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LOOSE-LEAF VERSION
REVEL ™
BREAK THROUGH
To learning reimagined
Educational technology designed

for the way today’s students
read, think, and learn
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and
perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of
REVEL: an interactive learning environment designed for the way today’s
students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and
students nationwide, REVEL replaces the textbook and gives students
everything they need for the course.
REVEL for INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY SPECIAL EDUCATION NEW
HORIZONS seamlessly blends authors’ narrative, media, and assessment,
enabling students to read, practice, and study in one continuous
experience. This immersive educational technology is designed to
measurably boost students’ understanding, retention, and preparedness.
Learn more at www.pearsonhighered.com/revel.
www.pearsonhighered.com
Student: Before purchasing this text, please be sure this is ISBN-13: 978-0-13-451646-2
ISBN-10: 0-13-451646-X
the correct book for your course. Once this package has 9 0 0 0 0
been opened, you may not be able to return it to your
bookstore.
Instructor: To place your bookstore order for the loose-leaf
version of this title packaged with the Pearson REVEL access
card, please use ISBN 0-13-445076-0. 9 780134 516462
Contents vii
11 Physical and Health Disabilities 313 13.3 Characteristics

13.4 Prevalence and Placement
382
385
Physical and Health Disabilities Described 314 Special Education 386
11.1 Physical and Health Disabilities Defined 315 13.5 Challenges and Their Solutions 387
11.2 Types of Physical and Health Disabilities 317 13.6 Accommodations 389
11.3 Characteristics 318 13.7 Early Intervention: Motor and
11.4 Prevalence and Placement 319 Concept Development 392
Special Education 321 13.8 School Years: The Expanded
11.5 Challenges and Their Solutions 322 Core Curriculum 394
11.6 Accommodations 325 13.9 Transition 398
11.7 Early Intervention 327 People and Situations 402
11.8 School Years: Managing Health Emergencies, 13.10 Origins and History 403
Including Seizures 328 13.11 Personal Stories 404
11.9 Related Services: Collaboration with Future Perspectives 406
School Nurses, Physical Therapists,
13.12 Prevention: Medical Advances 406
and Occupational Therapists 330
13.13 Technology: Assistive Technology,
People and Situations 332 Apps, and Software 408
11.10 Origins and History 332
Summary 409
11.11 Personal Stories 335 Addressing CEC Standards 409
Future Perspectives 337
11.12 Prevention: Accidents and Disease 337 14 Other Low-Incidence Disabilities 410
11.13 Technology: Prosthetics and Robotics 339
Other Low-Incidence Disabilities Described 412
Summary 341
14.1 Multiple Disabilities 413
Addressing CEC Standards 341
14.2 Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) 414
12 Deafness and Hard of Hearing 342 14.3 Deaf-Blindness 416
14.4 Prevalence and Placement 417
Deafness and Hard of Hearing Described 343
Special Education 420
12.1 Deafness and Hard of Hearing Defined 344
14.5 Accommodations 421
12.2 Types of Hearing Loss 346
14.6 Early Intervention 423
12.3 Characteristics 348
14.7 School Years 425
12.4 Prevalence and Placement 351
14.8 Transition 427
People and Situations 429
12.5 Challenges and Their Solutions 354
12.6 Accommodations 357
14.10 Personal Stories 431
12.7 Early Intervention 359
12.8 School Years 360
14.11 Prevention: TBI 434
12.9 Transition 362
14.12 Technology: Improving Access 436
People and Situations 363
Summary 439
Future Perspectives 368 15 Gifted and Talented 440
12.12 Prevention: Universal Screenings and
Exposure to Environmental Noise 369 Gifted and Talented Described 441
12.13 Technology: Improved Devices and 15.1 Gifted and Talented Defined 442
Medical Advances 370 15.2 Types of Giftedness 446
Summary 373 15.3 Characteristics 449
Addressing CEC Standards 374 15.4 Prevalence and Placement 451
13 Visual Disabilities: Low Vision 15.5 Challenges and Their Solutions 454
and Blindness 375 15.6 Accommodations 457
Low Vision and Blindness Described 376 15.7 Early Intervention 460
13.1 Low Vision and Blindness Defined 377 15.8 School Years 462
13.2 Types of Low Vision and Blindness 379 15.9 Transition 465
A01_SMIT0766_02_SE_FM.indd 7 22/03/17 2:37 pm

viii Contents
People and Situations 467 Appendix

CEC Initial Level Special Educator
Preparation Standards 481
15.12 Issues to Resolve 473 Glossary 488
15.13 Technology: Expanding Options 477
Summary 479 References 499
Index 537

Preface
Vision of the Book in providing assistance to hundreds of professors as they
design technology-enhanced coursework at IRIS work-
We are so excited about this second edition of Introduction
shops and seminars. These experiences have taught us
to Contemporary Special Education: New Horizons!
many things about today’s students and the application
If you are a college student, this introductory course
of technology in postsecondary instruction. This second
is often the first step toward becoming a highly effec-
edition of Introduction to Contemporary Special Education:
tive elementary, secondary, or special education teacher
New Horizons integrates these experiences, allowing us to
or other education professional (e.g., school principal,
develop an innovative alternative to conventional texts.
related service provider). For too many of you, this is the
only exposure you will have to information about students
with disabilities. Our aim is to set you on the best path pos- Organization of the Book
sible. We want you to be engaged, independent, and criti- The book is composed of fifteen chapters. The first four
cal learners who continue to seek better ways to improve chapters present foundational information about all stu-
results for all students throughout the span of your careers. dents, and about those who struggle to reach their aca-
The content we included in this text reflects our shared demic potential, even when provided with instruction
vision: that we can provide a truly responsive and effective designed for typical learners. In the first chapter, students
education to students with special needs. So many people learn about the progress individuals with disabilities have
are positively affected by such an education: the student, made, yet come to understand that their full attainment of
family members, friends, advocates, future co-workers, and social justice has yet to be achieved. In Chapters 2 and 3,
neighbors. However, schooling and educational services readers learn key components of effective instruction for all
can be truly special only when professionals value each students and how teachers can address the needs of strug-
child and utilize evidence-based practices with fidelity. gling learners and those with other learning considerations
We are very excited about how the content is presented (i.e., culturally and linguistically diverse learners). When
in this edition. Most students currently enrolled in teacher consistently applied, procedures such as Universal Design
preparation courses are accustomed to learning in a very for Learning, differentiated instruction, culturally respon-
different way from their predecessors. While the expansion sive education, and multi-tiered systems of support will
of technology into our daily lives impacts us all, it has par- prevent many students from incorrectly receiving special
ticularly influenced those who have grown up during this education services. We then explain the requirements of
period of vast technological innovation. Students expect legislation (e.g., the Individuals with Disabilities Education
learning to be engaging, interesting, and as interactive as Act) and the need for an individualized education for stu-
possible. They want to see and hear the perspectives of indi- dents with disabilities (Chapter 4).
viduals with exceptionalities, their family members, and Each of the remaining eleven chapters presents basic
their teachers. They want to see demonstrations of effective information about a specific exceptionality, including gift-
practices executed with fidelity. They want content pre- edness. In these chapters, we describe each special educa-
sented in “nuggets” of information with guided opportu- tion category, the educational challenges created by these
nities to expand learning that capitalizes on their interests. exceptionalities, and evidence-based solutions to address
They want text supported with strong visuals and key these common challenges. Each chapter follows the same
points highlighted through graphs, diagrams, tables, bullet structure and is organized into four key issues that are fur-
points, and succinct summaries. ther divided into two to five topics. References do not break
This text was created to meet these demands. It rep- up the reading. Instead, they are available at the end of the
resents our beliefs about what today’s “textbooks” should book (organized by chapter).
be. These beliefs stem from these experiences: (1) our own Now, here’s the part that’s important for course
college course instruction, (2) our experience authoring instructors to understand. These chapters were writ-
seven editions of a traditional textbook, Introduction to Spe- ten sequentially, with scaffolded content that builds from
cial Education, (3) our development of the first edition of chapter to chapter, particularly in the topics of early child-
Introduction to Contemporary Special Education: New Horizons hood, secondary transition, and assistive technology. For
and the unique, technological aspects of writing an e-text, that reason, we highly recommend assigning these chap-
(4) our history of developing interactive Web-based instruc- ters in chronological order. We know that many instructors
tional Modules at the IRIS Center, and (5) our experience like to start the categorical portion of their courses with
ix

