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For Bedford/St. Martin’s
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Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013, 2010 by Bedford/St. Martin’s.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except

8
as may be permitted by law or expressly permitted in writing by the
Publisher.
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For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street,

Boston, MA 02116

ISBN 978-1-319-23398-3 (epub)

Acknowledgments
Text acknowledgments and copyrights appear at the back of the book
on pages A-1–A-2, which constitute an extension of the copyright
page. Art acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as
the art selections they cover.

9
CONTENTS
Preface
1 Composing Literacy
Understanding the Rhetorical Situation
Reflecting on Your Own Literacy
Composing Your Own Literacy Narrative
Apply the rhetorical framework: who? what? when?
where? how? and why?
Devise a topic
Readings
Katherine Kachnowski, Beyond the Microwave, or How
I Learned to Cook with a French Accent
David Sedaris, Me Talk Pretty One Day

PART 1 Writing Activities

2 Remembering an Event
PRACTICING THE GENRE: Telling a Story
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Remembered Event Essays
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
Jean Brandt, Calling Home
Annie Dillard, From An American Childhood
Ta-Nehisi Coates, Losing My Innocence

10
 Jenée Desmond-Harris, Tupac and My Non-thug Life

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Remembering an Event
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and
Composing
Choose an event to write about
TEST YOUR TOPIC: Considering Your
Purpose and Audience
Give your story a dramatic arc
TEST YOUR STORY: Facing an Audience
Use tenses to clarify the sequence of actions
Describe key people and places vividly, and show
their significance
Use dialogue to portray people and dramatize
relationships
Clarify your story’s significance
Write the opening sentences
Draft your story
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
A PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

11
 Edit and proofread your final draft
A WRITER AT WORK
Developing Significance in Jean Brandt’s
Remembered Event Essay
REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing about
Remembered Events
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

3 Writing Profiles
PRACTICING THE GENRE: Conducting an Interview
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Profiles
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
Brian Cable, The Last Stop
Victoria C. Moré, Dumpster Dinners: An
Ethnography of Freeganism
Amanda Coyne, The Long Good-Bye: Mother’s Day
in Federal Prison
Gabriel Thompson, A Gringo in the Lettuce Fields

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Writing a Profile
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and

12
 Composing
Choose a subject to profile
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Considering Your
Purpose and Audience
Conduct your field research
Use quotations that provide information and reveal
character
Consider adding visual or audio elements
Create an outline that will organize your profile
effectively for your readers
Determine your role in the profile
Develop your perspective on the subject
Clarify the dominant impression
Write the opening sentences
Draft your profile
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
A PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Edit and proofread your final draft

A WRITER AT WORK
Brian Cable’s Interview Notes and Write-Up
The Interview Notes

13
 The Interview Write-Up

REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing a Profile
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

4 Explaining a Concept
PRACTICING THE GENRE: Explaining an Academic
Concept
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Concept Explanations
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
Rosa Alexander, The Meme-ing of Trigger Warnings
Anastasia Toufexis, Love: The Right Chemistry
Lindsay Grace, Persuasive Play: Designing Games
That Change Players
Susan Cain, Shyness: Evolutionary Tactic?

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Explaining a Concept
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and
Composing
Choose a concept to write about
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Considering Your
Purpose and Audience

14
 Conduct initial research on the concept
Focus your explanation of the concept
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Evaluating Your Focus
Conduct further research on your focused concept
Draft your working thesis
Create an outline that will organize your concept
explanation effectively for your readers
Design your writing project
Consider the explanatory strategies you should use
Use summaries, paraphrases, and quotations from
sources to support your points
Use visuals or multimedia illustrations
Use appositives to integrate sources
Use descriptive verbs in signal phrases to introduce
information from sources
Write the opening sentences
Draft your explanation
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
A PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Edit and proofread your final draft

A WRITER AT WORK

15
 Rosa Alexander Focuses Her Concept Explanation
REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing a Concept
Analysis
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

5 Analyzing and Synthesizing Opposing Arguments

PRACTICING THE GENRE: Analyzing Opposing
Arguments
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Opposing Arguments
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
Max King, Freedom of or from Speech
Maya Gomez, Should Kidney Donors Be
Compensated?

