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6 Integumentary System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 9 Muscular System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 General Structure and Function
Hair Follicles, Hairs, and Sebaceous Glands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Basic Structure of Skeletal Muscle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Sweat Glands.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Actin and Myosin Filaments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Nails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Overview: Sliding Filament Mechanism of
  Muscle Contraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Contraction Cycle.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7 Skeletal System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Sources of Energy for Muscle Contraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
General Information Skeletal Muscles
Long Bone Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Overview: Major Skeletal Muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Osteon Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Muscles of the Face and Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Superficial and Deep Muscles of the Neck,
Axial Skeleton    Shoulder, Thorax, and Abdomen.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Skull: Lateral and Midsagittal Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Arm
Skull: Anterior View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Superficial Muscles of the Arm:
Skull: Posterior View and Skullcap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154    Anterior and Posterior Views.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Skull: Superior View Without Skullcap.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Leg
Skull: Inferior View with Mandible Removed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Muscles of the Thigh: Anterior and Posterior Views. . . . . . . 228
Fetal Skull: Focusing on Fontanels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Superficial Muscles That Move the Ankle,
Upper and Lower Jaws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158    Foot, and Toes: Anterior and Posterior Views. . . . . . . 230
Hyoid Bone and Ear Ossicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Neck to Gluteal Region
Temporal Bone: Visualizing the Lateral View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Superficial and Deep Muscles of the Neck,
Ethmoid: Visualizing the Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Shoulder, Back, and Gluteal Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Sphenoid: Visualizing the Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Sphenoidal Foramina: 10 Nervous System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
   Linking Them with Ros the Cowboy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Overview of Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Palatine Bones: Visualizing the Bones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Neural Tissue and Impulse Conduction
Total Number of Each Type of Vertebrae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 General Cell Types.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Atlas and Axis: Visualizing Structural Differences. . . . . . . . . . . 172 Multipolar Neuron and Myelination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Overview: Neuron Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
PULLOUT: Bones of the Skeleton,
Overview: Neuron Structure
Bones of the Skull
   and Impulse Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Lumbar Versus Thoracic Vertebrae: Overview: Nerve Impulse Conduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
   Distinguishing the Difference 1.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Nerve Impulse Conduction:
Lumbar Versus Thoracic Vertebrae:   Continuous Conduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
   Distinguishing the Difference 2.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Nerve Impulse Conduction: Saltatory Conduction. . . . . . . 250
Sternum and Ribs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Synaptic Transmission: Neuromuscular Junctions
   and Neuro-Neuro Junctions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Appendicular Skeleton
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Scapula and Clavicle: Visualizing the Bones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Peripheral Nerve Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Humerus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Peripheral Nerves: Upper Limbs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Radius and Ulna: Distinguishing the Differences. . . . . . . . . . . 184 Peripheral Nerves: Lower Limbs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Hand: Conquering the Carpals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Receptors and Sensory Transduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Pelvis.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Central Nervous System (CNS)—Spinal Cord
Femur and Patella.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Spinal Cord Structure and Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Tibia and Fibula: Distinguishing the Difference.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Reflexes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Foot: Targeting the Tarsals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Central Nervous System (CNS)—Brain
Meninges of the Brain and Spinal Cord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Creation, Circulation, and Reabsorption of CSF. . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8 Joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Brain: Largest Regions, Brainstem,
Typical Synovial Joint.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198   and Diencephalon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Shoulder Joint.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Hypothalamus Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Hip Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Cranial Nerves: Functions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Elbow Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Brain Ventricles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Knee Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Functional Regions of the Cerebral Cortex.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
vi
 EEG, Sleep/Wakefulness, and Reticular Formation.. . . . . . . 280
Limbic System Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Lateralization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Brain Metabolism and Brain Function.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Autonomic Reflexes Compared
   with Somatic Reflexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Sympathetic Division (SD) of the ANS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Parasympathetic Division (PD) of the ANS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
ANS Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
11 Endocrine System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Overview: Hormone Function and Glands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Cellular Responses to a Steroid Hormone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Cellular Responses to a Nonsteroid Hormone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Hormonal Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Hormonal Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
The Adrenal Medulla and Catecholamines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
The Adrenal Cortex: Aldosterone.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
The Adrenal Cortex: Cortisol and Stress.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
The Adrenal Cortex: Sex Steroids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
12 Special Senses.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Vision
Eye: External Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Eye: Internal Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Hearing/Equilibrium
Ear: General Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Taste
Tongue to Taste Buds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Olfaction
Sense of Smell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
13 Blood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Cell Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Ranking the Leukocytes from
   Most Common to Least Common. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