than the general student population. Children whose disability affects their physical
appearances report being called derogatory names in reference to their disability.
For students with severe allergies, bullying can include purposely exposing them to
items that will trigger a reaction.
How are some of these attitudes changing? As individuals with disabilities become
more visible in society, this exposure increases awareness and acceptance. Accep-
tance engenders more positive attitudes, which translates into more proactive mea-
sures for inclusion. For example, although we still have a long way to go, a greater
number of playgrounds are being built according to universal design principles,
improving access for all children. Accommodations are being made in many more
areas outside the typical school day. Peers push their friends in wheelchairs during
x Preface high school marching band performances, plan leisure activities at accessible ven-
ues, and pool gas money to contribute to the friend with the car trunk large enough
to carry a wheelchair. Additionally, friends learn to watch for signs of fatigue and
change activities when necessary.
Media portrayals are also becoming more positive. For example, you might have
intellectual disability (Chapter 9) or autism spectrum dis- Research-Based Practices provide instructions on ways to
noticed more commercials that feature individuals with disabilities, a recent develop-
ment. The movie Soul Surfer depicts the story of Bethany Hamilton, the young surfing
order (Chapter 8) because so many students have prior implement evidence-based strategies and techniques. The
champion who lost her arm to a shark, and illustrates the importance of family, faith,
and fortitude. The British reality television series Britain’s Missing Top Model chal-
knowledge of those two disabilities. Yet, it’s exactly that Characteristics-Challenges-Solutions graphics, found in most
lenged the fashion industry’s standards of the ideal woman. Shown on BBC America,
eight models, each with disabilities, competed for a large prize by taking on difficult
prior knowledge that can serve as a foundation to bet- chapters, identify many typical challenges a disability
assignments. Although as outrageous as many other reality shows, it raised aware-
ness by telling the stories of young women with disabilities striving to advance their
careers in the fashion and entertainment industry. And, in an exciting step towards
ter understand the characteristics of speech and language often presents and provide specific solutions that address
more positive inclusion of people with disabilities, the television show Speechless fea-
tures Micah Fowler, an actor with cerebral palsy, in a leading role. To further demon-
impairments (Chapter 5), which most individuals with those challenges. strate how the portrayal of individuals with Visualdisabilities
Disabilities: Low
has Vision and Blindness
changed, 405
this chapter’s
On the Screen features A Brief History of Time, the story of Stephen Hawking, whom you
intellectual disabilities or autism spectrum disorder also to scale the Seven Summits—the highest mountains
read about earlieron
in each
the approximately 350 climbers to ever achieve that feat, Erik is the only
continent.
the chapter Of vignette.
opening
exhibit. And because so many students with other excep- one who is blind. More recently, Erik kayaked 277 miles solo through the
Colorado River in the Grand Canyon—an exploit never before attempted
tionalities also have speech and language impairments, On the Screen: A Brief History of Time
by a blind athlete, much less accomplished by one. Erik utilizes an array
of assistive technology in concert with unique accommodations to support
https://youtu.be/5_y13Pbo4qs
his many adventures. When paragliding, he uses a radio systemoftothe universe. The film shows the overwhelming personal
com-
readers will have a consistent knowledge foundation for municate with his instructor (assistive technology) and hangs a heavy and professional
bell challenges he faced and overcame. This very
fromThis film depicts
a long the life
rope tied of the
to his brilliant
leg theorist
to assist withStephen Hawking
landing human story illustrates the joys and tragedies of his personal life,
(accommodation).
the remaining chapters. Trust us on this! How(seedoeschapter opener), who, despite his physical and health
the bell help? When it hits the ground, the sound signals
disabilities, contributes to human understanding of the origins
to begin landing maneuvers.
buttoit Erik
also centers on his great achievements and the respect he
received from the public and the academic community.
To support others through adventure-based activities, Erik co-founded

No Barriers, a non-profit organization dedicated to helping people reach
Special Features
their full potential by tackling personal challenges. No Barriers, whose slo-
Check Your Understanding 11.3

gan is “What’s within you is stronger than what’s in your way,” includes
activities for young people (No Barriers Youth) and for veterans (No Barri-
New features take advantage of digital technology to
ers Warriors).
Click hereYou can learn
to gauge more about Erik
your understanding and
of the view videos
concepts in thisof his various
section.
Every chapter begins with a personal vignette. Some focus adventures on his Touch the Top Website, http://www.touchthetop.com.
enhance students’ learning: embedded video clips demon-
Dr. Joshua Miele, a scientist at the Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research
on an individual who has made a substantial contribution Institute, earned his bachelor’s degree in physics and his Ph.D. in psycho-
strate important methods or key points; interactive widgets

acoustics. His research focuses on using technology to overcome typical Erik Weihenmayer
access barriers for individuals with visual disabilities; using geographic
to advances in social justice or who provides an important
provide extra practice with essential concepts (e.g., delin-
information system (GIS) data to create tactile maps; and developing tools
M11_SMIT0766_02_SE_C11.indd 336 15/03/17 3:00 pm
that allow blind individuals to use a Livescribe Smartpen™ to access items
message or example about individuals with special needs. like a talking braille periodic table. His latest work is the Descriptive Video
eating between accommodations and modifications); Check
Exchange, a crowd-sourcing service that lets people record descriptions
Each chapter opener also includes an advance organizer of what they see in a video or movie. The narrations, along with timing
Your Understanding quizzes assess student knowledge and
information, are stored in audio files on a server that blind individuals
that provides the learning outcomes for the chapter. can access and listen to while they watch a video or movie. YouDescribe,
provide further feedback on each chapter’s content. Each

an offshoot of the Descriptive Video Exchange, allows contributors to
record audio descriptions for YouTube videos. You can learn more about
2 Chapter 1 chapter is peppered with links to additional resources for
Dr. Miele’s pioneering research at http://www.mielelab.org/ and add
audio descriptions to videos at www.youdescribe.org.
Achilles International (http://www.achillesinternational.org) is an orga-
students or instructors who wish to delve deeper into the
Learning Outcomes
nization that pairs volunteers and athletes with disabilities for recreational
running. Many of the athletes train for competitive events that range from 5K
Putting Exceptionalities Into Perspective

content: IRIS Center Modules; statistics from the IDEA Data
runs to the New York City Marathon. Achilles members are quick to explain
that they use the term running to refer to any type of forward locomotion
Compare the demographics of today’s schools and their students with those of the Center; and relevant resources from reputable organiza-
such as running, walking, or using a scooter, wheelchair, or handcycle. The
organization also has several specialized programs: Achilles Kids for children Dr. Joshua Miele
past, explain the special education disability categories and how their prevalence
varies, and provide reasons for inconsistencies across the country in services pro- tions. Each chapter concludes with a chapter summary and
with disabilities and the Achilles Freedom Team for U.S. military veterans.
vided to students who are gifted and talented.