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Analyzing and Synthesizing
Opposing Arguments
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and
Composing
Choose a controversial issue to write about
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Selecting a Topic
Conduct research

16
 Create an annotated working bibliography
Analyze your audience
Choose opposing arguments to analyze
Analyze and synthesize the opposing arguments
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Evaluating Your
Analysis
Draft a working thesis
Create an outline to plan or assess your organization
Develop your analysis
Draft the opening sentences
Draft your comparative analysis
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
A PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Edit and proofread your final draft

A WRITER AT WORK
Max King’s Analysis
REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing a Comparative
Analysis Essay
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

6 Arguing a Position

17
PRACTICING THE GENRE: Debating a Position
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Position Arguments
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
Jessica Statsky, Children Need to Play, Not Compete
Laura Beth Nielsen, The Case for Restricting Hate
Speech
Amitai Etzioni, Working at McDonald’s
Daniel J. Solove, Why Privacy Matters Even if You
Have “Nothing to Hide”

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Arguing a Position
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and
Composing
Choose a controversial issue on which to take a
position
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Choosing an Issue
Frame the issue for your readers
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Frame Your Issue
Formulate a working thesis stating your position
Develop the reasons supporting your position
Research your position

18
 Use sources to reinforce your credibility
Identify and respond to your readers’ likely reasons
and objections
Create an outline that will organize your argument
effectively for your readers
Consider document design
Write the opening sentences
Draft your position argument
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
A PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Edit and proofread your final draft

A WRITER AT WORK
Jessica Statsky’s Response to Opposing Positions
Listing Reasons for the Opposing Position
Conceding a Plausible Reason
Refuting an Implausible Reason
REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing a Position
Argument
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

7 Proposing a Solution

19
PRACTICING THE GENRE: Arguing That a Solution Is
Feasible
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Proposals
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
Patrick O’Malley, More Testing, More Learning
David Figlio, Starting High School Later
David J. Smith, Getting to “E Pluribus Unum”
Kelly D. Brownell and Thomas R. Frieden, Ounces
of Prevention: The Public Policy Case for Taxes on
Sugared Beverages

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Proposing a Solution
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and
Composing
Choose a problem for which you can propose a
solution
Frame the problem for your readers
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Defining the Problem
Assess how the problem has been framed, and
reframe it for your readers
Develop a possible solution

20
 Explain your solution
Research your proposal
Develop a response to objections or alternative
solutions
Create an outline that will organize your proposal
effectively for your readers
Write the opening sentences
Draft your proposal
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Edit and proofread your final draft

A WRITER AT WORK
Patrick O’Malley’s Revision Process
REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing Proposals
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

8 Justifying an Evaluation
PRACTICING THE GENRE: Choosing Appropriate
Criteria
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Evaluations

21
 Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
William Akana, Scott Pilgrim vs. the World: A Hell
of a Ride
Tasha Robinson, Moana: The Perfect Disney Movie
Katherine Isbister, Why Pokémon Go Became an
Instant Phenomenon
Malcolm Gladwell, What College Rankings Really
Tell Us

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Justifying an Evaluation
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and
Composing
Choose a subject to evaluate
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Choosing a Subject
Assess your subject, and consider how to present it to
your readers
Formulate a working thesis stating your overall
judgment
Develop the reasons and evidence supporting your
judgment
Research your evaluation
Respond to a likely objection or alternative judgment

22
 Organize your evaluation to appeal to your readers
Consider document design
Write the opening sentences
Draft your evaluation
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
A PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Edit and proofread your final draft

A WRITER AT WORK
William Akana’s Thesis and Response to Objections
REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing an Evaluation
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

9 Arguing for Causes or Effects

PRACTICING THE GENRE: Arguing That a Cause Is
Plausible
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Cause-Effect Arguments
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings

23
 Clayton Pangelinan, #socialnetworking: Why It’s
Really So Popular
Stephen King, Why We Crave Horror Movies
Jean M. Twenge, Have Smartphones Destroyed a
Generation?
Shankar Vedantam, The Telescope Effect

GUIDE TO WRITING
The Writing Assignment
STARTING POINTS: Arguing for Causes or
Effects
Writing a Draft: Invention, Research, Planning, and
Composing
Choose a subject to analyze
TEST YOUR CHOICE: Choosing a Topic
Present the subject to your readers
Analyze possible causes or effects
Conduct research
Cite a variety of sources to support your cause-effect
analysis
Formulate a working thesis stating your preferred
cause(s) or effect(s)
Draft a response to objections readers are likely to
raise
Draft a response to the causes or effects your readers
are likely to favor
Create an outline that will organize your cause-effect