14 Cardiovascular System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Heart—Structure and Function
External Structure and Coronary Circulation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Internal Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Intrinsic Conduction System.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Electrocardiogram (ECG). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Cardiac Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Neural Control of the Heart.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Blood Vessels—Structure and Function
Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules, and Veins.. . . . . . . . . 354
Overview of the General Pattern of Circulation.. . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Dynamics of Blood Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Arterial Pressure and Its Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Capillary Structure and Solute Diffusion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Capillary Function: Filtration and Reabsorption. . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Return of Venous Blood to the Heart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Control and Measurement of Cardiac Output (CO). . . . . . . 368
Control of Blood Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Circulatory Pathways
Hepatic Portal System.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Fetal Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Blood Vessels—Arteries
Overview: Major Arteries.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Arteries of the Head and Neck.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Major Branches of the Abdominal Aorta.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Arteries of the Right Upper Limb and Thorax.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Major Arteries of the Right Pelvis and Lower Limb. . . . . . . 384
Blood Vessels—Veins
Overview: Major Veins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Veins of the Head and Neck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Major Veins of the Abdominopelvic Cavity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Veins of the Right Upper Limb and Shoulder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Major Veins of the Right Pelvis and Lower Limb. . . . . . . . . . . 394
15 Lymphatic System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Creation and Circulation of Lymph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Immune System
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Antibody-Mediated Immunity (AMI).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
16 Respiratory System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Overview: General Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Tracing the Pathway of an Oxygen Molecule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Mechanics of Breathing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Surfactant, Surface Tension, and Lung Compliance. . . . . . . 414
Diffusion of O2 and CO2.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Hemoglobin: Structure and Function.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Transport of CO2 and O2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Neural Control of Respiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Chemical Control of Respiration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
17 Digestive System.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Structure and Function
Overview: General Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Layers of the Wall of the Digestive Tract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Neural Regulation of Digestion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Hormonal Regulation of Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Oral Cavity
Oral Cavity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Tooth Anatomy and Tooth Types.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Digestion in the Mouth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
vii
 Stomach
Visualizing the General Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Function of the Stomach.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Small Intestine
Increasing Surface Area.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Movement through the Small Intestine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Absorption in the Small Intestine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Pancreas
Visualizing the General Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Role of the Pancreas in Digestion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Liver
Structure and Function.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Gallbladder and Bile
Bile Production, Storage, and Release. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Large Intestine
Visualizing the General Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Function of the Large Intestine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
18 Metabolic Physiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Overview of Energy Metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Carbohydrate Metabolism: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Carbohydrate Metabolism:
  Cellular Respiration—Glycolysis.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Carbohydrate Metabolism:
Cellular Respiration—Citric Acid Cycle.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Carbohydrate Metabolism: Cellular Respiration—
   Electron Transport System (ETS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Carbohydrate Metabolism: Fermentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Lipid Metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Protein Metabolism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
19 Urinary System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Overview: General Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Kidneys—Structure and Function
Overview: General Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Blood Flow through the Kidneys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Nephron Structure and Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Nephron Function 1: Filtration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Regulation of the Glomerular Filtration Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
viii
Nephron Function 2: Tubular Reabsorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Nephron Function 3: Tubular Secretion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Introduction to Acid-Base Balance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Renal Regulation of Acid-Base Balance.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Water Conservation
   and Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Countercurrent Multiplier in the Nephron Loop. . . . . . . . . . . 508
Countercurrent Exchanger in the Nephron Loop.. . . . . . . . . . 510
Regulation of Extracellular Volume:
   Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone (RAA) System. . . . . . . 512
20 Reproductive Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Overview of General Structures, Functions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Male Reproductive System—
   Structure and Function
Duct System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Penis: Visualizing the Cross Section.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Testes: Production of Sperm Cells.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Hormonal Regulation of Sperm Cell Production. . . . . . . . . . . 524
Female Reproductive System—
   Structure and Function
External Genitalia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Midsagittal View.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Internal Structures.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Ovaries: Production of Ova. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Ovaries and the Ovarian Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Hormonal Regulation of the Ovarian Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Hormonal Regulation of the
   Ovarian and Uterine Cycles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Human Growth and Development
Pre-embryonic Development: Zygote to Blastocyst.. . . . . 540
Pregnancy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Placenta and Umbilical Cord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Glossary of Prefixes and Suffixes. . . 547
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
 How to Use This Book