Disabilities and Social Justice
standards from
The following video the
provides an Council
overview forand Exceptional
of the Achilles program philosophy. Watch carefully; youChildren
should that
recognize one of the Achilles athletes!
Document instances of bias and discrimination experienced by people with dis- connect toNashville
Achilles the and content.
Hope & Possibility Race 2016 ®
abilities and explain how rights to inclusive education and community presence
https://youtu.be/l6lcCfogC28
were won.
Making a Difference
Explain what people first language is and why using it is important to people Check Your Understanding 13.3
with disabilities.
Click here to gauge your understanding of the concepts in this section.
The Changing Landscape
Using three dimensions—academic, post-secondary education, and community
presence—describe progress made and discuss goals that still must be achieved.
Putting Exceptionalities Into Perspective1 Additional Resources

M13_SMIT0766_02_SE_C13.indd 405 15/03/17 4:29 pm
Learning Outcome
Compare the demographics of today’s schools and their students with those of the Advanced Data and Performance Reporting
varies, and provide reasons for inconsistencies across the country in services pro-
Aligned to National Standards
Topic 1.1 All Students Advanced data and performance reporting help instructors
• The 50 million children and youth who attend America’s schools
are very diverse in terms of their backgrounds, race, ethnicity, quickly identify gaps in student learning and gauge and
socioeconomic status, and abilities.
• The demographics and characteristics of America’s students have
address individual and classroom performance. Instruc-
changed dramatically in the last two decades and are predicted to
change more in the years to come.
tors easily see the connection between coursework, concept
Topic 1.2 Students with Disabilities mastery, and national teaching standards with highly vi-
• Students can qualify for special education services under the disability
categories called out in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. sual views of performance reports. Data and assessments
• Prevalence rates vary across disability categories and across the nation.
align directly to CEC Standards and support reporting for
Topic 1.3 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
• Services for gifted and talented students vary greatly across the country. state and accreditation requirements.
• Many groups of gifted and talented students are often overlooked.
1References for Chapter 1 are found at the end of this text. IRIS Center Resources
Several special features are included in most chapters. The IRIS Center at Vanderbilt University (https://iris
Charts, graphs, and diagrams illustrate important con-
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 2 15/03/17 12:17 PM .peabody.vanderbilt.edu), funded by the U.S. Depart-
cepts and facts. On the Screen features allow students to ment of Education’s Office of Special Education Programs
assess the portrayals of exceptional individuals reflected (OSEP), develops instructional resources for preservice
in movies and television and to consider the subse- and practicing teachers. The Center works with experts
quent impact on society’s awareness and knowledge. from across the country to create challenge-based interac-
Tips for Teachers supply key points that help create more tive modules, case study units, and other resources that
effective learning environments and A Closer Look at provide research-v alidated information about working

Preface xi
with all students, struggling learners, and those with dis- Acknowledgments
abilities. Because we direct the IRIS Center, we are able to
We want to take this opportunity to thank some very im-
write chapter content that dovetails with the information in
portant people who joined us on this long and challenging
recommended IRIS Modules, thus enhancing the learning
journey. First to our families, whose patience and support
process for readers.
surpassed what anyone could ever expect. Thank you for
your tolerance and for being so understanding of our col-
Supplementary Materials lective crankiness. To our husbands, Jim, Ken, and Vaughn:
The following resources are available for instructors to We owe you many date nights. To our children, Steve,
download on www.pearsonhighered.com/educators. In- Kyra, Kailyn, Ashley, and Callie: This text is to honor the
structors search for the book by author or title, select the five of you. We are ever grateful for your involvement in
book, and then click on the “Resources” tab to log in and the development of this text and its various elements.
download textbook supplements. Steve, thank you for your continued involvement in the On
the Screen features found in the text. Ashley, for your detail-
Test Bank (0-13-451635-4) oriented help all along the way, from assisting us with the
The Test Bank includes a robust collection of test items. initial document preparation to creating the PowerPoint
Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask students supplement, thank you!
to identify or explain concepts and principles they have We want to express our gratitude to Brenda Knight
learned. But many others (higher-level questions) ask Trevethan, whose keen eye and artistic talents have left an
students to apply those same concepts and principles to indelible mark on this edition. Brenda’s talents are evident
specific classroom situations—that is, to actual student be- throughout this edition, from the cover to the wonderful
haviors and teaching strategies. Characteristics-Challenges-Solutions figures to graphics that
support so many segments of text. We thank you for your
TestGen® (0-13-451636-2) creativity, problem solving, and willingness to always take
TestGen® is a powerful test generator that instructors install on one more task. We also want to give a special thanks to
on a computer and use in conjunction with the TestGen those remarkable individuals who allowed us to share their
testbank file for the text. Assessments, including equations, stories: Sara Solomon, Belinda Butler, Helen Pandey, and
graphs, and scientific notation, may be created for both Steph Zundel.
print or testing online. We also want to take this opportunity to acknowledge
TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Edu- the members of the Pearson Team who contributed their
cation publishers. Instructors install TestGen on a per- time and expertise to the creation of the print and REVEL
sonal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create tests versions of this text. We would like to recognize Ann Davis,
for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery our long-time editor who worked with us over so many
options, such as over a local area network or on the Web. previous texts. Her vision and partnership during the first
A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typi- edition of New Horizons and during the initial phase of this
cally contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter edition shaped the end result. We want to thank Kevin
and ready for use in creating a test, based on the associated Davis for taking the reins from Ann and believing in our
textbook material. ability to contribute to the development of an interactive,
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats: digital text that represents today’s best publishing technol-
ogy. We also want to acknowledge Jon Theiss (our Digital
TestGen Testbank file - PC
Dumbledore) who guided this REVEL product from the
TestGen Testbank file - MAC
beginning. Even though the development “rules” seemed
TestGen Testbank - Blackboard 9 TIF
to be in constant flux, he retained a positive tone that kept
TestGen Testbank - Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF
us going. To Kathy Smith (our printed-page Yoda), we owe
Angel Test Bank
a special thank you for ensuring that the print version is
D2L Test Bank
appealing and as user-friendly as possible. Kathy’s exper-
Moodle Test Bank
tise in managing a complicated project with so many dis-
Sakai Test Bank
crete elements is evident in the final product. Thanks to
the entire Pearson team. Because of your contributions
PowerPoint® Slides (0-13-451640-0) and confidence in this project, we are sure that the unique
The PowerPoint slides include key concept summariza- designs and features of this innovative, interactive text will
tions, diagrams, and other graphic aids to enhance learning. help make the next generation of teachers and practicing
They are designed to help students understand, organize, educators more skilled and informed about students who
and remember core concepts and theories. face learning and behavior challenges.

xii Preface
Finally, we would like to thank the following review- should be packaged. We believe that when these synergies
ers for their insightful comments and suggestions: Jasmine are achieved, more students with disabilities will benefit,
Begeske, Purdue University; Bonnie Butcher, University of be college- or career-ready after high school, and achieve
the Cumberlands; Rebecca Cohen, Pima Community Col- their dreams. To be honest, however, it may well be that our
lege; Veda Jairrels, Clark Atlanta University; and Elizabeth excitement lies in the fact that this project’s long develop-
A. Montanaro, Catholic University of America. mental journey is complete. It took over two years to com-
We conclude with one final explanation of our enthusi- plete this revision. The product has finally evolved from a
asm for this project. We were able to incorporate our beliefs set of ideas into being a reality. We hope you are as pleased
about what is important for the next generation of education with the outcome as we are.
professionals to know, why they need to be continually curi-
ous about ways to improve their instruction and to become DDS, NCT, & KGS
excellent consumers of research, and how this information

Chapter 1
Thinking About
Exceptionalities
Jim Spellman/WireImage/Getty Images
LeDerick Horne is a poet, playwright, inspirational speaker, advocate, entrepreneur,

and a person with a disability. In third grade he was identified as having a neurologi-
cal impairment because he seemed unable to learn to read or spell. Though he strug-
gled in school, he was determined to go to college, graduate, and become a successful
writer. Today, not only is he a college graduate, a successful writer, a keynote speaker,
a husband, and a father, but also he is a role model to all people with differences. His
insights into disabilities, education, and his own life experiences make him a sought-
after presenter on the college speaking circuit. He has presented at the White House,
the United Nations, Harvard University, and many government meetings. Through
his work, Mr. Horne helps us all develop a better perspective about people who learn
differently. He teaches us how attitudes evolve and how they are reflected in culture,
society, and language. He wisely counsels us that attitudes are changed by people’s
inspiration and will.
Mr. Horne speaks on behalf of many, and he challenges everyone to dare to
dream, reach out, and grab opportunities. He also encourages all persons to insist on
the best from themselves, from others, and from society. Such attitudes serve people
with disabilities well.
To learn more about Mr. Horne, visit his Website: www.lederick.com
Watch LeDerick Horne as he shares his poem, “Dare to Dream,” in this video:
“Dare to Dream”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HbOxNvuwabo
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 1 22/03/17 9:47 am

