overall forage productivity reduced
· Increase in bare soil and preferred grazing areas become degraded
· Increased replacement feed costs
· Potential for water quality impacts due to increased bacteria, sediment, and nutrient loading
Fig 1. Fundamental relation between gain per animal and gain per unit of area
Effects of low grazing pressure
· Economic potential not fully realized, system sustainability at risk

· Mature animals maintain over-fat body condition which can reduce reproductive capacity
· On perennial dominated rangelands patchy grazing results in development of ‘wolfy’ plants
that are used little or not at all. This reduces over all productivity. This occurs less in annual
dominated rangeland types but under used patches of less desirable vegetation may occur
· Some desirable forage species can be crowded out by taller growing species
· Reduced biodiversity of species that thrive under moderate grazing
Meeting nutrient demands of a grazing animal
Herbivore animals eat to satisfy a need and desire for nutrients, the most prominent being energy and
protein. Demands for maintenance, lactation, growth, and conceptus sum to the total requirements
(Fig. 2).
Intake demand center Contributors to demand:

(Hypothalamus) * Body weight (maintenance)
* Lactation
* Conceptus (pregnancy)
* Growth (heifers or
immature)
Constraints (limitations
to fulfilling demand)
* Fragility
* Forage quality
* Herbage mass
* Canopy structure
Fig 2. Regulation of voluntary intake by the pasture characteristics

Energy requirements may be modified by requirements for locomotion or thermal stress. Feed bulk
density, ease of consumption, ease of communition, palatability, and ease of digestion and passage
once in the rumen all interact with the needs and desires of the animal. Maximum or optimum nutrient
intake occurs under ideal conditions and when the nutritional needs are met, anatomical sensors send a
signal to the brain that satiety has occurred. Under many grazing situations, satiety does not occur
because the animal is unable to satisfy its nutrient requirements with the forage on offer. Diet selection
by large herbivores such as cattle requires the solution of two opposing problems: obtaining adequate
quantity of forage with maximal quality. Reduced dry matter (DM) intake is the major impact of
inadequate nutrition of grazing animals, whether constrained by deficient herbage quality or quantity
(Mahanta et al., 2009).
Impact of grazing on plant vegetation
In human-controlled grazing systems, the detrimental or beneficial effects of grazing are largely
determined by how and where grazing is used. The negative impacts of livestock grazing are often the
result of misuse. The benefits of domestic livestock grazing rarely come by accident, and are likely the
result of careful program design and regular monitoring. However, the ecological impacts of grazing
depend on the type of ecosystem, plant community, and conditions of a particular site. Grazing affects
the species composition of a plant community through herbivores selecting or avoiding specific plants,
and through differential tolerance of plants to grazing (Fig 3). Continued selective grazing can reduce
the competitive vigor of grazed plants and release ungrazed species from competition (Szaro 1989).
Trampling can also indiscriminately injure plants, and may reduce their competitive and reproductive
capacities within the plant community. The physical structure of plant communities is also changed by
grazing. Defoliation by grazing herbivores altered plant height and canopy cover, and changed species
composition to include structurally different types of plants. Trampling may change the structure of
plant communities by breaking and beating down vegetation.
Fig 3. Plant-herbivore interaction in grassland ecosystem
Animals play a major role in regulating primary production (energy produced by photosynthesis) in
grazing ecosystems (Huntly 1991). Defoliation can promote shoot growth and enhance light levels,
soil moisture, and nutrient availability (Frank et al. 1998). Overgrazing, however, can significantly
reduce biomass production.In Botswana, herbaceous biomass was found to be more responsive to
differences in grazing intensities between communal grazing land and ranches. Ranches exhibited a
higher herbaceous biomass than the communal grazing land at most sites, which could be due to the
higher grazing intensities of the communal grazing lands compared with ranches. Mphinyane et al.
(2008) have also demonstrated that the biomass of herbaceous plants is highly responsive to grazing
pressures.
A long term (1990-1994) study was carried out with small ruminants’ on natural grassland and
silvopasture under in situ grazing condition and to record their impact on plant vegetation at research
farm, National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi. In natural grassland, the plant composition
(number of plants) of Sehima nervosum, Iseilema laxium, Themeda guadrivalvis and forbs increased
from 1990 to 1994 after about 3 years of grazing round the year by sheep and goats (Table 3). While
percentage of Heteropogon contortus, other grasses and legumes decreased during 1994 as compared
to 1990 (Das and Mahanta, 2009), the decreased in per cent composition of H.contortus, other grasses
and legumes might be due to round the year grazing of animals and as such most of the annual species
could not form the mature seeds (Sharma et al., 2001). Again per cent dominance of all the perennial
grass species increased during 1994 as compared to 1990. It revealed that there was no harmful effect
of grazing on the health of perennial grasses. The per cent basal cover of other grasses and legumes
decreased considerably during 1994 than that of 1990. This showed that the vegetation was more
utilized by animals as well as mostly being of an annual nature, more damage occurred during the
grazing period. Increase in per cent composition as well as dominance during 1994 in case of forbs
showed the aggressiveness of these species as most of species were less palatable. Decrease in per cent
composition and dominance of other grasses and legumes may be attributed to their more palatability
and high grazing frequency.
Table 3. Impact of grazing on plant vegetation under natural grassland system
Species Composition (%) Dominance (%)

1990 1994 1990 1994
Sehima nervosum 20.38 23.67 47.92 52.45
Heteropogon contortus 23.62 14.16 21.78 27.02
Iseilema laxum 0.53 1.05 0.78 1.09
Themeda guadrivalvis 2.38 29.64 1.82 8.27
Other grasses 26.46 7.48 17.66 3.28
Legumes 14.10 7.50 4.29 1.19
Forbs 12.41 16.28 5.69 6.62
In silvopasture system, the plant population of C. fulvus increased during 1994 four times as compared
to 1990 (Table 4), while decrease in plant population of S. hamata and S. scabra was recorded to the
tune of 67 and 93.4 per cent, respectively after three years of grazing of sheep and goats. Thus, the
results showed that there was no adverse effect of grazing on C. fulvus stand and as such it can tolerate
grazing for many years with optimum stocking rate of animals. In case of Stylosanthes species, it can
be attributed that these species may not withstand grazing for many years. However, S. hamata
seemed to be more tolerant of grazing than S. scabra.
Table 4. Impact of grazing on grass and legume population under silvopastoral system
Species Plant population/m2

1990 1994
Chrysopogon fulvus 2.0±0.0 8.0±1.4
Stylosanthes hamata 10.6±5.1 3.5±10.6
Stylosanthes scabra 10.7±6.0 0.7±0.2
Among the tree components, survival of A. amara was excellent and D. cinerea was medium, while
L.leucocephala was very poor during 1994 (Table 5). Low survival of L. leucocephala was due to
attack by sheep and goats during summer months for peeling the bark.
Table 5. Impact of grazing on survival of tree component under silvopastoral system
Species Plant population/m2

1990 1994
Albizia amara 100.0±0.0 92.5±7.0
Dichrostachys cinerea 93.3±2.5 64.0±11.9
Leucaena leucocephala 96.6±0.8 11.5±5.7
Impact of grazing on soil health
Trampling, pawing, and wallowing by domestic animals disturb the soil and in some cases completely
destroy soil crusts. Microbiotic soil crusts play an important role in regulating nutrient cycling,
biomass production, soil stability, and water infiltration. In ecosystems that evolved with frequent
grazing disturbance, soil crust disruption maintains natural ecosystem processes and biological
communities. On the contrary, in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, loss of microbiotic crusts can have
detrimental long-term effects (Belsky and Gelbard 2000).
In fact, soils with good physical and chemical characteristics are essential in maintaining productivity
in terrestrial ecosystems and driving processes that maintain environmental quality and sustainability
(Liebig et al., 2006). The biological, physical, and chemical properties of soil can be modified by
livestock grazing. It has been demonstrated that intensive livestock grazing profoundly affects soils as
it increases soil compaction, soil erosion and loss, decreases soil organic matter, affect nutrient cycling
and reduces water infiltration (Ingram et al., 2008). Livestock grazing cause disturbances to surface
soils and can influence grassland ecosystem productivity and fertility by altering the soil physical and
chemical properties and thus cause land degradation.
.
Heavy grazing reduces vegetation cover and limit organic matter inputs into the soil, and subsequently
affects soil structure stability, resistance to rainfall impact, infiltration rate and soil microbial activity.
Overgrazing caused by livestock grazing reduces plant biomass accumulation and cause a shift in plant
species composition by replacing highly palatable grass species with their unpalatable counterparts.
The shift in species composition can affect soil fertility because of changes in root biomass and
quality of organic matter, and decrease soil’s capacity to sequester carbon. Research has shown that
soil nutrient depletion reduces the primary production of pasture lands which in turn affect their
carrying capacity (Girmay et al., 2008)
Table 6. Physical characteristics of soil (top 6 cm) in forest and silvopasture (with grazing sheep)
Attributes Forest Silvopasture

Bulk density* (g/cc) 0.93b 1.05a
Porosity* (cc/cc) 64.8a 60.4b
Water filled pores (cc/cc) 37.4 39.6
Air-filled pores* (cc/cc) 37.3a 20.8b
Again 11 years duration study in silvopastures with sheep as grazing animal indicated that soils in
silvopastures were denser, had lower water infiltration rates, and less air filled pore volume than those
in forests. These are all consistent with increased soil compaction having occurred in silvopastures
(Sharrow, 2007). Since pasture/forest and silvopasture soil properties were similar earlier, additional
soil compaction in silvopastures compared to forests was most likely due to either the direct (hoof
impact) or indirect (litter reduction) effects of livestock grazing rather than from increased tree
growth. However, soil infiltration rates and air-filled pore space rapidly improved when grazing
ceased, suggesting that soil physical structure in the experimental area is maintained by dynamic
processes and can quickly change with changing conditions. This provides opportunities to manipulate
soil structure through grazing management in silvopastures.
Grazing management practices

Grazing management can be defined as the manipulation of livestock grazing to accomplish a desired
result. In fact, grazing management is a powerful tool that strongly influences pasture and animal
performance (Mahanta et al., 2007). Choice of grazing management affects pasture yield, nutritive
value, and stand longevity. Choice of grazing management also affects weight gain or milk production
of an individual animal as well as the amount of milk or meat produced per hectare. In order to
implement an effective grazing management program, there are a number of important issues, which
should be kept in mind. These include a) what is required for plants and animals to be productive in a
pasture-livestock system, b) what management choices have the greatest impact on success or failure
of a grazing system, and c) how can the nutritional requirements of the animal be matched with the
ability of the pasture to supply nutrients (Sollenberger et al., 2009).
A. Requirements for plant and animals

Plants and animals have specific requirements to live and be productive. Plants must maintain growing
points to produce regrowth after grazing. They must also maintain an energy source, either leaf area
that can produce new energy, or stems and roots that contain stored energy. Animals must have
enough forage to eat and it must be nutritious enough to meet their requirements for maintenance and
production. In some cases, pasture managers (graziers) must favor the pasture in their management
decisions, and in other cases they must favor the animal. For example, if forage is in limited supply,
the grazier may choose to end grazing and purchase hay if he thinks that further grazing may seriously
weaken the pasture. In a similar situation with different forage, the grazier may decide that the pasture
is capable of tolerating overgrazing and will allow grazing to continue and avoid the added cost of
purchased feed. Understanding the give and take between pastures and animals and being able to
anticipate the results of decisions are important steps in designing effective grazing management
programs.
B. Choice of a grazing system

The most important choices to be made in designing a grazing management program are what forages
to graze, what animals will do the grazing, and how close and how often will the pasture be grazed.
How close to graze is the decision that has the greatest impact on pasture and animal productivity.
Some graziers use pasture height as the indicator of when it is time to move cattle from a pasture or
provide supplement to the animals. Others have a concept of how many animals they can carry on
their pasture over a growing season (stocking rate). They understand that during dry or cool periods
the pasture may be somewhat overgrazed but during wet and mild times the pasture may be
undergrazed.
Whether decisions about how close to graze are based on pasture height or on stocking rate, closeness
of grazing is very important. For the pasture, it determines how much leaf area is remaining after
grazing and how many growing points are available to provide regrowth. As a general rule, tall-
growing, bunch grasses that elevate their leaves and growing points should be grazed to a taller
stubble height than low-growing grasses. The low-growing grasses typically have leaves and growing
points at or very close to the soil surface to protect them from being overgrazed. For the animal, closer
grazing forces them to eat more stem. Stem is less nutritious than leaf, so close grazing will result in
lower weight gain or milk production per animal. Undergrazing allows animals to select leaf to eat and
does not stress the plant, but it results in poor utilization of the pasture resource. Although meat or
milk production per animal may be high when pastures are undergrazed, production per hectare will be
low.
Consideration of how often to graze a pasture leads directly to the question of whether it is better to
use continuous, rotational or deferred rotational stocking. Continuous stocking, also called continuous
grazing, is the continuous, unrestricted access to a pasture by livestock throughout a year or grazing
season. In this type of system, the livestock decide how frequently and how close a particular plant or
area of the pasture will be grazed. Continuous stocking allows the animals to be more selective in their
choice of diet, but it does not provide for a regular period of rest for the pasture. If continuous stocking
is used with a high stocking rate, plants are defoliated very frequently, depleting their leaf area,
reserves, and growing points. Some desirable pasture species can be eliminated over time using this
type of grazing management. Advantages of continuous stocking include lower input costs and fewer
management decisions.
Rotational grazing is the grazing of two or more subdivisions of the pasture, called paddocks, in
sequence followed by a rest period for the recovery and regrowth of the paddock. The major
difference between continuous and rotational stocking is that the grazier, and not the livestock, is
controlling the length of the rest period. Either rotationally or continuously stocked pastures can be
overstocked or understocked, managed well or mismanaged. So, rotational stocking alone is no
guarantee of good pasture management. Advantages of rotational stocking may include improved
pasture longevity, more timely utilization of forage, opportunities to conserve surplus forage,
increased stocking rate (generally 15-30%), more uniform distribution of excreta by the animals, and
better animal management. The main decisions that the grazier must make when using rotational
stocking are the length of the rest period between grazings and the length of time that the livestock
will be on one paddock (called the grazing period). With this information, the approximate number of
paddocks needed can be calculated. For example, if the grazier wants a pasture rest period of
approximately 28 days and a grazing period of 7 days per paddock, 5 paddocks will be needed. If a
rest period of 20 days and a grazing period of 1 day is desirable, then 21 paddocks will be needed. A
simple formula to calculate the number of paddocks needed is the sum of length of grazing period and
length of rest period divided by the length of the grazing period. Many graziers will vary the length of
the rest period with season of the year. During times of slow pasture growth when the weather is dry
or cool, the rest period will be longer. When pasture growth rate increases because rainfall is plentiful
and temperatures are warm, the rate at which the forage matures also increases. To avoid having
stemmy, low quality forage on the pasture, the rest period must be shortened. This can be
accomplished by removing some paddocks from the rotation and using them for hay or haylage, or by
increasing the stocking rate so that the grazing period can be reduced.
C. Matching animal requirements with pasture’s ability to supply nutrients

Grazing management practices exist that allow the grazier to allocate nutrients to best meet the
nutritional needs of the grazing animal. Examples include creep grazing, first-last grazing, and forward
creep grazing. Creep grazing is used when the mother is still nursing her offspring. The mothers are
grazing a base pasture and adjacent to the base pasture is a creep pasture that has been planted to a
forage that is high in nutritive value. Creep gates are present in the fence line between the base pasture
and the creep pasture. These gates, or openings, are large enough that the offspring can pass through,
but small enough that the mothers cannot. Thus the offspring can gain access to very high quality
forage that is better able to meet their high nutrient requirements.
First-last grazing is used in conjunction with rotational stocking. In this system, the animals with high
nutrient requirements (for example, growing animals) enter the paddock first and remove the leafy,
high quality tops of the forage. After they have removed the most nutritious forage, they are moved to
the next paddock. Animals with lower nutrient requirements (for example, mature dry animals) then
are moved into the paddock that the growing animals just left. They graze the stemmy, lower quality
material remaining until a desired pasture height is reached. Using this system, a single forage or
forage mixture can be used to meet the differing nutritional requirements of two classes of animals.
Table 7. Soil fertility status and herbage biomass production under different grazing management
systems
Attributes Grazing management systems

Continuous Rotational Deferred
rotational
Soil fertility
Organic carbon (%) 0.51 0.55 0.57
Available-N (kg/ha) 192.6 209.2 215.2
Available-P (kg/ha) 6.69 6.98 7.45
Available-K (kg/ha) 160.0 170.3 182.4
Herbage & quality
Herbage biomass (DM; t/ha) 7.41 7.86 8.03
DM (%) 46.23 44.05 44.44
CP (%) 5.52 5.65 5.86
NDF (%) 73.02 71.95 70.93
ADF (%) 50.60 47.08 47.27
In a natural vegetation three grazing management practices (continuous, rotational and deferred
rotational) were imposed to evaluate the performances of different components like soil, pastures and
animals (Pailan et al., 2007). In each grazing system four plots of 1 ha each was taken and grazing was
allowed @ 1.5 ACU/ ha in mixed herd of sheep, goats and heifers throughout the year. From July to
October the animals were maintained only on grazing and thereafter between November to June, they
were supplemented with concentrates to meet nutrient requirements. It was observed that improved
grazing management practices like rotational or deferred rotational had comparatively better
performances (Table 7) over continuous system of grazing in terms of less soil as well as nutrient loss,
improved soil fertility status, higher herbage biomass and animal production.
Cell grazing and methane/carbon emission from pasture

The diet of a ruminant can greatly impact on the amount of methane that that an animal produces.
There is a strong relationship between feed type, quality and digestibility and the production of
methane in a ruminant. Stock grazing low quality pastures and fibrous shrubs will emit more methane
per kilogram of production than the same stock grazing on high quality pastures. This highlights the
importance of maintaining high quality pastures through grazing management strategies such as
rotational grazing and the incorporation of perennials.
Pasture choice can also have an effect on a pasture’s ability to sequester carbon. Perennial pastures
with fibrous root systems have the ability to sequester a large amount of carbon, perennial grasses
more so than legumes. It has been estimated that a well-managed pasture can store 8% more soil
carbon than a native forest. The key to increasing soil carbon levels is to keep pastures in a growing
state for as long as possible through grazing management. Careful grazing management has the ability
to decrease the overall emissions of a livestock system. Stock grazing high quality pastures are likely
to have lower emissions per unit of production when compared to stock grazing on low quality
pastures. Pastures that are heavily grazed and left to regrow (such as cell grazing) will be in a high
growth stage for longer and will have the ability to maximise carbon sequestration. By improving
pastures with management techniques the system will become as efficient as possible and emissions
per unit of production are likely to decrease.
Hence overgrazing and poorly managed grasslands/pastures led to removal of desirable plant species,
decrease water infiltration into soil, increase soil erosion, reduce soil nutrients and alter the plant
community composition to a less desirable state. It also increases carbon/methane emission. These
changes compromise both the short and long-term productivity of grassland ecosystems. Grazing
policies, therefore, need to be adopted with improved grazing and pasture management practices, if
grassland/pasture resources are to be used sustainably to benefit the future generation. However, no
single grazing management program will be appropriate for all forages in all environments. Because of
the likelihood of greater forage production and pasture persistence, rotational grazing has potential to
increase animal production. The choice of grazing method will depend on the characteristics of a
particular livestock enterprise including the forage being grazed, the stocking rate used, the economics
of production etc.
Chapter: 22
Improved Livestock Management for Quality Animal Production
A.K. Misra and S B Maity

In recent years, organized livestock farming is of growing importance over conventional farming in
several countries worldwide including developing countries like India possibly due to increased
demand for consumer's quality products. Concerns about risk of chemical drug residues, transfer of
antibiotic resistance from animal to human through animal derived foods, animal welfare associated
with conventional farming system, environmental effects and improved food quality in pasture based
livestock farming have perhaps led consumers to certified food (Sundrum 2001). Breed selection,
sound animal husbandry practices and nutritional management appropriate to a particular environment
are the essential keys to improve animal welfare and health and therefore successful livestock
livestock farming. These necessitate considerable management skills of the farmers and throw
challenges to livestock advisors, nutritionists including veterinary surgeons and research scientists.
Farming animals under an livestock production system requires an even greater standard of
management than under conventional systems. Therefore, a central task for the future is to identify and
to transfer knowledge for good manufacturing livestock practices because many health problems can
be resolved with good management and nutrition (Schumucher 2004).
Introduction of Improved Management Practices

1. Internal and external parasites control
Gastrointestinal parasitic infection is probably one of the most economic and production losses in
livestock worldwide (Waller 2006). Nematode infections decrease feed intake, utilization of feed,
body weight gain, milk production and reproductive performance. It is also important in respect of
development of resistant strain of gastrointestinal parasites to broad spectrum anthelmintics. It is
perhaps more challenges for livestock organic farming because of the more reliant on the pastures and
banning the use of any chemical drugs. Grazing management combined with nutritional
supplementation with concentrates and/or forage was the most frequently reported anti-parasite
strategy in livestock farming (Svensson et al 2000). The sustainable nematode control strategies
should entail a greater variety of control measures in combination.
External parasitic infestation may also be controlled through improved drug as well as managements.
External parasite can be managed through improved inject able drugs.
2. Supplementation of nutritional ingredients for better health