Purpose
This book was written primarily for students of human anatomy and physiology; however, it will be useful for teachers or
­anyone else with an interest in this topic. It was designed to be used in conjunction with any of the major anatomy or anatomy
and physiology textbooks. What makes it unique, creative, and fun is the visual analogy learning system. This will be explained
later. The modular format allows you to focus on one key concept at a time. Each module has a text page on the left with
­corresponding illustrations on the facing page. Most illustrations are unlabeled so that you can quiz yourself on the structures.
A handy key to the illustration is provided on the text page. Although this book covers most of the major organ systems, the
topics are weighted more toward areas that typically give students difficulty. It uses a variety of learning activities such as labeling,
coloring, and mnemonics to help instruct. In addition, it offers special study tips for mastering difficult topics.

What Are Visual Analogies?

A visual analogy is a helpful way to learn new material based on what you already know from everyday life. It compares an
anatomical structure to something familiar such as an animal or a common object. For example, the vertebral column has
three different types of vertebrae. One type looks like a giraffe. Comparing the vertebra to a giraffe allows you to m
­ entally
­correlate the unknown (vertebra) with the known (giraffe). Doing this accomplishes several things.
1. It reduces your anxiety about learning the material and helps you focus on the task at hand.
2. It forces you to observe anatomical structures more carefully. After all, being a good observer is the first step to
­becoming a good anatomist—or any type of ­scientist!
3. It makes the learning more fun, relevant, and meaningful so you can better retain the information.
Whenever a visual analogy is used in this book, a small picture of it appears in the upper right-hand corner of the illustration
page for easy reference. This allows you to quickly reference a page visually by simply flipping through the pages.

Icons Used
The following icons are used throughout this book:

Microscope icon—indicates any illustration that is microscopic.

Crayon icon—indicates illustrations that were specially made for coloring. Even
though students may color any of the illustrations to enhance their learning, they
may benefit more by referring to this icon. In some cases, written instructions appear
next to this icon with directions about exactly what to color or how to color it.

Scissors icon—indicates that something is either cut or broken. For example, it

may be used to show that a chemical bond between two molecules is broken.

3-D Three-dimensional icon—Indicates a three-dimensional view of an anatomical structure.

2-D Two-dimensional icon—Indicates a two-dimensional view of an anatomical structure.
Dashed lines usually are used to indicate a structure that is behind another structure.

ix

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+ $73
DWRP triphosphate
Abbreviations and Symbols
The following abbreviations are commonly used throughout this book:
l. 5 left n. 5 nerve
r. 5 right ex. 5 example
a. 5 artery sing. 5 singular
v. 5 vein pl. 5 plural
m. 5 muscle

:DWHU +\GURJHQ Adenosine

+2 + $73
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+ +\GURJHQ Adenosine
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3i Inorganic
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2[\JHQ phosphate
group

* *OXFRVH 0RXWK 6WRPDFK

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3RO\VDFFKDULGH

6PDOO
Polypeptide or 6HFUHWLRQRID
LQWHVWLQH
protein VXEVWDQFH

$PLQRDFLGV

6WLPXODWH ,QFUHDVH
Lipid (triglyceride)
,QKLELW 'HFUHDVH
*O\FHURO

)DWW\DFLGFKDLQV 6 6WLPXOXV 5HVSRQVH V

FHOO D[RQ V\QDSWLF 1HXURQV

ERG\ NQREV

I sincerely hope that this book will be a fun, helpful tool for anyone interested in learning human physiology. Many of the
visual analogies used in the book have been tested with students in both lab and lecture settings to ensure that they are useful.