2 Chapter 1
Learning Outcomes
Putting Exceptionalities Into Perspective
Compare the demographics of today’s schools and their students with those of the
Document instances of bias and discrimination experienced by people with dis-
were won.
Making a Difference
Explain what people first language is and why using it is important to people
with disabilities.
The Changing Landscape
Using three dimensions—academic, post-secondary education, and community
presence—describe progress made and discuss goals that still must be achieved.
Putting Exceptionalities Into Perspective1

Learning Outcome
Compare the demographics of today’s schools and their students with those of the
Topic 1.1 All Students
are very diverse in terms of their backgrounds, race, ethnicity,
change more in the years to come.
Topic 1.2 Students with Disabilities
• Students can qualify for special education services under the disability
categories called out in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
• Prevalence rates vary across disability categories and across the nation.
• Services for gifted and talented students vary greatly across the country.
1References for Chapter 1 are found at the end of this text.
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 2 22/03/17 9:47 am

Thinking About Exceptionalities 3
Roger Bacon/Reuters/Alamy Stock Photo
he Axis Dance Company performs worldwide with the purpose of changing the face of dance and
T
disability. To learn more about this exciting group of performers, go to their Website: www.axisdance.org
Topic 1.1 All Students

are very diverse in terms of their backgrounds, race, ethnicity,
change more in the years to come. merica’s students come from dif-
A
Who are America’s children and where do they receive their education? The vast majority of ferent backgrounds, experiences, and
America’s schoolchildren do not have disabilities. Most of them thrive, achieve, and abilities; but they share dreams of suc-
find their places in society as productive adults. Despite these positive cess at school and in life.
outcomes for most, too many others struggle in school because of their
life circumstances.
Although this text focuses on children and youth with disabilities,
it is important to put them into proper perspective and understand the
demographics of all of America’s youth and their educational situations.
Many of us have preconceived notions about America’s schoolchildren,
often obtained from media headlines, which may not always represent the
full picture. It is vital to base educational knowledge and decisions about
instructional practices or policies on real data from reliable resources.
Sometimes, those data can be surprising, prompting us to reconsider what
we thought was fact, to re-examine our own perceptions, and to question
our information sources. Let’s look at some data that present a picture
of all of America’s children and the education they receive. As you read
Photo courtesy of Front Row
along, ask yourself if the information presented aligns with your beliefs.
Approximately 50 million children and youth attend U.S.
schools. They are diverse in respect to background, race and ethnic-
ity, socioeconomic status, abilities to perform well, and type of edu-
cation provided to them through the educational system. While White
children accounted for 63% of the school population in 1997, they now
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 3 22/03/17 9:47 am

4 Chapter 1
make up less than 50% of the overall national school population. The figure illustrates
the racial/ethnic composition of schools for the 2014–2015 school year. However,
the U.S. Department of Education predicted that for the 2015–2016 school year, the
nation’s school population will change to a “minority–majority” status.
Demographics of U.S. Public School Students, 2013–2014 School

Year
0.3%
4%
5%
14%
51%
25%
White Hispanic African American
Asian/Pacific
Native American Multi-racial
Islander
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education, 2015, 2016.
Most of America’s children receive their education through the public school sys-
tem. About 50 million schoolchildren attend public elementary or secondary schools;
an additional 5 million students attend private schools. Because charter schools are con-
sidered public schools, their students are counted with all other public school students.
Despite all the attention on charter schools, it may be surprising to learn that in 2014
less than 5% of public school students attend these alternate educational institutions.
The federal government predicts that the overall public school enrollment will
increase 7% between 2012 and 2020, which is less than the overall trend seen over
the past three decades. Elementary enrollment—pre-kindergarten through eighth
grade—increased 30% between 1985 and 2012, while secondary enrollment increased
19%. The most dramatic enrollment increase, 745%, was noted for preschool, partici-
pation in which is optional. Two primary reasons for the large increases in preschool
enrollment are (1) an overall population increase and (2) a greater preschool participa-
tion rate. The participation rate of three- to five-year-olds in preschool increased from
59% in 1990 to 65% in 2013. In what may be a hopeful sign of better school readiness
(which leads to later school success), the percentage of children enrolled in full-day,
rather than half-day, programs has increased from 39% to 60%.
What kinds of changes have occurred in the public school population? Across the past
40 years, the demographics and life conditions of America’s children have changed
greatly, mostly due to two groups of youngsters: Latinos/Hispanics2 and Asians.
Since 1997, the number of Hispanic students has doubled and the number of Asian
students has increased some 46%. You might be surprised to learn that this growth is
due to the number of students born to families in the United States, not due to immi-
gration. While rates of immigration vary by state, with Texas, California, and Florida
2Across the United States many different terms are preferred when discussing race and ethnicity. In this text
we attempt to reach a balance in the use of these terms.
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 4 22/03/17 9:47 am

having much higher percentages, almost all children from diverse backgrounds are
born in the United States. Although their parents may be immigrants, less than 5%
of America’s children are themselves immigrants. This fact challenges many people’s
assumptions about Latino/Latinas in particular, in part because of continual media
reports about immigration issues and undocumented workers. In fact, recent research
findings challenge other commonly held misperceptions. The majority of U.S.-born
Latinos come from English-speaking or bilingual (Spanish- and English-speaking)
homes; English proficiency is at an all-time high. While first-generation immigrants
do tend to struggle economically, second-generation Latino/Latinas fare much better
than their parents did. Although not yet on par with their White peers, Latinos are
completing high school, graduating from college, working in a wide range of jobs, and
joining the middle class. Education is a priority for these students and their families,
and their post-school successes indicate that this focus is paying off.
Why is this information important for you to know? Because it is human nature to
make rash judgments about people, often based on stereotypes or on missing, inaccu-
rate, or incomplete information. A teacher might assume that a Latino student in her
class comes from a poor family, that he and his parents are immigrants, or that he does
not speak English well. Instead, educators must guard against making stereotypical
assumptions about any student, every one of whom deserves a high-quality education
that challenges them and provides opportunities to excel.
Although the proportion of children born outside the United States is low, at
around 5%, a slightly larger percentage (9%) of all students are English language
learners (ELLs), also referred to as English learners (ELs)—they do not speak Eng-
lish at home. The percentage of ELLs includes students who speak languages other
than Spanish (e.g., Chinese, Tagalog, Vietnamese, Korean, Arabic). As you will learn in
Chapter 3, these students are not proficient in English and thus require language sup-
ports to benefit from classroom instruction.
Topic 1.2 Students With Disabilities

• Students can qualify for special education services under the
disability categories called out in the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act.
• Prevalence rates vary across disability categories and across the
nation.
Who are students with disabilities? Within the overall population of American school-
children, a subset of students have disabilities. Some 8% of all school-age children
qualify for and receive special education services. In Chapter 4, you will learn about
the national laws that guide states and school systems regarding the services these
students are entitled to receive. For now, know that the federal government—through
a national law called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA ‘04,
or simply IDEA)—guarantees students with disabilities a free public education that is
appropriate to meet their educational needs, referred to as special education or special
education services. In IDEA, the government outlines 13 specific disability categories
under which students can qualify for special education services; however, the catego-
ries of deafness and hearing impairments are often combined. In addition, the category
of developmental delay is a general category for young children (up to the age of nine)
whose specific disability may not have yet been identified. The table provides a listing
and brief explanation of the terms used to describe the disabilities included in IDEA.
Be aware that sometimes the terms used by the federal government do not match those
used by parent groups, professional organizations, states, or the public. For example,
the federal government uses the term emotional disturbance, although most professional
organizations and some states use the term emotional and behavioral disorders.
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 5 22/03/17 9:47 am