Protein
Many research studies have reported that protein supplementation either in the form of by-pass protein
or higher dietary protein improves resilience and expression of immunity to gastrointestinal parasites
(Coop and Kyriazakis 2001). Protein supplementation in the form of rumen undegradable protein has
been shown to increase the resistance of sheep to Haemonchus contortus (Wallace et al 1996). When
animals, which were infected with gastrointestinal nematodes such as Trichostrongylus colubriformis,
were fed with increased amount of rumen undegradable protein in the form of fish meal, animals
decreased less body weight than those animals that were not fed the increased level of rumen
undegradable protein . Buttler et al (1999) also reported that animals parasitized with Trichostrongylus
colubriformis and fed with 22% protein diet achieved growth rates similar to those uninfected low
protein diets as evidenced by reduced fecal egg counts. Improved host nutrition primarily by-pass
protein increases the rate of rejection of adult parasites without affecting the rate of establishment of
infective larvae. However, the potential of metabolizable protein to enhance resistance to nematode
infection is dependent on the requirement relative to its supply in the diet and demand for other
competing physiological functions (Kahn et al 2000). Genetic resistance to nematodes to animals is
only expressed in the presence of improved metabolizable protein supply.
Minerals
Because of the dependence of home grown feeds and forages in principles of livestock farming and
minerals deficiency in pastures characteristics of area specific, minerals deficiency in animals could be
more prevalent in organic animal farming. Zinc plays an important role to build up a successful
immune response against gastrointestinal nematodes. Iron had presumably no direct effect on parasitic
control; however, iron supplementation improves host performance because it restores iron status in
the body which is lost through blood during gastrointestinal parasitic infections (Koshi and Scott
2003). In certain areas deficient in Mo in soil and pasture, supplementation of Mo equivalent to
feeding a diet containing 4-8 mg/kg DM in sheep reduces worm burden.Bang et al (1990) reported that
Cu oxides particle (5g) decreased the establishment rate of T. circumcina and Haemonchus contortus
by 56 and 96%, respectively; but not of Trichostrongylus colubriformis in lamb. Excess Mn may
increase more infection as parasites need it and perhaps toxic to immunity response (Koski and Scott
2003). Coop and Field (1983) reported that the phosphorus level of the diet at a level of 0.28% DM
increased weight gain of lambs and decreased worm burden and fecal eggs counts infected with
Trichostrongylus vitrinus over those lambs fed a low (0.19%) phosphorus level diet.
Vitamins
Deficiency of vitamin A, B12 (or cobalt), E (or selenium) have shown to delay the adult worm
expulsion, more parasitic eggs in feces and increased fecundity due to changes in host intestinal
physiology that promote host protection. Vellema et al (1996) noted that vitamin B12 deficient lambs
had higher faecal egg counts than vitamin B12 supplemented one after natural infection with
gastrointestinal nematodes.
Feed additives- fungus

Feeding of fungi such as Duddingtonia flagrans, Harposporrium anguillulae and Arthrobotrys spp. as
a feed additive during the time when the parasite infestation is expected to high have the potential to
control gastrointestinal parasite in the pasture (Thamsborg et al 1999). Feeding of these nematode-
destroying fungi which survived in the gastro-intestinal tract have reported to reduce the infectivity of
herbage and also reduced worm burdens in grazing animals (Larsen et al 1997). The feeding of
different doses of Duddingtonia flagrans spores mixed with complete diet to the does reduced the
infective larvae with the increased doses of spores, and feeding daily was more effective than
intermittent feeding. It cannot control the parasites when these are in vegetation from feces.
Tree leaves
Many studies have shown that use of tree leaves as ingredient of concentrate mixtures in the diets of
ruminant could be particularly important in small ruminants for improved utilization of cereal straws
(Patra et al 2003). This is also beneficial for control of internal parasites as tree leaves contain many
polyphenolic compounds which are inhibitory to gastrointestinal nematodes In inclusion of dried
leaves of Acacia karoo in their basal diet at a rate of 40% dry matter and infected with Haemonchus
contortus significantly decreased in the faecal egg counts, and worm burdens were reduced by 34%,
which is attributed the presence of tannins in tree leaves.
3. Pasture management
Composition of pasture
Bioactive forages have shown to reduce the parasite infestation and improve the performance of the
animals grazing these forages. Some legume forages such as sulla (Hedysarium coronarium), sainfoin
(Onobrychis viciifolia), birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), maku (Lotus pedunculatus) and Serecea
lespedeza reduce parasitic infections as measured by reduced parasitic egg excretion, egg hatching,
total worm burden and rate of larval development of parasites specific to different parts of
gastrointestinal tract (Min and Hart 2003). Niezen et al (1995) reported that lambs grazed on
Hedysariumcoronarium, which contains condensed tannins, had lower faecal egg counts and lower
Trichostrongylus spp. burdens than those grazed on Medicago sativa, which does not contain
condensed tannins. Min et al (2003) noted that Angora goats grazing on Lespedeza cuneata (5.2%
condensed tannins/kg DM) had a reduction of 76% in total worm burdens, 94% Haemonchus, 100%
Teladorsagia spp and Trichostrongylus compared to goats on crabgrass/tall fescue (0.2% condensed
tannins/kg DM). Similarly, in vitro experiment with condensed tannins extracted from range of
forages showed that antiparasitic effect of condensed tannins was dependent on developmental stages
of parasites and types of condensed tannins with sulla tannins having least effect. Niezen et al (2002)
noted that feeding sulla to young lamb resulted in lower Trychostrongylus circumcinacta burden but
not in Trychostrongylus colubriformis. One common characteristic of these legume forages is the
presence of medium to high content of condensed tannins. Effects of tannins on worm biology such as
direct anthelmintic properties as indicated by larval development in the absence of host immunity
and/or indirectly on improved protein nutrition and thereby host immunity against parasite are
explained for the mechanism of action of these plants. However, the effect of condensed tannins
containing forages on gastrointestinal parasitic infection is dependent upon the period of feeding, types
of parasitic infections and levels and types of condensed tannins present in forages. These
"anthelmintic pastures", therefore, represent most promising solution to control of nematode infections
and their use is compatible to principles of organic farming.
Ploughing and agronomic operations

Plaughing a pasture to break up the dung can spread the parasitic eggs and larvae which makes
difficult for the animals to selectively graze away from infected area. Harrowing a pasture before dry
period may be valuable when pasture gets rest for long time. This prevents the animals from grazing in
the same field or paddock. Because freezing temperatures or droughts eliminate some infectious
larvae, cold or dry periods can be relied upon to reduce or extend rest periods. A three-year rest period
(short rotation) is required for a complete cleaning.
4.Grazing management
Mixed grazing of a pasture by different species such as cattle and sheep (but not sheep and goat)
together may reduce the infection as a very little cross infection of parasites occurs between animal
species. There are even certain species of worms that affect only a particular ruminant species.
Controlled grazing methods permit pastures to rest and soil life to function well, and contamination
can be reduced. If pastures remain ungrazed for more than one year, it could be a clean pasture in
which there will have been no contamination of worm larvae. However, a three-year rest period is
required for complete cleaning from the parasite contamination in the pastures. This decrease occurs
because soil organisms, including earthworms, dung beetles, and nematophagous fungi destroy
parasite eggs and larvae. The height of the pasture sward can affect parasites. The majority of worm
larvae live in the first one to two inch from the ground onto vegetations, so not allowing animals to
graze below that point can reduce a lot of infestation. Alternate grazing of two or more ruminant
species has been shown to be of value in controlling some species of parasites (Thamsborg et al 1999).
For example, cattle, sheep and goats seldom compete for the same type of grazing because the species
prefer different types of length of forages. Running cattle in pastures that have had sheep grazing on
them helps break up the life cycle of sheep parasites, since sheep and cattle do not have the same
species of worms infesting them. This affects parasites loads of each grazing species as transmission is
dependent on ingesting the parasite larvae on certain parts of the forage. If the cattle are allowed to
graze the grass down to 3 to 5 cm from the ground, many parasites will be killed off from exposure to
the sun.
Rotational grazing
This has also been found to be effective for reducing the burden of parasites in ruminants (Thamsborg
et al 1999). A successful approach could be adopted in which pastures are subdivided and the animals
are intensively grazed for short period at higher stocking density when the forage is at the young,
active growing stage. If this type of rotation is carefully planned, the animals can be returned to the
original pasture which could be nutritious.
4. Stocking rate management

Stocking rate management is practiced by many organic farmers to control parasite infection
(Thamsborg et al 1999). Thamsborg et al (1996; 1998) noted positive relationship between stocking
rate of lambs and pasture infectivity. Similarly, low stocking as compared to high stocking rate
reduced nematode infection in heifer and steers grazing in wet marginal grasslands. Low stocking rate
reduces parasite infestations as pastures get less contaminated and sward height remains high to be
eaten lower part of the sward which is mostly contaminated by parasite larvae.
Dosing grazing time

Parasitic infestation becomes more prevalent in some seasons of the year depending upon the climatic
condition, nematode species infection and length of the grazing season. Therefore, the animals should
ideally be put in a new pasture when infection is expected to high. It is preferable to restrict grazing in
highly contaminated fields during infection season. And also, risk of infection is lowered by allowing
the grazing after the dew has dried or pasture has dried out after rain. This forces the larvae to stay at
ground level and they are less likely consumed by animals. Githigia et al (2001) reported that weaning
the lambs at the beginning of July and moving them before the expected mid-summer rise in herbage
infection to a clean pasture may prevent parasitic gastroenteritis and achieve good production in
Denmark.
Strategic grazing
Young animals are most susceptible to parasitic infestation than mature animals due to less immunity
to parasites at that time. Therefore, the access of clean ungrazed pasture first to young animals such as
lamb, calf or kid may reduce the risk of parasite infection (Thamsborg et al 1999). In a survey of
Hertzberg et al (2004), it has been shown that adoption of grazing management strategies reduced
parasitic infections considerably. Svensson et al (2000) noted that the most common procedure
practiced by organic farmers (40% vs. 3%) was to rotate calves on pastures not grazed by any cattle in
the current or previous grazing seasons.
Botanical dewormers
Current standard of organic farming recommend use of phytotherapeutic and homeopathic treatment in
some countries; however, efficacy and experts in this field are limited. There are several plants, not
common feeds that have been used sporadically for controlling internal parasites in ruminants but
there is no much data available on the efficacy and optimum dose for their uses. Most of this
information is anecdotal and needs further verification if these plants/herbs are to be used effectively.
Many botanical dewormers that could be added in animal feed includes garlic, pumpkin seed, worm
wood (Artemisia spp.), neem seed, tansy (Tanacetum vulgare), wild gingers (Asarum canadense),
mustard, common juniper (Juniperus communis), male fern radishes, raw grated turnips or
horseradish, pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) and could be effective against
gastrointestinal, lung and liver parasites. Common juniper has deworming properties, notably against
liver fluke. Blackberries, raspberries and young ash and elder shoots are other plant species with
deworming properties that could be available in pastures. Some plants such as fennel (Ferula spp.),
carrots and wild parsnips that found abundantly alongside fields and roads could probably be used to
graze to control some parasites
6. Immunity to infectious diseases

Livestock production standards considerably restrict on the use of many animal health inputs that are
routinely used in conventional production systems Hence, there is much more growing significance to
boost immunity to animals in different micro-organisms in organic farming as compared to
conventional livestock farming. The immune system is designed to resist the infectious bacteria, virus,
fungi, and protozoa. This utilizes a diverse cell populations and acts through highly developed
mechanism to ward off infectious diseases. The significance of nutritional status and the ability of the
animals to defend against infectious organisms are well established. However, recently several trace
minerals, vitamins and other nutrients have been recognized as essential factors for proper functioning
of immune system.
7. Supplementation of Minerals and Vitamines

Minerals:Trace minerals that have been identified as important for normal immune function and
disease resistance are zinc, manganese, selenium and copper in many field conditions . Zn and Mn are
essential for the integrity of the epithelial tissue such as gastrointestinal, urinary, reproductory and
respiratory tract thereby reduce infiltration of pathogen through these epithelial lining and protect.
Copper and zinc are important for both cell and humoral mediated immunity through many molecular
functions such as production of antibodies, neutrophils and lymphocytes replication, and antioxidant
enzyme production. They have shown to enhance recovery rate in bacterial and viral diseases
including mammary gland infection during lactation. Chirase et al (1991) noted that Zn
supplementation in the form of zinc-methionine (89 ppm) or zinc oxide (90 ppm) enhanced the
recovery rate from challenged infection of bovine rhinotracaeitis virus as compared to control (31-35
ppm) in cattle. Organic Zn supplementation (Zn-proteinate) also decreased infections of the mammary
gland during lactation in dairy cows (Spain 1993). Cu supplementation (20 ppm) has shown to reduce
severity of udder infection challenged with Escherechia coli than control (6.5 ppm) in dairy heifer
(Scaletti et al 2003). Many researchers currently assume that many trace minerals are required at
higher levels for normal functioning of immune system to resist infections than that required for
normal growth, feed efficiency, gestation and lactation. It indicates that higher nutrient levels than
those recommended by different agencies may be needed for maximum productivity and health of the
animals.
Vitamins: Carotenoids (beta-carotene and lycopene), vitamin A, E and C are naturally-occurring

antioxidant nutrients that scavenge detrimental free radicals produced through normal cellular activity
and from various stressors (Bendich 1993) and appear to be important for animal health. The
antioxidant function of these micronutrients could enhance immunity by maintaining the functional
and structural integrity of important immune cells. Both in vitro and in vivo studies showed that these
antioxidant vitamins generally enhance different aspects of cell mediated and humoral immunity. A
compromised immune system will result in increased susceptibility to diseases, thereby leading to
increased animal morbidity and mortality, and reduced animal production efficiency.
8. Probiotics and prebiotics
Probiotics
A number of studies support the use of probiotics (lactic acid bacteria, such as lactobacilli and
bifidobacteria, and yeast culture such as saccharomyces spp, and other beneficial bacteria) to prevent
and treat many infectious diseases, particularly of the intestine such as diarrhoea in young animals
besides many other health benefits and animal performance. Probiotic supplementation of the
intestinal microflora enhances defense, primarily by preventing colonization by pathogens and
offering a greater stability of the intestinal ecosystem, and by an indirect, adjuvant-like stimulation of
innate and acquired immune functions of intestine (Fuller 1989). The responses are usually expected
when animals are under stress and unwanted microbial populations in the intestine are high (Fuller
1989). Besides the health benefits of probiotics, it improves growth rate and feed conversion
efficiency in calves (Ramaswami et al 2005), microbial protein flow and DM intake particularly in
poor manage mental conditions.
Prebiotics
A range of non-digestible dietary supplements (lactulose, lactilol, a variety of oligosaccharides and
inulin) have now been identified that modify the balance of the intestinal microflora, stimulating the
growth and/or activity of beneficial organisms such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilii and suppressing
potentially deleterious bacteria .Prebiotics have shown promise in the prevention and control of
exogenous and endogenous intestinal infections and good health of the animals .
9. Rumen manipulation by plant secondary metabolites

Antibiotics and growth promoting hormones and other chemical rumen manipulators are restricted in
livestock farming. Therefore, recently alternative nutritional technologies emerge out to cope up with
the situation. Naturally occurring many plant secondary metabolites have shown potential to improve
rumen fermentation favorably and to increase feed efficiency, live weight gain. These can be used in
environmentally friendly animal production. Unlike chemical feed additives, these plant feed additives
could pass easily many of the regulatory hurdles for use in organic farming. Therefore, for the future,
feeding with high bioactive forage content could be one way of improving livestock production and
the product quality of organic farming (Nielsen and Thamsborg 2005).
Saponins
Saponins are the naturally occurring secondary compounds present in many plants and of high
molecular weight glycosides in which sugars are linked to a triterpene or steroidal aglycone moiety.
Saponins (Yucca schidigera and Quillaja saponaria) or saponin containing forage (Enterolobium
cyclocarpum, Sesbania sesban) and fruits (Sapindus saponaria, Sapindus rarak) are toxic to rumen
protozoa which could be beneficial for improved ruminant productivity depending on the diets and the
saponins involved. Similarly methanol extract of pods of Acacia concinna and ethanol extract of
Sapindus mukorossi tropical plants, have been shown to inhibit rumen protozoa in vitro (Patra et al)
which is attributed to the presence of saponins. Supplementation of pericarp of the fruit of Sapindus
saponaria in sheep inhibited rumen protozoa and stimulated bacterial and fungal counts, and dry
matter degradation . Ciliate protozoa are primarily responsible for the substantial turnover of bacterial
protein. As a consequence nitrogen retention is improved by defaunation. It is generally agreed that
removing or suppressing protozoa would result in increased ruminant performance, particularly on
low-protein diet. Similarly, use of essential oil as feed additive in the diet of ruminants could be
beneficial by modifying the protein digestion in the rumen.
Tannins
Tannins are the polyphenolic polymers distributed widely in many plants. A number of forages such as
sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia), Lotus pedunculatus (lotus) and Lotus corniculatus (Birdsfoot trefoil)
contain condensed tannins which are beneficial for the rumen fermentation when they are present in
moderate quantity (4 to 6% of the total) in the diets. However, high dietary concentrations (6-12%
DM) may depress voluntary feed intake, digestive efficiency and animal productivity. However, a
decrease of dry matter intake, diet digestibility and growth rate was obtained in sheep fed forages
containing greater than 5.5% of DM of condensed tannins. The lambs grazing Lolium corniculatus had
better wool growth and carcass gain than grazing lucerne which was attributed to the presence of
condensed tannins (3.4%) in the diets. Similarly, Lolium corniculatus fed to lactating ewes increased
the secretion rates of whole milk, lactose and protein by 21, 12 and 14%, respectively, during mid and
late lactation . It also responsible for 57% increase in the milk protein of cows fed on Lolium
corniculatus. Feeding of 7.5% tamarind seed husk, a tannin rich by-product to cross-bred dairy cows
also resulted in increased body weight gain and milk protein content in mid lactation (Bhatta et al
2000). Besides, tannins have found to decrease methane inhibition which is beneficial for sparing of
energy loss as methane. There are many plant secondary metabolites such as that present in garlic
(Patra et al 2006), flavonoids and essential oils (Wallace et al 2002) which could have also potential to
improve ruminant fermentations such decreased methane production and hence improve energy
utilization and protein economy.
Conclusions
A good accomplishment in livestock farming system stands upon the nutritional management of the
animals for better performance and animal health. Nutrition plays a key role to prevent nematode
infections, to provide wellbeing to the animals through better immunity and to improve animal
production. Bioactive plant secondary metabolites in forages and as feed supplements could have the
potential to improve future livestock farming.
Roles of nutritionists and veterinarians are more important in organic system than conventional system
which needs improved nutritional management and efficient surveillances of diseases and organisms
that are economically important.
·Many nutritional technologies emerged out in the area of prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal
parasite infections, boosting immunity and enhancing production to solve the situations faced in
livestock production entail more systematic research.
Chapter: 23
Strategies for management of anti-quality compounds and heavy metal toxicity in
forages
K K Singh
Any toxic metal may be called heavy metal, irrespective of their atomic mass or density. Heavy metals
are a member of an ill-defined subset of elements that exhibit metallic properties. These include the
transition metals, some metalloids, lanthanides, and actinides. One source defines heavy metal as one
of the common transition metals, such as copper, lead, and zinc. These metals are a cause of
environmental pollution from sources such as leaded petrol, industrial effluents, and leaching of metal
ions from the soil into lakes and rivers by acid rain.
Any metal (or metalloid) species may be considered a “contaminant” if it occurs where it is unwanted,
or in a form or concentration that causes a detrimental effect to human, animal or environment.
Metals/metalloids include lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr),
copper (Cu), selenium (Se), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn). Other less common metallic
contaminants include aluminium (Al), cesium (Cs), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo),
strontium (Sr), and uranium (U).
Effect of heavy metal on health

Living organisms require varying amounts of heavy metals. Iron, cobalt, copper, manganese,
molybdenum, and zinc are required by humans. All metals are toxic at higher concentrations.
Excessive levels can be damaging to the organism. Other heavy metals such as mercury, plutonium,
and lead are toxic metals that have no known vital or beneficial effect on organisms, and their
accumulation over time in the bodies of animals can cause serious illness. Certain elements that are
normally toxic are for certain organisms or under certain conditions, beneficial. Examples include
vanadium, tungsten, and even cadmium. The Types of heavy metals and their effect on human health
with their permissible limits are enumerated in (Table 1).
Mechanism of heavy metal toxicity

Heavy metals disrupt metabolic functions in two ways:
1. They accumulate and thereby disrupt function in vital organs and glands such as the heart,
brain, kidneys, bone, liver, etc.
2. They displace the vital nutritional minerals from their original place, thereb, hindering their
biological function. It is, however, impossible to live in an environment free of heavy metals.
There are many ways by which these toxins can be introduced into the body such as
consumption of foods, beverages, skin exposure, and the inhaled air.
Plants experience oxidative stress upon exposure to heavy metals that leads to cellular damage and
disturbance of cellular ionic homeostasis. To minimize the detrimental effects of heavy metal exposure
and their accumulation, plants have evolved detoxification mechanisms mainly based on chelation and
subcellular compartmentalization. A principal class of heavy metal chelator known in plants is
phytochelatins (PCs), are synthesized no--translationally from reduced glutathione (GSH) in a
transpeptidation reaction catalyzed by the enzyme phytochelatin synthase (PCS). Therefore,
availability of glutathione is very essential for PCs synthesis in plants at least during their exposure to
heavy metals.
On investigating the heavy metal and soil solution chemical changes at field moisture, after growth of
either Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) or sunflower (Helianthus annus L.), in lon--term contaminated
soils and the subsequent metal uptake by the selected plants, it was reported that soluble Cd and Zn
decreased after Indian mustard growth in all soils, and this was attributed to increases in soil solution
pH (by 0.9 units) after plant growth. Concentrations of soluble Cu and Pb decreased in acidic soils but
increased in alkaline soils, hyper accumulator plants have been shown to either acidify rhizosphere
soils and subsequently increase the dissolved concentrations of heavy metals or increase soil pH after
plant growth. Increased pH and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) interacted antagonistically with
regard to increased metal concentrations in solution. In the acidic soils (pH 6.5), the effect of pH
increases was stronger than that of DOC increases, resulting in an overall decrease in dissolved metal
concentrations in these soils. In contrast, the increased DOC after plant growth increased dissolved
metal concentrations in the alkaline soils. Chemical changes in the rhizosphere also played an
important role in controlling the speciation of metals in soil solution. Changes in dissolved metal
concentrations and species greatly influenced metal uptake by plants. Plant uptake was primarily
related to the concentrations of metals in the soil solution rather than total metal concentrations of the
soil.
The permissible limits for heavy metals in plant species as per Indian Pharmacopoeia 2007 guidelines
are given in Table 2. Research indicates that Nitric Oxide (NO) is involved in the regulation of
multiple plant responses to a variety of abiotic and biotic stresses. NO helps plants resist heavy metal
stress, first, by indirectly scavenging heavy meta--induced Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), It might
be involved in increasing the antioxidant content and antioxidative enzyme activity in plants. Second,
by affecting root cell wall components it might increase heavy metal accumulation in root cell walls
and decrease heavy metal accumulation in the soluble fraction of leaves in plants. Finally, it could
function as a signaling molecule in the cascade of events leading to changes in gene expression under
heavy metal stresses.
Worldwide debate is on for the use of ayurvedic metallic preparations. The use of herbal medicine, the
dominant form of treatment in developing countries has been increasing in recent years. Some of the
herbs selectively absorb and accumulate the heavy metals from the soils, which in turn can be utilized
to decontaminate the soils. Several metallic preparations are in clinical use since 12th century. They
have specific methods for their detoxification and Bhasma preparation, which becomes suitable for
clinical use in therapeutic doses. Since centuries these preparations are sustaining themselves in use,
therefore one can not just simply write off its usage just by assuming that heavy metals are toxic.
Proper scientific documentation is the demand of time to validate the claims about these metallic
preparations and also to ascertain whether the conventional Shodhan (purification) process of
ayurveda is being properly followed or not. Post controversy reports, it has now been made mandatory
(WHO guidelines) that herbal products should be tested for their heavy metal content prior to export
so that heavy metals remain within permissible limits.
Nitrate and Oxalate toxicity

Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and metabolize them to form plant proteins. If plants absorb excess
nitrates and are consumed by livestock before they are converted to proteins, nitrate poisoning can
occur. Forage crops that are over fertilized before being harvested or grazed can be a common cause of
nitrate poisoning. However, excess nitrate accumulation also occurs readily in some common pasture
weeds. Nitrate concentration can vary widely among plants and growing conditions. Nitrates are
highest in plants in mornings and evenings, and on cool, cloudy days (when plant metabolism is
slower). Drought, fertilization and nutrient deficiency can result in nitrate accumulation in plant
tissues.Highest concentrations occur generally in stems, rather than leaves, flowers or fruit/seed.
Animal metabolism converts nitrate (NO3) to nitrite (NO2), which is toxic. This occurs less frequently
for horses which do not readily convert nitrate to nitrite. In small quantities, nitrates are reduced by
beneficial bacteria in the rumen to microbial proteins. It is the rapid absorption of large quantities of
nitrates that can lead to poisoning, overwhelming the rumen’s ability to convert nitrates into proteins.
Increasing the carbohydrates (energy content) in an animal’s diet can prevent poisoning as it allows
the conversion of nitrates to proteins to occur more quickly, thus reducing the likelihood of nitrate
poisoning. Symptoms of nitrate poisoning include drowsiness and weakness followed by muscular
tremors, increased heart and respiratory rates, staggering gait and recumbency (inability to stand
upright without support). Sub-lethal doses can cause abortion and reduced milk production. Animals
suspected of having nitrate poisoning should be kept stress free and the suspect food source removed.
Forages assumed of being high in nitrates, especially if they have been heavily fertilized with N-
fertilizer or experienced drought, should be tested. Rather then absorbing excess nitrates, some plants
store high quantities of potassium and sodium oxalates (salts). If large quantities of oxalate
accumulating plants are eaten, the rumen is overwhelmed and unable to metabolize the salts and they
are absorbed into the bloodstream. In the bloodstream they form insoluble salts that precipitate in the
kidney, causing kidney failure. Sheep are most susceptible, then cattle. Cattle are able to detoxify large
quantities of oxalates in their rumen, reducing chances of poisoning. Animals can develop a tolerance
for oxalate accumulating plants by building up the concentration of oxalate-degrading bacteria in the
rumen. If eaten in small amounts over time, with other feed to dilute the concentrations in the rumen,
oxalate accumulating plants cease to be a problem. Within a few hours of poisoning, animals develop
muscle tremors, tetany (calcium deficiency), weakness and recumbency (inability to stand upright
without support). Coma and death can follow within 12 hours of consumption.
Hydrocyanic acid poisoning

Sorghums, sorghum-sudangrass crosses and sudangrasses may be poisonous if grazed or fed
improperly. The danger of prussic acid poisoning is greatest when livestock graze forage sorghum
varieties and crosses, less when they graze sorghum-sudangrass crosses, and least when they graze
sudangrasses. The amount of prussic acid is also affected by soil fertility. Soils high in available
nitrogen and low in phosphorus increase the potential of prussic acid.
The greatest number of livestock losses occur when grazing after a period of drought or a series of
frosts. Also, young regrowth forage, especially sorghum and sorghum-sudangrass crosses, can be very
toxic. The young, dark green growth or regrowth is potentially dangerous to livestock. Shortly after
frost, prussic acid release potential increases slightly. However, they can be safely grazed a few weeks
after freezing if there is no substantial regrowth.
As plants mature and plant height increases, the risk of prussic acid poisoning is reduced. Only during
times of stress, such as drought or frost, will toxicity remain high in maturing plants. Since prussic
acid poisoning is very fast-acting on high-risk forage, death will occur quickly. Watch animals closely
for any signs of toxicity. If there is any question that there may be poison in a stand, secure a good
uniform sample from throughout the field, collecting mainly stems randomly, then package them in a
good plastic bag and mail or deliver them to a diagnostic laboratory. If possible, he adds, keep the
sample cool and, if frozen, be sure it remains frozen until it arrives at the laboratory. However, given
the volatile nature of prussic acid, even if the lab analysis indicates a potential for prussic acid
poisoning the actual forage may be safe to eat after the stems have become dried, cracked and have
allowed the toxic gas to escape.
The active compound is hydrocyanic acid (HCN). Symptoms of HCN poisoning are gasping,
staggering, trembling muscles, convulsions, and death resulting from respiratory failure. The mucous
membranes of the mouth and eyes may have a blue coloration as evidence of cyanosis. In cases of
recovery, there appears to be no permanent effects. Hay maybe be dangerous when cut but becomes
safe in time through volatilization of the HCN. Hay stored for two or more months gradually losses all
its cyanide potential. Certain marsh grasses, such as arrowgrass, are dangerous. Livestock deaths have
occurred on meadows after hay harvest, because arrowgrass revives quickly after mowing and is more
prominent than the second growth of other grasses. Chemical analysis of the arrowgrass plant shows a
high salt content; lack of salt on the pasture could lead livestock to select this plant to meet salt
requirements.
Chapter: 24
Strategies for organic milk production
S.B. Maity and B.P. Kushwaha

Organic farming in its broadest sense is a system of farm design and management to create an
ecosystem, which can achieve sustainable productivity without the use of synthetic inputs such as
chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Speedy et al., 2001). Organic forage production system is holistic
approach for sustainable forage production utilizing available organic inputs with soil, water,
fertilizers, seed and pesticide management. It promotes and enhance the agro-ecosystem health,
including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil health. Organic forage production system should
adopt locally available inputs and adapted system for efficient utilization. This is accomplished by
using, wherever possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using
synthetic materials, and harnessing the synergies and beneficial interactions among various
components to fulfill any specific function within system. The primary goal of organic farming is to
optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and
people. Any organic system is designed to achieve few goals like:
· Enhance biological diversity within the whole system.
· Increase soil biological activity;
· Maintain long term soil fertility;
· Recycle waste product within the system to return nutrient to soil;
· Rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural system;
· Promote the healthy use of soil, water as well as to minimize all forms of pollutions;
· Maintain organic integrity in all steps of production system.
Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are
being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly rainfed, tribal, mountains and hilly areas
of the country. But much of the organic produce were of economic importance like herbs, medicinal
plants etc. Presently organic farming is gaining attention among farmers, entrepreneurs, policy makers
and agricultural scientists for the reason that it minimizes the dependence on chemical inputs
(fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and other agro-chemicals) to improve the quality of resources. The
Green revolution technologies involved greater use of synthetic agrochemicals with the adoption of
nutrient responsive, high-yielding varieties of crops that boosted the production per hectare in most of
the cases. In pace of tome, demand for production increased but actual production either slowed down
or in a fixed plate. Priorities in agriculture are gradually focused on individual crop performance
followed by total system productivity. Now, organic forage production is very limited due to limited
scope of organic dairying in the country. With more demand of organic milk, meat and dairy products
from elite consumers, organic forage production process gaining momentum in the country.
Large numbers of farmers opted organic farming either individual or in group but organized way of
farming is limited. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Chattisgarh and North Eastern states have started
sporadic organic agriculture. Organic way of livestock rearing also gaining popularity in Gujarat and
Rajasthan. But system certification yet to be started in India.
Organic systems of forage production for feeding ruminants are based on a grass plus legume based
sward with regular reseeding, placing a high demand on seed of appropriate varieties. At present,
organic forage production is limited due to different reasons. The seed of forage species used by
organic farmers is produced conventionally using inorganic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides and
fungicides to produce economic seed yields and maintain the seed quality and purity required by the
seed certification agencies. As per IFOAM, seed for use in organic production must be produced
organically. Conventional grass seed crops require mineral nitrogen at precise stage of crop
development to regulate the balance between vegetative and reproductive growth, stimulates
flowering, ensure good seed filling. In organic systems, nitrogen can be supplied by application of
animal manure or by using forage legume to fix atmospheric nitrogen, either by relying on the residual
N in the soil or by using forage legumes as companion crops.
The livestock sector plays an essential role in agriculture and economic development as well as food
security. Global livestock output grew at a rate of 2% in 1999 to surpass 233 million tones during
2000. The global demand for livestock product expected to be doubled by 2020 (Speedy, 2001). As a
global average, animal products provide about 16% of the calories in the diet. Livestock industry
therefore can be seen to have great economic and nutritional significance in world as a whole. To
support the livestock sector, development of fodder sector is inevitable and in new era organic forage
production will support organic milk production to satisfy consumers demand of healthy dairy milk
and its product.
Fertilization Policy Under Organic Standard

The general principle of fertilization is that sufficient quantity of biodegradable material of microbial,
plant and animal origin should be returned soil fertility having biological activity within it. As per the
National Standard, the followings (Table 1) are some of the materials allowed either fully or in
restricted way under organic production.
Table 1. Organic nutritional inputs as permitted/restricted by National Standard.
S.No. Origin Materials Production Status of
level acceptance
1 Plant -Crop residue On farm unit Permitted
-Green manure On farm unit Permitted
-Plant residue compost On farm unit Permitted
-Sea weed extracts On farm unit Restricted
-Saw dust On farm unit Restricted
2 Animal -Dung and urine of livestock On farm unit Permitted
-Poultry manure On farm unit Permitted
-FYM and slurry On & out farm Out farm
unit restricted
-Blood, meat, bone and leather --- Restricted
meal
3 Microbial - Bio-fertilizer - -
4 Minerals - Rock Phosphate - Restricted
- Trace Elements Restricted
- Basic slag Restricted
5 Others -Industrial by-products Restricted
-Saw dust Restricted
-Organic house compost Restricted
*Source: Bhattacharya and Kumar, 2005
State of Standards And Regulations

The Codex Alimentarius Commission(FAO, 2001), a joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme,
began in 1991 elaborating guidelines for the production, processing, labeling and marketing of
organically produced food. The requirements in these Codex Guidelines are in line with IFOAM Basic
Standards and the EU Regulation for organic food. In the view of IFOAM, which was actively
involved in the elaboration of guidelines, this Codex document is an important step in the
harmonization of international rules in order to build up consumer trust.
The IFOAM develops the IFOAM Basic Standards (IBS). These are presented as general principles,
recommendations, basic standards and derogations. The IFOAM Basic Standards define how organic
products are grown, produced, processed and handled. They provide a framework for certification
bodies and standard setting organization world wide to develop their own certification standards, but
are not used for certification on their own. However, the country specific certification standards take
into account specific local conditions and provide more specific requirements than IFOAM Basic
Standards. In India, Codex Standards followed for quality and food safety of food for human
consumption. Codex has considered several pesticide residues in milk and recommended MRLs for 83
pesticide residues in milk.
Government of India, in its Gazette of India has (March 24, 2006) fixed standards for 7 bio-fertilizers
and given the guidelines for certification in respect of manufacturing organic bio-fertilizers.
Control of pesticide residues in forages:

Through green revolution agricultural production has been increased manifold but use of insecticide
and pesticide has also been increased in crops as well as in forage crop production. Synthetic organic
insecticides including organochloro, organophosphate and organocarbamate exhibits a high degree of
persistence in environment as compared to other classes of pesticides (Sharma et al., 2002). The
organochloro is not only persistence but also lipophilic, therefore, accumulates in the plant and animal
tissue (Stan, 1990). Consumers are thus constantly exposed to pesticides and concerns for organic
forage production to safe guard milk, meat and their products as human food. With the implementation
of WTO, clean milk production are now an obligation to the international market. Following steps are
now recommended to control pesticides effects:
· Use of Biopesticides: Which are living organisms or a product derived from an animal or plant
sources and which kill the pesticides. Biopesticides are safer to human being and also do not
leave any toxic residues in crops and hence have importance.
· Use of pest resistant varieties of seed through genetic engineering.
· Integrated pest management (IPM) techniques: The FAO, through its regional projects
extending technical support in the production of IPM.
· Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) techniques.
· Organic forage production is a route to meet the INM. Organic farming is a system in which
the maintenance of soil fertility and the control of pest and diseases are achieved through the
enhancement of biological process and ecological interactions.
Table 2: Codex Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) of Veterinary Drugs in Milk
Veterinary Drugs Recommended MRL, ppb
2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxy acetic acid 0.05

Benzylopenecillin 4.0
Ceftiofur 100
Dihydrostreptomycin 200
Gentamycin 100
Neomycin 500
Oxytetracyclin 100
Spectinomycin 200
Sulfadimine 25
Thiabendazole 0.1
* Sources: Indian Dairyman, 2000
National Standards of Organic Farming
Ministry of Commerce under the “National Programme for Organic Production,” has prescribed
National Standards for Organic Production. These standards are grouped under following six
categories:
1. Conversion
2. Crop production
3. Animal husbandry
4. Food processing and handling
5. Labeling
6. Storage and transport
7.
1.Conversion Requirements
The time between the start of organic management and cultivation of crops or animal husbandry is
known as the conversion period. The whole farm including the livestock should be converted to the
standards over a period of time. All standards requirements should be met during conversion period.
Regular inspections during conversion period should be carried out. Full conversion period is not
required where organic farming practices are already in use. But this has to be verified by the
inspection agency.
Maintenance of organic management

Organic certification is based on continuance. The certification programme should certify the
production, which is likely to be maintained on a long term basis. The converted land and animals
shall not get switched back and forth between organic and conventional management.
Landscape
Organic farming should contribute beneficially to the ecosystem. Areas which should be managed
properly and linked to facilitate biodiversity are:
· Extensive grassland
· All areas which are not under rotation and are not heavily manure
· Pastures, meadows, orchards, hedges, hedgerows etc.
· Ecologically rich fallows or arable land.
· Ecologically diversified field margins
· Waterways, pools, springs, ditches, wetland and swamps.
The certification programme shall set standards for a minimum percentage of the farm area to
facilitate biodiversity and nature conservation.
2. Crop Production
2.1 Choice of crops and varieties: All seeds and planting materials should be certified organic, well
adapted to local climatic conditions and resistant to pests and diseases. If certified organic seed or
planting material is not available then chemically untreated conventional materials can be used. Uses
of genetically engineered seeds, pollens, transgenic plants are not allowed.
2.2 Duration of conversion period: The minimum conversion period for plant product produce
annually is 12 months prior to the start of the production cycle. For perennial plants, the conversion
period is 18 months from the starting of organic management. Depending on ecological situation, the
certification agency can extend or reduce the minimum conversion period.
2.3 Diversity in crop production is achieved by a combination of versatile crop rotation with legumes
and by appropriate coverage of the soil with diverse plant species during the year of production.
2.4 Fertilization Policy- Biodegradable material of plant or animal origin produced on organic farms
should form the basis of fertilization policy. Emphasis should be given to generate and use own on-
farm organic fertilizers. Brought in fertilizers of biological origin should be supplementary but not
replacement. In case of deficiency, mineral fertilizers can be used as supplementary source and should
be applied in their natural composition. Biofertilizers can be used safely under all ecosystems and in
all the crops.
2.5 Pest disease and weed management – Weeds, pest and diseases should be controlled by a number
of preventive cultural techniques, such as suitable rotations, green manuring, balanced fertilization
programme, mulching, mechanical control and the disturbances of pest development cycles. Botanical
pesticides prepared at farm from local plants, animals or microorganisms are allowed. Use os synthetic
chemicals such as fungicides, herbicides, synthetic growth regulators and dyes are prohibited. Use of
genetically engineered organisms or products is prohibited.
2.6 Contamination control- All attempts should be made to minimize contamination and from outside
and with in farm.
2.7 Soil and water conservation- Soil and water resources should be handled in a sustainable manner
to avoid erosion, salination, excessive and improper use of water and the pollution of surface and
ground water.
Organic forage production:

Selection of Area for organic forage production
1. Total area- as per the requirement of feed and fodder
2. Land should have deep well or residue less irrigation facilities.
3. Should contain minimum synthetic residues.
4. There should be natural grassland as part.
Requirement of feed and fodder

Organic forage production should be determined as the number of animal in the system. Forage
requirement should be calculated on thumb rule considering DM requirement of the animal and their
followers on long term basis as follows. For a 50 numbers cattle herd, farming could be initiated with
35-36 young heifers of 2-3 years of age and after 3rd year 50 nos. herd will be maintained following
culling and replacement basis.
Animals 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year
Large animal 35 35 35 35+F 35+F
Total DM requirement 800 qt 1100 qt 1420 qt 1420 qt 1420 qt
Requirement of green 1820 qt 2520 3250 qt 3250 qt 3250 qt
fodder
Requirement of Bhoosa 200 qt 250 300 qt 300 qt 300 qt
/straws
Requirement of conc. 300 qt 350 470qt 470 qt 470 qt
Concentrates will be reduced to 40-50% strategically with the replacement of surplus leguminous hay.
Availability of clean water for human, animal and for fodder production is decreasing day by day.
Irrigated water with heavy metal may pollute the soil, feed and forages and thereby animal system and
its products.
Table 3: Maximum Residue Limits (ppm) of heavy metals in water
Category MRL Heavy Metals
Highly Toxic 10 Cadmium, Mercury,
Selenium
Toxic 40 Barium, Cobalt, Cupper,
Lead, Molybdenum
Moderately Toxic 100 Arsenic. Iodene
Slightly Toxic 1000 Magnesium, Aluminum
4.Nutrient management in Organic farming:

Organic manure will be the main source of nutrients in the system.
1. Use of FYM on the basis of nitrogen requirements for fodder produced from organically
adopted animals.
2. Liquid manure through fermentation of green leafy materials, cattle urine from system etc.
3. Use of composting dung, vermi-composting, vermin-wash. Locally adopted earth worm
will be utilized for vermicompost production.
4. Biologically derived nutrients- mulching, composting, N-enriched Phospho-composting,
biological pesticide, weedicide and herbicides.
5. Green manuring
Crop rotation:
Maize/Sorghum/Sesame+ Cowpea- Berseem/ Oat/ Barley/ Mustard- Sorghum/ Maize+ Cowpea
Inter-culture:
Guinea + Cowpea/ Guinea + Berseem
Round the year fodder production plan under organic system:
Under organic farming fodder production should be planned in advance considering following
recommendations:
· Combinations of leguminous and non-leguminous forage crop in the system.
· Scheduled crop rotations ( R ) considering local weather conditions.
· Soil conditions, preferably red laterite, minimum pesticide residues.
· Under assured irrigations, selection of forages suitable under irrigation, however, land should
be at least 50% irrigated for more production.
· Availability of sufficient bio-fertilizers like Farm Yard Manures, vermicompost, green manure
etc.
· Use of local varieties of forages under rainfed condition and improved varieties under
irrigated conditions.
· Minimum 2 years conversion period for land from conventional soil to organic soil.
· Use of integrated forage production system.
· Preferably forage seed should be produced organically.
Fodder Production Plan under assured irrigations:

Crop rotation (R ) Sowing time Availability Green Yield
(qt/ha)
R1: NB21+ Cowpea- Oat+ June- Nov-March Round the year 2000.00
Mustard- Multicut Sorghum
R2: Maize+ Cowpea- June-Nov-March Round the year 1800.00
Lucern+Mustard-Sorghum
+Cowpea
R3: Sorghum + Cowpea- June- Nov-March Round the year 1800.00
Berseem+Mustard-Maize
+Cowpea
R4: Guinea + intercrop( June+ Intercrop(June- Round the year 1300.00
Cowpea-berseem-cowpea) Nov-March)
Fodder Production Plan for rain-fed areas:

Crop rotation (R ) Sowing time Availability Green Yield
(qt/ha)
R1: Sorghum + cowpea- June end- Nov July- Feb next year 1000.00- 1200.00
Oat+ Mustard
R2: Maize+ Cowpea- June end- Nov July- Feb next year 1000.00
Barley+ Mustard
R3: Sorghum + Cowpea- June end- Nov July- Feb next year 1000.00
Barley
Conclusion
As we entered into the third millennium, the problem for high agricultural production still remains
with the increase of population thereby demands. To meet the food requirements farmers’ aim is to
increase food grain production followed by dairy milk and it products as well as meat. But the pest
problems will become more serious with the intensification of agriculture. Therefore strategic use of
pesticide and agricultural process are necessary. Organic forage production will be next alternatives
for organic milk and meat production to meet the challenges of market demand and to satisfy the
health conscious consumers.
Chapter: 25
Food and biosafety issues in forage and livestock production
S.K. Mahanta
The concept of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) has evolved in recent years in the context of a
rapidly changing and globalizing food economy and as a result of the concerns and commitments of a
wide range of stakeholders about food production and security, food safety and quality, and the
environmental sustainability of agriculture- both crops and animals. These stakeholders include
governments, food processing and retailing industries, farmers and consumers, who seek to meet
specific objectives of food security, food quality, production efficiency, livelihoods and environmental
benefits in both the medium and long term.
Considering the importance of GAP, livestock farmers should also adopt it and minimize the risk of
contamination, right from pre-planting stage of forage crop to post-harvest stage of the crop and also
from animal health to milk or meat hygiene. Some of the major risk and minimizing measures/issues
associated with forage as well as livestock production are as follows-
Pre-sowing issues
Site selection for forage production
Land or site for forage production should be selected on the basis of land history, previous manure
applications and crop rotation. The field should be away from animal housing or barnyards. Farmers
should make sure that livestock waste should not enter into the fields via runoff or drift.
Manure handling and field application

Livestock manure is a valuable source of nutrients in forage-livestock production system, but it also
can be a source of human pathogens if not managed correctly. Proper and thorough composting of
manure, incorporating it into soil prior to planting, and avoiding top-dressing of crops are important
steps toward reducing the risk of microbial contamination. Manure should be applied at the end of the
season, preferably when soils are warm, non-saturated, and cover-cropped. If manure is being applied
at the start of a season, then the manure should be spread two weeks before planting, preferably to
grain or forage crops.
Manure storage and sourcing

Manure should be stored as far away as practical from areas where forage is grown and handled.
Physical barriers or wind barriers should be erected to prevent runoff and wind drift of manure.
Manure should be actively compost so that high temperature achieved by well-managed, aerobic
compost can kill most harmful pathogens.
Issues during forage production

Irrigation water quality
Ideally, water used for irrigation or chemical spray should be free from pathogen. However, potable
water or municipal water is not feasible for extensive use for forage crop production. Hence, surface
water used for irrigation should be tested in laboratory for pathogen at regular intervals. Farmers can
filter or use the settling ponds to improve water quality.
Field sanitation and animal exclusion

Farmers should stay out of wet fields to reduce the spread of plant or human pathogens. Tractors that
were used in manure handling should be cleaned prior to entering produce fields. Animals, including
poultry or pets should not be allowed to roam in crop areas, especially close to harvest time.
Worker facilities and hygiene
Ideally, farm workers should be provided clean, well-maintained and hygienic toilet facilities around
the farming areas. Farmers should get proper training to make them understand the relationship
between food safety and personal hygiene. These facilities should be monitored and enforced.
Issues during harvest & post-harvest

Worker hygiene and training
Good personal hygiene is particularly important during the harvest of crops. Sick employees or those
with contaminated hands can spread pathogens to produce. Employee awareness, meaningful training
and accessible restroom facilities with hand wash stations encourage good hygiene.
Transportation of produce from fields to animal shed

Proper cleanliness of the transportation vehicles should be ensured before loading. Farmers have to
make sure that forages are not transported in tractor-trolleys which have carried live animals or
harmful substances. If these tractor-trolleys must be used, they should be washed, rinsed, and
sanitized them before transporting forages.
Issues related to animal health

A. Establishing the herd with resistance to disease
· Choose breeds and animals well suited to the local environment and farming system
Different animal species and breeds have different requirements. Selecting animals that are suited to
the local environment will greatly reduce the risks to productivity posed by animal health and welfare
problems. Of particular relevance is the animals’ ability to adapt to climatic extremes, feed quality,
local parasites and their acquired resistance to endemic disease.
The demands on the animals also vary with the farming system. Housed animals may have a higher
exposure to communicable diseases, whilst extensively maintained animals
are more prone to parasitic infections. Animals introduced from different locations may be vulnerable
to endemic diseases in the new location due to lack of previous exposure and the development of
immunity.
· Vaccinate all animals as recommended or required by local animal health authorities
Vaccination is a useful tool to limit the impact of disease by increasing the immunity of the animal
population to specific pathogens. Animal health authorities can provide farmers with information
about the specific vaccines which are recommended for their area.
B. Prevent entry of disease onto the farm

· Only buy animals of known health status and control their introduction to the farm using
quarantine if indicated
The most effective way to prevent the spread of infectious diseases is to keep a closed herd. This
means no new animals enter the herd and previously resident animals do not re-enter after they have
left the herd. This is difficult to achieve in practice, so strict control of any animal introductions is
essential. Increased risk of disease may also occur when animals share grazing or other facilities. Prior
to being introduced to the farm, all animals should be screened for diseases that are significant to their
area of origin and new location. All animals should have-
- An identification system to enable trace back to their source (a birth to death identification
system) and
- Some form of Vendor Declaration or certification that details the health/disease status of
animals and any appropriate tests, treatments, vaccinations or other procedures that have been or are
being carried out. Potential sellers of dairy livestock must keep appropriate permanent animal health
records for their animals. The health status of the vendor herd should also be certified. This is
particularly important for diseases with long incubation periods like paratuberculosis etc.
Where the animals’ health status is unknown, they should be kept under quarantine or separate to the
existing animals for an appropriate length of time.
· Ensure animal transport on and off the farm does not introduce disease
Potential buyers of live animals should always ask and be told if the animals are sick or diseased. The
disposal of diseased and dead animals should be done in a way that minimizes the risk of disease
spread. Transport vehicles should also not move dead or diseased animals from one farm to another
farm, without taking appropriate actions to minimize the risk of spreading disease.
· Restrict access of people and wildlife to the farm

People (and vehicles) visiting a number of farms may spread disease between the farms. Restrict
access to an ‘as needs’ basis and put in place appropriate processes to minimize disease spread.
Visitors to the farm should wear clean protective clothing and clean, disinfected footwear if entering
areas that pose a high risk of transferring disease onto or from the farm. Records of all visitors should
be kept as appropriate. Disease can be spread both from and to humans and wildlife. Avoid visitor
contact with animals unless necessary.
· Controlling of vermin
Ensure that appropriate vermin controls are in place in all areas where vermin could breed, introduce
disease and/or affect milk safety and quality. Vermin breeding sites should be eliminated, especially if
those sites also harbour disease pathogens, such as manure heaps, livestock disposal sites etc. Vermin
control measures may also be required in the milking shed, feed and water storages and animal
housing areas. Vermin species vary geographically but can include indigenous animals, rodents, birds
and insects.
· Use clean equipment from a known source

Ensure all agricultural and veterinary equipment introduced on to the farm is clean and steps have
been taken to prevent the introduction of disease. This may include asking questions about the history
of where the equipment comes from and how it has been used.
Take extra care with shared or borrowed equipment.
C. Effective management of herd health

· Developing an effective farm herd health management system focused on prevention of
diseases
Herd health programmes aim to keep all livestock healthy and productive. They should
include the farm’s practices for the diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control of relevant animal
diseases, including internal and external parasites. It is important to ensure a consistent approach to
herd health, so all staff should be aware of and understand the farm’s herd health programme.
· Checking of animals for signs of disease regularly

Observe all animals regularly and use proven methods to aid in detection and accurate diagnosis of
infectious disease. Some useful tools may include rectal thermometers, observations of animal
behaviour and body condition, and examination of foremilk. Laboratory or other tests may be
necessary to screen animals for disease.
· Quickly attending sick animals

Treat all disease, injury and poor health by proven methods after accurate diagnosis. Treat diseased
animals appropriately to minimize the prevalence of infection and the source of pathogens.
· Isolation of sick animals

Where possible and if indicated, keep sick animals isolated on the farm to minimize the spread of
contagious disease. Provide separate facilities and/or milk sick animals last. Prompt treatment can
limit the spread of infectious agents. Clean and disinfect equipment
after it has been in contact with sick animals and ensure people coming into contact with
these animals take precautions to avoid infections.
· Separating milk from sick animals and animals under treatment

Follow appropriate procedures to separate milk from sick animals and animals under treatment. This
milk is not suitable for human consumption and if stored on farm should be clearly labelled as such.
Clean milking equipment and utensils thoroughly to avoid cross contamination.
D. Appropriate use all chemicals and veterinary medicines

· Using chemicals according to directions, calculate dosages carefully and follow the safe
withholding period
Using agricultural and veterinary chemicals/medicines for the purpose of which they were approved,
and in accordance with label directions, gives a predictable outcome whilst managing the potential
risks. Dairy farmers should manage the use of all chemicals to prevent the chemicals adversely
affecting animal health and productivity, the health and safety of the user, the environment or the
safety and quality of milk and meat products.
· Store chemicals and veterinary medicines securely and dispose of them responsibly
Store chemicals and veterinary medicines securely to ensure they are not used inappropriately or do
not unintentionally contaminate milk and feed. Check and observe product expiry dates. Chemicals
and their containers should also be disposed of in a way that will not cause contamination to animals
or the farm environment.
Issues associated with animal feeding

A. Ensuring animal feed and water are of suitable quantity and quality
· Meeting the nutritional needs of animals
Animals should be provided with sufficient feed and water daily, according to their physiological
needs. The quality and quantity of the feed, including appropriate fibre, should reflect the animal’s
age, body weight, stage of lactation, production level, growth, pregnancy, activity and climate.
Sufficient space and time needs to be given for each animal to get access to feed and water. Good
feeding management will also reduce competitive pressure and diminish aggressive behaviours
between individual animals.
· Ensuring the feed fed to animals is fit for purpose and will not negatively impact the quality
or safety of their milk or meat
Animal farmers should ensure that the feed fed to livestock does not contain chemical
residues, toxins or other contaminants that pose a risk to animal health or the safety or
quality of milk or meat derived from these animals. This can be achieved by carefully following the
label directions of agricultural chemicals used on pastures and crops being grown for stock feed on the
farm. Assurance about previous chemical treatments and the feed’s suitability as a stock feed should
be sought from off-farm suppliers. Fence off or restrict access to areas where contaminated feed or
toxic plants may be consumed by dairy animals. Inspect feed for signs of contamination or spoilage
prior to feeding.
· Ensure suitable quality water is provided and the supply is regularly checked and maintained
Fence stock water supplies to protect them from unintentional contamination. Water supplies should
be of suitable quality and free of excrement. Many contaminants can enter water supplies and threaten
the health or safety of people, livestock and the milking equipment rinsed with the contaminated
water. The most common contaminants include pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins, as well as
toxic chemicals such as pesticides, petroleum, solvents and nitrates.
· Using different equipment for handling chemicals and feed stuffs

Never mix agricultural chemicals and/or veterinary chemicals in equipment or facilities used to handle
feed or water for animals. Residues can remain on equipment or cross contamination can occur.
· Ensuring chemicals are used appropriately on pastures and forage crops and observe
withholding periods
Maintain stringent paddock records of all chemical applications to crops and pastures, and ensure
grazing withholding periods are closely observed. Always follow the label for application rates and
withholding times before allowing animals access to a treated field for grazing or forage harvesting.
Always follow regulated processes for spray technologies.
· Keeping records of all feed or feed ingredients received on the farm

Have an appropriate system in place to record and trace all feed or feed ingredients received onto the
farm. Request a vendor declaration and/or a written consignment note with each feed delivery. Make
sure you can identify and trace all treatments applied to feeds on-farm (including crop and grain
treatments).
B. Controlling storage conditions of feed

· Ensuring appropriate storage conditions to avoid feed spoilage or contamination
Ensure animals are not able to come into contact with contaminants in areas where these products are
stored and mixed. These areas should be well ventilated as toxic fumes may be given off. Ensure that
feed is protected from contaminants. Store and handle pesticides, treated seeds, medicated feed and
fertilizers properly. Store herbicides separately from other agricultural chemicals, fertilizers and seeds.
Hay and dry feeds should be protected from a moist environment. Silage and other fermented crops
should be kept under sealed conditions.
· Rejecting mouldy or sub-standard feed

Avoid feeding any mouldy feed to dairy animals. A wide range of feeds can contain poisonous fungal
toxins that can be transferred to milk, particularly if they have not been stored correctly. Monitor feed
for other gross contaminants such as plant or animal matter, metal, plastics, string and other
undesirable items.
Issues associated with milk hygiene

A. Ensuring milking routines do not injure the animals or introduce contaminants into milk
· Appropriate udder preparation for milking
Wash and dry dirty teats before milking. Only milk animals with clean, dry teats. Check the udder and
teats for any abnormalities which may indicate clinical mastitis. The foremilk may be extracted and
checked for abnormalities before each animal is milked.
· Milk animals regularly using consistent milking techniques

Institute regular milking times and routines. Ensure good milking technique is consistently applied.
Incorrect or variable milking techniques can result in a higher mastitis risk and injury to the animal.
· Segregating milk harvested from sick or treated animals for appropriate disposal
Animals whose milk is unfit for human consumption should be milked last or with a separate bucket
or system. Store or discard abnormal milk in a manner appropriate to the risk posed to people, animals
and the environment.
· Ensuring adequate supply of clean water

An adequate supply of clean water should be available for milking operations, for cleaning the
utensils/ equipments that comes into contact with milk and for cleaning the milking area. The quality
of the water should be suitable for its intended use. Standards regarding the quality of water used in
milk production are mandated in many countries, including the use of potable water in cleaning
surfaces that come into contact with milk.
B. carrying out milking under hygienic conditions
· Ensure housing environment is clean at all times
A high standard of cleanliness should be maintained at all times in housing areas to decrease soiling of
the udder and so protect udder health. The housing area should:
- be designed to provide good drainage and ventilation and to avoid animal injury;
- be of suitable size and designed to cater for the size of the animal and the herd; and
- Provision for regularly clean or scrape passageways to remove manure
· Ensure milking area is kept clean

The milking area should be designed to allow it to be kept clean and tidy. In fact it should:
- be easy to clean
- have a clean water supply
- have waste handling facilities; and
- have sufficient temperature regulation, ventilation and light.
· Ensure the milkers follow basic hygiene rules

The milker should:
- wear suitable and clean working clothes
- keep hands and arms clean especially when milking
- cover cuts or wounds; and
- not have any infectious disease transmissible via milk.
· Ensure milking equipment is cleaned and when necessary, disinfected after each milking
Establish a routine to ensure milking equipment is clean before each use. If mobile milking equipment
is used, this may mean cleaning between each use. Use chemicals approved for the cleaning and/or
disinfecting of milking equipment. Use water of suitable quality heated to the required temperature.
C. Ensure milk is handled properly after milking

· Ensure milk is cooled or delivered for processing within the specified time
Cool milk as soon as possible after milking to the required storage temperature and within the
specified time.
· Ensure milk storage area is clean and tidy

Milk should be stored away from the milking area. The milk storage area should:
- be clean and clear of accumulated rubbish, any products or chemical substances not in
constant use and any feedstuffs
- have hand washing and drying facilities; and
- be easy to clean and have pest control practices in place.
· Ensure milk storage equipment is adequate to hold milk at the specified temperature
The storage equipment should be capable of holding milk at the required temperature until collection,
and be constructed of materials that do not taint the milk.
· Ensure milk storage equipment is cleaned and when necessary, sanitized after each milk
collection
To ensure milk storage equipment is clean before use, clean and when necessary, sanitise
it after each milk collection.
Similar measures should be taken meat producing animals, keeping in mind meat hygiene.
Others issues
Transgenic/genetically modified crops
The commercialisation of transgenic crops again has sparked off intensive debates World wide
regarding biosafety and the impact of this powerful technology on agriculture, human health and
environment. The biosafety concerns of transgenics owe their origin to the fact that tools of
recombinant DNA technology have clubbed all biological systems into a ‘single gene pool’ providing
access to even genes from completely unrelated or sexually incompatible organisms. Therefore, the
transgenic technology, while providing unlimited scope for crop improvement, also imposes
tremendous responsibility on the scientific community and the regulatory authorities towards ensuring
biosafety.
A number of biosafety issues of transgenic crops are being debated with highly polarised views. It is
imperative that rational science-based decisions are taken to resolve the contentious issues and evolve
clear-cut national policies so that the benefits of this technology are effectively harnessed for
achieving sustainable growth in agriculture without unacceptable risks either to human health and/or
the environment.
The above-mentioned issues/measures for biosafety are still at a nascent stage in India. There are very
few farmers who may be practicing it in reality. But it should be thoroughly emphasized that food
safety, from farm to fork, is the responsibility of everyone throughout the food system. In addition to
growers and packers, food handlers such as food processors, retailers, food service workers, and even
consumers in their homes have a responsibility for food safety.
Chapter: 26
Utilization of Weather based Agro-advisory Services for Quality Forage Production
S.K. Rai, Satyapriya* and Srinivasan R

Indian economy is basically driven by agriculture, which in turn depends upon the vagaries of
monsoon. The Indian Southwest monsoon (SWM) of June-September, generally referred to as
monsoon, is the principal rainy season in India which caters to the agricultural and life sustaining
needs of the whole country. Also, successful crop production requires suitable combinations of several
factors like soil, water crop variety etc. climate of a place has a crucial role in growth and production
of crop plants. The agricultural production of the country in 1999’s has touched 204 million tones. the
production was achieved by applying irrigation , using chemical fertilizers and hybrid seeds. These
practices have attained its limits, which can hardly be further stretched. Each crop has its own weather
optimum for the expression of its full yield potential. So knowledge of the influence of weather
parameters on growth and yield of crops is essential in successful crop production. At present the
country faces a net deficit of 36.5% green fodder and 10.9% dry crop residues. the demand of green
and dry fodder will reach to 1012 and 631 million tonnes by the year 2050. Therefore, a significant
effort is needed to increase the fodder productivity bu using agro advisory services especially in the
dryland agro-eco sytem of the country. Needs of weather forecasting and its relevance in the field of
agriculture are traditionally known to Indian farmers as they very much depend on rains. With the
advent of numerical weather prediction (NWP) and application of remote sensing, the scenario of
weather forecasting techniques have changed considerably and accuracy of predictions have improved
considerably. Monitoring of rainfall is necessary to provide early warning of drought with an objective
to minimize the impact of drought on human, livestock and other resources of a region. Agro met
advisory services network is the basic mechanism for disseminating drought information to provide
data and interpretation on all aspects of drought including time of occurrence, location, intensity,
duration and impacts in different sectors. It is imperative that increased emphasis be placed on
mitigation, preparedness and prediction and early warning if society is to reduce the economic and
environmental damages associated with drought and its personal hardship. This will require
interdisciplinary cooperation and a collaborative effort with policy makers at all levels.
Types of Weather forecast

The Agro-meteorological Advisory Service (AAS) rendered by India Meteorological Department
(IMD), Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is a mechanism to apply relevant meteorological
information to help the farmer make the most efficient use of natural resources, with the aim of
improving agricultural production; both in quantity and quality. Weather forecast can be classified
into three categories viz.1) short range forecast –covering a period of few hours to three days ii)
medium range forecast –covering a period of, 3-10 days iii) long range forecast –covering a period of
a month or a season.
Short range forecast

Short range forecast is issued for next 24 hours and extends up to 72 hrs. Short range forecast utilizes
Synoptic features and numerical weather prediction techniques. It is issued for pressure, wind,
temperature and upper wind data after preparing weather maps. Also forecast is given for various
meteorological elements such as distribution of rainfall & warning for heavy rainfall, day night
temperature, cyclonic storm, hail storm, dust storm, western disturbances, cold and heat waves, dew
etc. These forecasts are used by agricultural scientist for agricultural operations and farmers may take
tactical decisions such as cultural practices and crop protection to minimize input losses resulting from
adverse weather condition.
Medium range weather forecast

A forecast covering a period of 3 to 7 days is known as medium range weather forecast. It is more
useful for agricultural because it is an industry where the inter culturing and other activities depend
very much on weather. It is useful to farmers to make the most efficient and economic use of labour
and equipment, management of water for irrigation and scheduling of plant protection measures.
Long range forecast:

In the field of long range forecast India enjoys a pioneering position. . Recently, the India
Meteorological Department (IMD) has achieved a major breakthrough in making all India long range
forecast for SWM rainfall accurately on the basis of parametric and power regression model, which
takes into account the impact of 16 regional and global weather parameters. It gives the information of
trends and changes in general circulations, which are related to forth coming weather like cyclonic
storms, western disturbances, thunder storm monsoon etc. Long range forecast can be highly useful in
prediction the likely trends in food grain production in the country before the beginning of the kharif
season.
Weather forecasting system

IMD has started issuing quantitative district level (612 districts) weather forecast upto 5 days from 1st
June, 2008. The products comprise quantitative forecasts for 7 weather parameters viz., rainfall,
maximum and minimum temperatures, wind speed and direction, relative humidity and cloudiness,
besides weekly cumulative rainfall forecast. IMD, New Delhi generates these products based on a
Multi Model Ensemble (MME) technique (35*35 km grid) using forecast products available from a
number models of India and other countries. Ensemble products have skill better than individual
members of the ensemble group. The average skill for rainfall during monsoon season has been found
to be 70 to 80 %. Individual members include: T-254 model of NCMRWF, T-799 model of European
Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF); United Kingdom Met Office (UKMO),
National Centre for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), USA and Japan Meteorological Agency
(JMA).
Agromet advisory services

The Agromet advisory bulletins are issued biweekly and it is fully operational in India. The agro
advisory based on medium range weather forecasting (3-10 days) has been made operational by
NCMRWF in 130 agro climatic zones of the country. On the basis of local agro meteorological
conditions, farming information and the weather forecasts received from NCMRWF , the subject
matter specialist discuss about option and consequent effects and then decide the adverse for action by
the farmers in respect of the items related to their expertise. All these together constitute the advisory,
which are to be as simple as possible both in terms of the language and the terminology. They are
informed through advisories about the action to be taken by them in respect of various crops. The
IMD has been issuing regular forecast known as Farmers Weather bulletin (FWB) . These FWB
contains district wise forecast for next 36 hrs with an outlook for the subsequent two days. Agromet
advisory may recommend certain practices to help effectively or minimize possible weather related
crop damage or loss (say for example spray advice to combat insect and disease, irrigation scheduling
etc.,)
Agro-meteorological Field Units (AMFUs) and Agro-advisory

