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CALCULUS or AP

AP®is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product.
 A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the
solution of any problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your
curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your
own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
George Polya

THE ART OF TEACHING, Mark Van Doren said, is the art of assisting discovery.
I have tried to adapt James Stewart's book to assist students in discovering AP® Calculus,
for both its practical power and its surprising beauty. My goals is to convey to the student
a sense of the utility of calculus, to extend technical competence, and to develop con-
ceptual understanding. Like Stewart, I try to foster appreciation for the intrinsic beauty
of the subject. Newton undoubtedly experienced a sense of triumph when he made his
great discoveries. I want students to share some of that excitement.
The emphasis in AP® Calculus, and in this text, is on understanding concepts, the focus
from the Tulane Conference in 1986 and the larger Calculus Reform movement. The
underlying principle to develop and understand concepts throughout this text is the Rule
of Four; a function can be represented by an equation, in a table, by a graph, or in words.
AP® Calculus Exam questions have a unique style in terms of presentation, wording,
and content. Successful solutions depend upon a clear understanding of AP® Calcu-
lus common practices, for example, where the calculator may be used, what statements
constitute justification, and how different parts of a Free Response Question relate to
the stem. In addition, there are many concepts and skills targeted on the AP® Calculus
Exam that are often neglected or underemphasized in many texts. These overlooked and
ignored topics are prevalent in this text.
There is an AP® Calculus mindset, or character, that is pervasive in this text, in the
exposition, examples, and exercises. I have tried to combine my experience and this AP®
Calculus style with the elements of Stewart's traditional calculus to provide a complete
course, to guide teachers and to prepare students for success on the AP® Calculus Exam.

Features

• AP® Exercises
An effective way to prepare for the AP® Calculus Exam is to practice solving problems
written in a form and style similar to what students will find on the test. Therefore, exer-
cise sets contain problems marked with an AP® icon. These problems use AP® Calculus
Exam language in the stem and questions, offer the same type of distractors as in mul-
tiple choice questions, and ask students to practice effective communication and proper
notation. For example, many AP® marked exercises ask students to explain their rea-
soning or to justify their answer. See, for example, the exercises in Sections 4.3 , 5.2,
6.3, and 6.4. In addition, there are many exercises that target important AP® Calcu-
lus concepts that are often overlooked, for example, the inverse function theorem, local
linearity, curvilinear motion, and the Lagrange error bound.

••
VII
X Preface

7 Techniques of Integration
All the standard methods are covered here, more than necessary for the AP® Calculus
Exam, but presented for unity and completeness. The section on strategy for integration
helps recognize the best technique in a given situation.

8 Differential Equations
Slope fields and Euler's method are presented, as well as the solution to separable differ-
ential equations. Numerical, graphical, and analytic approaches are considered. These
methods are applied to the law of natural growth and logistic growth.

9 Infinite Sequences and Series

This chapter presents the main content in AP® Calculus BC's sequences, series, and
convergence tests are introduced. Taylor and Maclaurin series are discussed, as well as
error estimates and bounds.

10 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

This chapter introduces parametric and polar curves and applies the methods of calculus
to them. Topics include tangent lines, area, and arc length; and technology is used to
explore and support results.
 •••
VIII Preface

• Graded Exercise Sets

Each exercise set is carefully graded, progressing from basic conceptual questions
and skill-development problems to AP® Calculus questions and to more challenging
problems involving applications.

• Contextual Problems and Real-World Data

James Stewart and his assistants spent a great deal of time looking in libraries, contacting
companies and government agencies, and searching the Internet for interesting real-
world data to introduce, motivate, and illustrate concepts of calculus. As a result, many of
the examples and exercises deal with functions defined by such numerical data or graphs.
See, for example, Figure 1.1 in Section 1.1 (seismograms for the Northridge earthquake),
Exercise 3.2.47 (unemployment rates), Exercise 4.1.86 (velocity of the space shuttle
Endeavour), and Figure 5.64 in Section 5.5 (San Francisco power consumption).
In addition, many contextual exercises involving real-world phenomena have been added
in the style of AP® Calculus Free Response Questions. See, for example, Exercise 69 in
Section 3.1 (oil consumption), Exercise 104 in Section 3.6 (star brightness), and Exercise
21 in Section 6.3 (temperature of coffee in a pot).

• Problem Solving
Perhaps the most difficult thing to teach in mathematics is the art of problem solving,
especially in word or contextual problems, in which there is no single well-defined
method for obtaining the answer. I agree with Stewart that no one has improved very
much on George Polya's four-stage problem solving strategy. In many of the examples
presented, we suggest trying to develop calculus vision, a strategy for solving the prob-
lem. Solving challenging calculus problems takes practice and quick, judicious pattern
recognition that leads to an appropriate calculus vision.
To aid in problem solving, Common Errors are highlighted in the margin. This feature
is the result of my grading experience and supervising the scoring of over one million
AP® Calculus Exams.

• Technology
Technology, including graphing calculators and computers, has removed the drudgery of
hand calculations and allows us to concentrate more on interpretation of results. Indeed,
we can use technology to explore and discover important concepts and to confirm results.
The icon CTJ indicates an exercise in which technology is required. However, technology
may certainly be used in other exercises as well.
Throughout the learning process, the graphing calculator is a useful tool to explore pat-
terns and gain insight and understanding, and to discover concepts. However, there are
still only four functions that a student may use as justification to solve a problem on the
AP® Calculus Exam. This text supports the appropriate calculator approach throughout,
in exposition as well as in examples and exercises.
Remember that technology doesn't make a pencil and paper obsolete. Hand calculation
and sketches are often preferable to technology for illustrating and reinforcing some
concepts. Calculator active questions on the AP® Calculus Exam indicate only that tech-
nology may be required. Both instructors and students need to develop the ability to
decide when technology is appropriate. And most college and university instructors still
require a lot of hand calculations and insight provided by calculus theory.

• Explore Its
Explore Its are a companion to the text and are intended to enrich and complement its
content using a discovery and exploratory approach. For topics in the book for which
technology is particularly appropriate, the Explore Its provide a laboratory environment
in which topics are explored in different ways and at different levels. Teachers can choose
 •
Preface IX

to become involved at several different levels, ranging from simply encouraging students
to use the Explore Its for independent exploration to assigning Explore Its exercises in
WebAssign or creating additional exercises, labs, and projects that make use of them.

~-•# WEBASSIGN
l - From (engage
• WebAssign
WebAssign from Cengage for Calculus for AP®: A Complete Course is a fully cus-
tomizable online solution, including an interactive eBook that empowers you to help
your students learn, not just do homework. Insightful tools save you time and highlight
exactly where your students are struggling. Decide when and what type of help stu-
dents can access while working on assignments and incentivize independent work so
that help features aren't abused. Meanwhile, your students get an engaging experience,
instant feedback, and better outcomes. A total win-win!
To try a sample assignment, learn about learning management systems (LMS) integra-
tion, or connect with our digital course support, visit www.webassign.com/cengage.

Content
1 Functions and Models
The first chapter begins the emphasis on multiple representations of functions: ver-
bal, numerical, graphical, and analytical. A discussion of mathematical models leads
to a review of standard functions, including inverse trigonometric, exponential, and
logarithmic functions. Technology in AP® Calculus is also discussed.

2 Limits
The material on limits is motivated by the tangent line and velocity problems. Limits
are introduced from an intuitive perspective, as well as graphical, numerical, and alge-
braic points of view. Limits at infinity are introduced, and the very important property
of continuity is discussed. Section 2.6, on the precise definition of a limit, is an optional
section. This material is not tested on the AP® Calculus Exam but adds depth to the
understanding of a limit.

3 The Derivative
This chapter includes an intuitive development, as well as methods of estimation and
the precise definition of the derivative. All the differentiation rules are presented here,
involving all the basic functions, including exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric
and inverse trigonometric functions. There are sections on applications and related rates,
and a unique exposition on the AP® Calculus concept of local linearity.

4 Applications of Differentiation
The basic definitions concerning extreme values and the shape of the graph of a func-
tion are presented. Derivatives are used to help provide a summary of curve sketching.
L'Hospital's Rule is introduced and several optimization problems are included.

5 Integration
The area and the distance problems are used to motivate the idea of a definite integral
and the use of Riemann sums. The most important idea in the course, the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, is presented, and the method of substitution is introduced.

6 Applications of Integration
The most common applications of integration are presented here: area, volume, and
length of a curve. Two unique AP® Calculus topics include the definite integral as an
accumulation function and rectilinear motion.