6 Chapter 1
IDEA Disability Categories in Order of Prevalence

IDEA Term Other Terms Comments
Speech or language Speech disorders or language Divides speech impairments (articulation, fluency problems or stuttering, and
impairments disorders; communication disorders voice problems) from language impairments
Specific learning Includes reading/learning disabilities, mathematics/learning disabilities, unex-
Learning disabilities (LD)
disabilities pected underachievement
Health impairments; special health care IDEA includes attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in this category,
Other health impairments
needs causing overall prevalence to reflect high incidence
Affects social interactions and communication with restricted, repetitive patterns
Autism Autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
of behavior
Intellectual and developmental disabilities;
Intellectual disabilities Ranges from mild to severe, but often occurs with other disabilities
cognitive disabilities
Emotional disturbance Emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) Does not include conduct disorders as a reason for special education services
Physical impairments (PI); physical
Orthopedic impairments Includes neuromotor impairments and muscular/skeletal conditions
disabilities
Deafness; hearing Deafness and hearing impairments are listed as separate categories in IDEA, but
Hard of hearing and deaf
impairments* are often combined for reporting and data purposes
Visual impairments Visual disabilities; low vision and blind Includes full range of visual loss
Multiple disabilities Multiple-severe disabilities; severe disabilities Does not include all students with more than one disability; varies by state’s criterion
Deaf-blindness Deafblind Criterion does not require both deafness and blindness
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) Must be acquired after birth
Developmental delay Allows for noncategorical or non-specific identification between the ages of 3 to 9
*Deafness and hearing impairments are called out in IDEA as two separate disabilities.
You will learn the definitions and eligibility criteria for special education services
for each disability category in the disability-specific chapters later in this text. In general,
it is important to know that simply having a disability does not automatically qualify a
student for services. For example, a student who has a vision loss and uses glasses does
not always require special services. However, if that student’s educational performance
is negatively affected in a substantial way by the vision loss, even when wearing glasses,
then the student is probably eligible for special education services, most likely provided
by a vision specialist (i.e., a teacher of students with visual impairments, or TVI).
How common are disabilities among public schoolchildren? Every year since IDEA
was first passed in 1975, the federal government has collected data from each state
about students who receive special education services. These data, summarized in the
Annual Reports to Congress, capture all types of information, including age, disability
category, and race/ethnicity. Having such national data collected from every state,
every year, has several advantages.
First, the data help us to determine the number or prevalence of students who
receive special services. The most recent data reported in the Annual Report to Congress
indicate that roughly 8% of America’s public schoolchildren between the ages of 6
and 213 receive special education services. This prevalence rate has decreased slightly
across time—in 2004, 9% of all public school students ages 6 to 21 received special
education services. In addition to identifying the overall prevalence rates of students
who receive special services, these data reveal the national and state prevalence rates
for each disability category. Overall trends for disabilities across time show interesting
changes. Here are some specifics. For many years, learning disabilities represented
over half of all school-age disabilities. Although the learning disabilities category has
the highest rate, its prevalence has been declining over recent years, in part because of
new early intervening techniques and the implementation of research-based practices
(some of which you will learn about in Chapters 2 and 6). In contrast, the prevalence
3Students with disabilities are eligible for special education services through age 21, due to the extended
length of time it may take them to prepare for post-school options.
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 6 22/03/17 9:47 am

of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been increasing dramatically, due to both the
increasing occurrence and the application of a broader definition than was used histor-
ically, which allows more children to qualify. Some conditions like physical disabilities
and traumatic brain injury (TBI) have increased incidence rates, but improved medical
treatment procedures have kept the need for a special education response consistently
low across time. The graph shows the proportion or percentage of students identified
within each disability category who receive special education services, while the box
titled Prevalence Rate vs. Severity introduces issues for consideration. For more about
the prevalence of students with disabilities, visit http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/
indicator_cgg.asp.
Order of Disabilities by Prevalence

50
Percentage of all students with disabilities
40
30
20
10
0
s
s
ge
ts
M ral na y
of ties
s
TB
De ple rd d
ie
ie
ie
la
ie
es
in
/h isa s
AS
en
so n
er
ua
lit
lit
ilit
vi ot de
lit
ar
ul di l a
dn
li
irm
bi
bi
bi
bi
ng
he
ab
ha m al
lin
sa
sa
sa
pa
/la
is
be E ent
o io
-b
di
di
di
ld
d
ch
im
af
d
pm
g
al
al
ua
ar
De
ee
in
ic
su
lth
ct
lo
rn
ti
ys
Sp
Vi
ea
ve
af
le
a
Ph
Le
l
H
te
De
In
Type of disability
SOURCE: Data from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education,
Children and Youth with Disabilities, 2016, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgg.asp Data Analysis
Prevalence Rate vs. Severity

Many people incorrectly assume that a disability with a data. Another point is that specific data within some disability
high prevalence rate, often referred to as a high-incidence categories are not immediately obvious. For example, most
disability, is milder, or less severe, than one that occurs less health impairments, such as sickle cell anemia, epilepsy, and
frequently (a low-incidence disability). This perception is not cancer, are rare among children. More frequently occurring
accurate. Every type of disability can manifest with a range conditions like asthma, while responsible for a high rate
of characteristics, from mild to severe. Also, considering of absenteeism, do not usually require special education
prevalence data alone fails to take other key considerations services and are not part of the health impairments category.
into account. One consideration is that many students However, the health impairments disability category also
have co-existing disabilities; for example, it is possible for includes students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,
a student who is blind to also have a speech impairment. which is more common and makes the prevalence rate of
Yet, that student would be counted in only one disability this category exceptionally high and could give the initial
category—the one viewed as his or her primary disability— impression that a larger proportion of U.S. schoolchildren are
which would not be reflected in state or national prevalence dealing with significant illnesses.
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 7 22/03/17 9:47 am

8 Chapter 1
A second advantage to national data collection is that policy makers can detect
state-by-state differences in prevalence. An analysis of the percentage of the school
population between the ages of 6 and 21 who receive special education services shows
some surprising variations. For example, roughly 6% of all schoolchildren receive spe-
cial education services in Idaho and Hawaii. However, the rates in those states are
much lower than in Massachusetts and New Jersey, where approximately 11% of all
schoolchildren receive these services. It is unclear why these discrepancies exist. Also
puzzling are the categorical differences between states. For example, Iowa reports that
slightly more than 60% of its students who receive special education services have
learning disabilities, while Kentucky’s learning disability percentage, at 18%, is much
lower. Comparable inconsistencies exist in almost every special education category.
One potential reason for such variability in identification rates across states rests with
procedural differences. For example, in one state, students with language disorders
may have a greater likelihood to be assigned to the learning disabilities category, but
in another state they may be assigned to the category of speech/language impair-
ments. In addition, some states use broader definitions for certain disabilities, while
those of others are more restrictive. Indeed, such national variability, whereby a stu-
dent could be identified with a disability in one state but—if her parents re-locate—not
in another, challenges how we think about disability status.
Third, the data help us to identify whether some groups might be over-identified
as having a disability or might be over-represented in specific categories. You will learn
about the disproportionate representation of students from different racial/ethnic
groups in Chapter 3; for now, know that significant attention for the past two decades
has focused on reducing the over-identification of students from diverse backgrounds,
particularly in the intellectual disabilities and emotional and behavioral disorders
categories. That work is paying off. Proportionally, fewer Black and Latino students
are being misidentified as having disabilities, which in turn is reflected in a reduction
in the overall prevalence rate.

• Services for gifted and talented students vary greatly across the
country.
Who are children with academic gifts and exceptional creative talents? The federal govern-
ment does not collect data on giftedness because these students, unlike those with dis-
abilities, are not guaranteed special education services. There is no federal requirement
for states to offer special services to these students; therefore, no reporting require-
ments are in place. That is why giftedness, creativity, and talents are not included in
the figure in Topic 1.2. Experts estimate, however, that 3% to 5% of all students across
the nation need some type of special educational programming because of their high
levels of intelligence, creativity, or extraordinary talents.
Although students with special gifts and talents are often thought of as being
exceptional and requiring unique services, decisions regarding the types of education
programs available for them rest at the state, rather than the federal, level. In many
states, students who qualify are provided with special education services similar to
those for students with disabilities. However, these services are delivered without
the federal legal requirements or the extra funding provisions guaranteed to states
and school districts by the federal government. In other states and school districts,
students with special gifts and talents do not receive any special accommodations,
services, or supports.
Why do many students who are gifted and talented need special attention during their
school years? While popular belief holds that students who are gifted and talented
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 8 22/03/17 9:47 am