The products are disseminated to Regional Meteorological Centres and Meteorological Centres of
IMD located in different states. These offices undertake value addition to these products twice a week
on Tuesday and Friday and communicate to 130 AgroMet Field Units (AMFUs) located with State
Agriculture Universities (SAUs), ICAR , Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Department of agriculture
cooperation, state department of Agriculture /horticulture/Animal husbandry /Forestry, Media
agencies etc. These units are responsible for recording agro meteorological observations, preparing
forecast based Agromet advisories for the districts falling under precinct of concerned agro-climatic
zone and dissemination of the same. Concerned university/institute has appointed Nodal Officer and
Technical Officers, who prepare the advisory bulletins in consultation with the panel of experts
already created at these units. The Agromet bulletins include specific advice on field crops,
horticultural crops and livestock, etc. which farmers need to act upon. Its frequency is twice a week
i.e. Tuesday and Friday.
District level Agro-meteorological Advisory Service (DAAS) of IMD

The DAAS system is implemented under the five-tier structure to set up (fig. 1) different components
of the service spectrum and is in operation since 1st June 2008. IMD is generating and issuing district
level Medium Range Weather Forecast (MRWF) from current monsoon season i.e. June 2008 for
issuance of district level agromet advisory. District level weather forecast (rainfall, temperature, wind
direction and speed and cloudiness) for next 5 days with cumulative weekly rainfall are being prepared
at Regional Meteorological Centres (RMCs)/ Meteorological Centres (MCs) based on the NWP
products received from the NHAC, IMD, New Delhi.
Weather based Agro advisory Programs in ICAR

At present 25 centers of AICRPAM (Rao, 2008) and 107 field units of NCMRWF along with regional
agro advisories of IMD are involved in the advisory services (fig. 2). Agro advisories are available at
Crop weather watch group at the National level. Dissemination of agro advisories are also done
through Website (www.cropweatheroutlook.ernet.in) and IT enabled ‘e-sagu(IIIT-CRIDA).
Role in Farm management
The weather information through agro advisories has crucial role in decision making on the following
aspects
· Cultivars selection
· Choosing windows for sowing/harvesting operations
· Irrigation scheduling – optimal water use
· Mitigation from adverse weather events such as frost, low temperature, heavy rainfall – at critical
crop stages
· Fertilizer application
· Pesticide/fungicide spraying schedules
· Feed, health and shelter management for Livestock [Optimal temperature for dairy/hatchery etc]
Dissemination of agro advisories

The agromet district advisories, generated by 130 AMFUs, are being disseminated to the farmers
through mass media (Radio, Print and TV)., Internet, etc in vernacular language. A mechanism has
also been developed to obtain feedback from the farmers on quality of weather forecast, relevance and
content of agromet advisory and effectiveness of information dissemination system. A multi- media
system for dissemination of agro-meteorological advisories to the farming community has been put in
place in which beside the conventional modes e.g. radio, television & print media, concerted efforts
are made to reach farmers through emerging modes of communication such as mobile phones and the
internet. Short message service (SMS) and voice messages are being send to subscribing farmers by
Govt. and private companies such as Reuters Market Light, IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited, MahaAgri,
Vritti Solutions, NOKIA, eFresh and State Govt. agencies. Beside these companies there are many
companies such as TATA Consultancy Service, NABARD, ICT, Infosys, Infronics etc. are like to start
the service in near future. SMS service as on date covers 3.0 million users spread across 16 states
while IVRS covers around 30000 farmers spread across 5 states.
The advisory should consist of a) weather summary of the last week, climatic normal’s, weather
forecasts and crop moisture index, drought severity index, soil moisture status etc. It should also
provide information on phenological stages of crop, pest and diseases and crop stress conditions. The
advisory content may include crop management practices such as time of sowing, likely date of next
irrigation, control operations of pest and disease, fertilizer application etc based on the likely situation
of weather in the next few days. Information on crop planning, varietal selection, harvesting time may
also be provided . It may also have information on spraying conditions for insects, weeds etc., animal
health and live stock management with respect to housing health and nutrition. The advisories should
also serve as an early warning function for extreme weather events such as heavy rains, flash floods.
Strong winds and temperatures.
Fig. 1: Collaborating organization and their linkages under Integrated Agromet Services (Source:
IMD 2007).
Ministry of Earth Sciences IMD & NCMRWF –Location

Government of India Specific Weather Forecast
(AAS steering committee) Deptt. of Agriculture &
Cooperation- NCFC & CWWG
ICAR- R & D Inputs
Deptt. of Space- Vegetation
National Agro-met Advisory
Indices
Service HQ
Prasar Bharti
IMD Dept. of Info. Technology
(Apex Executive Body)
State Agro-met Centre

State Department
(28 Units at SMC) State Crop Weather Watch
of Agriculture
IMD Group (CWWG)
1. Drought Monitoring
Center
2. State RS application
centres
3. DAO/KVK/NGOs
AMFU (128 Agro Climatic
Zones) State Agricultural
University/ICAR
Institutions Extension Directorate of
University
Local Media (AIR/TV/Print)
NGOs
District Level Agriculture
Extension set up (600)
DAO/KVK
ATMA
NGOs
Block Level (B.D.O) MSSRF
(Farm Input Management
Village Level (600000 CSC to

be set up by DIT at Gram
Panchayat Level)
Fig. 2: Agro-advisory Services in ICAR (Source: Rao, 2008)
NCMRWF
IMD
AICRPAM centers and SAU’S
Agromet advisories
Contigency Planning
ICAR Website AICRPAM
Crop weather outlook

World Wide Web Agromet Data bank
The Efficiency of Agro advisories depends on (i) reliability of forecasts issued by NCMRWF (ii)
knowledge on crop-weather relationships (iii) adaptation of technologies for the anticipated changes in
weather and Farmers capabilities to carryout timely operations as mentioned in the AAB.
Chapter: 27
Social dimensions and up-scaling issues related to good agricultural practices in forages
Purushottam Sharma
Indian Grassland & Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
Good Agricultural Practices -Requirements

The World Trade Organization (WTO) has provided access f market of member countries but to use
these opportunities it is necessary to follow Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). Besides this, adoption
of GAP would promote optimum utilization of resources such as pesticides, fertilizers, water and eco-
friendly sustainable agriculture, protect the agricultural workers’ health. The Indian Good Agricultural
Practices (INDGAP) is comprehensive and include the quality and quantity of the produce and
preharvest practices. Based on Global GAP standards, best practices, prevalent industry standards and
related ISO standards and guides, INDGAP modules has been developed on various aspects. The
adoption of GAP need to be verified by independent agency based on Critical Points and Compliance
Criteria i.e. Critical and Major (www.qcin.org/documents/GAP/INDIAGAP-FINAL.pdf).
According to FAO “Good Agricultural Practices are practices that address environmental, economic
and social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and non-food
agricultural products". Various Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) codes, standards and regulations
have been developed by various agencies on different aspects and their broad objectives as follows
(http://www.fao.org/prods/gap/):
· ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain

· capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance
· improving natural resources use, workers health and working conditions, and/or
· creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in developing countries.
The FAO has identified four 'pillars' of GAP i.e. economic viability, environmental sustainability,
social acceptability and food safety and quality, which are part of most of the documents, leading
Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD).
Potential benefits of GAP

· Helps improve the safety and quality of food and other agricultural products.
· Helps in compliance with national and international regulations, standards and guidelines, i.e.
Codex Alimentarius Commission, World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the
International Plant Protection Convention IPPC.
· promotes sustainable agriculture and contributes to meeting national and international
environment and social development objectives.
Challenges related to GAP

· Increased production cost due to record keeping and certification.
· Standards of GAP can be misused to serve competing interests of particular stakeholders.
· The small scale farmers may not use this opportunity since they are not adequately
informed, technically prepared and organised.
· All the environmental and social benefits claimed, may not be available.
· Awareness raising on related approaches i.e. Integrated Production and Pest
Management (IPPM) is needed.
Basics of GAP
· Clean soil
· Clean water
· Clean hands
· Clean surfaces
GAP on Crop and fodder production

· Selection of suitable annual and perennial crops, their cultivars and varieties based on
requirement and agro-ecological situation.
· Perennial crops are used to provide long-term production options and opportunities for
intercropping. Annual crops are grown in sequences, including those with pasture, to
maximize the biological benefits of interactions between species and to maintain
productivity.
· Harvesting of all crop and animal products removes their nutrient content from the site and
must ultimately be replaced to maintain long-term productivity.
· Integration with livestock production
· Select cultivars and varieties based various mentioned criteria’s
GAP on ANIMAL PRODUCTION

· Provide adequate space, feed, and water for welfare and productivity.
· Proper Stocking.
· Avoid Chemical and biological contaminants in livestock feeds
· Manure management.
· Sufficient land for feed production and waste disposal.
· Avoild all types of stress to animals
· Integration with agriculture
Various socio-economic issues includes

· Conditional financing for sustainability i.e. technically sound, profitability, beneficial to the
local economy, and environmentally and socially healthy.
· Occupational health of workers
· Labor relations
· Agricultural practices and impact management on natural resources
· Financial and economic viability of projects
· Product quality
· Social Responsibility.
The Planning Commission estimated, the deficit between demand and supply is is expected to increase
to 65 per cent (green fodder) and 25 per cent (dry fodder) respectively by 2025. Hardly four per cent
of area is devoted for fodder production in India, where as the requirement is around 10 per cent. In
India, it is estimated that 70 million households' livelihood is linked to the livestock sector. The crop
husbandry and animal husbandry are complementary to each other. Both in terms of contribution to
GDP and source of employment, livestock sector is important means of livelihood. India’s livestock
contributes about 3.6% of the GDP and 26% of the agricultural GDP (2010-11) which was higher than
the value of food grains. In India large numbers of species are reared under crop livestock integrated
farming system. The average number of livestock / ha. of land is 0.3 and 2.63 for holding above 10 ha
and below 1 ha respectively i.e. livestock are more important for the poor farmers since marginal and
small farmers own about 45% and 20% of the livestock, respectively. The area under cultivated fodder
crops (mainly 18 in No.) is about 9 mha. The area under grasslands is about 12 m ha, covered by about
28 significant species of grasses and legumes. About 49 mha of wastelands and degraded soils could
be used for increasing forage resources provided that proper trees, grass and legume species can be
identified and improved upon to thrive in such areas. There is no possibility of increasing area under
cultivated fodders. They also receive last priority for better inputs and management. Therefore, effort
is needed to improve production potential of forage crops and grasslands. Hence fodder production
system which can adjust to their farming system is important.
According to M.Moni, Chairman, Taskforce on IT in Agriculture, agricultural sector faces the
following constraints for achieving its sustainable growth in many parts of the country
(http://www.eindia.net.in/2008/eagriculture/ )
v Extensive pressure on land due to urbanisation
v Fragmentation of land holdings
v Frequent failure of monsoon and uneven distribution of rains (climatic aberrations)
v Depletion of ground water due to over-exploitation and lack of recharge
v Increasing areas under fallows
v Declining nutrient status of soil and soil health due to intensive cultivation
v Infrastructural inadequacy
v Inadequate market support
v Weak linkage between farmers and R&D institutions
v Inadequate post-harvest infrastructure, processing facilities, research & extension support
v Paucity of resources for large investments with long gestation periods.
v Ineffective pre-harvest and post-harvest Supply Chain Models and CRM Models
v Irrigation & Nutrient Management : An Area of Concern
v Water holds the key for enhancing and sustaining agricultural production, whether it is irrigated or
rainfed agriculture.
v Agricultural production system is an integrated and interactive effect of soil water- fertiliser-
climate continuum, and, therefore, scientific management of the complex system is crucial for
enhancing productivity on a sustained, eco-friendly manner.
v Among the various inputs, Water and Fertiliser are the two vital inputs that can be easily
“manipulated and managed” through human interventions to enhance crop productivity.
v The main causes for low yields are inefficient management of water and poor fertiliser use
efficiency as well as low and unbalanced nutrient use.
v The focus should be “on-farm management” where water and fertiliser interact.
v The users are not aware of the real cost of water or fertiliser.
Constraints experienced in extension strategies (Cited from: Sadamte, 2004)
v Focus on cereal crops
v Extension services operated mainly through state Department of Agriculture
v Line departments were not adequately equipped.
v Top down approach
v Generated uniformly and lacked location specifity.
v Weak REF linkages
v Weak media and IT applications
v Weak feed back system
Focusing on India it is noted that appropriate technology implies technology that is suited to the
economic and social conditions of practitioners, or local population. Appropriate technology is
essential, since traditional techniques are not competitive and cannot assure commercial farming and
proper income for reasonable livelihood. The breeding of fodder crops is done for high dry matter
yield, higher DCP, TDN and digestibility, less NDF, diseases and pest tolerance, problem soil
tolerance and capacity to with stand biotic and abiotic stresses without producing anti-metabolites.
But achieving these objectives in fodder crops becomes difficult due to their genetic nature along with
increasing green and dry fodder demand and decreasing land holding. Thus, new strategy
incorporating technology generation and enhanced effort for technology transfer, will have to be
developed to bridge the gap in demand and supply. Development of dual purpose fodder crop varieties
is important effort in this direction.
Besides this, the NARS has made significant progress in to develop new fodder technologies and to
introduce new fodder varieties and feeding systems with success. But fodder technology dissemination
has made limited progress in resolving the fodder scarcity problem which is very essential. Several
international organisations International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), United Nations
University in Maestrict (UNU-MERIT), The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid
Tropics ICRISAT) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) are collaborating with
NARS to solve the problem. This has led to development of certain principles i.e. the need to
recognise the complexity of farming as part of a wider system of social and economic activity; the
need to create patterns of interaction between different sources of agricultural knowledge; the need to
change the working practices of pivotal organisations, particularly agricultural research organisations,
but also others in the development sector; and the need to create an enabling policy environment for
technical change. Indian government has made huge investment and created network of infrastructure
but it still fail to serve the farmers (Hall et al, 2007).
Socio-economic aspects
· Types of land holdings
· Competitive demand for land by food grains & other commercial crops
· Economic Status of the Farmers
· Attitudes
· Natural calamities
· Infrastructure for fodder processing and compound feed
· Microfarming situation specific recommendations
· New approaches in transfer of technology
· Fodder marketing
Access to Modern Technology for Farming
(cited from-NSS Report No. 499(59/33/2) 2005)
Poor access to proper source of information is also important reason for less transfer of technologies.
· At all-India level, 40% of farmer households accessed various sources of information for Modern
Technology for Farming.
· At all-India level, of the sixteen different sources canvassed for accessing information for Modern
Technology for Farming, the most popular was ‘other progressive farmers’ with percentage of
farmer households accessing information through the source as 16.7%, followed by input dealer
(13.1%) and radio (13.0%).
· The two most popular sources, namely ‘other progressive farmers’ and ‘input dealer’ were
contacted by the farmer households mainly on ‘need basis’ or ‘seasonally’.
· Among the farmer households accessing information for cultivation from ‘other progressive
farmers’, 40% received information on ‘improved seed variety’, 31% on ‘fertiliser application’,
15% on ‘plant protection’ and 14% on ‘others’.
· Television served as a source of information on modern agricultural technology to 9.3%
households and newspapers to 7.0%. Whereas 5.7% households had received information from
extension workers, 3.6% received information from primary cooperative societies. Output buyers/
food processors, village fairs, government demonstrations, and credit agencies each served as a
source of information to about 2% of farmer households.
· There is state wise variation in use of source.
Table 1: Percentages of farmer households accessing modern agricultural technology
Source % of hhs Source % of hhs
Participation in training 0.9 Other progressive farmers 16.7
Krishi Vigyan Kendra 0.7 Farmers’ study tour 0.2
Extension worker 5.7 Para-technician/ private0.6
agency/NGO
Radio 13.0 Primary cooperative society 3.6
Television 9.3 Output buyers/ food processor 2.3
Newspaper 7.0 Village fair 2.0
Input dealer 13.1 Credit agency 1.8
Others 1.7 Government demonstration 2.0
Any source 40.4
Participatory research
Participation is the process through which stakeholders’ influence and share control over priority
setting, policy-making, resource allocations and access to public goods and services.
· Types of Participation
· Contract Participation:
· Consultative Participation:
· Collaborative Participation:
· Collegiate Participation:
Technology gap
A study of transfer of dairy and fodder production technologies revealed that aspects on which
technology gap is more are –
· Dairy farming practices.

· Health care.
· Technological gap in feeding practices -dry animal feeding , heifer feeding, lactating animal
feeding, pregnant animal feeding, LCFT, calves, fodder and grazing.
· Fodder production related aspects
In order to improve adoption of technologies it is necessary to improve their knowledge.
(Podikunju, 2000, Sharma et al, 2007, Satyapriya et al,2012). Increased adoption of
improved technologies led to increase in income.
Table 2: Impact of adoption of packages of selected dairy technologies.

Impact parameters / adopter categories Adopters Non-adopters Difference between
two categories
Animal income from dairying in Rs. 6511.1 4500 2011.1 ’t’=2.19*
Share of income in farm income in % 34.8 23.1 11.7 ’t’=1.42
Milk produced per cattle l / day 7.2 4.1 3.1 ’t’=3.30**
Breeding index 1.3 1.6 0.3 ’t’=1.01
Milk consumption in litres 2.5 2.2 0.3 ’t’=1.10
(Rao, 2007, and Rathinam, 2010).
Adoption and diffusion of innovations
Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available.
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of a social system. An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived
new by an individual or other unit of adoption (Ray, 2005). Adoption can be
Full adoption: Adoption of complete package of intervention or technology.
Partial adoption: Adoption of certain components of package of intervention or technology.
Attributes of innovation
1. Relative advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexity
4. Trialability
5. Observability
6. Predictability
All the attributes are positively correlated with rate of adoption except complexity which is negatively
correlated.
Stages of adoption
1. Awareness
2. Interest
3. Evaluation
4. Trial
5. Adoption
Adoption decision process
Ø Knowledge
Ø Persuasion stage
Ø Decision stage
Ø Implementation stage
Ø Confirmation stage
o Adopt
o Reject: Active or passive
o Discontinuance: Replacement , disenchantment
Categories of adopters (based on time of adoption)
Ø Innovators: LHS of Mean time of adoption minus two standard deviation, about 2.5 %.
Ø Early adopters: Between Mean time of adoption minus one and two standard deviation, about 13.5
%.
Ø Early majority: : Between Mean time of adoption minus and one standard deviation, about 34 %.
Ø Late majority : RHS Between Mean time of adoption and one standard deviation, about 34 %.
Ø Laggards : RHS last 16 %
Role of extension agents in adoption
1. Contacting the potential adopters.
2. Identify their needs and problems
3. Encourage the interested to evaluate and try the innovation
4. Guiding the convinced to adopt
5. Spread of innovation to other adopters
6. Review of adopted innovation
7. Set new goals for adopter to achieve.
Measuring the Indicators
Extent of knowledge = Obtained score X 100
Maximum possible score
Extent of adoption
=(Technologies adopted / Recommended technologies)*100
Technology gap
=( Recommended technologies – Technologies adopted / Recommended technologies)*100
Problems in fodder production
1. Small, fragmented and reducing land holdings:

2. Limited land and increasing demand for food grains & other commercial crops
3. Economic Status of the Farmers
4. Changing attitudes
5. Drought conditions
6. Less feasibility of fodder processing and compound feed practices for farmers
7. Area wise planning is necessary
9. Problem in transfer of technology
10. Non-availability of regular fodder marketing.
Questions to be answered?
v who are our clientele/Where to hit/
v what are our goal/objective activity wise/zone/Location specific/technology/clientele wise?
v Which are viable and socially acceptable technology/Sufficient number of varieties
/package/Basket of choice?
v Whether we have sufficient seed (type of seed for type, location /clientele)
v Whether we have sufficient extension literature technology wise/location and language
specific/clientele wise
v Whether we have sufficient trained manpower to communicate the technology properly location
and language wise/clientele/activity wise
v Have we ever interacted with SHGs/Village panchayats/Village cooperatives/Village Schools?
v Have we ever thought to look upon to develop participatory research/extension model.
New initiatives to meet fodder supply
· Development of dual purpose crops and MPTS
· Development of organised private sector dairy industry who promote fodder promotion.
· Initiative by co-operatives and NGOs.
· Promotion of different systems of fodder management under sylvo-pastoral systems by Bharatiya
Agro Industries Foundation (BAIF) in India,
· ILRI’s fodder promotion work
· Fodder promotion by Govt. of India through new programmes
· Policies advocacy related to land use, grazing, forest management and wasteland development
· Development of various fodder production systems and varieties suitable to diverse conditions of
India by IGFRI
· NIFTD: A new initiative by IGFRI
Lessons and principles
As per the study conducted by the Hall et al, 2007, based on the earlier work, identified following
lessons and principles for fodder development
· Participatory research is useful, but not sufficient for innovation
· Technology delivery and use requires networks of diverse players
· Facilitating wider interactions can stimulate institutional innovations that sharpen impact on poor
stakeholders
· Institutional learning helps improve project strategies
· Different organisations have different agendas, mandates and traditions
· Shifting from technology transfer to capacity strengthening
Operational lessons
· Process-driven investigation.
· Principles rather than a capacity blueprint.
· Wider scope of partnership.
· Building partnership skills.
· Engaging with the policy process.
IGFRI guidelines for fodder technology demonstration