Ancillaries for Teachers
Teacher's Edition
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-28277-2
The Teacher's Edition features facsimile student edition pages
with a wrap-around margin containing extensive in-place teacher
support material with an emphasis on the AP® Calculus course.
Teacher notes per section include elements such as Key Concepts,
Focus Questions, Lesson Checkpoints, Teaching Tips, Common
Errors, Additional Examples, Alternative Solutions, Assignment
Guides and in-place Answers for exercise sets.
Complete Solutions Manual
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-55364-3
This manual contains detailed solutions to all exercises in the text.
Teacher's Resource Guide for Calculus for A F® :
A Complete Course
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-55938-6
The Teacher's Resource Guide is designed to support the AP®
Calculus teacher in class preparation. This resource is aligned
to the AP® Calculus curriculum, features warm-up activities for
each lesson, and provides information about pacing, core mate-
rials for lecture, group work exercises, and suggested homework
assignments.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero
This flexible online system allows you to author, edit, and manage
test bank content; create multiple test versions in an instant; and
deliver tests from your Learning Management System, your class-
room, or wherever you want. CLT Powered by Cognero is available
online via login.cengage.com.
Instructor Companion Site
Everything you need for your course in one place! This collec-
tion of book-specific lecture and class tools is available online
via www.cengage.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint
presentations, images, Teacher's Resource Guide, and more.
Ancillaries for Teachers and Students
~.. '~ WEBASSIGN
I lilt From Cengage WWW. webassign.com
Instant Access Code ISBN: 978-1-337-68425-5
Prepare for class with confidence using WebAssign from Cengage
for Calculus for AP®: A Complete Course. This online learning
platform, which includes an interactive eBook, promotes practice,
• Online items • Printed items
•
Preface XI
so you truly understand what you learn- and are better prepared for
exams. Videos and tutorials walk you through concepts and deliver
instant feedback and grading, so you always know where you stand
in class. Focus your study time and get extra practice where you
need it most. Study smarter with WebAssign !
Key features include:
• Thousands of homework problems that match your textbook's
end-of-section exercises
• Opportunities for students to review prerequisite skills and con-
tent both at the start of the course and at the beginning of each
section
• Read It eBook pages, Watch It videos, Master It tutorials, and
Chat About It links
• An eBook with highlighting, note-taking, and search features,
as well as embedded lecture videos
• Personal Study Plans (based on diagnostic quizzing) that
identify chapter topics that students will need to master
• A WebAssign Answer Evaluator that recognizes and accepts
equivalent mathematical responses in the same way an
instructor grades
• A Show My Workfeature that gives instructors the option of
seeing students' detailed solutions
• Explore Its modules that help students visualize the course's
complex topics through hands-on exploration and interactive
simulation.
Ask your instructor today how you can get access to WebAssign,
or learn about self-study options at www.webassign.com.
Ancillaries for Students
Fast Track to a 5: Preparing for the AP® Calculus
AB and Calculus BC Examinations
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-28282-6
This test preparation manual provides valuable test-taking strate-
gies, AP® Calculus course review that follows the College Board
Curriculum Framework and full-length diagnostic and practice
exams. Keyed to Calculus for AP®: A Complete Course, it helps
students efficiently and effectively prepare for the Calculus AB and
Calculus BC Exams.
Student Solutions Manual
ISBN-13: 978-1-337-55934-8
This manual contains step-by-step solutions for all odd-numbered
.
exercises.
 ••
XII Preface

Acknowledgments
The preparation of this text has involved a lot of time reading the careful comments
and advice from a large number of experienced reviewers involved with AP® Calculus.
I appreciate their time and consideration, and especially their attention to detail and the
AP Calculus style of presentation. I have learned a great deal from the AP® Calculus
community, and I appreciate their dedication and commitment.

• List of Reviewers Giselle Martinez, Hialeah Senior High School

Zenaida Ahumada, V. Sue Cleveland High School
Benita Albert, AP Calculus Consultant
Kimberly Antos, Canyon del Oro High School
David Bjokrlund, Franklin High School
Joseph Brandell, West Bloomfield High School
Shawn Brennan, Penn Yan Academy
Azineth Buan, Memorial High School
Diane Caldwell, Byron Nelson High School
Eric Curosh, George Rogers Clark High School
Sharon Finger, Tomball High School
Josh Hembree, Darlington School
Phyllis Hillis, Oak Ridge High School; AP Calculus
Consultant
Karen Hyers, Tartan High School
Alexandra Ingalls, Norwell High School
Ana Mayra Irizarry Vaughan, Hispanic Youth Foundation of
Northern Virginia
Jennifer Kelly, Foot Hill High School
Vic Levine, James Madison Memorial High School;
AP Calculus Consultant
Betsaida Luna, Manhattan Field Support Center, New York
Department of Education
Lin McMullin, AP Calculus Consultant
Michael Milbury, Rabun Gap-Nacoochee School
Jolene Mitchell, Army and Navy Academy
Barbara Mochizuki, Acalanes High School
Kenny Moore, AP Calculus Consultant
Deb Mueller, Divine Savior Holy Angels High School
Paula Nowell, Stevenson High School
Lorie Parry, Saddleback Valley Christian School
Bryan Passwater, Lebanon High School; AP TIP IN,
University of Notre Dame
Dana Raitt, Vandegrift High School
Tom Riordan, St. Joseph's Academy
Dixie Ross, Pflugerville High School
Angie Seckar-Martinez, McCallum High School
Brian Shay, Canyon Crest Academy
Cesar E. Silva, Williams College
JoyceAnne Soliman, Dougherty Valley High School
Aristides Uy, Bronx International School
Kim Vanderspek, Bancroft School
Steve Walker, Terra Nova High School
Jennifer Wilson, Northwest Rankin High School
Chad Woods, Darlington School

I would like to thank the Stewart family trust and Gary Whalen for their unwavering
trust and confidence. It is truly an honor to be part of the Stewart Calculus text series.
I am grateful to Bob Arrigo, Julie Clark, John Jensen, and Brendan Murphy for their
collegiality and enthusiasm. Their reviews and suggestions were crucial, and their AP®
Calculus experience added a great deal to the exposition and exercises. I also want to
thank Mark Kiraly for his systematic detailed review of all the exercises and solutions.
I would also like to thank Kathi Townes of TECHarts and Cassie Carey from Graphic
World, Inc. for their production services, for allowing me so much freedom of choice,
and for adapting to the AP® Calculus style and lingo. I'd also like to thank the following
Cengage Learning staff: Stacy Green, Samantha Lugtu, Andrew Coppola, Philip Lanza,
and Julie Allen, content developers; Katharine Werring, Teni Baroiant, and Emma
Collins, product assistants; Jennifer Risden, senior content project manager; Vernon
Boes, art director; Sebastian Andino, product marketing manager; Jeremy Walts, director
of marketing, Dawn Giovanniello, product director, and Maureen McLaughlin, product
manager. And a special thanks to Leslie Lahr, who is responsible for connecting me with
Cengage.
I have been extremely fortunate to work with some of the most dedicated mathematics
educators in the country over the past three decades. This text is a culmination of what
I have learned from them and a way of giving back to the AP® Calculus community.
 ent
READING A CALCULUS TEXTBOOK IS DIFFER-
ENT from reading a newspaper or a novel, or even a physics
book. Don't be discouraged if you have to read a passage more
than once in order to understand it. I suggest that you keep a
pencil, paper, and graphing calculator handy to check, or try,
a calculation or to sketch a diagram.
Some students don't read the text; they start by trying the
homework problems and read the text only if they get stuck
on an exercise. I think a better plan is to read and understand a
section of the text before attempting the exercises. In particu-
lar, you should carefully study the definitions and understand
the exact meanings of terms. And before you read an exam-
ple, I suggest that you cover up the solution and try solving
the problem yourself. You'll learn a lot more from looking at
the solution this way.
An AP® Calculus course is designed to teach conceptual
understanding and pattern recognition, and to train you to
think logically. Learn to write the solutions of the exercises
in a connected, step-by-step fashion, using good communi-
cation and proper notation. Don't link together a string of
disconnected equations or formulas.
The answers to the odd-numbered exercises appear at the back
of the book, in Appendix E. Some exercises ask for a ver-
bal explanation or interpretation or description. In such cases
there is no single correct way of expressing the answer, so
don't worry that you haven't found the definitive answer. In
addition, there are often several different forms in which to
express a numerical or algebraic answer, so if your answer
differs from mine, don't immediately assume you're wrong.
For example, if the answer given in the back of the book
is v2 - 1 and your answer is 1/ (1 + v12), then you're
right, and rationalizing the denominator will show that the
answers are equivalent. This is also good practice for the AP®
Calculus Exam. Often you must work to rewrite your solution
into a form presented in one of the multiple choice options.
The icon 00 indicates an exercise that requires the use of
technology. However, you should use technology wherever
possible to explore possible solutions and to check your work.
Remember that there are only four operations that a student
may use as justification to solve a problem on the AP® Calcu-
lus Exam. But during the course, you should use the full power
of technology wherever possible.
You will see the Common Error feature, which is the result of
my experience with the AP® Calculus Reading. I have placed
this symbol and explanation in the margin in situations where
I have observed that a large proportion of AP® Calculus stu-
dents often make the same mistake (on the AP® Calculus
Exam).
I hope you will keep this book for reference after you finish
the course. Even though your college may have a different phi-
losophy of teaching calculus, the specific details are here, and
the book will serve as a useful reminder when you need to use
calculus in another course.
Calculus is an exciting subject, justly considered to be one of
the greatest achievements of the human intellect. I have tried
to convey my joy and enthusiasm for the subject through this
text, and I hope you will discover that calculus is not only
useful but also intrinsically beautiful.
• ••
XIII
xvi Mathematical Practices for AP® Calculus (MPACs)

MPAC 4: Connecting multiple representations

Students can:
a. associate tables, graphs, and symbolic representations of functions;
b. develop concepts using graphical, symbolical, verbal, or numerical representations
with and without technology;
c. identify how mathematical characteristics of functions are related in different repre-
sentations;
d. extract and interpret mathematical content from any presentation of a function (e.g.,
utilize information from a table of values);
e. construct one representational form from another (e.g., a table from a graph or a graph
from given information); and
f. consider multiple representations (graphical, numerical, analytical, and verbal) of a
function to select or construct a useful representation for solving a problem.