do not need special attention to achieve their potential, the facts tell a different story.
Some experts hypothesize that half of all gifted students underperform in school,
not living up to their talents or potential. And, those whose unique talents are evi-
dent early on often find themselves bored with the general education curriculum.
Even though they are highly intelligent, scoring in the top 3% to 5% of all children,
or show remarkable levels of other talents, they often flounder or don’t achieve to the
levels expected. They find themselves in what are now being called excellence gaps.
Such gaps occur when schools focus on low-achieving students, trying to close the
“achievement gap” or raise the academic performance of students who attend poor,
underperforming schools. This approach can result in ignoring the needs of gifted stu-
dents. Another group of gifted students who typically do not receive the attention
they require comprises gifted students with disabilities. Without special differentia-
tion, enrichment, or acceleration programs that challenge their unique abilities, they,
too, often underachieve. More information about their special circumstances is found
in the box Something to Think About: Twice Exceptional.
Sadly, gifted underachievers report that they find little value in their school expe-
riences and many drop out. Some estimates indicate that up to one-fourth of all high
school dropouts are gifted students. The results are tragic for the individuals involved
and their families. The missed potential and societal contributions can only be imag-
ined: the solution to climate change, a vaccine that prevents cancer, an exquisite song,
a striking mural, innovative water management techniques for drought-stricken areas,
or something so far beyond present understanding that we cannot even imagine it.
Something to Think About: Twice Exceptional

Many gifted and talented students fail to receive any the giftedness, which causes them to be overlooked for
specialized educational services because they are never gifted referrals, making twice-exceptional students an
identified as having special gifts or talents. Some individuals, under-represented group in gifted education. Other under-
like LeDerick Horne (from this chapter’s opener), are twice- represented gifted students are those from diverse ethnic
exceptional—they are gifted or have special talents and and racial groups and those who attend poor schools where
also have a disability. However, the disability often masks advanced opportunities are not readily available.
Check Your Understanding 1.1

Click here to gauge your understanding of the concepts in this section.

Learning Outcome
Document instances of bias and discrimination experienced by people with dis-
were won.
Topic 1.4 Issues of Social Justice

• Across time, and even today, there are many examples of how
people with disabilities have been poorly treated and faced
considerable bias and discrimination.
• Such biases and changing attitudes can be traced through film.
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 9 22/03/17 9:47 am

10 Chapter 1
Topic 1.5 Disability as a Minority Group

• People with disabilities, like other historically under-represented
groups, constitute a minority group.
• People with disabilities have become their own advocates to fight
discrimination and unfair treatment.
Topic 1.6 Participation in Education
• Data from the 1960s and 1970s demonstrated to the public and
to policy makers that children and youth with disabilities were
routinely denied an education.
• Across the past 30 years students with disabilities have been
increasingly included in general education.
Topic 1.4 Issues of Social Justice

• Across time, and even today, there are many examples of
how people with disabilities have been poorly treated and
faced considerable bias and discrimination.
• Such biases and changing attitudes can be traced through film.
Have people with disabilities experienced unjust treatment across time? The
Photo from the World Institute on Disability, www.wid.org
answer is a sad, and often horrific, “yes.” The history of disabilities docu-
ments the terrible treatment these individuals endured. A few examples
follow. During the Middle Ages, some little people (formerly called midg-
ets) were kept by the royal courts to serve and entertain as jesters; most,
however, were shunned and abandoned. In the eighteenth century, people
often left “defective” babies in the woods to die or placed them in bags and
threw them over bridges into rushing rivers. At various points in history,
many people held the misguided belief that society needed protection from
those with intellectual disabilities. Subsequently, these individuals were
locked away in institutions; sterilization was common practice to prevent
them from having children of their own. During World War II, the Nazis
sent people who were not deemed intellectually or physically perfect to con-
centration camps for extermination. Even people in positions of power, like
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR), sought to hide their disabilities
d Roberts, one of the founders of the
E
for fear they would be construed as signs of weakness. Films like Warm Springs, fea-
disability rights movement, protesting
for social justice for people with dis- tured in this chapter’s On the Screen, teach us important lessons from history, remind-
abilities in the 1960s. ing us how people with disabilities had to hide their challenges from the public.
On the Screen: Warm Springs

The HBO Film Warm Springs tells the story of the personal his mobility. FDR hid his disability from the public throughout
life of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR), the 32nd president of his presidency. Only two photos exist today that show FDR
the United States (1933–1945) who brought America out of using a wheelchair. Even in 1997, when FDR’s memorial was
the Depression and World War II. This film also portrays the dedicated, a statue of him in a wheelchair was not included.
struggles that people with disabilities faced even as recently The National Organization on Disability fought for such a statue,
as the twentieth century. FDR had a physical disability, caused which was added in 2001. For a preview of this film, click here:
when he contracted polio at age 39, that substantially impaired www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUQQqMr_big
–Provided by Steven Smith
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 10 22/03/17 9:47 am

Such discrimination is not relegated to the distant past. For decades,

when an infant with disabilities was born, parents were often told by their
doctors to institutionalize their child; they nearly always complied. That
Center on Human Policy, SU. Reprinted with permission.

practice began to diminish after 1967, when Burton Blatt published his
famous book, Christmas in Purgatory, which brought to public attention the
abhorrent conditions of institutionalization. This photographic essay chroni-
cled the treatment of people with intellectual disabilities in state institutions.
In such living centers, which were home to almost 200,000 persons with dis-
abilities, these individuals were segregated and isolated, abandoned and
forgotten. Typically, they received no education or rehabilitation services.
Family members did not know that their relatives with disabilities all too
often were provided only minimal food, shelter, and clothing.
Abuse in these large, congregate settings was widespread because such
residences and their occupants were out of the public’s view. No wonder
that when the institutions closed and the residents were released, they did
not have the skills to live independently. Although institutions in the United
States are not outlawed today, fewer of them exist, and calls for the closure of the few his photo of a dormitory at an insti-
T
remaining institutions continue. Unfortunately, residential institutions are still prev- tution for individuals with intellectual
disabilities was part of Burton Blatt’s
alent in other countries, and abuses tend to persist. For example, in 2010 and 2011,
photo essay that exposed the horrors
atrocious and abusive conditions were reported in residential institutions and treat-
of congregate living arrangements.
ment centers for people with disabilities in Mexico, Romania, and many other coun-
tries. Watchdog groups like Disability Rights International and Human Rights Watch
bring appalling and horrifying conditions to the public’s attention, including people
neglected in institutions, the homeless forced to fend for themselves on the streets,
and those hidden from society. In 2015, Disability Rights International reported that
100% of the girls in at least one Mexican institution were sterilized. Although laws
provide the foundation for society’s right and wrong actions, it is everyone’s job to
ensure social justice, where equity and equality are part of the day-to-day rhythm of
life. For more about worldwide advocacy, go to www.disabilityrightsintl.org and the
Human Rights Watch at www.hrw.org.
How are society’s perceptions of disability ref lected in film? For many people, their
only introduction to or knowledge of disability comes from what they see on TV or in
the movies. Sometimes, these portrayals are negative or inaccurate. Films often mir-
ror the beliefs and attitudes of society at the time they were made. A retrospective
look at media portrayals of people with disabilities gives us a better understanding of
how society’s views have changed across time. As disability advocate and author Paul
Longmore observed, films produced at the beginning of the twentieth century rarely
depicted people with disabilities in a positive light. Most characters were villainous,
evil, self-pitying, or bitter, and their disabilities often reflected a punishment from God
for some sin, either their own or that of a family member.
Fortunately, films also have the ability to positively influence the way people
think about and interact with others. Today, most characters with disabilities in
cinema and TV are shown in a positive light. Many are part of an ensemble cast in
which no special notice is paid to their disabilities at all. For some advocates, this is
positive evidence that disabilities are more openly accepted, as much a part of the
human condition as being short or tall, young or old.
The original and remakes of the movie The Hunchback of Notre Dame illustrate
how perceptions have changed over time. In early versions of this movie, Quasimodo
was a frightening and horrible creature, but across remakes, as in the most recent
version created by Disney Films, he is more human and endearing, transcending his
disabilities.
Although today’s inclusion of characters with disabilities in TV and film reflect
more positive and natural depictions, there still are not enough leading or supporting
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 11 22/03/17 9:47 am