Enjoy learning with visual analogies!

x
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

1. Language of Anatomy: A serous membrane is like a

Body Cavities and water balloon 9
Membranes

2. Physiology Overview: The variable is like a teeter-totter

Homeostasis 17

3. Chemical Bonds: The symbol to represent the octet rule is an

••
Octet Rule and eight ball 8 For example, neon (Ne) has 8
EIGHT BALLoctet rule •
• Ne •• 26–27
Chemical Bonding •• electrons, so it is very stable.

4. Chemical Bonds: More stable product is like a stable couple

Octet Rule and 26
Chemical Bonding

5. Chemical Bonds: Covalent bond is like two people +

Covalent Bond locking arms 29, 47

6. Chemical Equations: Mixing ingedients together to make

Understanding pancakes is similar to the parts of a chemical 30
Chemical Equations equation

7. Chemical Reactions: Combination reactions are like making a

Combination Reactions compound word  32
“cupcake”

unstable unstable STABLE!

8. Chemical Reactions: Decomposition reactions are like (in an ideal world)
Decomposition deconstructing a compound word 32
Reactions “cup”

9. Organic Chemistry: Monomers are like plastic beads

Monomers 44–46

10. Organic Chemistry: Polymers are like a chain of plastic beads

Polymers 44–47

11. Amino Acids: Creating different polypeptides is like

Formation of a using the same letters to make or
Polypeptide different words
46–47
or

12. Proteins: Structural proteins are tough like cables

Functions of Proteins on a suspension bridge
48

xi
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

13. Proteins: Storage proteins are held in reserve like

Functions of Proteins items in a storage box 48

nsi
te
o
Pr
14. Proteins: Contractile proteins have the ability to
Functions of Proteins contract and expand like a rubber 48
band

15. Proteins: Transport proteins deliver a cargo like a

Functions of Proteins car with a trailer 48

16. Proteins: Like a carrier pigeon delivering

Functions of Proteins a message, hormones are chemical 49
messengers that regulate body functions

17. Proteins: Catalysts, such as enzymes, are like

Functions of Proteins spark plugs
49

18. Proteins: Like a shield in battle, defense proteins

Functions of Proteins protect the body against foreign 49
pathogens

19. Proteins: Transmission proteins are like cell phone

Functions of Proteins towers that send signals to your cell phone
49

20. Enzymes: The substrate fits in the active site on the

Structure and Function enzyme like a lock and key
50

21. Enzymes: Like a baseball glove changes its shape

Structure and Function to catch a baseball, the active site
50
changes its shape to bind the substrate

22. Carbohydrates: Like gasoline for your car, carbohydrates

Functions of are used as energy for body cells
52–53
Carbohydrates

23. Carbohydrates: Some carbohydrates serve as markers on

Functions of cell surfaces
52–53
Carbohydrates

24. Carbohydrates: Stored carbohydrates are held in reserve

Functions of like items in a storage box
52–53
BS

Carbohydrates
R
CA

xii
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

25. Lipids: Stored lipids are held in reserve like items in

Functions of Lipids a storage box 60

DS
PI
LI
26. Lipids: Like a cork floating in water, lipids provide
Functions of Lipids buoyancy to an organism 60

27. Lipids: Lipids act as a vehicle to transport their

Functions of Lipids lipid cargo 60

28. Lipids: Like a toy sailboat can become a different

Functions of Lipids boat by removing the sail, a lipid precursor 61
can be converted into another lipid

29. Lipids: Like packing peanuts protect items during

Functions of Lipids shipment, fat pads cushion organs
61

30. Lipids: Like attic insulation helps a home retain

Functions of Lipids heat, lipids help your body retain heat
61

31. Cells: A plasma membrane is like a water bed

Plasma Membrane 67
Structure

32. Cellular Physiology: DNA opens up like a zipper unzipping

DNA Replication
71

33. Cellular Physiology: DNA is like the master blueprint

Protein Synthesis 72–73

34. Cellular Physiology: ATP hydrolysis is like a good investment

Role of ATP 75

Room A Room B
35. Cellular Physiology: Simple diffusion is like people moving out
Simple Diffusion of a crowded room 79