MPAC 5: Building notational fluency

Students can:

a. know and use a variety of notations e.g., f ' (x ) , y I , dy

dx ;

b. connect notation to definitions (e.g., relating the notation for the definite integral to
that of the limit of a Riemann sum);
c. connect notation to different representations (graphical, numerical, analytical, and
verbal); and
d. assign meaning to notation, accurately interpreting the notation in a given problem
and across different contexts.

MPAC 6: Communicating
Students can:
a. clearly present methods, reasoning, justifications, and conclusions;
b. use accurate and precise language and notation;
c. explain the meaning of expressions, notation, and results in terms of a context
(including units);
d. explain the connections among concepts;
e. critically interpret and accurately report information provided by technology; and
f. analyze, evaluate, and compare the reasoning of others.
 a cu ators, o uters,
• •
an t er ra Ill ev1ces
ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY HAVE CHANGED the way we do and teach
mathematics. Handheld calculators are becoming more powerful, as are software pro-
grams and Internet resources. In addition, many mathematical applications have been
released for smartphones and tablets such as the iPad®. All of these technology tools are
wonderful for the classroom, but remember that you can only use one of the approved
graphing calculators on the AP® Calculus Exam.
Some exercises in the text are marked with a technology icon CTJ, which indicates that the
use of technology is required. Usually this means that we intend for you to use a graphing
calculator to solve part of the problem, to sketch the graph of a function, to find the
zeros of a function, numerically calculate the derivative of a function, or to numerically
calculate the value of a definite integral. However, you might also need technology for
other, more advanced functions. Most of the calculator screen illustrations in the text
are from the Texas Instruments TI-84 Plus CE. Similar calculators are made by Hewlett
Packard, Casio, and Sharp.
You can also use computer software such as Graphing Calculator by Pacific
Tech (www.pacifict.com) or desmos by Desmos, Inc. (www.desmos.com) to perform
many of these functions, as well as apps for phones and tablets, such as Quick Graph
(Colombiamug) or Math-Studio (Pomergranate Apps). Similar functionality is available
using a web interface at WolframAlpha.com.
In general, when we use the term technology in the book, we mean the use of a graphing
calculator, one approved for the AP® Calculus Exam. Some exercises marked with the
technology icon will require the use of a computer algebra system (CAS). ACAS is
capable of doing mathematics (such as solving equations or computing derivatives or
integrals) symbolically rather than just numerically.
Examples of well-established computer algebra systems are the computer software pack-
ages Maple and Mathematica. The WolframAlpha website uses the Mathematica engine
to provide CAS functionality via the Web.
Many handheld graphing calculators have CAS capabilities, for example, the TI-Nspire
CX CAS from Texas Instruments and the HP Prime from Hewlett Packard .

•
XIV
atica ractices

THE MATHEMATICAL PRACTICES FOR AP® CALCULUS (MPACS) are

broad, essential standards, or ideals, that describe the skills and expertise needed to do
(and teach) AP® Calculus. These practices are not specifically called out or marked, but
are necessary to solve almost every example and exercise. The MPACs are not designed
as a discrete set of mathematical techniques; they are connected, delineated skills that
fit collectively into your AP® Calculus toolbox.
Here are the Mathematical Practices for AP® Calculus.

MPAC 1: Reasoning with definitions and theorems

Students can:
a. use definitions and theorems to build arguments, to justify conclusions or answers,
and to prove results;
b. confirm that hypotheses have been satisfied in order to apply the conclusion of a
theorem;
c. apply definitions and theorems in the process of solving a problem;
d. interpret quantifiers in definitions and theorems (e.g. , ''for all," ''there exists''); and
e. develop conjectures and counterexamples to clarify understanding of definitions, to
investigate whether converses of theorems are true or false, or to test conjectures.

MPAC 2: Connecting concepts

Students can:
a. relate the concept of a limit to all aspects of calculus;
b. use the connection between concepts (e.g., rate of change and accumulation) or
processes (e.g., differentiation and its inverse process, antidifferentiation) to solve
problems;
c. connect concepts to their visual representations with and without technology; and
d. identify a common underlying structure in problems involving different contextual
situations.

MPAC 3: Implementing algebraic/computational processes

Students can:
a. select appropriate mathematical strategies;
b. sequence algebraic/computational procedures logically;
c. complete algebraic/computational processes correctly;
d. apply technology strategically to solve problems;
e. attend to precision graphically, numerically, analytically, and verbally and specify
units of measure; and
f. connect the results of algebraic/computational processes to the question asked.

xv
 •
ar1n or t

TAKING ANY AP® COURSE is a huge commitment of time and energy. But the
work is exciting and rewarding. Whether you are taking an AP® Calculus course at your
school or working on the AP® Calculus curriculum independently, this text provides an
excellent framework for your intellectual experience.
In the spring, as the AP® Calculus Exam nears, students all over the world begin last-
minute reviews of the entire curriculum. For some, this is intimidating. But remember,
there are approximately 450,000 students taking the exam and over 900 dedicated AP®
Calculus Readers who will score your exam.
The AP® Calculus Exam is not designed to trick anyone. The questions are simply
intended to determine whether you have learned the AP® Calculus curriculum. Focused
review and practice is probably the best way to prepare for the exam. Try lots of past
problems, make sure your calculator has fresh batteries, and walk in with confidence and
earn a 5 on the exam.

What's in Calculus for A.P® that will help you prepare

As you work through this text, there are some features that you should use to get the
most out of the text.
As you read each section:
• review the concepts suggested at the beginning of each section,
• read the items under each Closer Look,
• read each Common Error,
• understand how technology is used to solve examples, and
• take time to read the examples, and especially the reasons and justifications given.
After finishing a section or the chapter, work through:
• the Concepts and Vocabulary exercises, which will help you to reinforce your
conceptual understanding,
• the Practice exercises to improve your basic skills and to increase pattern
recognition,
• the Applications and Extensions exercises,
• the exercises marked with an AP® icon to practice questions similar to those on the
AP® Calculus Exam, and
• the Extended Applications to challenge your ability to think creatively to solve
problems.
In all mathematics classes, but especially in AP® Calculus, reading the text is an essential
part of learning. The exposition has been carefully prepared to save you time in under-
standing and mastering the material. There is more to calculus than just rote learning
and manipulative skills; you must understand the concepts and how various ideas are
connected. AP® Calculus is not just a set of algorithms, techniques, and tricks to solve
problems, but a unified set of explicitly related concepts.

••
XVII
xviii Prepari ng for the AP® Calculus Exam

• How to get the most out of your AP® Calculus class

Before the class starts, make sure of your prerequisite math skills.
Know your advanced algebra skills, especially the following topics:
• Linear equations
• Quadratics (factoring)
• Functions (transformations, piecewise, odd, even, domain, range)
• Polynomials (zeros, end behavior)
• Exponential and logarithmic functions and their graphs
• Rational and radical equations
• Inverse relations
• Conics (for BC AP® Calculus)
Know your trigonometry:
• Unit circle (common angles in radian measure)
• Symmetry around the unit circle (reference angles)
• Basic identities
For BC AP® Calculus students, have some basic knowledge of sequences, series, and
vectors.
Make sure you know how to use your calculator and are familiar with the four operations
that you may use as justification to solve a problem on the AP® Calculus Exam.
• Plot the graph of a function in an appropriate window.
• Find the zeros of a function (solve an equation numerically).
• Calculate the derivative of a function numerically.
• Calculate the value of a definite integral numerically.
You should also know how to use your graphing calculator:
• to calculate the value of a function at a specific input x on the home screen and on
the graph screen, and
• to graph a function to confirm analytic results.
Remember, don't believe everything your calculator says. Technology sometimes unin-
tentionally lies and it is up to you to uncover the truth using calculus.