12 Chapter 1
roles to adequately portray the everyday lives of people

with disabilities. According to the Screen Actors Guild, in
2011 less than 1% of all characters in TV shows had a dis-
ability; in the same year, only three prime time TV shows
featured actors with Down syndrome. Too often, char-
acters with disabilities are played by actors without dis-
abilities. Movies like One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, The
Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo
Miracle Worker, and Born on the Fourth of July are just a few
notable examples of movies in which the key actor did not
have a disability but either was nominated for or won an
Academy Award for the portrayal. Lawrence Carter-Long,
an advocate with disabilities and an advisor to the Alliance
for Inclusion in the Arts, leads the call for actors with dis-
abilities to be cast in appropriate parts (similar to criticisms
of the past regarding the casting of White actors to play
American Indians). Results have been positive; the Screen
movie poster advertising the 1939
A
version of the movie, The Hunchback of
Actors Guild and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists, two of the
Notre Dame, that depicted Quasimodo entertainment industry’s organizations for actors, have established a national commit-
as a frightening, sad, and isolated tee that advocates for increased opportunities for auditions and casting of performers
character who was condemned to live with disabilities.
in the church’s bell tower.
Topic 1.5 Disability as a Minority Group

• People with disabilities, like other historically under-represented
groups, constitute a minority group.
• People with disabilities have become their own advocates to fight
discrimination and unfair treatment.
Do similarities exist among the experiences of people with disabilities and other minority
groups in America? The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, which fought
against the discrimination, bias, and segregation experienced by African Americans,
set the stage for the inclusion and civil rights movement for people with disabilities.
In the 1950s, the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that schools sepa-
rating children by race were not equal and subsequently mandated the integration of
African American students to attend school side-by-side with their peers of different
racial and ethnic backgrounds. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 opened the door to full
participation in American society for all people of color. So both the courts and legisla-
tion affirmed that discrimination against people from minority groups was not only
morally wrong but also illegal.
As with other minority groups, people with disabilities have faced, and continue
to experience, bias. Like other historically under-represented groups in the United
States, people with disabilities have been excluded from fair treatment, participa-
tion, and a full community presence. While acknowledging the existence of a dis-
ability (the literal lack of a specific ability), many individuals believe that society is
what handicaps them because of their conditions and challenges. Society presents
and creates barriers; society can remove them; and, therefore, society produces the
events that handicap and restrict individuals with disabilities from achieving their
potential.
How have individuals with disabilities increased public awareness of discrimination and
bias? The lessons learned from the civil rights movement taught people with disabili-
ties, their families, and their friends that they have to fight to get their voices heard
and their opinions put forth. It often takes protests and public awareness efforts, such
as through TV and social media, to expose abuses and to make positive and substan-
tial changes.
M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 12 22/03/17 9:47 am

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and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
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Title: Friend and foe

Or, the breastplate of righteousness
Author: A. L. O. E.
Release date: February 16, 2024 [eBook #72968]
Language: English
Original publication: London: Gall & Inglis, 1875
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRIEND AND

FOE ***
Transcriber's note: Unusual and inconsistent spelling is as
printed.
"I do like to look on such a sunset," Norah said,

adding softly, "it makes one think of Heaven."
FRIEND AND FOE;
OR,
The Breastplate of Righteousness.
BY
A. L. O. E.
AUTHORESS OF "THE CLAREMONT TALES," "THE SILVER KEYS,"

"THE WHITE BEAR'S DEN,"
ETC.
LONDON:
GALL & INGLIS, 25 PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
AND EDINBURGH.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I. SMALL LEAKS
II. THE LITTLE MAID
III. PROFESSION AND PRACTICE
IV. PUTTING ON ARMOUR
V. PROVING THE ARMOUR
VI. HELP IN NEED
VII. ANOTHER TRIUMPH
VIII. THE CANVAS BAG
Friend and Foe;

OR, THE
BREASTPLATE OF RIGHTEOUSNESS
CHAPTER I.
SMALL LEAKS.
"You'll never succeed, Ned!" cried Bessy Peele, with a little

laugh, as she stood watching her maimed brother's
attempts to write a letter.
Twice, the wind coming through the cottage door had sent
his paper fluttering to the ground. Ned had raised it, and
then tried to fix it by placing a pebble upon it, but the paper
had slipped from under the pebble as soon as the sailor had
begun to write.
"It's not much," continued Bessy, "that a one-armed man

can do."
"He can polish up your window, Bessy, and carry your

basket, and get your garden into trim order," answered the
sailor with cheerful good humour.
And leaving the cottage for a few moments, Ned soon

returned with a brick, the weight of which as effectually
fastened down the sheet as if he had had a left hand to rest
upon it.
"Safe at anchor at last!" cried Ned. "But this is a clumsy

way of getting over the difficulty. Necessity, folk say, is the
mother of invention. I'll get the carpenter, as soon as I have
the ready rhino to pay for it, to screw on some bit of timber
to this maimed stump of mine, with something like a hook
at the end; 'twill serve almost as well as a hand, and save
me and my friends no end of trouble."
"Not a bad thought!" cried Bessy, who was apt to grumble
at having to give the little assistance which the one-armed
sailor required. "You needn't wait, Ned, till you've the
money. Bill Jones, who works at the carpenter's, is a handy
lad, and owes me a deal of kindness for nursing his mother
in sickness. He'll manage to look out a good bit of hard
wood and a hook, will make what you want cleverly, and
never say a word about payment."
"I'd rather wait till I've shot in my locker," said Ned. "The
poor lad's time is his money."
"His master's rather," observed Bessy. "But old Stone is an

easy-going man, and does not keep a very sharp look out.
Why Bill Jones—a good fellow is he—made a little chest of
drawers for his mother, all of mahogany wood, and I don't
believe that his master so much as guessed that he had not
been working from morning till night every day in the week
at the fittings in Sir Lacy Barton's study."
Ned had begun his letter, but he raised his head, and the
ink dried on his pen as he inquired, "Do you mean that he
helped himself to his master's wood, and used up the time
which belonged to his master, to make a chest for his
mother? And do you call him 'good' for this?"
"I do call him good, and clever too!" answered Bessy,

sharply. "Isn't it right for a lad to care for his mother? And
wouldn't it be right for him to do a good turn for a poor
maimed sailor, who has lost his arm serving the Queen?"
"Would it be right in Bill Jones to carry off Sir Lacy's purse

to give to his mother; or, if I chanced to be in want, to help
a poor maimed Jack-tar like me?"
"How can you ask such idle questions?" cried Bessy Peele,
in a tone of contempt. "Why, if Bill Jones did a thing like
that, he'd be clapped into jail directly."
"Keep to the question, mistress!" said Ned, with a playful

twinkle in his bright blue eye. "I didn't ask whether it would
be safe for Bill to take Sir Lacy's purse, out of love for his
mother, or kindness for me, but whether it would be right
for him to be generous at the expense of another man."
"Taking a purse! That would be downright stealing!" cried

Bessy.
"And are not the wood and the labour he pays for, as much
the carpenter's property, as the purse is Sir Lacy Barton's?
Is it not just as wrong to rob the one as the other?"
"I never knew a man with such particular notions as you

have!" cried Bessy, tossing her head. "You're always pulling
one up sharp with the question whether a thing is right!"
"Because," said Ned Franks, gravely, "we have to do with a

righteous God. Mind you, Bessy, the Bible is the only chart
as is given us to steer by, and when one sees in that chart,
'provide things honest in the sight of all men,' *—'He that is
faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much, and he
that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much,' † one
learns that the safe channel is a very narrow channel
indeed, and that if we don't carefully keep the right course,
we shall run the vessel aground."
* Rom. xii. 17. † Luke xvi. 10
"Well," said Bessy, as she laid out some linen to iron, "I for
one will never believe that the great God above ever notices
such little matters as these you speak of."
"Maybe you'd have thought it a little matter for Eve to pluck
a fruit, but 'twas a matter that let in death and misery into
a world," said Ned. "The skipper of the first craft as ever I
sailed in, thought it a little matter when, one evening, our
vessel just touched on a rock, as he fancied; he smoked his
pipe, drank his grog, and turned into his cabin, and never
dreamed of the small leak down below, till he was wakened
in the morning with the cry of 'Three feet water in the hold!'
The vessel was as nigh lost as could be, with all the hands
on board. And 'tis so with our souls, Bessy Peele. The little
sins, as we call them, are the little leaks in the timber, and
if one goes to the bottom, 'tis all the same, whether the
water came in by a big hole or a small one."
Bessy banged down her hot iron on the shirt before her with
a noise and bustle which seemed to say, "I want no more of
this preaching."
Ned Franks quietly dipped his pen again and went on with
his letter.
Presently Bessy looked towards the door of her cottage.
"I thought Norah would have been here afore this," she
observed; "she generally manages to walk over early from
the town."
"You said, if I remember right, that her mistress kindly

allows her to visit home the first Monday in every month."
"Yes," replied Bessy Peele, "and it's a great pleasure it is for