36. Cellular Physiology: Filtration is like making coffee in a

Filtration coffeemaker
83

37. Cellular Physiology: Active transport is like a sump pump

Active Transport
85

xiii
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

38. Cellular Physiology: A membrane potential is like a battery 

Membrane Potentials 89

VOLT
SUPER
39. Cellular Physiology: Sodium-potassium pump is like a
Sodium-Potassium Pump revolving door 90–91

40. Tissues: Tight junctions are like rivets

Epithelial Cells 95

41. Tissues: Each cell looks like a fried egg

Simple Squamous 97
Epithelium

42. Tissues: Each cell looks like an ice cube

Simple Cuboidal 99
Epithelium

43. Tissues: Each cell looks like a column

Simple Columnar 101
Epithelium

44. Tissues: The cells roughly resemble a scoop of ice

Stratified Transitional cream in a sugar cone 107
Epithelium

45. Tissues: Collagen is like a steel cable; elastin is like a

Variations in rubber band 109
Connective Tissue

46. Tissues: Reticular fibers are like cobwebs

Reticular 115
Connective Tissues

47. Tissues: Cartilage is like a block of Swiss cheese

Cartilage 121, 123, 125

48. Tissues: Osteon looks like a tree stump

Bone 127, 151

49. Tissues: Each skeletal muscle cell looks like a birch

Skeletal Muscle tree log 129

50. Tissues: The intercalated disk is like two pieces of a

Cardiac Muscle jigsaw puzzle 131

xiv
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

51. Tissues: Smooth muscle stacks in a sheet like bricks

Smooth Muscle in a wall 133

52. Tissues: A multipolar neuron looks like an octopus

Neural Tissue 135

53. Skeletal System: Spongy bone looks like a sponge

Long Bone Structure 149

54. Skeletal System: The coronal suture is like a tiara (crown);

Skull the sutures on the posterior aspect of the skull P P
154
look like a modified peace sign O

55. Skeletal System: The sella turcica of the sphenoid bone looks

Skull like a horse’s saddle 155

56. Skeletal System: A temporal bone resembles a rooster’s head

Temporal Bone 161

57. Skeletal System: Superior view looks like a door hinge;

Ethmoid Bone crista galli looks like a shark fin 163

58. Skeletal System: Sphenoid resembles a bat

Sphenoid Bone 165

59. Skeletal System: Remember the sphenoidal foramina with

Sphenoidal Foramina Ros the cowboy 167

60. Skeletal System: Palatine bones are like two letter “L”s—one

Palatine Bones the mirror image of the other 168

61. Skeletal System: Total number of each type of vertebrae

Numbers of Vertebrae corresponds to mealtimes; coccyx—
rattlesnake tail 171

62. Skeletal System: Atlas, the turtle; Axis, the football player

Atlas and Axis
173

xv
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

63. Skeletal System: Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae are like a goose

Lumbar Versus Thoracic with wings in different positions 175

64. Skeletal System: “Thoracic giraffe; lumbering moose”

Lumbar Versus Thoracic 177

65. Skeletal System: Distal end of the humerus looks

Humerus like the hand of a hitchhiker 183

From macroscopic to microscopic,

66. Skeletal System: Head of radius—hockey puck

the general structure of skeletal

Radius and Ulna Ulna—crescent wrench

muscle is like a series of tubes

185
LOCATION
Ca 2 Troponin

Tropomyosin

67. Skeletal System: Pubis bones—mask

3
Pelvis 189
ADP Myosin binding site
P
Hinge 1

within tubes.
Sarcomere Hinge 2

Laterally from the tibia: COTTON SWAB ANALOGY

68. Muscular System: Take

Each actin filament is like a double-stranded
Tibialis anterior
A myosin molecule is like a
double-headed cotton swab
Actin Filament Ethan chain of pearls; the myosin
longus heads are
whose end has been cut off—
Extensor digitorum 7
1 Attachment it is able to bend like a hinge
Fishing ...arranged
Fibularis manner similar to the tail
in a longus in two places
211