24
 argument effectively for your readers
Write the opening sentences
Draft your cause-effect argument
Evaluating the Draft: Using Peer Review
A PEER REVIEW GUIDE
Improving the Draft: Revising, Editing, and
Proofreading
Revise your draft
A TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE
Edit and proofread your final draft

A WRITER AT WORK
Clayton Pangelinan’s Analysis of Possible Causes
REFLECTION
Reflecting on Reading and Writing a Cause-Effect
Analysis
Reflecting on Your Composing Process

10 Analyzing Stories
PRACTICING THE GENRE: Analyzing a Story
Collaboratively
GUIDE TO READING
Analyzing Essays That Analyze Stories
Determine the writer’s purpose and audience
Assess the genre’s basic features
Readings
Iris Lee, Performing a Doctor’s Duty

25
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 Fig. 422.—The large-flowered form of Viola tricolor:
A the flower in median longitudinal section; B the
gynœceum.
Viola. The sepals are prolonged backwards beyond the point of
insertion (appendiculate); the corolla is polypetalous, descending
imbricate, and zygomorphic, its anterior petal being larger than the
others and provided with a spur (Fig. 421). The 2 anterior of the 5
almost sessile stamens are provided with a spur-like nectary, which
protrudes a considerable distance into the petaloid spur (Figs. 421,
422 n, sp). The style is club-like, and bears the stigma in a groove on
the anterior side (Fig. 422 st). Herbs with rhizomes, or annuals; flowers
solitary. V. odorata, canina, etc., have cleistogamic flowers which produce fruit in
addition to the large, coloured (violet) flowers. The Pansy (V. tricolor) has large
flowers adapted for insect-pollination, and also smaller, less conspicuous ones
designed for self-pollination. The stigma, as in Fig. 422 A, st, and B, is situated on
the anterior side of the stylar-head, immediately in front of the channel leading
down to the spur (sp); below it is situated a valve, easily covered with pollen when
the proboscis of an insect is introduced into the spur, but which closes upon its
withdrawal; cross-pollination is thus secured.—The sweet-scented V. odorata is
visited by the honey-bee, which insures cross-pollination, and in the absence of
insect visits it effects self-fertilisation by cleistogamic flowers. The conspicuous but
scentless V. tricolor, var. vulgaris, is less frequently visited by insects (humble-
bees). In V. silvatica and V. canina the pollen is carried on the head or proboscis of
the honey-sucking bee.—The fruits of V. odorata bury themselves slightly in the
soil. In the others the fruits are raised above the ground; the 3 boat-shaped valves
close together along the central line, and eject the seeds, one by one, with much
violence, so that they are thrown to a great distance.

Figs. 423–425.—Viola Tricolor.

Fig. 423.—Capsule after dehiscence

(nat. size).]
 Fig. 424.—External view
of the seed.