Fodder Technology Demonstration (FTD) is a form of applied research through AICRP (FC) centers/
IGFRI and its RRS involved in improvement of fodder production. Latest Notified/recommended
hybrids varieties along with full package of practices/forage production and protection technologies on
selected farm with a view to demonstrate the potentiality of the technologies to the farmers and
extension workers. Demonstration can be :
Ø Result Demonstration
Ø Method Demonstration
Ø Front Line Demonstration
Ø Fodder Technology Demonstration
Guidelines for FTD in Brief
1. In FTD, selection of the variety/ technology depends on its suitability for the particular zone,
however, varieties developed by the SAU/ICAR Institute concerned will be preferred. If centre
has no variety/technology of its own then variety recommended for the zone will be taken for
this purpose.
2. Minimum area for FTD in Kharif and Rabi season would be 0.20 ha and 0.10 ha per
demonstration respectively.
3. Location of the FTD may be changed every year to bring new area and farmers under
demonstration.
4. The estimates of seed requirement should be worked out and procured from reliable source viz.,
ICAR Institute/SAU for Kharif and Rabi season every year.
5. An assistance in terms of inputs Iike- seed, planting material, fertilizer (N,P, K) & pesticide .
6. The farmer should only be provided with inputs and in no case, money will be paid.
7. About 50 per cent of the demonstrations may be given to marginal I small and poor resources
farmers in interior area.
8. A four-member committee Director, IGFRI would constitute the committee for this purpose.
9. They may send first report within a fortnight after sowing /planting the FTD's and the final
report after the harvest. Also, team constituted by the PC (FC) will do the monitoring.
Adoption studies at IGFRI
The adoption of newly developed fodder varieties in the field was studied. The highest adoption
(24.00%) was observed in berseem followed by (16.00%) in sorghum, 15.38% in oats, 13.3% in maize
and 9.3% in cowpea. Only 1.3% adoptions have been observed in grasses ((Napier/Guinea/Stylo).
Spread Effect (in ha)

0.18
1.71 Maize
8.44
5.66
Sorghum
0.66 1.3 1.33

The highest spread ratio (1:7) was found in Maize
followed by 1:6.2 in Berseem, 1:5.43 in Cowpea, 1:5.29 in Oats, 1:4.85 in MP Chari and 1:4 in
Sorghum.The highest spread effect (8.44) was observed in Maize followed by 5.66 in Berseem, 1.71in
oats, 1.33 in Sorghum, 1.30 in Cowpea, 0.66 in MP Chari in terms of increase in hectares.
Activities recommended
v Farmers meeting/Group discussion/Farm and home visit
v Kisan gosthi /field day/ Livstock field day/Field visit
v Kisan mela/ Exhibition/Interaction with SHGs.
v Radio/ Television talk
v Conducting demonstrations/Method demonstration/Minikit distribution
v Conducting trainings (different types and client preferences)
v On farm experimentation (OFR/OFVR/OFD for technology dissemination)
v Increase use of ICT in agriculture
Extension Strategy & Network in relation to Forage Production & Utilization

v Development of National Network of extension functionaries with regards to breeding, feeding
and management aspects.
v Involvement of all stakeholders like farmers, agricultural universities, veterinary and fodder seed
sale agencies, dairy federations, state/central governments, NGOs & cattle feed agencies.
v Strengthening and facilitate to small dairy units run by the local farmers & semi urban people.
v Development of live fodder museum in all blocks/ KVKs.
v Involvement of village institutions, youths, elected member of Panchayats.
v Fodder and their seed sale points/ counters in every panchayats.
v Participatory execution and implementation of programmes by adopting bottom up approach.
v Specially medium & small farmers’ development plans related to livestock development keeping
the specific technological choice and needs.
v Making strategic plan for graziers & nomads as per their movement and local need of fodder
(green & dry) and fodder seeds.
v Strengthening linkages with all cooperators/associates and functionary agencies.
v Continuous monitoring & evaluation of the programmes should be followed by physical check at
the farmers’ fields by the independent consultant.
v Networking of fodder (green & dry) and forage seed production, storage & marketing all over the
country in an organized way.
v Involvement of media in terms of educating, training, creating awareness among the farmers and
traders etc.
Chapter: 28
Environmental aspects of Good Agricultural Practices
Rajendra Prasad
National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi
In the modern era of science all the activities relating to production of primary goods and services
which harm environment by either disturbing its equilibrium or soiling it with pollutants and
hazardous gasses are necessarily discouraged and efforts are made to search for environment friendly
processes and operations. One of the most important environmental concerns is the global warming
and climate change. It is now a proven fact that the global climate is changing and measures for its
mitigation and adaptation are essential to face the new challenges (Prasad et al. 2011). The main cause
of global warming is the increase in concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. The
GHGs, viz. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) trap the outgoing infrared
radiations from the earth’s surface and thus raise the temperature. Today, global warming has become
most prominent environmental issue before the humanity. According to Inter-Governmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), due to greenhouse effect the global mean annual temperature was recorded
higher by 0.40-0.76 °C at the end of the 20th century than was at the end of the 19th century (IPCC,
2007a). This agency has projected a rise of 1.1 to 6.4 °C in temperature by the end of the 21 st century.
The global warming is leading to several other regional and global changes such as rainfall, soil
moisture and sea level and if this phenomenon is not confined within a limit, the results would be
catastrophic. The objective of this lecture note is to apprise the readers about contribution of
agriculture to global warming and low carbon agricultural practices that contribute to green or
environment friendly agricultural growth.
2. The GHGs emission and contribution of agriculture

According to Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) Report (2010), the net GHGs
emissions were 1727.7 million tons (Mt) of CO2 eq. from India in 2007. The main source was the
energy sector, contributing 57.8% to the total GHGs, followed by industrial (21.7%), agricultural
(17.6%) and waste (3.0%) sectors. In the agricultural sector with a total emission of 334.4 Mt CO2 eq.,
the major sources are enteric fermentation (63.4%), rice cultivation (20.9%), agricultural soils
(13.0%), manure management (2.4%) and on-field burning of crop residues (2.0%). Thus, the crop
production sector (rice cultivation, soils, and field burning of crop residues) contributes 35.9% of the
total emissions from agriculture (INCCA, 2010).
The key sources for GHG emissions from agriculture sector are: i) Enteric fermentation, ii) manure
management, iii) rice cultivation, iv) agriculture soils, and v) field burning of agricultural residue. The
agriculture sector emissions are dominated by the emissions from enteric fermentation from livestock,
which contributes about 60% of the total emissions from the agriculture sector (India’s Second
National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2012).
CH4 is the second largest anthropogenic GHG, which contributes 14.3% of total anthropogenic GHG
emissions estimated in 2004 (IPCC 2007b). Globally, livestock produces about 80 million tonnes of
enteric CH4 annually. Most of the CH4 from ruminant livestock originates from microbial fermentation
of carbohydrates in the rumen and lower digestive tract, referred to as enteric CH4 emissions.
Management decisions about manure disposal and storage affect emissions of CH4 and N2O, which are
formed in decomposing manures as a byproduct of methanogenesis and nitrification/denitrification,
respectively. Livestock manure is principally composed of organic material. When this organic
material decomposes under anaerobic environment, methanogenic bacteria produces methane.
Although CH4 and N2O emissions from manure management are minor, manure itself is an important
contributor to emissions because it is either applied on cropland as organic fertilizer or directly
deposited by grazing animals on pasture. In India manure management is responsible for emission of
120.44 Gg of CH4 and 0.08 Gg of N2O annually.
The acreage under rice cultivation in India is estimated at about 44.0 million hectares, mostly planted
in wet monsoon or irrigated systems by flooding and puddling fields. These rice fields are a major
source of emission of GHGs like CH4 and N2O. Researchers have attempted to model and estimate
GHG emissions from rice fields under varying growing conditions. However, there are uncertainties in
the estimation of GHG from Indian rice fields due to diverse soil and climatic conditions and crop
management practices. An extensive methane measurement campaign was coordinated by the National
Physical Laboratory in 1991. Measurements were undertaken in major paddy growing regions of the
country under different rice environments for the whole cropping period. Emission of CH4 from paddy
cultivation in India was estimated to be about 4 Tg/year (a tenth of United States Environmental
Protection Agency estimates obtained by extrapolating European and American data to India).
Globally, potential for carbon (C) sequestration in soils over 50 year period has been estimated to be
24-43 Gt C (0.4 to 0.9 Gt C yr-1) through improved management of existing agricultural soils and
restoration of degraded lands. This would correspond with about 9-12% of the anthropogenic CO2 -C
produced annually. The potential of soil carbon sequestration in India is estimated at 39 to 52 Tg (1
Tg= 1012 g) C yr-1, which includes through restoration of degraded soils (7.2-9.4 Tg C yr-1), and
reduction in erosion-induced emission of C (4.3-7.2 Tg C yr-1) (Lal, 2004). In India, more than 100
million hectares are classified as degraded and greatly depleted in soil organic matter (SOM); 35% of
this area is classified as salt-affected wasteland. It has been suggested that only by reclamation of salt-
affected wasteland in India, up to 2 Gt C could be sequestered. There is a considerable uncertainty in
the estimates, concerning both C flux rates and soil C storage capacity. Since soils have a finite
capacity to store additional C, the total amount of C sequestered and the estimates there of depend on
the time horizon considered. Further, permanence of C sequestered in soil depends on the continuation
of the recommended management practices.
In some parts of India, agricultural wastes are burnt in the field to clear remaining straw and stubble
after harvest, and to prepare the field for the next crop. Farmers prefer crop residue burning as a quick
and labour saving process to dispose of the crop residues of rice, wheat, maize and sugarcane.
Emissions of CO2 during burning of crop residues are considered neutral, as it is reabsorbed during the
next growing season. However, biomass burning is one of the significant sources of atmospheric
aerosols and trace gas emissions, which has a major impact on human health. In addition to aerosol
particles, biomass burning due to forest fires and crop residue burning are considered a major source
of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), volatile organic compounds (VOC),
nitrogen oxides and halogen compounds. Carbon monoxide is a chemically active gas in the
troposphere influencing the abundance of O3 and the oxidising capacity (OH) of the troposphere. In
India field burning of crop residues account for 257.21 Gg of CH4 and 6.67 Gg of N2O emissions
annually.
Mitigation of greenhouse gases is a global responsibility. Agriculture, forestry, fisheries/aquaculture

provide, in principle, a significant potential for GHG mitigation. The IPCC estimates that the global
technical mitigation potential for agriculture (excluding forestry) will be between 5 500 and 6 000 Mt
CO2-equivalent per year by 2030, 89 percent of which are assumed to be from carbon sequestration in
soils. The fourth assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) focuses on
direct mitigation in agriculture, concluding that 90 percent of the technical potential for direct
mitigation is through sequestration of soil carbon in developing regions, particularly in Southeast Asia,
South America, East Asia, and Eastern Africa.The greatest opportunities for cost-effective mitigation
are through changes in cropland and grazing land management, restoration of organic carbon to
cultivated soils, restoration of degraded lands, and agroforestry.
3. Low carbon agricultural technologies

Management practices that reduce release of GHGs from agricultural fields, and require low carbon
inputs for various operations are comprehended as low carbon agriculture. According to the
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), agriculture can play an important role in
mitigating three greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).
Plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and extract some carbon for use in developing plant tissues.
Oxygen (O2) and CO2 are released back into the atmosphere. When the plant dies, the carbon in the
plant tissues is converted back to CO2 if decomposition is aerobic, to CH4 if decomposition is
anaerobic, or remains in the soil as soil organic material (SOM) if the material does not decompose.
Low carbon agriculture refers to methods or practices of agriculture having low carbon input as well
as low carbon output. It requires inputs having low C footprints and also emits low C. The bases for
development of low C agriculture are low energy use; low energy releasing, low pollute input and high
capability; higher input use efficiency and profitability. Identification and adoption of best
management practices (BMP) with low carbon foot prints (i.e. low C emission and high C sink) needs
to be taken up. The BMP that promote low carbon input and high C sink in agriculture ( Pathak and
Aggarwal, 2012) are described below:
i. Minimizing inputs by applying less irrigation, tillage, labor, fertilizers, insecticides and
herbicides.
ii. Improving efficiency of water and nutrients use, provision of tolerance to stresses of moisture
and heat, salt, diseases and pests.
iii. Improving soils by resting, retention of residue, control of erosion pollution &mining of
nutrients.
iv. Using low cost agro techniques: such as diversified crops & rotation, INM, IPM, SWC,
biofuel, wind and solar power.
v. Improving livestock keeping by dietary manipulation and feed and fodder processing
Agroforestry offer great potential of sequestering atmospheric carbon and an almost zero cost
approach for restoration of badly degraded land through nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs. Agroforestry
is widely promoted in tropical countries. According to the recent projections, in India the area under
agroforestry will increase substantially in the near future (NRCAF 2007, 2011). Undoubtedly, this will
have a great impact on the flux and long term storage of carbon as agroforestry often improves the
productivity of system while providing opportunities to create carbon sinks. The additionality factor of
agroforestry comes from its conservation value and services to the environment. Majority of the
agroforestry systems have the potential to sequester carbon which may vary according to tree species
(Prasad et al, 2012) and management practices (Ram Newaj et al, 2001). With adequate management
of trees under agroforestry systems, a significant fraction of the atmospheric carbon could be captured
and stored in plant biomass and in soils.
Chapter: 29
Economic dimensions and marketing issues of good agricultural practices in forages
Vikas Kumar, Manju Suman and R.K.Sharma

Good agricultural practices are the only way to increase the food production in sustainable manner
with the use of natural resources. This symbiotic relation between higher food production and
protected environment motivates the farmers to adopt and promote the conservation agriculture. The
challenge to agricultural scientists is to increase the food production continuously but without making
negative impact on environment for improving the livelihoods of farming community. The Green
Revolution that initiated five decades ago was earlier supposed as complete because it has improved
the yields of foodgrains crops significantly. But that could not protect the environment and thus, a new
revolution started evolving, that is good agricultural practices. Good agricultural practices not only
ensure the higher yield of crops but at the same time cares the natural resources and biodiversity. The
economics of different fodder crops is explained as under.
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata):-Cowpea is an important leguminous crop in kharif and Zaid sason. It is
the suitable for the farmers when the irrigation facility is available with farmers. The suitable sowing
time for the crop is onset of rain and up to 15 July. The isolation distance for Breeder and foundation
seed crop is 20 meter and 5 meter for other grade seed crop. The important high yielding varieties of
the crop are Bundel Lobia-1, BL-2, Kohinoor, EC- 4216, UPC-287 and UPC-5286
For the optimum plant population the seed rate is kept low that is 12- 15 kg per hectare. the line to line
distance is maintained as 50 cm. The fertilisers for good growth of crop and seed formation is
Nitrogen 20 kg , Phosphorus-50 kg and potash 40 kg. One or two irrigations are required in the
absence of rains. The forage crop can give 350-400 quintals of green fodder. The seed crop can give 8-
10 quintal of seed per hectare and 270- 320 quintal of green fodder.
Economic analysis of Cowpea crop for seed: The total cost came to Rs 39008.41 per hectare. The
average seed production was 523.7247 kg/ ha. and the gross return was Rs 46278 and the net profit
was Rs 7269.594. The Benefit to Cost ratio came out to 1.19. The cost of production / quintal of seed
was found to Rs 36.50 per kg when both the by product and main products are considered. The cost of
production per kg of seed was as Rs 74.49/kg when only main product was considered.
Guar or Cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) :- Clusterbean is also an important leguminous

crop in kharif and Zaid sason.It require very little irrigation, thus suitable to farmers who have poor
irrigation supply and can be grown as rainfed crop. The suitable sowing time for the crop is onset of
rain and up to 15 July. The isolation distance for Breeder and foundation seed crop is 20 meter and 5
meter for other grade seed crop. The important high yielding varieties of the crop are Guar-80, Bundel
guar-1, Bundel guar-2, Bundel guar- 3, FS-277, HFG-119 and HFG-156. For the optimum plant
population the seed rate is kept low that is 12- 15 kg per hectare. the line to line distance is maintained
as 35 cm. The fertilisers for good growth of crop and seed formation is Nitrogen 20 kg , Phosphorus-50
kg and potash 40 kg. One or two irrigations are required in the absence of rains. The forage crop can
give 275-325 quintals of green fodder. The seed crop can give 8-10 quintal of seed per hectare and 100-
125 quintal of dry fodder.
Economic analysis of Clusterbean crop for seed: The total cost came to Rs 28962.84 per hectare. The
average seed production was 784.5654kg/ ha. and the gross return was Rs 106407.54 and the net profit
production per kg of seed was as Rs 46.62 /kg when only main product was considered.
Oat ( Avena sativa L. ):- Oat is very important crop of winter season and can be grown successfully in
all regions in which the temperature range in winter is coming down to 28- 30 degree centigrade.it is
the important graminacious crop in Rabi sason. It require very less irrigation in comparison to
berseem and get ready for first harvest fast. The suitable sowing time for the crop is 15 Oct to 30
October but can be sown till mid of December. The isolation distance for Breeder and foundation seed
crop is 20 meter and 5 meter for other grade seed crop. The important high yielding varieties of the
crop are JHO-822, JHO-851, JHO- 99-2, JHO 90-1, Kent (North, Central India), UPO-94, PO-3
(whole India)
For the optimum plant population the seed rate is kept low that is 70 kg per hectare. the line to line
distance is maintained as 30 cm. The fertilisers for good growth of crop and seed formation is Nitrogen
80 kg , Phosphorus-50 kg and potash 40 kg. The crop needs 3-4 irrigations in the absence of rains. The
forage crop can give 450-550 quintals of green fodder. The seed crop can give 20-25 quintal of seed
per hectare and 25-40 quintal of dry fodder.
Economic analysis of Oat crop for seed and dry fodder: The total cost came to Rs 35851.69 per
hectare. The average seed production was 1743.32 kg/ ha. and the gross return was Rs 55585.88 and the
net profit was Rs 19734.19. The Benefit to Cost ratio came out to 1.55. The cost of production / quintal
of seed was found to Rs 10.75 per kg when both the by product and main products are considered. The
cost of production per kg of seed was as Rs 20.62 /kg when only main product was considered.
Berseem(Trifolium alexandrinum L.):-Fodder is found as one of the important constraints in rearing

the animals. Purchasing fodder and then feeding to the animals is not found economical. Berseem
(Trifolium alexandrinum Linn) is an important fodder crop and the quality seed of is in great demand
in the market especially from the northern India. It is very high yielding fodder crop and can give
1000 to 1100 quintals of green fodder in one season only. 5- 6 cuttings of green fodder can be taken
from it.When seed crop is taken it can give 4-5 quintal of seed and about 500-600 quintals of green
fodder for the animals. Thus, it is a very remunerative crop even when it is taken for the seed
production. The common problem for seed production is keeping the field free from the weeds and
important among that is chichory.
Economic analysis of Berseem crop for seed: The total cost came to Rs 46892.05 per hectare. The
average seed production was 201.81 kg/ ha. and the gross return was Rs 90364.15 and the net profit
was found to be very low when both the by product (500-600 quintal green fodder) and main products
are considered. The cost of production per kg of seed was as Rs 237.31 /kg when only main product
was considered. Thus, it will be highly costly to move for berseem seed production and do not use the
green fodder produced.
Jowar (Sorghum bicolar):-Sorghum is the important fodder and grain crop in India for Kharif season.
It grows well in plains and South India. Soil requirement: The optimum soil for its growth is loam with
facility for drainage. The optimum sowing time for the crop is onset of rain in month of July and till the
2nd week of July. For the seed production the Isolation Distance is 400 m (Breeder & foundation) and
200 m (other grade seed). Important varieties are PC-6, PC-29, HC-171, HC-260, HC-308, Pant Chari-
5( Early to medium, all India, single cut), PC-23, PC-106( hybrid) ( North India, multicut),MP- Chari,
UP Chari-2( North India, single cut), JC-69( MP, Multicut),Raj Cari-2 ( late, single cut), TNFS-9602
or COFS-29( Tamilnadu multicut),Meethi sudan or SSG-59-3 9 (all India, multicut),SSG-988, SSG-
855,Punjab Sudex (Hybrid, multicut, Punjab). The seed rate for seed production is 12- 15 kg /hectare
and for the fodder crop the seed rate is 35- 40 kg perhectare. The line to line distance in seed crop is 35
cm and plant to plant is 15 cm. There is need of 60 kg Nitrogen 50 kg phosphorus and 40 kg potash for
a hectare of seed crop. One to two irrigations are required in absence of rains. The fodder crop can give
450 – 500 quital of green fodder and the seed crop can give 15- 20 quintal of pure seed and 120-150
quintal of dry fodder.
Economic analysis of seed crop of sorghum under the farmers fields: The total cost came to Rs
29948.93 per hectare. the gross return was Rs 65538.98 and the net profit was Rs 35590.05. The
Benefit to Cost ratio came out to 2.19. The cost of production / quintal of seed was found is found as
very little when both the by product and main products are considered. The cost of production per kg
of seed was as Rs 27.71 /kg when only main product was considered. Maize ( Zea mays): It is the
suitable for the farmers when the irrigation facility is available with farmers. It is the fast growing crop
and suitable for plains of north and south india. The suitable sowing time for the crop is onset of rain
and up to 15 July.The isolation distance for Breeder and foundation seed crop is 400 meter and 200
meter for other grade seed crop.The important high yielding varieties of the crop are African tall, J
1006 and Pratap Makka ( whole India). For the optimum plant population the seed rate is kept low that
is 12- 15 kg per hectare. the line to line distance is maintained as 50- 60 cm and plant to plant 30 cm.
The fertilisers for good growth of crop and seed formation is Nitrogen 80 kg , Phosphorus-50 kg and
potash 40 kg. One or two irrigations are required in the absence of rains. The forage crop can give
400-450 quintals of green fodder and can be harvested in 55-60 days. The seed crop can give 20-25
quintal of seed per hectare and 120 -150 quintal of dry fodder.
Economic analysis of maize crop for seed: The average total cost came to Rs 28429.21 per hectare.
The average seed production was 1402.683 and the gross return was Rs 59598.66 and the net profit was
Rs 31169.45. The Benefit to Cost ratio came out to 2.101792 . the cost of production / quintal of seed
production per kg of seed was as Rs 20.30
/kg when only main product was considered.
Chapter: 30
Good Agricultural Practices for Carbon Sequestration and Soil Quality
R. Saha, Somasundaram, J., Chaudhary, R.S., Mohanty, M. and Hati, K.M.

Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal.
Sustainability of the cropping system depends mainly on the soil fertility management which involves
adequate and balanced nutrient supply. Therefore, the soil quality is determined by the efficient use of
plant nutrients through judicially balanced and integrated use of possible organic resources in
conjunction with minimal inorganic chemical fertilizers. Poor soil physical environment require
careful management to maintain conditions favorable for plant growth. The key point is that traditional
soil physical properties like soil texture, structure, bulk density etc. affect the management practices
required to maintain water potential, oxygen diffusion rate, temperature and mechanical resistance in a
range suitable for good crop production. The suitable management practices such as tillage, residue
management, soil amendments, drainage and irrigation are, therefore, recommended to maintain soil
physical health so as to achieve the higher crop production. Intensive tillage in conventional systems
leads to gradual decline in soil organic matter through accelerated oxidation, with a consequent
reduction in the capacity of the soil to regulate water and nutrient supplies to plants. Application of
plant residue to soil is known to have beneficial effects on soil nutrients, soil physical condition, soil
biological activity, and crop performance (Hulugalle et al., 1986; Sharma and Prasad, 2003). Plant
residues that decompose quickly will provide crops with a large amount of nutrient in early stage of
crop growth, but may not have an effect on soil physical condition, whereas slowly decomposing plant
residues will have effects opposite to the above (Tian et al., 1993).
Globally, forests contain more than half of all the terrestrial carbon, and account for about 80% of the
carbon exchange between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. Forest ecosystems are estimated
to absorb upto 3 Pg (3 billion tonnes) of carbon annually. Over the last three centuries, forests have
decreased by 1.2 billion hectares, i.e., 19% and grasslands by 560 million hectares. This has resulted
due to increase in croplands and growth of urban areas. This situation warranted to identify and
implement the best forestry/agroforestry options, which fulfills the demand of wood and its products
along with increasing carbon sequestration. The probable effect higher CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere may increase plant photosynthesis and thus crop yield may increase (Kimball, 1983) and
will increase net primary production in tropical forest ecosystems. Thus, Promoting agroforestry is one
option many perceive as a major opportunity to deal with problems related to land-use and CO2-
induced global warming. Agroforestry is defined as any land-use system that involves the deliberate
retention, introduction or mixture of trees or other woody perennials with agricultural crops, pastures
and/or livestock to exploit the ecological and economic interactions of the different components (Nair,
1993 and Young, 1997). Historical evidence showed that agroforestry has been widely practised
through the ages as a means of achieving agricultural sustainability and slowing the negative effects of
agriculture such as soil degradation and desertification.
Modified land use systems: agroforestry

The agroforestry system (AFS) has today become an established approach to integrated land
management, not only for renewable resource production, but also for ecological considerations. It
represents the integration of agriculture and forestry to increase the productivity and sustainability of
the farming system. Agroforestry (also known as multistrata tree gardens or analogue forests) and
homegardens are other variants of these complex systems, but involve higher plant diversity. Trees
play an important role in soil C sequestration (Takimoto et al., 2008): with an increase in the number
of trees (high tree density) in a system, the overall biomass production per unit area of land will be
higher, which in turn may promote more C storage in soils. In fact, recent research has reported higher
soil C stock (amount of carbon stored in soil) under deeper soil profiles in agroforestry systems
compared to treeless agricultural or pasture systems under similar ecological settings (Haile et al.,
2008; Nair et al., 2009). Multipurpose trees (MPTs) form an integral component of different
agroforestry interventions and models. MPTs, besides furnishing multiple outputs like fuel, fodder,
timber, and other minor products, also help in the improvement of soil and other ecological conditions.
The trees play various functions, including shading crops to reduce evapotranspiration, erosion control
and nutrient cycling (Young, 1997). Some of the potential AFS are agri-horti-silviculture,
multistoreyed AFS, home garden, agri-silviculture, horti-pastoral, Agri-horti-silvi-pastoral etc.
Potential C storage in agroforestry systems

Agroecosystems play a central role in the global C cycle and contain approximately 12% of the world
terrestrial C. The terrestrial (plant and soil) C is estimated at 2000 ± 500 Pg, which represents 25% of
global C stocks (DOE, 1999). The sink option for CO2 mitigation is based on the assumption that this
figure can be significantly increased if various biomes are judiciously managed and/or manipulated
(Table 1). It is clear that forests have tremendous potential for C sequestration (1-3 Pg year-1) so as to
reduce GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. In this connection, agroforestry systems will have a
great impact on the flux and long-term storage of C in the terrestrial biosphere (Dixon, 1995) as the
area of the world under agroforestry will increase substantially in the near future undoubtedly. The
amount of C sequestered largely depends on the agroforestry system put in place, the structure and
function of which are, to a great extent, determined by environmental and socio-economic factors.
Other factors influencing carbon storage in agroforestry systems include tree species and system
management.
Table 1. Categorisation of biomes and their C sequestration (CS) potential (DOE, 1999)
Biomes Primary method to increase CS Potential CS (Pg C year-1)
Agricultural lands Management 0.85–0.90
Biomass croplands Manipulation 0.50–0.80
Grasslands Management 0.50
Rangelands Management 1.20
Forests Management 1–3
Deserts and degraded lands Manipulation 0.80–1.30
A well managed agroforestry system has greater amounts of C sequestration potential in and out of the
soil. About 20–25% of the total living biomass of trees prevails in the roots and there is constant
addition of organic matter to the soil through decaying dead roots, which leads to improvements in the
C status of the soil (Balkrishnan and Toky, 1993). Better soil aggregation under natural forest,
multistoreyed AFSs and silvi-hortipastoral systems maintaining intensive vegetative cover throughout
the year could be ascribed to the effect of the higher percentage of organic carbon.
Multipurpose trees
The multipurpose tree species (MPTs) form an integral component of different agroforestry
interventions in crop sustainability. The MPTs, besides furnishing multiple outputs such as fuel,
fodder, timber and other miscellaneous products, help in the improvement of soil health and other
ecological conditions. Multipurpose tree species like P. kesiya, A. nepalensis, P. roxburghii, M.
oblonga and G. arboria with greater surface cover, constant leaf litter fall and extensive root systems
increased soil organic carbon by 96.2% (Table 2), helped with better aggregate stability by 24.0%,
improved available soil moisture by 33.2%, and in turn reduced soil erosion by 39.5% (Saha et al.,
2007). Screening of MPTs is an important prerequisite for determining the suitability of agroforestry
models for various agroecological regions. Jha et al. (2010) suggested that inclusion of species like P.
Juliflora, L. Leucocephala, A. nilotica and A. indica could be a better choice for restoring and
rehabilitation of degraded ravine lands in the riparian zone. They reported that the SOC contents in
forest systems with these MPTs were twofold higher in comparison to the reference site. Mishra et al.
(2004) also reported increase of SOC under 6-year-old plantations of P. juliflora, D. sissoo and E.
tereticornis. The poplar based agroforestry system improves aggregation of soil through huge amounts
of organic matter in the form of leaf biomass. The extent of improvement may be affected by the age
of the poplar trees and the soil type. Gupta et al. (2009) reported that the poplar trees could sequester
higher soil organic carbon in 0–30 cm profile during the first year of their plantation (6.07 Mg ha-1
year-1) than the subsequent years (1.95–2.63 Mg ha-1 year-1). Similarly, a comparative study on the
effect of various MPTs on soil organic carbon pool (Table 3) showed a concomitant rise in SOC in
soils under MPTs and a subsequent decline in soils of open space over 4−16 years. Maximum rise in
SOC was noticed in soils of A. indica (28.6 Mg hm-2) followed by A. Aurculiformisi (21.9 Mg hm-2),
G. arborea (21.8 Mg hm-2), M. Champaca (16.7 Mg hm-2), etc. The minimum rise in SOC was noted
in soils under T. grandis. So an increase of SOC was noted from 3.8 Mg hm-2 in soils of open space to
19.5 Mg hm-2in that under MPTs after 16 years. The comparatively high humin carbon present in soils
under A. auriculiformis, L. leucocephala and G. Arborea (Fig. 1) indicated the enhanced storage of
organic carbon pool in agroforestry systems (Datta and Singh, 2007).
Table 2. Growth, litter production, fine root biomass of promising MPTs in humid tropics and their
contribution on SOC content. (Saha et al., 2010)
MPTs Annual litter production Time required for Total fine Organic C
(g m-2) decomposition (days) root biomass (g kg-1)
(g m-2)
P. kesiya 621.5 718 496.75 35.4
A. nepalensis 473.75 350 435.50 32.2
P. roxburghii 341.75 385 415.50 23.1
M. oblonga 512.25 390 462.00 33.6
G. arboria 431.75 360 419.00 28.6
Table 3. Changes in SOC (Mg hm-2) over the years under various MPTs in humid tropics (Datta and
Singh, 2007)
MPTs Years
4 8 12 16
A. auriculiformis 11.1 11.9 17.9 21.9
M. alba 9.9 9.9 9.9 15.9
L. leucocephala 11.5 11.5 12.8 16.7
D. sissoo 13.1 12.5 13.1 13.9
G. maculate 13.1 13.1 13.9 14.9
A. indica 10.9 10.9 14.7 28.6
M. champaca 13.9 13.7 13.9 16.9
E. hybrid 9.9 9.9 14.9 16.1
T. grandis 11.5 11.3 11.5 12.9
G. arborea 12.2 12.2 12.8 21.8
S. saman 10.6 11.3 11.3 13.9
A. procera 13.5 13.1 13.5 14.7
Open space (Control) 11.9 11.9 11.1 9.1
Hedgerow intercropping
Hedgerow intercropping (HI) refers to the agroforestry systems where crops are grown between rows
of regularly coppiced woody species. Initially, it has been developed to restore the fertility of degraded
soils in the humid and sub-humid tropics, HI has later been adopted in other regions not only to
ameliorate soils, but also to provide other products (e.g. fodder) and services (e.g. erosion control).
Scientific literature showed strong variations in C storage potential in HI (1–37 Mg ha−1) depending on
climate, soil type and system management (Kang et al., 1999). However, C storage is only temporary
in HI systems since the biomass is continuously harvested for prunings (or fodder) and firewood. In
many areas of the tropics, regular addition of prunings and root turnover over the years have
contributed to the build up of SOM and nutrient stocks in the soil (Rao et al., 1998; Kumar et al.,
2001). In a 12-year HI trial on a Nigerian Alfisol, G. sepium and L. leucocephala increased surface
soil organic carbon (SOC) by 15% (2.38 Mg C ha−1) compared to sole crops (Kang et al., 1999).
Pasture management
On a global basis, grassland/grazing lands occupy 3460 Mha. Restoring degraded grazing lands and
improving forage species is important to sequestering SOC and SIC. Furthermore, converting marginal
croplands to pastures (by CRP and other set-aside provisions) can also sequester C. Similar to
cropland, management options for improving pastures include judicious use of fertilizers, controlled
grazing, sowing legumes and grasses or other species adapted to the environment, improvement of soil
fauna and irrigation. Conant et al. (2001) reported rates of SOC sequestration through pasture
improvement ranging from 0.11 to 3.04 Mg C ha-1 year-1 with a mean of 0.54 Mg C ha-1 year-1.
Resource conserving techniques (RCTs) for soil quality maintenance

Resource conserving techniques (RCTs) using locally available resources encompass practices that
enhance resources or input-use efficiency and provide immediate, identifiable and demonstrable
economic benefits such as reduction in production costs, saving in water, fuel, labour requirements
and timely establishment of crops resulting in improved yields (Ghosh et al., 2010). Some of the
successful RCTs, which are widely practiced are incorporation of weed biomass and crop residues,
permanent organic soil cover, green manuring, minimal soil disturbance etc.
In conventional agriculture, crop residues are used either as fodder for livestock or burnt with view to
control pest, disease and weed flora, and to permit timely tillage operations. Contrary to this practice,
if residues are allowed to remain on the soil surface, they act as layer of mulch. Mulching is the
practice of covering soil around plants with an organic material to make conditions more favourable
for plant growth, development and crop production. Mulches accelerates plant growth by increasing
soil temperature, stabilizing soil moisture and reducing weed growth and hence increases crop yield.
Study conducted with locally available grasses (Jungle grass) and weeds (Ambrosia sp.) showed that
incorporation of FYM or jungle grass or Ambrosia sp., continuously for 5 years in puddled rice soil
improved soil organic carbon (SOC) by 21.1%; the stability of micro-aggregates, moisture retention
capacity, and infiltration rate of the soil by 82.5, 10, and 31.3%, respectively; and soil bulk density
decreased by 12.6% (Saha and Mishra, 2009).
Crop Diversification & Land Configuration

Sensible crop diversification should be adopted with ultimate goal to employ economically viable,
diversified crop combinations, to help moderate possible weeds, disease and pest problems, to enhance
soil bio-diversity, to reduce labour peak and to provide farmers with new risk management
opportunities. Proper land configuration is must for utilizing the residual soil moisture effectively for
winter rabi crop cultivation. Raised and sunken bed (RSB) system also called ‘sorjan’ is popular in
Java and tidal wetlands in Indonesia, where high value upland crops are grown on raised beds and rice
in sunken beds. The land configuration may be permanent or temporary. The temporary raised beds
are made after harvesting of lowland rice and used mainly for cultivation of vegetables. Under such
land configurations the sunken areas is left unutilized, as a results about 20-40 % land is wasted.
Whereas, permanent raised and sunken beds configuration are used for cent per cent land utilization.
Here vegetables and other arable crops are grown on raised beds and rice, fish etc. are grown on
sunken beds. This would increase the cropping intensity as well as the farmers’ income. Land levelling
is a prerequisite for enhancing the benefits of other resource conservation technologies. In a well
levelled field, less amount of water and nutrients are required than an uneven field. The benefits of
applying same amount of inputs will be much higher in a levelled field due to their even distribution.
In plains of North India, laser land leveller is used that level land to a perfection of ±2 cm from the
average elevation. Only, by levelling land, the yield can be increased by 10-25%, saves water to the
tune of 40%, increase the nutrient use efficiency by 15-25% and increases land area by 2-6% due to
reduction in area required for bunds and channels (Jat et al., 2006)
The crop diversification may results in the following anticipated benefits.
(i) Alternative crops may enhance profitability
(ii) Diversified rotations can reduce pests
(iii) Labour may be spread out more uniformly
(iv) Different planting and harvesting times can reduce risks from weather
(v) New crops can be renewable resources of high value products
Effect of Crop Diversification on soil quality
Diversified crop rotations will not only influence the demand for nutrients, but may also influence the
supply of nutrients to the growing crop. Crops differ substantially in the amount of N returned in the
crop residue for use by subsequent crops because N supplied will depend on the amount of crop
residue, primarily, and on the concentration of N in the residue. Nitrogen concentration in the residue
will determine the net balance between immobilization and mineralization. Over the long term, as
decomposition proceeds, all residues will eventually release the minerals they hold. The time required
for this to occur will increase as the initial N concentration in the residue decreases and the C/N ratio
widens. Straw from a well-fertilized wheat crop could decompose at a similar rate and produce similar
amounts of N as a legume residue. Janzen and Kucey (1988) reported that N concentration of lentil,
rape (Brassica napus L. var. napus), and wheat residue had a dominating influence on rate of residue
decomposition and nutrient release Increasing the N concentration of the residue by fertilization
increased rate of residue decomposition. Some residues also may have more of the nutrient present in
a readily soluble inorganic or readily mineralizable organic form and so would release nutrients more
readily than those that hold most of the nutrients in a more recalcitrant form. Therefore, species and
nutrient management of the preceding crop will influence its nutrient content and the amount of
nutrients it will release to the subsequent crop. Placement of residues and method of termination of the
crop will also influence N release. Soil incorporation of residues reduces N loss by volatilization,
enhances mineralization, and increases the short-term supply of plant-available N.
The amount and type of crop residue and factors influencing its rate of decomposition (e.g., moisture)
may also influence the availability of fertilizer N. If fertilizer N is applied with high C/N ratio
residues, N immobilization may be substantial because the microbial population will utilize the
fertilizer N to build biomass as the residue decomposes. Further, residues can enhance the loss of N by
volatilization from broadcast urea [(NH2)2CO] because the urease enzyme present in the residues can
increase the rate of NH3 release (McInnes et al., 1986). Therefore, where high amounts of crop
residues are present, particularly if they contain a wide C/N ratio, separating the fertilizer from the
residues by placing N fertilizers below the soil surface can increase fertilizer use efficiency.
Among the various land surface management practices like raised and sunken bed, ridges and furrow
etc. developed for Vertisols, broad-bed and furrow (BBF) system is very promising in controlling
surface runoff, reducing the soil loss through erosion and increasing infiltration. The BBF land
management system essentially reduces the velocity of runoff water and consequently increases
opportunity time for water to infiltrate and reduces sediment losses. Further, during the period of
heavy rainfall the furrows allow excess water to drain safely from the plots and thus avoid water
congestion to the crop.
The runoff and soil losses from broad-bed and furrow (BBF) are less than the flat land. Besides this,
BBF also helps in safe drainage of excess rainfall and reduces chance of water congestion to the rainy
season crops while it retains higher moisture during the later phase of crop growth after withdrawal of
monsoon and produced higher crop yield than the traditional flat land sowing system. Farmers may
adopt BBF land configuration for growing of crops like soybean, maize, pigeonpea and chickpea. The
BBF can also be prepared by bullock-drawn BBF maker, which will be useful to the subsistence
farmers who have no tractor to prepare the BBF. The study also provided an option for crop
diversification from the present predominantly soybean based cropping systems to maize-chickpea,
soybean/ maize intercropping-chickpea and maize/ pigeonpea intercropping in the watershed. The
study suggests for the cropping systems where maize is a component, either as sole or intercrop for the
region. Water lost as surface run-off should be conserved in watershed ponds and used as
supplemental or life-saving irrigation. This will increase system productivity as well as resource-use
efficiency in Vertisols and maintain soil health by reducing the loss of valuable top soil and nutrients.
A simple land configuration through raised and sunken bed (RSB) system, in this context, is a useful
technology for proper land and water management, inter-plot water harvesting to increase crop
intensity (Sharma 2003). The raised-sunken bed system increased the depth and duration of
submergence in sunken bed plots and it remained flooded with water up to 90 - 100 days after
transplanting. It was also observed that the narrow raised - sunken bed ratio (1:1 and 1:1.5) was not
effective for enhancing the rice and french bean production even though the long duration of water
submergence in sunken bed and high moisture status in raised bed (Mishra and Saha, 2007).
Saha and Ghosh (2010) evaluated the water economy and performance of different crop
combinations under standard raised and sunken bed (RSB) system of cultivation under this agro-
climatic condition and reported that the profile soil moisture content was significantly higher in rice-
tomato/garden pea cropping system (29.3%), lowest being in rice-fallow system (22.5%). The water
extraction pattern in the soil profile under different crop combinations reflected that the moisture
extraction was maximum (32.2 to 44.5%) from 0-15 cm soil depth irrespective of crop combinations
and it also decreased with soil depth. Land configuration in the form of RSB for increasing cropping
intensity, nutrient and water use efficiency
Conclusions
It is evident that most of all agroforestry systems have the potential to sequester C. With adequate
management of trees in cultivated lands and pastures, a significant fraction of the atmospheric C could
be captured and stored in plant biomass and in soils. Realistically, C storage in plant biomass is only
feasible in the perennial agroforestry systems (perennial-crop combinations, agroforests, windbreaks),
which allow full tree growth and where the woody component represents an important part of the total
biomass. Diversification and intensification of cropping systems will have major effects on nutrient
dynamics and soil quality. Increased return of crop residue from greater annualized crop production
can lead to higher soil organic matter levels and a greater potential for nutrient cycling, an effect that
will increase with time.
Chapter: 31
Role of legumes for nutritional security and soil health
M.S. Venkatesh
Indian institute of pulses research, kanpur
MALNUTRITION
¢ A proven means of promoting nutrition
¢ Malnutrition remains the world’s most serious improvements is the “food-based” approach,
health problem and the single biggest contributor which aims at increasing the availability and
to child deaths. consumption of the diverse range of foods
necessary for a healthy diet.
¢ One third of the developing world’s population
suffers micronutrient deficiencies that can ¢ Food-based interventions promote diversification
lead to blindness, mental retardation and early of household food production, recognize the
death. contribution of healthy diets, and include the
fortification and biofortification of staple foods.
¢ Worldwide, an estimated 1.5 billion adults are
overweight or obese and at greater risk of non-
communicable diseases.
PULSES OR FOOD LEGUMES Present Trend

¢ In India, 54.3% land is irrigated and rest is • Pulses are grown on around 24 m ha with
rainfed (Ghosh et al. 2007). The rainfed agro-
production of about 18 mt.
ecosystem constituting 67% of net cultivated area
of our country, contributes 44% to national food • Being a rich source of protein coupled with
basket (75% oilseeds, 90% pulses). unique property of restoring soil health pulse
crops play important role in crop
diversification.
• Projected population of our country in 2025
will be 1389 million which require pulse
production of 30 million tonnes.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF PULSES (PER 100G) ROLE OF PULSES IN CONSERVATION
Pulse Protein Fat CHO Fibre Ash Ca P Fe AGRICULTURE
crop (%) (g) (g) (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (mg)
Pigeonpea 21.9 1.5 72.7 8.1 4.2 179 316 16.6