2
feathers in an arrow; the general structure
of skeletal muscle is like a series of tubes
Patella
within tubes (ATP hydrolysis ADP P P
occurs) 5a 5b (Gastrocnemius—
Patellar tendon ADP
cut and removed)
69. Muscular System: Each actin filament is like a double-stranded
Actin Filament chain of pearls; the myosin molecule is like
Tibial tuberosity
a double-headed
Tibia cotton swab; the 4 213
4 Reactivation Pulling
arrangement(good
of the myosin heads is like
landmark) 2
3 1 5
the tail feathers in an arrow
Medially from tibia: ATP
1

(New ATP molecule

6
F E T G ... Sounds enters the cycle)
S
Good!
70. Nerve and Muscle: Myosin head is like a double-headed
The Contraction Cycle cotton swab; the movement of the 4 myosin Actin 4 4
Soleus binding ATP 217
2 headgroups
4 is like the motion of oars in a site
Gastrocnemius
boat Color the ATP, 3
ADP, and P The soleus
ROWER ANALOGY
the same muscle is contraction the
During muscle
Superior 6 color.
71. Muscular System:
extensor
Pectoralis major—fan; named
myosin headgroups attach to actin
and pull it toward the center of the
becauseThis it causes the sarcomere
Muscles of Neck, Shoulder,
retinaculum serratus anterior—serrated knife; 3 Detachment sarcomere.
looks
to shorten. This movement of the 225
Calcaneal
Thorax, and Abdomen abdominal muscles—sandwich tendon
myosin headgroups is rather like
like a
the motion of oars in a boat.
sole
Lateral Calcaneous flatfish.
Medial
malleolus
malleolus
5

72. Muscular System:
of fibula Sartorius is like a sash
of tibia
Muscles of Thigh
Inferior Right Leg
extensor Tendons of the (posterior view) 229
retinaculum extensor
digitorum longus Filet of soleus?
Location

muscle. This is a good

landmark muscle because
these four tendons on its
RightSoleus
Leg is insertion point make it
73. Muscular System: a sole
like easy flatfish
to locate.
(anterior view)
Muscles That Move
231
Ankle, Foot, and Toes

xvi
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

74. Nervous System: Axon of a neuron is like an

Multipolar Neuron electrical cord
241

75. Nervous System: Membrane potential is like a battery; graded

Nerve Impulse Conduction potential is like a small, local ripple effect;
an action potential is like a wave of electric 
243
current; synaptic transmission is like a

VOLT
SUPER
speedboat crossing a channel and pulling
into its dock

76. Nervous System: Action potential is like a wave of electric

Nerve Impulse current 247
Conduction

77. Nervous System: Continuous conduction is like

Continuous Conduction a domino effect 249

78. Nervous System: Saltatory conduction is like skipping a stone

Continuous Conduction 251

79. Nervous System: A peripheral nerve is like tubes within tubes

Peripheral Nerve 255

80. Nervous System: The gray matter in the spinal cord

Spinal Cord is shaped like a butterfly 263

81. Nervous System: A reflex arc involves input, processing, and

Reflexes output, like typing a letter on your laptop 265

82. Nervous System: The ventricular system can be compared to the

Brain Ventricles neck, head, and horns of a ram 277

83. Nervous System: Sympathetic division is like stepping on the GO

Sympathetic Division gas !
291
of ANS

BR
AK
84. Nervous System: Parasympathetic division is like stepping on E!

Parasympathetic the brake 293

Division of ANS

N
85. Special Senses: The rectus muscles are positioned like points
Eye—External Structure on a compass (north, south, east, and W E 323
west).
S

xvii
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

86. Special Senses: Macula lutea is like a target

Eye—Internal Fovea centralis—bull’s-eye
325

87. Special Senses: Malleus—hammer;

Ear incus—anvil;
stapes—stirrup; 327
cochlea—snail shell

88. Special Senses: Fungiform papilla—mushroom cap;

Tongue filiform papilla—flame
329

89. Cardiovascular A-V valves—parachute;

System: Heart valve flap—kangaroo pouch;
semilunar valves—modified peace sign 345

90. Cardiovascular The SA node is like the spark plug that sets

System: Intrinsic the heartbeat 347
Conduction System

91. Cardiovascular The cardiac cycle is a mechanical event like

System: squeezing a bottle of water; ventricular 351
Cardiac Cycle contraction is like wringing out a wet rag