Fig. 425.—Seed in
longitudinal section.
The Alsodeia-group has regular or almost regular flowers. Gamopetalous
corollas are found in Paypayroleæ. Sauvagesieæ differs the most by its regular
corolla, and 5–∞ free or united staminodes.
 250 species; especially in the Tropics.—The Ionidium-species are used as
ipecacuanha. A number of Viola-species are cultivated as garden plants,
especially V. odorata (sweet-scented Violet) and V. tricolor, which have a large
number of varieties.
Order 6. Frankeniaceæ. A small order with doubtful relationships. Perennial
herbs or shrubs; beach plants with nodose stem. Sepals united, petals free.
Unilocular ovary, with 3–4 parietal placentæ. Fruit a capsule. Embryo straight,
endospermous. Especially in S. Europe, Africa, on the shores of the
Mediterranean and Atlantic.
Order 7. Tamaricaceæ (Tamarisks). To this order belong only Tamarix and
Myricaria. They are shrubs of a cypress- or heather-like appearance, as the
scattered leaves are very small, sessile, scale-like or linear, adpressed, entire, and
usually glaucous, and the branches are slender and whip-like. The flowers are
borne in small spikes or racemes, and are small, reddish or whitish, regular, ☿,
hypogynous and polypetalous; formula S5, P5, A5 + 0 (Tamarix, which often has
stipular teeth at the base of the filaments), or A5 + 5 (Myricaria, in which the
stamens are united at the base); the number 4 may appear instead of 5, but in
either case there is usually a tricarpellate gynœceum, which is unilocular and has
either parietal placentæ (Myricaria) or a small basal placenta (Tamarix); 1 trifid
style, or 3 styles. Capsule dehiscing along the dorsal suture, and resembling the
Willows in having a unilocular ovary with numerous woolly seeds; but the seed-
wool in this case is borne on the chalaza, and may be attached to a long stalk.—
Some Tamarix-species shed part of their branches in the winter.—40 species;
North Temperate, on the sea-shores or steppes, especially in Asia. Ornamental
shrubs: Myricaria germanica, and Tamarix gallica.
Order 8. Cistaceæ. Shrubs or herbs, natives especially of the
Mediterranean region. Flowers generally in raceme-like scorpioid
cymes, regular, ☿, hypogynous; sepals 5, free, twisted in the bud, of
which the two outer are generally much smaller than the others;
petals 5, free, twisted in the bud (in the direction opposite to the
sepals), fugacious; stamens numerous; gynœceum syncarpous,
carpels usually 3–5, style simple, ovary unilocular, with parietal
placentation (seldom divided into loculi, with axile placentation). The
ovules are orthotropous in opposition to some of the other orders of
this family. The capsule dehisces along the dorsal sutures; embyro
curved. The leaves are simple, undivided, generally opposite and
stipulate.—They are Violaceæ with regular flowers, numerous stamens, and
curved embryo. The numerous stamens are in reality only one or two 5-merous
whorls, divided into a large number of stamens; these are formed, therefore, in
descending order, like the lobes of many compound foliage-leaves.
Helianthemum (Rock-Rose), has 3 carpels.—Cistus has 5 (-10)
carpels.
 About 70 species; temperate climates, especially about the Mediterranean. The
resin of the Cistus-species has been used medicinally (ladanum).
Order 9. Bixaceæ. This order is closely allied to the Cistaceæ and
Ternstrœmiaceæ; like these it has regular, 5-merous, hypogynous flowers with
numerous stamens, unilocular ovary and parietal placentæ; sometimes unisexual
flowers; it differs in having anatropous ovules, in the æstivation of the sepals, etc.
All species (about 180) are trees or shrubs, with scattered, simple leaves, which
usually have stipules, and are occasionally dotted with pellucid oil-glands.—Bixa
orellana (Trop. Am.) is the best known species; it has a 2-valved capsule; the
seeds are enclosed in a shiny red, fleshy testa, which contains the well-known
orange or yellow dye, annatto.
Order 10. Dilleniaceæ. Gynœceum usually apocarpous, seed arillate. The
flower has most frequently S5, P5, and compound stamens (one or more bundles);
sometimes irregular. 200 species; Tropical; woody plants, many lianes.—Dillenia,
Candollea, Pleurandra, Davilla, etc.
Order 11. Elatinaceæ (Water-worts). About 25 species belong to this order;
especially in temperate climates. They are small, creeping, rooted, aquatic plants,
with opposite or verticillate leaves and stipules. The flowers are solitary or situated
in small dichasia in the leaf-axils, they are small, regular, ☿, hypogynous, with free
petals, the same number in all 5 whorls (Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn), 3-merous (e.g.
Elatine hexandra), 4-merous (e.g. E. hydropiper), or 5-merous (Bergia); the