• Setting up a review schedule

The AP® Calculus courses are designed to develop a student's understanding of the
concepts and to provide explicit skills and a variety of applications. Both the AB and BC
courses require the same depth of understanding for common topics. It's a hard lesson,
but to be successful you have to do AP® Calculus every single day. And it would be nice
to discuss topics like the Mean Value Theorem at the dinner table.
Stay organized. Keep your notes, homework, and handouts from class by topic. Have
your pre-calculus notes handy. Even though these topics are not tested on the AP® Calcu-
lus Exam, they are essential to your success. Consider organizing your notes according to
the new Curriculum Framework. Use the Big Ideas, Enduring Understandings, Learning
Objectives, and Essential Knowledge statements as headings.
You will be much more comfortable taking the AP® Calculus Exam if you understand
how test questions are designed and are familiar with the style and wording. The AP®
exercises in this text are written to familiarize you with the AP® Calculus Exam look
and feel.
XX Preparing for the AP® Calculus Exam

Schools may have your admissions ticket at the testing site; a photo identification may
not be needed at your own school, but check with your AP® coordinator prior to test day.
On the day of the examination, it is wise to eat a good breakfast. Studies show that
students who eat a hot breakfast before testing get higher scores. Breakfast can give you
the energy you need to power you through the test and more. You will spend some time
waiting while everyone is seated in the right room for the right test. That's before the test
has even begun. With a short break between Section I and Section II, the AP® Calculus
exam can last almost four hours.
 •
Preparing for the AP® Calculus Exam XIX

The multiple choice questions often require extra time and thought. The free response
questions require a smooth synthesis of concepts, creative approaches to problem solv-
ing, the ability to communicate effectively and succinctly, and notational fluency.
Athletes practice enough so that specific tasks become routine due to muscle memory.
Successful AP® Calculus students practice enough to develop academic muscle memory.

• AP® information before the examination

In February
• Make sure that you are registered to take the test. Some schools take care of the
paperwork and handle the fees for their AP® students, but check with your teacher
or the AP® coordinator to make sure that you are registered. This is especially
important if you have a documented disability and need test accommodations. If
you are studying AP® Calculus independently, or if your school does not have an
AP® coordinator, call AP® Services at the College Board at (609) 771-7300 or
(888) 225-5427 (toll-free in the United States and Canada). You can also email
apexams@info.collegeboard.org for the name of the local AP® coordinator, who
will help you through the registration process.
• Make sure your graphing calculator can be used during the exam. Go online to
https ://apstudent.collegeboard. org/apcourse/ap-calcul us-ab/calculator-policy early
enough so that if you need a different calculator, you will have time to get one and to
become familiar with it.
By mid-March
• Begin your review process.
• Create and follow a reasonable schedule.
Week before
• Review. Read through your notes. Concentrate on the Big Ideas of the course.
Consider any concept that you feel needs more attention.
• Begin to gather your materials for the test.
Night before
• Place all of your materials in one place.
• Relax and get a good night's rest.
Things to have on test day
• Approved graphing calculator with fresh batteries. Note that you may have a sec-
ond, backup graphing calculator. Your calculator must not have a typewriter-style
(QWERTY) keyboard, nor can it be a non-graphing scientific calculator or an app on
your phone. (https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/apcourse/ap-calculus-ab/calculator-
Make sure your calculator is set to
policy) Calculator memories are not cleared prior to the exam.
radian mode.
• #2 pencils (at least two) with good erasers.
• A watch (to monitor your pace, but turn off the alarm).
• A bottle of water and a snack.
• Social Security number (if you choose to include it on the forms) .
• The College Board school code.
• Photo identification and the admissions ticket.
• Comfortable clothes and a sweatshirt or sweater in case the room is cold.
 in t e
xa ination
TO BE SUCCESSFUL ON THE AP® Calculus Exam,
• A student should understand, work with, and interpret functions presented in
analytical, graphical, numerical, and verbal representations (Rule of Four).
• A student should be able to use derivatives to solve a variety of problems and
interpret the meaning of a derivative in terms of rate of change.
• A student should be able to use integrals to solve a variety of problems and should
understand the meaning of a definite integral in terms of the limit of a Riemann sum
and net accumulation.
• A student also needs to:
• Understand and use both parts of the most important idea in the course, the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
• Effectively communicate reasons and justifications.
• Interpret models of physical situations.
• Use technology appropriately and write the mathematical expression that leads to
the use of technology.
• Determine whether a solution is reasonable and include correct units if required.
AP® Calculus students are expected to be knowledgeable and skilled in all of the pre-
requisite material, including functions and their properties, algebra, graphs, and the
concepts of domain, range, symmetry, periodicity, etc. The student should also under-
stand trigonometry, and have a mastery of basic values in the unit circle and the
fundamental trigonometric identities.

• Exam Format
The AP® Calculus Exam currently consists of two major sections, and each of those has
two parts. All sections may test proficiency on any topic.
Multiple Choice: Section I has 45 multiple choice questions in 105 minutes in two parts.
Part A has 30 questions in 60 minutes and does not allow the use of a calculator. Part
B has 15 questions in 45 minutes. All of these questions are calculator active, but not
all questions require the use of a calculator. The multiple choice questions have four
answer choices, and the score is based on the number of questions answered correctly;
no points are deducted for incorrect answers, and no points are awarded for unanswered
questions.
Free Response: Section II has six free response questions. The first two questions are
calculator active and are allotted 30 minutes. Some parts of these two questions may
require a graphing calculator. The remaining four questions are allotted 60 minutes; a
calculator is not permitted during this time. However, you may continue working on the
first two questions during this 60 minute session, but you may not use a calculator.
The total score for the exam is equally weighted between the multiple choice and free
response sections. The cut points, the total necessary to receive a certain score (1, 2, 3,
4, or 5), are slightly different each year and are determined, for example, so that a 5 in
any given year indicates the same level of achievement. Students taking the BC Calculus
Exam will also receive an AB sub-score, an indication of their work on the AB portion
of the exam.
•
XXI
 •••
Taking the AP® Calculus Examination XXIII

Additional Thoughts
• You may have to find an equivalent expression among the choices given.
• The domain of a function f is assumed to be the set of all real numbers x for
which f(x) is a real number.
• 1- 1 or the prefix arc indicates the inverse function, for example, cos- 1 x = arccosx.

Types of Multiple Choice Questions

Any Learning Objective or Essential Knowledge statement may be tested in the multiple
choice section. You may be required to use traditional skills and conceptual understand-
ing and to solve multi-step problems. Try the exercises in the text marked with an AP®
icon; these are good practice problems to familiarize yourself with the AP® Calculus
style of questions.
Multiple choice questions are generally formatted in two basic ways. You will find
classic questions in which there are four choices for solutions. This is probably the most
common type of problem; you need to read the problem carefully and select the correct
answer. Here are some strategies for solving this type of problem:
• Parse the problem carefully and highlight key words or phrases.
• Determine the relevant concepts.
• Eliminate known wrong answers.
• Test each solution to determine which one is correct.
There will also be other problem types that could be called list or group questions, where
you may be asked, for example, ''Which of the following is true about g?'' There are
usually three statements, labeled I, II, and III, and the multiple choice answers often
look like these:

A. None
B. I only
C. I and II only
D. I, II, and III

This type of problem usually requires a clear understanding of a specific concept of

definition. To solve this type of question, consider the following:
• Eliminate known wrong answers.
• Recall necessary theorems or definitions to help interpret the question.
• Reread the problem to check your solution for accuracy.

Strategies for the Free Response Section

• All work needs to be shown in the test booklet.
• As you begin each section, scan all of the questions. First, solve the problems that
you think you can do easily. You can mark and return to the harder ones later. Most
questions have multiple entry points. If you cannot answer part of a question, don't
give up; try the other parts.
• Show all of your work. Partial credit is generally awarded for correct calculus work,
even if the correct answer is not presented.
• Cross out incorrect work with an ''X." Don't waste time erasing. Crossed out work is
not scored. However, do not cross out work unless you have replaced it.
• Be clear, neat, organized, and succinct.
xxii Taking the AP® Calculus Examinat ion

The free response questions, standards, sample responses, and Chief Reader commentary
are published annually after the AP® Calculus Reading is completed and can be found
at apcentral.collegeboard.com.

• General AP® Test-Taking Strategies

Read each test question carefully and try to determine the key words or phrases.
Translate these into mathematics, think about the appropriate concepts, and develop a
vision for solving the problem.
• Know the four operations that may be used as justification to solve a problem on the
AP® Calculus Exam.
• Know the relationships between f, f', and f '' .
• Know the differentiation and integration rules.
• Make sure that you have actually answered the question. Don' t write more than is
necessary.
• Include units where necessary.
• Final numerical answers do not need to be simplified. For example, you may leave a
final answer as sin O + io -
3
e 0 . If you simplify a correct answer and make an error,
it is likely you will lose a point.
• For questions in which the calculator is used, final numerical answers should
be reported to three decimal places, rounded or truncated. Intermediate numer-
ical answers should be stored to the greatest degree of accuracy allowed by the
calculator.