¢ N- Economy
¢ Non-N benefits: P solubilization, Leaf drop
Urdbean 23.5 1.8 71.0 4.9 3.8 123 390 9.4
¢ Physical properties: aggregation, bulk density,
Mungbean 25.6 1.3 69.2 4.9 3.9 118 370 7.9 HC, porosity
Chickpea 22.0 5.3 70.5 7.4 3.2 280 301 12.3 ¢ Organic matter build-up, soil pH
¢ Microbial properties: SMBC, Dehydrogenase

Lentil 26.9 0.8 67.8 4.3 3.2 71 331 6.6
¢ Water economy
Peas 25.6 2.3 65.5 9.1 4.1 91 331 6.6
¢ Over all system productivty
Lathyrus 29.9 1.2 65.2 8.0 3.6 -- 447 10.9
Srinivasarao et al (2002)
Cropping system effect on C-stabilization, CROPPING SYSTEM AND C POOL

C-sequestration, and build-up rate
0-0.2 m 0.2-0.4 m 0.4-0.6 m 0.6-0.8 m 0-0.2 m 0.2-0.4 m 0.4-0.6 m 0.6-0.8 m
12.00 12.00
Active pool (Mg C/ha)
Passive pool (Mg C/ha)

10.00 10.00
8.00 8.00
6.00 6.00
4.00 4.00
2.00 2.00
0.00
0.00
RW RWRC MW MWMC
RW RWRC MW MWMC
Venkatesh et al. (2013) R-Rice, W- wheat, C- Chick pea, M- maize
Ghosh et al. (2013)
UPLAND VS LOWLAND CONCLUSION

14.00 0-0.2 m 0.2-0.4 m 0.4-0.6 m 0.6-0.8 m ¢ Pulses or food legumes are rich sources of
12.00 mineral nutrients.
Passive pool (Mg C ha-1)
¢ Pulses are better option for alleviating

10.00
malnutrition- especially Fe, Zn deficiency.
8.00
¢ Pulses improve soil health and over all system
6.00 productivity when included under cropping
4.00 system.
2.00 ¢ In long-term, pulses have significant role of
carbon build-up and soil carbon sequestration.
0.00
RW RWMb MW MWMb
Lowland Upland
Chapter: 32
Perspectives of quality forage and livestock production through contract farming
N Das
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute , Jhansi
Notwithstanding farming is the important means of livelihood for Indians living in rural areas, there
have been few systems/models that ensure remunerative prices to the farmers. Quite often farmers
have had to throw their produces away for want of buyers. On the other hand, the agri-based and food
industry find difficulties in getting timely and adequate inputs of good quality agricultural produces.
This underlying paradox of the Indian agricultural scenario has given birth to the concept of Contract
Farming, which promises to provide a proper linkage between the ‘farm and market.’
What is contract farming (CF)?
Contract farming (CF) involves agricultural production being carried out on the basis of an
agreement between the buyer and farm producers.
Contract farming is also defined as a system for the production and supply of
agricultural/horticultural produce under forward contracts between producers/suppliers and buyers.
The essence of such an arrangement is the commitment of the producer/ seller to provide an
agricultural commodity of a certain type, at a time and a price, and in the quantity required by a known
and committed buyer.
Contact farming is als o kn own as the practice adopted by most retail chains in India which
refers to just having registered farmers without any commitment to buy or sell or a pre-agreed price
or quantity specified.
It basically involves four component viz. pre-agreed (i) price (ii) quality, (iii) quantity or
acreage (minimum/maximum) and ( iv)time. CF involves the buyer specifying the quality required
and the price, with the farmer agreeing to deliver at a future date.
Theoretically, farmers stand to gain from contractual agreements that provide lower
transaction costs, assured markets, and better allocation of risks. On the other hand,
contracting firms have the advantage of more assured supplies, and reasonable control over quality
and other specifications. Contracts outline conditions for the production of farm products and for
their delivery to the buyer’s premises. The farmer undertakes to supply agreed quantities of a crop or
livestock product, based on the quality standards and delivery requirements of the purchaser. In return,
the buyer, usually a company, agrees to buy the product, often at a price that is established in advance.
The company often also agrees to support the farmer through, e.g., supplying inputs, assisting with
land preparation, providing production advice and transporting produce to its premises. Out grower
scheme is used synonymously with contract farming in many countries.
Variant (type) of Contract Farming:
CF varies depending on the nature and type of contracting agency, technology, nature of
crop/produce, and the local and national context. CF is known by different variants (mainly based
on the proximity of the buyer to the seller) like
· Centralized model which is company farmer arrangement. Under this model, a company
provides support to smallholder production, purchases the crop, and then processes it, closely
controlling its quality. This model is used for crops such as tobacco, cotton, sugar cane,
banana, tea, and rubber.
· Nucleus-outgrower m o d e l (Nucleus Estate model) involving both captive farming and CF
by the contracting agency. In this model, the company manages a plantation (captive farming)
in order to supplement smallholder production and provide minimum throughput for the
processing plant. This approach is mainly used for tree crops such as oil palm and rubber
· Multi-partite arrangement model - the Multipartite model usually involves a partnership
between government bodies, private companies and farmers.
· Intermediary model where middlemen are involved between company and farmer.
Intermediary model involves subcontracting by companies to intermediaries who have their
own (informal) arrangements with farmers. and
· Informal model involves small and medium enterprises who make simple contracts with
farmers on a seasonal basis. these are usually just seasonal arrangements they are often
repeated annually and usually rely for their success
Other Classifications (based on sale and purchase):
The contracts could be of three types:
(i) procurement contracts under which only sale and purchase conditions are specified
(known as marketing contracts)
(ii) partial contracts wherein only some of the inputs are supplied by the contracting firm
and produce is bought at pre-agreed prices (production contract); and
(iii) total contracts under which the contracting firm supplies and manages all the inputs on
the farm and the farmer becomes just a supplier of land and labour (production
contract)
Benefits of Contract Farming:
· At more macroeconomic level, contracting can help to remove market imperfections in
produce, capital (credit), land, labor, information and insurance markets; facilitate better co-
ordination of local production activities which often involve initial investment in
processing, extension etc.; and can help in reducing transaction costs, including for the
farmer
· CF also create positive externalities like employment, market development or
infrastructure, if agribusiness firms create them better than the open market or the
state.
· The use of contracts has become attractive to many farmers because the arrangement can offer
both an assured market and access to production support.
· Contract farming is also of interest to buyers, who seek supplies of products for sale further
along the chain or for processing.
· Processors constitute the main users of contracts, as the guaranteed supply enables them to
maximize utilization of their processing capacity.
· Contracts with farmers can also reduce risk from disease or weather and facilitate certification,
which is being increasingly demanded by advanced markets.
· Although contract farming must first and foremost be considered as a commercial proposition,
it has also come to be viewed as an effective approach to help solve many of the market access
and input supply problems faced by small farmers. Effective linkages between companies
and thousands of farmers often require the involvement of formal farmer associations or
cooperatives or, at least, informal farmer groups. However, empirical evidence of the best way
of achieving this is not yet available.
Risks associated with contract farming.
· Common problems include farmers selling to a buyer other than the one with whom they hold
a contract (known as side selling, extra-contractual marketing or, in the Philippines, “pole
vaulting”), In India, there have been instances of farmers refusing to sell to contracting firms
when market prices exceed the contract price.
· Using inputs supplied by the company for purposes other than intended.
· From the other side, a company sometimes fails to buy products at the agreed prices or in the
agreed quantities, or arbitrarily downgrades produce quality. Quite often firms are refusing to
purchase contracted quantities or pay contracted prices due to market conditions.
· The existence of an adequate legal framework is thus crucial for the successful
implementation and long-term sustainability of contract farming operations. Contracting
agreements are often verbal or informal in nature, and even written contracts often do
not provide the legal protection in India that may be observed other countries. Lack of
enforceability of contractual provisions can result in breach of contracts by either party.
Neither the contracting firm nor the farmers a re keen to contest these issues in a court. A
system of law is essential to assist farmers and their buyers in the negotiation and drafting of
contracts.
· Risks that may occur during contractual execution, such as abuse of power by the stronger
bargaining party or breach of contract. Strengthening farmer organizations to improve their
contract negotiating skills can redress the potential for subsequent misunderstandings.
· Different countries have enacted policies and legislation to ensure fair contractual practices
and offer remedies for dispute resolution. A “Legal Guide on Contract Farming” is being
developed in 2013-14 by the International Institute for the Unification of Private
Law (UNIDROIT) in partnership with FAO.
· Even apparently successful contracts from a legal point of view can face other difficulties. For
example, family relationships can be threatened. Work for contracts is often done by women
but the contracts are invariably in the name of the man who also receives the payment. Men
attend meetings and training courses but women often get no training.
· Contract farming arrangements are often criticized for being biased in favor of firms or large
farmers, while exploiting the poor bargaining power of small farmers. In such situations,
a viable approach seems to be to form clusters of small farmers that can create a scale effect
and also enhance the bargaining position of the farmers.
· Land used by women for food crops or commercial production may be taken over for contract
production. This can affect not only food production but also the status of the women.
· Contracts can break down because of poor management by the company or as a result of
unrealistic expectations about the capacity of farmers or about the yields that can be
achieved. This has been a particular problem with recent attempts to promote contract farming
for biofuel crops.
· The environmental implications of CF include monocultures leading to depletion of
soil quality, and effect of fertilizers and pesticides on natural resources, environment,
humans and animals.
· The contracting firms tend to aggravate the environmental crisis as most of the contracts
are short term (one or two crop cycles) and the firms tend to move on to new growers
and lands after exhausting the natural potential of the local resources, particularly land and
water, or when productivity declines due to some other reason.
· The firms do not pay heed o f over-exploitation of natural resources as the costs of such
effects are externalized so far as the firm is concerned.
· CF as part of the globalization process might lead to increasing investments in
developing countries which have low environmental standards and, thus, the natural
resource base might end up irreversibly depleted or damaged.
Maximizing the chances of success
· Contract farming has to be commercially viable. To maximize profitability companies need to
choose the best available farmers
· Once suitable farmers have been identified it is then necessary to develop trust, as contracts
will only work when both parties believe they are better off by engaging in them. To achieve
this requires a willingness to collaborate and share information. Disagreements over product
grading, for example, can be avoided by providing clear, simple specifications in a contract
and by ensuring that farmers or their representatives are present when the produce is graded
· Late payment can immediately cause a breakdown of trust and must be avoided
· Contracts should be flexible to take into account the possibility of extreme events such as high
open market prices or bad weather
· However hard the parties try, disagreements are inevitable. Contracts should ideally make
provision for arbitration by someone acceptable to both the company and the farmers
Contract farming prevailing in India
Farm-Firm Linkages: A major sources of agricultural income in future are likely to come
increasingly from the high value segment, driven by rising demand for high value horticultural,
livestock, and fishery products. While the potential benefits of high value agriculture,
including higher income and employment, are significant, it will be necessary to overcome key
challenges associated with meeting farmer resource needs and mitigating production and
marketing risk.
Direct Procurement – In a bid to keep their supply chain moving, processors and retailers
may choose to source raw materials from government regulated market yards, small traders, or
directly from farmers. Direct procurement may be preferred given the transaction costs and
quality problems associated with procuring from government regulated markets (mandis).
In such an arrangement, there is no contractual tie-up with the farmers and anyone is free to
sell their produce subject to certain quality criteria. Indian retailers such as Reliance,
Spencer’s, Subhiksha, and Food Bazaar currently use this procurement model. Direct procurement
from farmers can be done only in states that have amended their Agricultural Produce Marketing
Committee (APMC) Act to permit buyers to purchase directly from producers, farmers in line with
the model Act 2003 proosped by the Central government, but it is not possible to purchase directly
from mandis.
Some retailers and processors, such as Field Fresh, Pepsico, and Nijjer, have contractual
buyback arrangements with the farmers that specify quantity, quality, and a pre-agreed price. Some
of these firms provide back end support to farmers – including extension services, provision of
seed and other inputs, and credit facilities – with the costs often adjusted in final payments made to
farmers. Such backward linkages are primarily driven by the size and quality requirements of
the market and the need to ensure smooth and regular supply of a product that meet certain quality
standards.
Open-Source Intermediation –open-source intermediation, involves provision of information

about market prices, crop, and good cultivation practices to farmers without any buy back
guarantee. The idea is not to create a backend supply line of a particular company, but bridge the
knowledge and information gap that exists at the farm level, and also supply inputs to
farmers without any ‘lock in’ agreement. However, in due course, the model of open-source
intermediation can be adapted for specific supply lines, as and when an opportunity arises. This is
well observed in the case of the Choupal Sagar and Choupal Fresh models adopted by ITC
following the success of e-choupal. There appears to be a large unmet demand for agricultural
services and creation of rural service platforms that has given rise to another option for
forging effective firm-farm linkages.
Several private sector players are also developing the concept o f business hubs to reach out to
farmers, including DSCL Hariyali Kisan Bazar, TATA Kisan Kendras, Godrej Aadhaar, and ITC e-
Choupal and Choupal Sagar. The scale of these operations remains small in comparison to the
needs of farmers and rural areas, but this model may offer an opportunity to rapidly scale up the
activities of private firms, and resulting farm-firm linkages. These “agri-hubs” potentially can
provide ‘one stop shopping’ for farmers by providing inputs such as seed, technology, and credit,
and services such as extension and insurance, as well as daily household products.
Contract farming in wheat is being practised in Madhya Pradesh by Hindustan Lever Ltd (HLL),
Rallis and ICICI. Under the system, Rallis supplies agri-inputs and know-how, and ICICI finances
(farm credit) the farmers. HLL, the processing company, which requires the farm produce as raw
material for its food processing industry, provides the buyback arrangement for the farm output. In this
arrangement, farmers benefit through the assured market for their produce in addition to timely,
adequate and quality input supply including free technical know-how; HLL benefits through supply-
chain efficiency; while Rallis and ICICI benefit through assured clientele for their products and
services. The consortium is also planning to rope in other specialist partners including insurance,
equipment and storage companies.
Case Study
Pepsi Foods Ltd.
Launching its agro-business in India (Pepsi Foods Ltd. ‘PepsiCo’ hereafter) entered India in 1989 by
installing a Rs 22 crore state of- the-art tomato processing plant at Zahura in Hoshiarpur distriof
Punjab. The company intended to produce aseptically packed pastes and purees for the international
market.
Company recognized the challenge:

Yields and quality of agricultural produce to be processed were up to international standards. PepsiCo
required at least 40000 tons of tomato to operate its factory (over a minimum 55-day time frame),
which had a gigantic capacity of 39 tons fresh fruit per hour.
Difficulties
· The total Punjab tomato crop was 28000 tons, available over a 25-28 day period
· Tomato had never been cultivated in Punjab for its solid content, with a focus on high yields
and other desirable processing characteristics such as colour, viscosity and water binding
properties.
· No authenticated database on the performance of various varieties and hybrids, or to introduce

modern farming practices.
· No logistically efficient procurement models for fruits and vegetables that could be built on by
the company.
The PepsiCo model of contract farming

· The company focused on developing region- and desired produce-specific research, and
extensive extension services.
· Strategic partnership of the company with local bodies like the Punjab Agricultural University
(PAU) and Punjab Agro industries Corporation Ltd. (PAIC).
PepsiCo follows the contract farming method, where the grower plants the company’s crops on his
land, and the company provides selected inputs like seeds/saplings, agricultural practices, and regular
inspection of the crop and advisory services on crop management
Key elements of PepsiCo’s success

● Core R&D team
● Unique partnership with local agencies including a public sector enterprise
● Execution of technology transfer through well-trained extension personnel
● Supply of timely and quality farm inputs on credit Supply of all kinds of agricultural implements
free of cost to contracted farmers
● Prompt dispatch/delivery/procurement of the mature produce from every individual contracted
farmer through the system of ‘Quota Slips’
● Effective adoption/use of modern communication technology like pagers for communication with
field executives
● Regular and timely payment to contracted farmers through computerized receipts and transparent
system
● Maintenance of perfect logistics system and global marketing standards.
PepsiCo has been successfully emulating the model in food grains (Basmati rice), spices (chillies) and
oilseeds (groundnut) as well, apart from other vegetable crops like potato.
2. Appachi’s Integrated Cotton Cultivation:
Innovative Model
Appachi Cotton Company (ACC), the ginning and trading house from Pollachi (Coimbatore district of
Tamil Nadu, India) encouraged farmers in the Nachipalayam village in Kinathukadavu block of
Coimbatore to sow cotton seeds in their fields.
The Appachi formula ensured that its farmer members never went short of money and materials during
the crucial days of the crop cycle. The contract assured the farmers easy availability of quality seeds,
farm finance at an interest rate of 12% per annum, door delivery of unadulterated fertilizers and
pesticides at discounted rates, expert advice and field supervision every alternate week, and a unique
selling option through a MoU with the coordinating agency (ACC). The core principle of the formula
lies in the formation of farmers’ Self-Help Groups (SHGs). Each farmer belonging to a SHG is
sanctioned Rs 8000/acre as crop loan @ 12 % p.a. interest.
The Appachi formula differs significantly from other existing contract farming models on its ‘pricing’
front in that no prior price fixing is done in this model. As cotton is a commodity prone to price
fluctuations due to domestic and international market forces, ACC did not wish to create a climate of
uncertainty due to pre-fixed prices with the contracting farmers. MoU allows the farmer to sell his
commodity at the market prices prevailing during the time of negotiation. The coordinating agency has
the first right to negotiate, but in the event of disagreement about price during negotiation, the farmer
groups can call for a tender/auction to sell the accumulated cotton.
Key principles of the ACC model

● One village, one group (SHG)
● One village, one variety/hybrid of cottonseed
● Crop loan at 12% per annum on Group’s guarantee
● Door delivery of quality inputs at discounted rates
● Cotton crop insurance
● Synchronised sowing
● Integrated crop management through competent Farm Service Centres
● Contamination control measures from farm to factoryAssured buyback of final produce from
farmers’ doorsteps
● The sponsor (ACC) plays the role of a perfect coordinator/facilitator between the producer and the
consumer.
The Appachi Formula of contract forming has been so successful that the Tamil Nadu Government is
now keenly interested in replicating this formula in various cotton-growing districts of the State. After
successive high-powered meetings with concerned State Ministers and officials, the formula has got a
new fillip. The State machinery is actively participating in propagation of this model in Theni and
Namakkal Districts. With the active participation of farmers, the State Government and other
stakeholders, the programme is sure to revolutionise the cotton economy and set a successful
precedent for many players to emulate the same in their respective enterprises.
Criticisms
· In all the existing (currently working) models of contract farming, farmers’ participation
remains limited to production in the field - seeds, inputs, technology packages and technical
guidance through regular supervision are usually provided by the contracting company.
· Critics in the industry are of the opinion that the results are very promising in early years.
Farmers benefit from improved technology and higher productivity, quality and production.
The contract price does not appear to matter much in the early years.
· Once the farmers are confident of being able to deploy new technology, problems start
cropping up. If the market price is more advantageous than the contract price, farmers renege
on the contract. “The present legal systems makes it impossible to enforce the performance
under contract”.
· Contract farming models can sustain in the long run only if the initiative/empowerment comes
from the farmers rather than the user (corporate).
· Another moot point is that in the existing models, farmers are largely ‘price takers’, while the
contracting firm ‘makes’ the price.
· Other criticisms leveled against contract farming in India include less generation of
employment, labour-saving farm practices, low level of commitment of corporates over rural
development, lack of transparency and communication etc.
· Enforceability of the agreement, and standardization and operationalisation of contract
farming agreements are the major bottlenecks plaguing contractfarming ventures in India.
View publication stats

Report

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Compendium of MTC on Good Agricultural Practices for Forage Crop Production

Book · February 2014

Sunil Kumar Dana Ram Palsaniya

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

A.K. Dixit T. Kiran Kumar

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

P.K. Ghosh and R. K. Agrawal

Production Economics of Forage Based Systems

Soybean – wheat + mustard 3.02 3.85 6.87 0.54 211.0

Approaches for enhancing forage production

Sunil Kumar, Kiran, T. and Prabhu, G.

Prospects of fodder production

Food- fodder cropping system

Wheat + Berseem (3+1) DFY (t/ha)

Rice-Wheat GFY (t/ha)

Rice-Oat FEY (t/ha)

Rice-Berseem Total grain yield (Kharif +Rabi)

Fig. 1. Intensive Food based fodder cropping system

Table:2 The economics of horti-pastural system

Inclusion of forages in existing system

Table.3 Yield of crops before or after rice

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)

Table 5: Graded pattern followed for grant of IndiaGAP licence

Why GAPs are required?

Increasing input costs

Marketability and profitability

GAP in fodder production

Improving soil health

Crop protection strategies

Harvesting and post harvest operations

Sustainability through GAP

The four pillars of GAP

Challenges related to GAP

Basics of Good Agricultural Practices

GAP related to soil

GAP related to water

GAP related to plant protection

General principles of GAP for plant protection

Principles of measures to prevent infestation by harmful organisms

Principles of application of non-chemical plant protection measures

Principles of correct and intended use of plant protection products

These principles must be followed when employing field sprayers:

Principles of storage and other handling of plant protection products

GAP related to Cropping

Intercropping in Permanent Cultures

GAP and Crop and Fodder Production

GAP and Animal Production

GAP and Animal Health and Welfare

GAP and Harvest and On-farm Processing and Storage

GAP and Energy and Waste Management

GAP and Human Welfare, Health and Safety

BIS IndiaGAP CERTIFICATION

A.K Dixit and T. Kiran Kumar

Sources of on-farm contamination

2. Selection of appropriate crop/variety

5. Field sanitation and animal exclusion

6. Pesticides and other agricultural chemicals

7. Worker facilities, hygiene and training

8. Transportation of forage from farm to market

P. Kaushal and V. K. Yadav

Breeding objectives and procedures in fodder crops

With special emphasis on:

RBL-1 Punjab 250-400