corolla-stamens are sometimes suppressed; petals imbricate without being
twisted; the ovary is 3–4–5-locular, with 3–4–5 free styles; the capsule dehisces
septicidally. The seeds are orthotropous or curved, often transversely ribbed,
endosperm wanting. The order is most nearly allied to Hypericaceæ, whose
primitive form it appears to represent.
 Fig. 426.—Diagram of Hypericum
quadrangulum: S indicates the bud of the
helicoid cyme in the axil of the bracteole β.
 Fig. 427.—Hypericum.
Flower with three bundles of
stamens.
Order 12. Hypericaceæ (St. John’s-worts). This order is
recognised by its always opposite or verticillate, simple, and entire,
penninerved leaves, without stipules, and usually dotted with pellucid
glands; by the always ☿, regular, hypogynous flowers in a cymose
inflorescence; the generally 5-merous calyx and corolla, with sepals
and petals free; the stamens 3–5, numerously branched (Figs. 426,
427); and the gynœceum, 3–5-carpellate, styles usually free. The
ovary is 3–5-locular, or unilocular with 3–5 parietal placentæ. Fruit a
capsule (dehiscing septicidally) or berry. Endosperm absent.
The inflorescence is a dichasium or helicoid cyme. The structure of the flowers
is the same as that of the foregoing orders: S5, P5; succeeding these in some
cases are two 5-merous whorls of stamens in regular alternation, of which the
inner is epipetalous; but the outer whorl is only represented by 5 small scales (Fig.
427), or is altogether absent (Hypericum calycinum, H. hircinum), and the inner
divided into numerous stamens, that is, these 5 stamens are so deeply divided that
5 epipetalous groups bearing anthers are found (as in the Cistaceæ); in other
cases the flower becomes 3-merous after the petals, stamens 3 + 3 following in
regular alternation (Figs. 426, 427), the outer whorl of stamens in these cases is
also present as staminodes (Fig. 427), or may be altogether suppressed. Carpels
3–5. The petals are often twisted in the bud, and are then oblique.
Hypericum. Some species have a square stem; in these cases the
leaves are placed opposite the edges. Fruit a capsule.—Vismia has
a berry.—The flowers of Hypericum have no honey, and supply only pollen; self-
pollination often takes place.
About 240 species; the tropical ones being often shrubs or trees; the others
generally perennial shrubs.—Hypericum, St. John’s-wort, contains a resinous, red
matter, which can be extracted with alcohol. The American gamboge is the dried
sap of species of Vismia.
Order 13. Guttiferæ, or Clusiaceæ. Closely allied to the Hypericaceæ and
Ternstrœmiaceæ. Leaves opposite or verticillate. The flowers are often unisexual;
stamens united; the gynœceum has most frequently a sessile, radiating or shield-
like stigma.
370 species; chiefly in the Tropics (Am.). They are principally woody plants and
their bark contains a yellow gum resin, “gamboge,” which is extracted from
Garcinia morella (E. Ind.) and others. Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana S.E.
Asia), and Mammea americana (W. Ind.), have very delicious fruits. To this order
also belong Platonia insignis, Pentadesma butyracea (the Butter-tree), Clusia,
Calophyllum, Cataba, etc.
Order 14. Ternstrœmiaceæ. Trees and shrubs with scattered,
simple, and often more or less leathery, evergreen, penninerved
leaves, without stipules (Fig. 428). The two most important genera
are: Camellia and the closely allied Thea (by some authorities these
are united into one genus). The flowers are regular, hypogynous,
and situated singly on very short stalks. A number of green floral-
leaves are placed below the calyx and gradually pass over into the
sepals, and the leaves (5–6) of the calyx again gradually pass over
into the corolla (this being especially marked in Camellia), of which
the number of leaves varies (5, 6, 7 and upwards); the calyx and the
corolla are acyclic or eucyclic; the petals are slightly united at the
base; stamens numerous in many whorls, the external ones are
arranged in bundles and united with the petals as in the
Columniferæ; gynœceum syncarpous; styles often free nearly to the
base; ovary 3–5-locular, ovules numerous in each loculus. The fruit
is a woody capsule.—Other genera show more distinctly than these the same
structure as in the preceding orders, namely: S5, P5, A5 + 5, of which the calyx-
stamens are often suppressed, and the petal-stamens divided into numerous
stamens.—Kielmeyera (S. Am.)
260 species; especially in the Tropics (E. Asia, Am.) The leaves of Thea
chinensis (or Camellia thea), the Tea-tree (E. Asia), are cultivated for the well-
known “tea,” and contain theine: the best are the young, still hairy leaves, of
greyish colour; there are many varieties. Ornamental plants, Camellia japonica and
Actinidia.