• Strategies for the Multiple Choice Section

Read the question carefully: Under the pressure of a high stakes exam, many stu-
dents read questions too quickly or merely skim the question. By reading a question
carefully, you may already have a good idea about the correct answer. Careful reading
is especially important in Except-type questions. Make sure you answer the question.
For example, you may have solved for the value at which the maximum occurs (the
x-value) but the question actually asks for the maximum value of the function (the y-
value). The dis tractors are designed to be the result of calculus errors, not algebra or
arithmetic mistakes.
Eliminate any answer you know is wrong: Since you can write on the multiple choice
questions in the test book, as you read through the responses, draw a line through any
answer you know is wrong. Do as much scratch work as necessary in the exam book,
but be sure to mark your solution choice on the answer sheet in the corresponding oval.
In most cases, it is better to solve the problem first, and then read through the possible
answers. You may have to to look at the choices to get an idea of how to start a problem,
but generally this can lead to incorrect assumptions.
Read all of the possible answers, then choose the most accurate response: Some
multiple choice responses are partially correct, or correct only under extra, special con-
ditions. There will only be one response that is completely true, all of the time. Be careful
of absolute responses. These answers often include words such as always or never. They
could be correct, but try to think of counterexamples to disprove them.
Skip tough questions: In your first read-through, skip those questions that appear too
hard. Mark those in the margin and come back to them later if possible. Make sure you
skip those questions on your answer sheet too.
There is no penalty for guessing: Near the end of the exam, try to narrow your choices
by eliminating answers that are not correct and make an educated guess. It is to your
advantage to answer every question.
 orre ation o
·actives ro
e or

Correlation of Concepts to
AP® Calculus Concept Calculus for AP®

Big Idea 1: Limits

Enduring Understanding 1.1: The concept of a limit can be used to
understand the behavior of functions.
Learning Objective 1.lA(a): Express limits symbolically using correct Chap 2, Sec 2.1 , 2.2, 2.4
notation.

Learning Objective 1.lA(b ): Interpret limits expressed symbolically. Chap 2, Sec 2.2, 2.4

Learning Objective 1.lB: Estimate limits of functions. Chap 2, Sec 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

Learning Objective 1.1 C: Determine limits of functions. Chap 2, Sec 2.2, 2.3
Chap 3, Sec 3.5
Chap 4, Sec 4.4
Chap 5, Sec 5.4
Chap 9, Sec 9.1

Learning Objective 1.lD: Deduce and interpret behavior of functions Chap 2, Sec 2.4
using limits. Chap 9, Sec 9.1

Enduring Understanding 1.2: Continuity is a key property of functions

that is defined using limits.
Learning Objective 1.2A: Analyze functions for intervals of continuity or Chap 2, Sec 2.5
points of discontinuity.

Learning Objective 1.28: Determine the applicability of important calculus Chap 2, Sec 2.5
theorems using continuity. Chap 4, Sec 4.1 , 4.2

Big Idea 2: Derivatives Chap 3, Sec 3.1 , 3.2, 3.9

Enduring Understanding 2.1: The derivative of a function is defined as the
limit of a difference quotient and can be determined using a variety
of strategies.
Learning Objective 2.lA: Identify the derivative of a function as the Chap 5, Sec 5.4
limit of a difference quotient.

Learning Objective 2.lB: Estimate derivatives. Chap 3, Sec 3.2, 3.3

Learning Objective 2.1 C: Calculate derivatives. Chap 3, Sec 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8
Chap 9, Sec 9.9
Chap 10, Sec 10.2, 10.3