92. Cardiovascular Normal blood flow moves like water

System: through a garden hose 359
Blood Flow

93. Cardiovascular System: Blood pressure is like the force of water

Arterial Pressure against the wall of a garden hose 361

94. Cardiovascular System: The filtration process is like water gushing

Capillary Function— out of the holes in the garden hose 364–365
Filtration

95. Cardiovascular Venous pumps are like squeezing a rubber

System: Return tube with your hands 367
of Venous Blood

96. Cardiovascular System: The blood vessel pattern looks like a stick

Blood Vessels— figure wearing boxing gloves (kidneys)
Arteries and Veins 381, 391

97. Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes filter debris like an oil filter

Creation of Lymph filters oil in a car engine 399

xviii
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

98. Respiratory System: Alveoli—bubble wrap;

Overview larynx—head of snapping turtle 409

99. Respiratory System: Ribs swing upward like the swinging handle

Mechanics of on a pail; recoil effect is like tension released 413
Breathing from a rubber band

100. Respiratory System: Alveolar macrophages are like

Alveolus the housekeepers of the alveoli 415

101. Respiratory System: Hemoglobin functions like a taxicab

Hemoglobin 419

102. Respiratory System: Pneumotaxic center is like a traffic cop;

Neural Control dorsal respiratory group is like a spark plug 424–425

103. Digestive System: Structurally, the layers of the digestive tract are

Structure and Function like tubes within tubes 433

104. Digestive System: Stomach mixes up the chyme-like batter

Physiology of like a hand mixer mixes batter 447
Stomach

105. Digestive System: Plicae circularis—folded carpet sample;

Small Intestine villus—single carpet fiber 449

106. Digestive System: Peristalsis propels like squeezing a tube of

Movement through toothpaste; segmentation mixes like a hand 451
the Small Intestine mixer

107. Digestive System: Pancreas—tadpole

Pancreas 455

108. Digestive System: Hepatic lobule is like a Ferris wheel

Liver 459

109. Digestive System: Appendix is like a worm

Appendix 463

xix
 Visual Analogy Index
TOPIC ANALOGY ICON(S) PAGE NO.

110. Metabolic Physiology: Reduced coenzymes are like a car with a

Carbohydrate trailer carrying an electron as its cargo 471, 475
Metabolism

111. Metabolic Physiology: Electron transport chain is like passing a

ETS hot potato; hydrogen ion gradient is like 477
water behind a dam

112. Urinary System: The calyces are like a plumbing system;

Kidney the nephron is like a sewer line 489, 493

113. Kidney: GHP is like a sumo wrestler

Nephron Function— 494–495
Filtration

114. Kidney: The glomerulus is like a loop of garden hose

Regulation of the 497
Glomerular
Filtration Rate

115. Kidney: Reabsorption and secretion are like workers

Nephron Function— sorting products on a conveyor belt 499, 501
Reabsorption
and Secretion

116. Kidney: Osmolarity is like the “saltiness” of the

Countercurrent solution 509, 511
Multiplier

117. Male Reproductive The penis in cross section looks like a

System: Penis monkey’s face 521

118. Female Reproductive Ovulation is like a water balloon bursting

System: Ovary 535

xx
 CHAPTER

1
LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

1
LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
Planes of the Body

Description An essential skill in anatomy is being able to visualize a sliced section of a tissue, organ, or region of the
human body. This requires you to mentally jump from the three-dimensional to the two-dimensional.
The prerequisite to developing this skill is being able to visualize the different ways an object can be
sliced. The three basic planes that can pass through an object to section it are:
c Sagittal (median) plane—This plane slices an object down the middle, making a left half and
a right half.
c Frontal plane—This is also called the coronal plane. The term coronal means “crown.” This
plane splits an object into a front half and a back half.
c Transverse plane—This plane divides the body into an upper half and a lower half.

Key to Illustration
1. Frontal plane 2. Sagittal (median) plane 3. Transverse plane

2
 LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
Planes of the Body

Planes of the Body

(through a 2-year-old boy)

1. 

2 1

1 Where’s the toy

2 truck they
promised me
for posing
like this?

2 1

3
1

3.  2. 

Color each plane

a different color.

3
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
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