Fig. 428.—Thea chinensis (reduced).

Closely allied to this order are: Order 15. Rhizoboleæ (with enormously large
hypocotyl—hence the name), and Order 16. Marcgraviaceæ (partly epiphytes,
with dimorphic leaves and cup- or helmet-like, coloured, honey-secreting floral-
leaves, which serve to attract insects).
Order 17. Dipterocarpaceæ. This order has taken its name from the large
wings attached to the fruits in Dipterocarpus (the wings being largely developed
sepals); trees and shrubs from Trop. Asia. 180 species. Camphor ready prepared
is found in the stem of Dryobalanops camphora. Hopea; Vateria.

Family 12. Gruinales.

The flowers are hypogynous, ☿, polypetalous, usually regular
(except Pelargonium, Tropæolaceæ, Balsaminaceæ) and throughout
5-merous: S5, P5, A5 + 5, or 5 + 0, G5 (epipetalous). The stamens
soon fall off and are obdiplostemonous, often united at the base
(monadelphous); the corolla-stamens are in some completely
suppressed (e.g. Balsaminaceæ, Fig. 438), in others reduced to
teeth (Linum, Fig. 431; Erodium). The Tropæolaceæ have 3 carpels
and only 8 stamens (Fig. 437). Ring-like nectaries are not present,
but at most only glandular bodies, borne outside the base of the
stamens. Ovaries many-locular. The ovules as a rule are pendulous,
with the micropyle directed outwards (Fig. 431, B), and the radicle
therefore also points outwards. Usually herbs. Related to the
Columniferæ.
Order 1. Oxalidaceæ. Most of the species are herbs with
rhizomes; the leaves are stalked, compound, with entire leaflets
which are folded and bent backwards in the bud (and in the sleep
position), exstipulate; some species have sensitive leaves. The
flowers (Fig. 429) are regular, and have S5, P5, which are twisted to
the left or right in æstivation, A5 + 5, all united at the base
(monadelphous), gynœceum 5-carpellate, styles 5 free, stigmas
capitate, ovary 5-locular, ovules numerous. The fruit is a capsule
opening with clefts on the dorsal sutures through which the seeds
are ejected, while the fleshy, external layer of the testa springs off
elastically. Embryo straight. Endosperm.
 Fig. 429.—Diagram of Oxal’s
acetosella.
Oxalis (Wood-Sorrel). Leaves digitate. Species also occur with phyllodia, i.e.
leaf-like petioles placed vertically without lamina; a few have pinnate leaves. The
flowers are situated singly or in dichasia, and unipared scorpioid cymes. The
pollination is effected by insects. Some species are trimorphic (long-, short-,
medium-styled flowers) and some, e.g. O. acetosella, have cleistogamic flowers in
addition to the ordinary ones. Glands are found on the outer side of the corolla-
stamens or of all the stamens. O. tetraphylla and others have adventitious edible
roots, resembling tap-roots.—Averrhoa is a tropical tree, with berries and pinnate
leaves.
235 species (205 belong to Oxalis); chiefly in S. Africa and Trop. America.—
Oxalate of potash is contained in the leaves of Oxalis.
Order 2. Linaceæ. Herbs with scattered or opposite, sessile,
simple, small, entire leaves, without (rarely with small) stipules. The
flowers (Fig. 430) are regular, 5- or 4-merous. Petals are free,
twisted, quickly falling off. Stamens united at the base; the petal-
stamens are either reduced to teeth (Fig. 431 A, m) or entirely
suppressed. Styles free. The (5–4) epipetalous loculi of the ovary are
incompletely halved by false divisional walls, each half contains one
ovule (Fig. 431 C). The fruit is a spherical capsule, dehiscing along
the divisional wall (Fig. 432); the 10 (-8) seeds have a straight
embryo and very slight endosperm (Fig. 433).
 Figs. 430–433.—Linum
usitatissimum.

Fig. 430.—The Flax plant.

 Fig. 431.—A Flower after removal of sepals and petals;
m petal-stamens reduced to teeth. B Longitudinal section of
ovary. C Transverse section of capsule.
 Fig. 432.—Capsule (nat.
size).