xxv
Another random document with
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 1018
territory. It is worth noting that the Turkish envoy at Berlin thought
these terms satisfactory. Fawkener was to agree to the third and least
desirable alternative only in case Austria proved obdurate. But in this
respect he was allowed a certain latitude, provided that Turkey
retained adequate means of defence on that side. In order to avoid any
appearance of menace, the British fleet was not to enter the Baltic or
1019
the Black Sea, a resolve much resented at Berlin and Warsaw.
Frederick William received Fawkener most cordially at Sans Souci
on 11th May. He showed some concern at the Manchester petition to
Pitt, as it would stiffen the tone of the Czarina; he urged the sending of
a British squadron to the Black Sea to ward off the threatened attack
on Constantinople, and stated his preference for the third of the
alternatives named by Grenville. Fawkener therefore felt bound to
place it first in his proposals to the Czarina: and it is noteworthy that
Prussian diplomacy once again favoured a concession to Catharine
larger than Pitt was disposed to grant. Inward satisfaction at the course
of events was, as usual, accompanied by many sneers at the
1020
weakness of British policy. Gustavus of Sweden adopted a similar
tone. He assured Liston of his readiness to receive the British fleet and
to arm against Russia, provided that the Allies would grant him the
needful subsidies. Liston, knowing his shiftiness, received these offers
with polite incredulity. Certainly they had no effect at Whitehall.
1021
Pitt’s change of front ruined his influence in the North; and in
diplomacy prestige counts for so much that Catharine had virtually won
her case by the end of May. Fawkener arrived at St. Petersburg on
24th May, and soon found himself involved in a series of gorgeous
fêtes which proclaimed the wealth and power of the Empress and her
entire indifference to all that England might do. For the irksome details
of business he was referred to the Ministers and Prince Potemkin. The
latter boasted in his lordly way of his resolve to seize Constantinople,
wage eternal war on the miscreant Turks, and finally conquer Egypt.
After a delay of three weeks the Empress received Fawkener
graciously at a ball; she assured him of her admiration of Burke’s
“Reflections” on the French Revolution, and expressed her horror of
that event as well as her regret at the sympathy of Fox with it. She
petted her grandson, Alexander, and ostentatiously avoided all
reference to the subject of Fawkener’s mission, except that, when a
dog chanced opportunely to bark, she said, “Dogs that bark do not
always bite.” So matters dragged on, it being the aim of Catharine to
gain another success on the Danube, to win over Leopold definitely to
her side (as Fawkener found to be the case by 21st June), and to sow
1022
discord among Britons.
In this last she achieved a startling success. On 17th June there
arrived at St. Petersburg Mr. (afterwards Sir) Robert Adair, who later on
was to figure as a diplomatist under the Ministry of Fox and that of All
the Talents. We may accept his solemn declaration, in a letter written
in the year 1842, that Fox had no hand in sending him on this so-called
1023
“mission”; but we are able to correct Adair’s version in several
respects, from documents in the “Pitt Papers,” which Bishop Tomline,
1024
when challenged by Adair, thought fit to withhold.
Adair asserted in 1842 that his object in going to Russia was not to
oppose Pitt’s policy of recovering Oczakoff, because that Minister had
already renounced it in obedience to the mandate of Parliament. This,
as we have seen, is incorrect; for when Adair left England, in May
1025
1791, warlike preparations were still going on. He admits that Fox
said to him before starting, “Well: if you are determined to go, send us
all the news”; and that Fox provided him with a cipher so that that
news might elude the prying eyes of British diplomatists. It may be, as
Adair says, that he and he alone was accountable for this odd attempt
to direct the foreign policy of his country. But it is highly probable that
Vorontzoff (Woronzow), the Russian ambassador in London, abetted
the scheme. On 2nd May Whitworth wrote that Vorontzoff’s
despatches had given great satisfaction at the Russian capital. “He
assures his Court that Russia has many friends and partisans in
England, and affirms pretty positively that His Majesty’s Ministry will
have no small difficulty in carrying through their measures contrary to
1026
the interest of the country.” Further, the account of Adair’s
“mission,” given by William Lindsay, Whitworth’s secretary, states that
Adair came with strong letters of recommendation from Vorontzoff,
while the Duchess of Devonshire commended him to Whitworth. He
travelled viâ Vienna, where he stayed with the Russian ambassador.
At St. Petersburg he at first received countenance from the British
embassy, owing to the high recommendations which he brought with
him, and he was presented at Court by Whitworth himself!
Thus Adair found his path everywhere strewn with flowers.
Catharine smiled on him and plied him with important questions,
ironically asking him whether the British fleet had set sail. Fawkener,
on the other hand, she treated with marked coldness. The British
embassy, however, had its revenge; for Lindsay opened the letters,
which Adair trustfully asked him to take to London, and apparently was
able to decipher the ciphered parts, which gave hints to Fox for an
attack on Pitt. But Adair was more than a purveyor of hints for the
Whig orators. It is clear that he stiffened the resistance of the Russian
Government. “He shows,” so Whitworth wrote privately to Grenville, on
21st July, “the most virulent opposition to His Majesty’s measures, and
1027
takes great pains to counteract the negotiation.” In official
documents Whitworth and Fawkener depict him as a vain,
meddlesome, ignorant person, concerned with stockjobbing no less
than with diplomacy. But it is certain that his presence at St.
Petersburg, and the biassed information which he supplied, greatly
harmed the cause of the Allies; and Pitt, after seeing copies of Adair’s
letters, was justified in hinting that his action had prejudiced the
success of Britain’s efforts at St. Petersburg. As for Fox, Catharine
showed her regard for him by placing his bust between those of
Demosthenes and Cicero in her palace; and Adair, on his departure,
received from the hands of Potemkin a ring containing her
1028
miniature.
Such is the story of this singular “mission.” Even before its details
were fully known at Whitehall, Ministers debated whether they should
not take action against Adair. On 29th July Grenville wrote to
Auckland, à propos also of a recent letter of Fox to Barnave: “Is not the
idea of Ministers from Opposition to the different Courts of Europe a
new one in this country? I never heard of it before, and should think
that, if it can be proved, I mean legally proved, it would go very near to
1029
an impeachable misdemeanour.” Ministers, however, decided to
treat Adair’s “mission” with the silence of contempt. Probably their
judgement was correct; for the finesse of Vorontzoff and Catharine, if
fully revealed to the world, would have covered the Opposition with
obloquy, but the Cabinet with ridicule; and in politics the latter
alternative is more to be feared. Apart, therefore, from one scornfully
vague reference by Pitt to the damage done to the nation’s interests by
a partisan intrigue at St. Petersburg, little was heard of the affair.
The reader who wades through the dreary debates on the Russian
Question early in 1792 will probably conclude that Adair’s tour belongs
1030
to the annals, not of diplomacy, but of electioneering. Fox, Grey,
Sheridan, and Whitbread proved to their own satisfaction, from
Russian sources of information, that Pitt, besides wasting the public
money on futile preparations for war, had been outwitted and publicly
flouted by the Czarina. They did not prove that the occasion called for
no effort to curb her ambition, or that Pitt was not justified in taking up
the challenge which their factious conduct had emboldened her to fling
down. In one sense it is unfortunate that the Foxites did make further
diplomatic excursions; for the result might have been the addition of
interesting gargoyles to the edifice of the party system in the form of
Opposition embassies, worked by fallen Ministers, disappointed place-
hunters, and discharged clerks.
Meanwhile other events were working against Pitt. The successes
of the Russian arms had been crowned by the capture of Anapa, near
the River Kuban, and their triumph seemed assured both in Asia and
Europe. The Russian Black Sea fleet was preparing to deal a blow at
Constantinople; and, for a time, as we have seen, the Turks were
distracted by the prospect of the renewal of war with Austria.
Yet here again, by one of those sudden turns of fortune which have
so often saved the Ottoman Empire, the designs of the Viennese Court
were cut short. At Padua, during his Italian tour, the Emperor Leopold
heard the news of the capture of the King and Queen of France by the
rabble of Varennes. This ignominious ending of his schemes for a
counter-revolution in France stirred the sluggish blood of the Emperor.
On 6th July he wrote to his brother Maximilian that it was high time to
save Marie Antoinette and stifle the French plague. A forward policy in
the West implied moderation in the East, and even the Prussophobe
Chancellor, Kaunitz, saw the need of a definite peace with the Sultan.
Accordingly, Austria waived her demands for parts of Wallachia and
Servia, and made peace with the Porte at Sistova on 4th August, on
1031
condition of receiving Old Orsova. Thus the Varennes incident,
which involved the royalist cause in ruin, brought salvation to the
Moslems.
The desire of Leopold to crush the French Revolution was to have
far-reaching consequences, which will concern us later. Here we may
remark that the woes of Marie Antoinette and the volte-face of the
Emperor produced a marked effect at St. Petersburg. Hitherto, all had
been bluster and defiance. So late as 15th July Fawkener reported that
the Empress had lately seemed inclined to conquer and keep all that
she could; but the news from France impelled the Vice-Chancellor,
Ostermann, to declare that all animosities should now be laid aside
and “that every nation in Europe should unite [against France]
1032
whenever any proper plan could be agreed on.” Thus, here again,
the failure of the royalist attempt in France helped to avert the utter
breakdown of the Anglo-Prussian case. Even so, the Czarina won the
day at nearly every point. Little by little the Allies gave up all the
safeguards on which Pitt had at first insisted; and on 26th July their
envoys consented to the acquisition by Russia of all the Turkish lands
east of the Dniester, provided that the Czarina agreed not to hinder the
navigation of that river. On the whole, the Porte sustained no very
serious loss, considering the collapse of its defence, the slight interest
felt on its behalf both at London and Berlin, and the marked dislike of
Catharine for England and Prussia. She hated Pitt, but she despised
Frederick William. How then could she, in the midst of her military
triumphs, give way to the demands of the Triple Alliance, whose inner
weakness she had probed?
Nevertheless, the intervention of the Allies was not the failure that
has often been represented. It checked the soaring ambitions of
Potemkin. The Roumans, Bulgars, and Greeks had to thank the Allies
for delivering them from this selfish adventurer. Their day of liberation
was deferred, but it came ultimately in far better guise than as a gift
from Catharine and her favourite. Strange to say, he fell a victim to
fever, and expired by the roadside in Moldavia as he was proceeding
to the front; and this event, which wrung the heart of Catharine, had no
small share in facilitating the signature of the Russo-Turkish treaty (on
the terms required by the Allies) at Jassy early in the following year.
Other influences were leading Catharine towards peace. In the
spring of the year 1791 Poland entered on a new lease of life. That the
Poles should alter their constitution without her permission was a
grievous affront, for which she inveighed against them as rebels.
Thenceforth Warsaw, rather than Constantinople, took the first place in
her thoughts. Apart from this, the prospects of the Poles were radiant
with promise; and the student who peruses the despatches of Hailes,
British envoy at Warsaw, cannot but picture the results that might have
occurred had the Poles received adequate support from Prussia and
England against the Muscovites. The confederated Diet at Warsaw
then showed a reforming zeal equal to that of the French National
Assembly. In the middle of April it struck off the shackles from the
burghers and made them citizens. Early in May, when the political
horizon darkened, fear cowed even the Russophiles, while a storm of
patriotic fervour swayed the Diet, and burst through the two barriers
which hemmed in the national life. There was no hubbub in this
memorable sitting. No swords flashed forth, as had happened on many
a petty pretext. Emotion held the Assembly spellbound, while the
majority swept away those curses of the land, serfdom and the elective
kingship. Thereupon one of the leading obstructives aroused general
astonishment by proposing that members should swear to uphold the
new order of things. King Stanislaus evinced his patriotic zeal by
calling on the Bishop of Cracow to administer the oath, which deputies
and visitors alike recorded with shouts of joy. The exulting throng of
nationalists and their recent converts then sallied forth and took the
oath once more at the foot of the high altar of the Cathedral; and the
sullen dissidence of some thirty of Russia’s henchmen served but to
emphasize the overwhelming triumph of intelligence and
1033
patriotism.
Such was the peaceful Revolution of 3rd May 1791 at Warsaw. It
sent a thrill of exultation through France, and moved Burke to a
splendid panegyric, which he crowned with the startling statement that
the events at Warsaw were probably the purest good ever conferred
1034
upon mankind. Even Grenville’s cold and insular nature warmed
and dilated at the news; and he bade Hailes express the interest of
Great Britain in the new constitution, especially as it would benefit the
1035
cause of the Allies.
But the ill fortune which dogged the steps of the Poles willed that in
this time of their revival the Alliance, from which alone they could hope
for safety, should go to pieces. The refusal of England to send a fleet
either to the Baltic or the Black Sea depressed the influence of
England at Berlin. “Oh! how my blood boils, my dear Sir,” wrote Ewart
to Keith on 18th June. “Our influence was all powerful so long as it was
maintained with the necessary vigour; and the moment we flinched, all
1036
the Powers, as if by common consent, turned the tables upon us.”
This proved to be the case. The web of Ewart’s diplomacy, the toil of
four years, which connected England with Prussia, Sweden, Poland,
and Turkey, was unravelled in as many weeks. The general trend of
events helped on the work of dissolution; and among the sinister
influences at Berlin, jealousy of the reviving power of Poland played no
small part. Hertzberg, whose fortunes were now on the decline, sought
to postpone his fall (it came early in July) by exciting animosity against
the Courts of London and Warsaw. To his reckless charge against Pitt,
of seeking to ruin Prussia by a war against the Muscovites, he now
added a jeremiad against the Polish reformers of Warsaw—“The Poles
have just dealt the coup de grace to the Prussian monarchy by making
their kingdom hereditary and adopting a constitution better than that of
1037
England.” Dislike of its Allies was now the prevalent feeling at the
Prussian Court, and by the end of June Frederick William decided to
have an interview with Leopold for the purpose of coming to a friendly
1038
understanding.
This resolve, fraught with evil for Poland, was clinched by the news
of the capture of the King and Queen of France at Varennes. Concern
at their ignominious position now began to influence the Central and
Eastern Powers. The wrath of the Czarina fell upon French democrats;
for in the nature of this extraordinary woman sentiment and passion
always ran an even race with foresight and reason. In her present
mood the French Revolution and all its abettors were anathema. The
results were curious. The bust of Voltaire was deposed from its place
of honour and huddled away amidst lumber. Within a short space the
bust of Fox, now that he had served her purpose, shared the same
fate. More important, perhaps, if less striking to the imagination, is the
fact that she now formed a close alliance with Sweden. Early in
October Gustavus III ended his long balancings by espousing the side
1039
of Russia, with a view to eventual action against France. The
decline or collapse of the Anglo-Prussian Alliance followed as a matter
of course so soon as Frederick decided to clasp the hand of Leopold. It
is curious to find Pitt and Grenville, even at the end of August 1791,
seeking to include Austria in the Triple Alliance, when statesmen at
Berlin and Vienna were scoffing at England, and were adopting an
offensive policy at variance with the pacific aims cherished at
Whitehall. Kaunitz and Bischoffswerder looked about for a scape-goat,
and found him in Joseph Ewart. Auckland had also been making a
dead set at this able ambassador; and some hitch in the negotiations
attending the marriage of the Duke of York with the eldest daughter of
the King of Prussia served to increase his troubles at this time. But the
following hopeful letter which Pitt wrote to him on 2nd September must
have salved his mental wounds:

... Many events have certainly concurred to disappoint the

accomplishment of very important objects, and to produce in some
respects an unfavourable change both in Prussia and elsewhere.
But the general state of Europe, taking in the whole, affords so
favourable a prospect to this country that we have great reason to
be contented. Any temporary fluctuation in the disposition at Berlin
is therefore, at the moment, of less consequence. The connection
between Prussia and Austria, whatever right we have to complain
of the steps which have led to it, cannot, I think, produce any
permanent mischief to our system; and, at least, I am convinced
that the best chance of preventing it is to mark no suspicion on our
part to preserve as much good humour and cordiality as possible.
For the rest, in the singular and uncertain state of Europe, our
chief business must be to watch events and keep ourselves quiet.
I have been sincerely concerned not to have more favourable
accounts of your health....
 The prospects, so far as concerned the freedom of Poland and the
peace of the West, were worse than Pitt anticipated. Ewart foresaw the
course of events more correctly. A little later he obtained the recall for
which he had some time been pressing; but he had the mortification of
seeing Morton Eden, the brother of his rival, Lord Auckland, installed in
his place. He retired to Bath for treatment by his brother, a medical
man; but an internal disease of long standing developed very suddenly
on 25th January 1792, and ended his life two days later amidst
delirium. The details, as set forth in the family papers, show that the
delirium of his last hours was the outcome of acute internal troubles,
which resembled appendicitis. They serve also to refute the wild
rumours that Ewart went raving mad as a result of political
1040
disappointments, or that he was poisoned by some Russian agent.
The last letter which Pitt wrote to this brilliant but most unfortunate
diplomatist shows a chivalrous desire to screen him from needless
anxiety:

1041
Downing Street, Jan. 20, 1792.
Your letter having come at a time of very particular
engagement, it was impossible for me to answer it sooner. Your
recollection of what pass’d between the Duke of York and yourself
is certainly different from the manner in which I am told that H.R.H.
understands it; but no difficulty whatever will arise from this
circumstance in settling the business; nor do I see any reason for
your entertaining any apprehension of its producing any
consequences disagreeable to yourself. I am very sorry that you
should already have felt so much on the subject. The train in which
the business now is will, I am in hopes, relieve you from any
further anxiety or trouble respecting it, and makes it wholly
unnecessary to dwell further upon it.