Fig. 433.—Transverse and

longitudinal section of seed: bl the
cotyledons; k the plumule; R the radicle;
fr the endosperm; sk the testa.
 Linum (Flax) has 5-merous flowers. The main axis terminates in a
flower; and the succeeding branching is cymose, or unipared scorpioid branching
by unilateral development, and the flowers in consequence of the vigorous
sympodial development of the lateral axis (and also by the leaves being displaced
and pushed aside), assume a position apparently lateral (i.e. racemose) without
bracts; each branch of the sympodium generally has 2 leaves. The testa is shining
and smooth when dry, but its external cellular layer becomes mucilaginous in
water.—Radiola has a 4-merous flower. It is a small herb with
opposite leaves, and regular, dichasial branching.
The anthers and stigmas in L. catharticum and usitatissimum develop
simultaneously, and cross-pollination as well as self-pollination takes place. L.
grandiflorum, perenne, and others, are dimorphic (short-and long-styled). There
are 5 nectaries outside the stamens.
130 species; Linum and Radiola are native genera.—L. usitatissimum is
extensively cultivated in Europe (especially in Russia and Belgium), N. America
and elsewhere (its home no doubt being Asia), partly on account of the oil (linseed
oil) which is extracted from the seeds, and partly on account of the bast of the
stem, which has very thick-walled cells. The seeds and oil are officinal. The
species cultivated in ancient times was L. angustifolium. Several species are
cultivated as ornamental plants.
Order 3. Geraniaceæ. The majority are herbs with dichasial
branching, and scattered or opposite, stalked, palminerved (rarely
penninerved) leaves with small stipules. The flowers are regular
(except Pelargonium) and 5-merous, with 10 or 5 stamens, which
are slightly united at the base. Nectaries alternate with the corolla-
stamens. The ovary is most frequently 5-locular, deeply 5-grooved,
and bears 1 well developed style (“beak”), which towards the apex
divides into 5 branches bearing stigmas; ovules 1 in each loculus,
pendulous or ascending. The 5 carpels become detached from one
another when ripe, and bend or roll back (Fig. 434) or become
spirally twisted in the upper “beak-like” part (Figs. 435, 436), whilst a
central column (septal column) persists; each carpel, in
consequence, remains either closed, and the fruit is a 5-merous
schizocarp whose nut-like lower portion, containing the seed, is
forced into the ground, thus burying the seed by the movements of
the spirally-twisted, hygroscopic “beak” (Figs. 435, 436); or it opens
along the ventral suture, so that the seeds may fall out, and it is then
a 5-valved capsule, with septicidal dehiscence (Fig. 434) and the
rolling up often takes place so suddenly and violently that the seeds
are shot out to considerable distances. The embryo is usually green
and curved, and the cotyledons are folded; endosperm is wanting.
Geranium (Crane’s-bill) has 5 + 5 stamens,and a septicidal
capsule; the carpels most frequently remain suspended from the
apex of the column (Fig. 434). The leaves are most frequently
palminerved. The flowers are situated solitarily or 2 together (2-
flowered scorpioid cyme).—Erodium (Stork’s-bill); inflorescence a
many-flowered unipared scorpioid cyme, stamens 5 + 0 (petal-
stamens are wanting), and fruit a schizocarp whose carpels become
detached; their beaks are hairy on the internal surface and twist
themselves spirally (Fig. 436). The umbellate inflorescences are
composed of multiflowered scorpioid cymes. The leaves are often
penninerved.—The most primitive type is represented by Biebersteinia: S5, P5,
A5 + 5, G5 (ovaries free, and styles united above); fruit 5 small nuts. The most
advanced type is Pelargonium, which has zygomorphic flowers, the posterior sepal
being prolonged into a spur which becomes adnate to the peduncle; the petals are
unequal in size; some of the petal-stamens are often wanting. (Erodium may be
slightly zygomorphic).
 Fig. 434.—Geranium
sanguineum. Fruit (3/1).
Fig. 435.—Pelargonium.
 Fig. 436.—Erodium
cicutarium, detached
carpel.
Pollination. The large-flowered Geranium-species are protandrous, e.g. G.
pratense (one whorl of stamens opens first, and then the other, and succeeding
these the stigmas, after shedding the pollen the stamens bend outwards); the
small-flowered are also adapted, with various modifications, for self-pollination.—
470 species; moderately hot climates, especially S. Africa.—Several Pelargonium-
species, with numerous varieties, are ornamental plants (from S. Africa).

Order 4. Tropæolaceæ. Herbaceous, juicy plants which have

scattered, long-stalked, peltate leaves without stipules, and often
climb by their sensitive petioles. The flowers are situated singly in
the axils of the foliage-leaves on long stalks, and are zygomorphic,
the receptacle under the posterior sepal being prolonged into a spur;
there are also differences between the posterior and anterior petals,
the 2 posterior petals situated on the border of the spur being
perigynous, and the edge of the anterior petals adjoining the claw
fringed. After the 5 sepals (which are more or less coloured) and the
5 petals, follow 8 stamens (as the 2 median ones are suppressed,
one from each whorl) and a gynœceum formed of 3 carpels; in each