Worse than private misfortunes was the blow dealt to the Polish
cause. The rebuff encountered by the Allies at St. Petersburg deeply
depressed the reformers of Warsaw. On the return of Fawkener
through the Polish capital, King Stanislaus expressed grave concern at
the abandonment of all the safeguards for Turkey and Poland on which
Pitt had at first insisted. The cession to Russia of all the land up to the
Dniester seemed to him to presage ruin to the Poles—“Nor did my
pointing out [added Hailes] the attention which had been paid to their
interests by the preservation of the liberty of the Dniester produce any
1042
advantageous effect.” In truth, Stanislaus knew Catharine well
1043
enough to see in her triumph the doom of his kingdom. Just as the
ascendancy which she acquired over Turkey by the Treaty of Kainardji
led naturally, perhaps inevitably, to the First Partition of Poland, so now
the principle of the Balance of Power impelled Austria and Prussia to
look about for lands that would compensate them for the expansion of
Russia. Those lands could be found most easily in Poland, less easily
in France. So it came about that the principle which Pitt invoked for the
greater security of the smaller States, became in the hands of
Catharine and her powerful neighbours a pretext for schemes of
aggrandisement and pillage.
Thus fell to pieces the “federative system,” whereby Pitt hoped to
group the weaker States around England and Prussia. The scheme
was due in the first instance to Ewart. Pitt adopted it when he believed
the time to be ripe; but he postponed action too long. Had he pushed
his plans forward in the autumn of 1790, as soon as the dispute with
Spain was settled, and maintained the naval armaments at their full
strength, he would probably have gained a peaceful triumph over
Catharine. In that case the accession of Poland, Sweden, and Turkey
to the Triple Alliance would naturally have followed. There would then
have been no invasion of France by Austria and Prussia; still less
would there have been any spoliation of Poland. The practical manner
in which the Poles reformed their commonwealth opened up vast
possibilities for the east of Europe; and the crushing of those hopes
under the heel of a remorseless militarism is probably the severest
loss which the national principle has sustained in modern times.
Nevertheless, though Pitt showed a lack of nerve at the crisis, yet,
in view of the duplicity of Prussia, the doubtful attitude of Leopold and
Gustavus, the marvellous resourcefulness of Catharine, and the
factious opposition of the Whigs, he cannot be blamed. At times, new
and subtle influences warp the efforts of statesmen. This was so in the
year 1791. Pitt was striving to build on the basis of the Balance of
Power. But that well-trodden ground now began to heave under the
impact of forces mightier than those wielded by monarchs and
chancellors. Democracy sent out its thrills from Paris as a centre, and
the gaze of statesmen was turned from the East to the West.
Thenceforth the instinct of self-preservation or of greed marshalled the
continental chanceries against the two reforming States. The
“Zeitgeist” breathed against the plans of Pitt, and they were not. In
their place there came others of a far different kind, inspired by hopes
of territorial gains in Poland and the overthrow of liberty in France.
 FOOTNOTES
1
Baines, “Hist. of Cotton Manufacture,” 226, 232–4. See Mr.
G. P. Gooch’s “Politics and Culture,” for other coincidences.
2
The first trustworthy statistics of population were obtained in
the census of 1801; but those given above are probably not
very wide of the mark. The estimates are those of Rickman,
quoted by Porter, “Progress of the Nation,” 13. The estimate
of the “Statistical Journal” (xliii, 462), quoted by Dr.
Cunningham, “Eng. Industry and Commerce,” 699, is
7,953,000 for the year 1780.
3
See Walter’s “Origin of Commerce,” iv, 401, for a full
statement of this juggling with the nation’s finance.
4
“Diary of a Journey to England (1761–62),” by Count F. von
Kielmansegge, 237.
5
“The Coltness Collections,” 116, quoted by J. H. Jesse;
“Memoirs of the Reign of George III,” i, 29.
6
“Mems. of Queen Charlotte,” by J. Watkins, 1819, pt. i, ch. x.
The Duchess of Devonshire had flaunted a head-plume of an
ell and three inches.
7
See an excellent study, “Personal and Party Government
(1760–1766),” by Mr. D. A. Winstanley, 1910.
8
“Corresp. of George III with Lord North,” ii, 323; Wraxall, i,
347.
 9
“F. O.,” Prussia, 15, Carmarthen to Ewart, 6th January 1789.
10
For the influence exerted by George III on elections see
Porritt, “The Unreformed House of Commons,” i, 409–15.
11
Pitt MSS., 195, pt. ii.
12
B. M. Add. MSS., 28062. Pitt’s answer is not among these
papers. But Dr. Jackson did not gain the bishopric.
13
Lecky, v, 26.
14
Montesquieu, “Esprit des Lois,” bk. viii, ch. v.
15
See Sidney and Beatrice Webb, “The Parish and the County,”
bk. i, ch. iv; bk. ii, ch. ii; Boutmy, “The Eng. Constitution” (Eng.
edit.), pt. iii, sect. 3.
16
Howell, State Trials, xxiii, 231.
17
Delavoye, “Life of T. Graham,” 87.
18
“Letters from Lady Jane Coke to her friend, Mrs. Eyre, at
Derby (1747–58).”
19
C. P. Moritz, “Travels in England in 1782”; W. Wales, “Inquiry
into the ... Population of England” (1781), estimated the
number of houses in London at 100,000, and the population
at 650,000.
20
See, too, Wroth’s “London Pleasure Gardens of the
Eighteenth Century.”
21
See ch. xx of this volume for details; also T. Clarkson’s “Hist.
of the Abolition of the Slave Trade,” especially chs. xvii, xviii;
and Prof. Ramsay Muir’s “Hist. of Liverpool,” ch. xii.
22
“Hamlet,” i, sc. 4.
23
“Wealth of Nations,” bk. iv, ch. iii, pt. 2.
24
H. Twiss, “Life of Lord Eldon,” vol. i, ch. ii.
25
H. Walpole, “Letters,” viii, 395.
26
“Mems. of Queen Charlotte,” 203.
27
See the new letter of Hugh Elliot to Pitt from Brighthelmstone,
17th Oct. 1785, quoted in ch. xvii, as to the danger of the
Prince losing his life if he did not amend his ways.
28
“Mems. of Queen Charlotte,” 187.
29
“Travels in England in 1782,” by C. P. Moritz (Eng. trans.,
1895), 53.
30
Rousseau, “Social Contract,” bk. iii, ch. xv.
31
Dr. Cunningham, “Eng. Industry and Commerce,” pt. ii, 546,
698.
32
Quoted by Baines, “History of the Cotton Manufacture,” 334.
33
W. Wales, op. cit., 5.
34
“Origin of Power-loom Weaving,” by W. Radcliffe, 59 et seq.
35
In Pitt MSS., 221, is a petition signed by many persons
connected with the navy in favour of granting a pension to Mr.
Cort, who had made “malleable iron with raw pit-coal, and
manufactured the same by means of grooved rollers, by a
process of his own invention.” The petitioners state that
though the invention had brought no benefit to Cort, but rather
the reverse, yet it had proved to be of national importance.
36
W. Wales, op. cit., 44 et seq., enumerates several cases
where the rural population declined, but he attributed that fact
not to the enclosures (for he states that the enclosures of
wastes, which were more numerous than those of the open
fields, increased employment), but rather to the refusal of
landlords to build cottages, though they charged higher rents
 than before. For the question of enclosures, however, see Dr.
Gilbert Slater’s recent work on the subject (Constable and
Co., 1907).
37
See Dr. von Ruville’s work, “William Pitt, Earl of Chatham”
(Eng. ed., 3 vols. 1907), for a full account of these forbears.
38
Ruville, i, 343–6.
39
Ibid., 345. Pitt finally bought about 100 acres, and further
strained his resources by extensive building at Hayes.
40
“Pitt, some Chapters of his Life and Times,” by Lord
Ashbourne, 161–6.
41
“The Life of William Wilberforce,” by his Sons, i, 304.
42
Pitt MSS., 11 and 13.
43
Stanhope, ii, 125.
44
“Correspondence of the Earl of Chatham,” iii, 27.
45
Notes by Bishop Tomline in the Pretyman MSS., Orwell Park.
46
Lord Fitzmaurice, “Life of Shelburne,” i, 72. See also two
articles on the early life of the elder Pitt in the “Edinburgh
Review” for 1910.
47
“Chatham Corresp.,” iii, 65.
48
“Chatham Corresp.,” iv, 538.
49
Pitt MSS., 11.
50
“Chatham Corresp.,” iv, 363.
51
Pitt MSS., 101. The disuse of past participles was a
characteristic of that age. To write “rode” for “ridden” after the
auxiliary verb was no more noticeable a defect than to walk
unsteadily after dinner. One other early letter of Pitt’s bears
 date 1772 at Lyme Regis, and refers to some fun which he
and his brothers and sisters had had on a cutter yacht.
Another letter undated, but in Pitt’s round schoolboy hand, to
a gentleman of Somerset, refers to sporting matters such as
the lack of hares and the inability of his brother to catch those
which he does start (Pitt MSS., 102).
52
From Mr. A. M. Broadley’s MSS.
53
By the kindness of the Countess Stanhope I was allowed to
peruse this most interesting MS., which is preserved, along
with many other Pitt treasures, at Chevening.
54
Pellew, “Sidmouth,” i, 28.
55
Ashbourne, op. cit., 7–8.
56
“Diary of Thomas Moore,” vol. v.
57
Pitt MSS., 11.
58
Ibid.
59
One remembers here the terrifying remark of Lord Acton that
the mass of documents which the modern historian must
consult inevitably tells against style.
60
See an interesting fragment, “Bishop Tomline’s Estimate of
Pitt,” by the Earl of Rosebery (London, 1903), also in the
“Monthly Review” for August 1903.
61
Dr. Pretyman was chaplain to George III, and later on Bishop
of Lincoln and Dean of St. Paul’s.
62
Pitt MSS., 196. The notes and diagrams refer to the
movement of bodies considered dynamically: there are also
some problems in algebra. More numerous are the notes on
English History, especially on the parliamentary crises of the
years 1603–27, where, unfortunately, they break off. I have
also found notes on Plutarch, and translations of the speech
 of Germanicus in Tacitus (“Annals,” Bk. I), and of parts of the
Second Philippic.
63
His books went in large measure to Bishop Pretyman
(Tomline), and many of them are in the library of Orwell Park.
64
“Chatham Corresp.,” iv, 289.
65
Chevening MSS.
66
Pretyman MSS., quoted by Lord Ashbourne, op. cit., 31, note.
67
“Private Papers of W. Wilberforce,” 65.
68
“Chatham Corresp.” iv, 376, 377.
69
Macaulay, “Miscellaneous Writings” (Essay on William Pitt).
70
Macaulay, “Miscellaneous Writings” (Essay on William Pitt), iv,
510.
71
“Corresp. of George III with Lord North,” ii, 154 (17th March
1778).
72
“Corresp. of George III with Lord North,” ii, 184.
73
Pitt MSS., 12.
74
Ashbourne, op. cit., 161, 162.
75
See Porritt, “The Unreformed House of Commons,” i, ch. ix,
on the exclusion of poor men from Parliament.
76
Letter of 3rd July 1779. Stanhope, i, 31.
77
Chevening MSS.
78
Pitt MSS., 182.
79
“The Black Book of Lincoln’s Inn,” iv, Preface.
80
“Life of Burke,” by R. Bissett (1800), ii, 55–66.
81
Fitzmaurice, “Shelburne,” iii, 67–72.
82
Fitzmaurice, “Shelburne,” iii, 83.
83
“Black Book of Lincoln’s Inn,” iv, Preface; “Bland Burges
Papers,” 58.
84
“Bland Burges Papers,” 60, 61.
85
“Life of William Pitt,” by Henry Cleland (1807).
86
As a rule, Lowther exacted strict obedience from his
nominees. In 1788 he compelled them to vote against Pitt on
the Regency Question.
87
Hansard, cliii, 1056, 1057.
88
Porritt, i, 315–7.
89
Burke, “Thoughts on the present Discontents” (1770).
90
For details of bribery see May, “Constitutional History,” i, 313–
27; Porritt, i, 414–20.
91
“Life of Romilly,” i, 141.
92
“Memorials of Fox,” ii, 37, 38.
93
Selwyn, p. 140.
94
“Reminiscences of Charles Butler,” i, 172.
95
Wraxall, “Memoirs,” ii, 62; G. Rose, “Diaries,” i, 28.
96
Lecky, “Hist. of England in the XVIIIth Cent.,” iv, 228–34, does
not absolve Shelburne of the charge of duplicity in the matter
of the negotiations for peace; but Sir G. C. Lewis,
“Administrations of Great Britain,” 31–48, minimizes the
importance of the point at issue.
97
Fitzmaurice, “Shelburne,” iii, 118–21.
 98
“Private Papers of W. Wilberforce,” 79.
99
Cartwright, “Take your Choice” (1776). In 1780 Cartwright
founded “The Society for promoting Constitutional
Information,” the first of the modern clubs that was purely
political.
100
“The Speeches of William Pitt” (4 vols., 1806), i, 1–7.
101
“George Selwyn: his Letters and his Life,” p. 132 (Storer to
Lord Carlisle, Feb. 28, 1781). He adds that Woodfall reported
the debates “almost always faithfully.” I therefore see no
reason for refraining, as Earl Stanhope did, from citing many
passages of his speeches, on the ground that they were very
imperfectly reported.
102
Ibid., p. 143.
103
These images are curiously like those used by Lord
Shelburne on 25th January 1781. See Fitzmaurice,
“Shelburne,” iii, 120.
104
Both letters are among the Chevening MSS.
105
“Life of Wilberforce,” i, 17.
106
Ibid., v, 292.
107
Ashbourne, p. 159.
108
“Private Papers of Wilberforce,” 68.
109
Lord Waldegrave’s “Memoirs,” p. 63.
110
Pitt MSS., 103.
111
Nicholl, “Recollections of George III,” i, 389.
112
Porritt, i, 409–15.
113
See May’s “Const. History,” i, 315 et seq. for the increase of
the Secret Service Fund under George III.
114
Malmesbury Diaries, iii, 8.
115
Wraxall, ii, 434–5 (3rd edit.).
116
“Letters of George III to Lord North,” ii, 336.
117
“Life of Romilly,” i, 135.
118
Stanhope, i, 67.
119
May, “Const. History,” i, 458.
120
Rockingham, “Memoirs,” ii, 452–3.
121
Speech of 7th February 1782 (“Parl. Hist.,” xxii, p. 987).
122
Fitzmaurice, “Shelburne,” iii, 136.
123
“Dropmore P.,” i, 163; Lecky, iv ad fin.
124
Hood, Rodney’s second in command, asserted that if Rodney
had fought and pursued vigorously he would have taken not
five but twenty French ships of the line. See “Rodney’s
Letters and Despatches,” ed. by D. Hannay for the Navy
Records Society, p. 103.
125
“Parl. Hist.,” xxiii, 1.
126
“Life of Romilly,” i, 162. Romilly, who was present, quotes a
sentence of the speech, which did not appear in the official
report: “This House is not the representative of the people of
Great Britain; it is the representative of nominal boroughs, of
ruined and exterminated towns, of noble families, of wealthy
individuals, of foreign potentates.”
127
“Speeches of Lord Erskine” (edit. of 1880), p. 293; “The
Papers of Christopher Wyvil,” i, 424–5; State Trials, xxii, 492–
4.