Norah and me to meet. She's a good girl, if ever there was
one. I've had a deal more comfort in her than in Dan. She
has been in her place now for more than a year, and I don't
believe that Mrs. Martin has had ever a fault to find with my
girl."
"What sort of a lady is Mrs. Martin?" asked Ned.
"Oh! One of your saintly ones," cried Bessy. "Always has my

girl up to read the Bible to her of an evening, and sees that
she goes to church once or twice every Sunday. The lady's
getting a little old, and a little blind, Norah says, and can't
afford to give good wages, but a respectable place like that
is a stepping-stone to a better."
"Bessy," cried the sailor, "if your girl is moored in a safe

good harbour, don't you be in haste to have her heave
anchor and hoist sail; there's more to be thought of in a
place than the mere matter of wages."
"Ah! But—" began Mrs. Peele, but she interrupted herself

with an exclamation of pleasure—"Here she is!"—as a
bright, pretty-looking girl of fourteen ran eagerly into the
cottage.
Norah, for it was she, was warmly welcomed by her mother,

and then presented to the one-armed sailor.
"Here's your uncle, my dear, whom you never have seen

afore, who's been in the storms and the wars."
"And who is heartily glad to see you," cried Ned.
CHAPTER II.
THE LITTLE MAID.
NED and Norah very soon made friends with one another.
There was a cheerful kindliness about the maimed sailor,
that set the young girl at her ease.
"He seems so frank and pleasant," thought Norah, "and

there's such a bright honest look in his eyes, that I'm sure I
shall like him extremely."
"She's a trim little vessel," thought the sailor, "with a pretty

figure-head of her own; but I wish that she carried a little
less bunting, she'd look better without all those flowers."
Norah had indeed a sweet innocent face, but her dress was
not such as beseemed her station in life—it showed an
effort to look fine, which did not prevent it from looking
shabby. The gay-coloured dress was stuck out by a hoop;
the bonnet, which was rather an old one, was trimmed with
some large half-faded pink flowers. To the simple-minded
sailor it became the young maiden so ill that he was glad
when it was taken off, and Norah's neatly braided hair
appeared the sole ornament of her head.
But Mrs. Peele was not of the sailor's opinion. "My dear,
what pretty flowers!" she exclaimed, taking up the bonnet
in her hand, and turning it round to admire the trimming.
"Sophy Puller gave the flowers to me: was it not kind?" said
Norah. "And she gave me this too," she added, pulling out
of her dress a gaudy glass brooch, made to imitate
diamonds and rubies.
Mrs. Peele was charmed with the brooch, and handed it

over to Ned, who held it between his finger and thumb,
looked at it for a moment, and then returned it in silence to
its owner.
"Who is Sophy Puller?" asked he, thinking to himself, "I
hope that the giver of that trumpery is not of a piece with
her gift."
"She's a milliner's apprentice, and such a dear girl!" cried

the artless Norah. "She often drops in to tea, and we have
such famous gossips together over our bread and butter! It
is so friendly and pleasant!"
"And do you get your mistress's leave to entertain this

messmate?" inquired the sailor.
Nosh's smooth cheek flushed, and she looked a little

embarrassed, as, without answering her uncle's question
directly, she said, "I don't think there can be any harm."
"Harm indeed!" exclaimed Bessy Peele, warmly. "It would

be hard indeed if a poor girl could not give a slice of bread
and butter to a friend."
"At her mistress's expense," added Ned.
Norah appeared uneasy and confused, and turned her

inquiring eyes on her uncle, as if he had suggested some
painful doubt which had never before entered into her mind.
Mrs. Peele called away her attention.
"Let's see what you've brought in that parcel, my darling;

it's never empty-handed as Norah comes to her mother!"
The parcel was carried to the window, and Ned Franks, who
had no curiosity to know its contents, sat down again to his
writing.
His ear was, however, soon caught by his sister's scornful

exclamation, "Tea indeed! You don't mean to say that Mrs.
Martin gives four shillings a pound for this powdery trash!"
"Bessy," said the sailor, looking up with a smile, "if the lady
kindly sends you a present, don't you take it for better or
worse?"
Again Norah looked at her uncle with that perplexed

inquiring gaze, and seemed about to speak.
But her mother gave her a nudge, with a whisper, "Say

nothing, he takes things so oddly."
Neither the nudge nor the words escaped the quick

perception of Ned.
"Sunken rocks!" thought he. "I must sound that poor simple
child as to how she came by that tea, if I chance to catch
her alone."
Dan Peele soon came home from the fields, and his sharp
cunning features were lighted up with such honest joy at
sight of his sister, that Ned Franks said to himself, "There's
a warm corner in the heart of that boy, I've judged the poor
fellow hardly."
"I'm always so glad when you come home, Norah," cried

Dan, almost dancing with glee, making the party laugh by
adding, "then mother gives us such a thundering big
pudding, and puts on the jam so thick."
Norah's presence indeed added not a little to the

cheerfulness of the little circle at the family meal. She
laughed and chatted gaily, and told many a little incident of
her life with Mrs. Martin.
"Did I ever tell you, mother, of my first trying to read aloud

to my mistress? The dear teacher at our school used to say
that I read well—but wasn't I a bit frightened at the notion
of having to read aloud in a drawing-room! I could hardly
get up my courage when the bell rang, and I had to go up
on purpose to read. There was the old lady in her big arm-
chair, and the lamp with its shade on the table."
"'Take a seat, Norah,' said my mistress kindly, 'and go on

with the work where I left off.'"
"'I'm glad it's to be sewing, not reading,' thought I. But

wasn't I puzzled when not a bit of work could I see, nothing
on the table but one old-looking book! I peeped about here
and there, without daring to get up from my chair,
wondering where the work could be hidden, while my
mistress was wondering all the while why I did not begin."
"'What are you waiting for, Norah?' said she."
"'Please, ma'am, I can't find no work, I think it must have

dropped under the table?'"
Norah's little story was duly laughed at, especially by Dan,

who did not understand the joke, as he knew as little as his
sister had done, that a book can be spoken of as "a work."
"Oh and another time I was so stupid!" Norah went on,

laughing at the recollection. "I was reading to mistress a
large new book, that had a good many pictures in it, when
she dropped asleep as she sometimes does."
"When, just waking from her nap, 'Norah,' says she, 'I'd like
to look at the plates.'"
"Up jumped I with a 'Yes, ma'am, directly; shall I bring the

kitchen plates or the china?'"
Again there was a burst of merriment at the blunder of the
little maiden.
"Do you like the reading, Norah?" asked Ned.
"Why, yes, sometimes," answered the lively young girl,

"only the sermons are rather too long."
"Sermons!" exclaimed Dan and his mother in a breath; and

the latter added, "I hope you get some other reading
besides that."
"Oh, yes, history and travels; and then, you know, Sophy
Puller lends me books to read by myself."
"What sort of books?" asked the sailor.
"Oh, delightful books!" exclaimed Norah. "I'm in the middle

of one now, all about a dreadfully wicked woman who killed
her husband, and I think she'll be hanged at the end—but
she had great excuses you know."
"That must be jolly reading," cried Dan; but Ned Franks

shook his curly head.
"I very much doubt that such reading is good for our little
lass," observed he.
"Well, I own, it's very tiresome to have to leave off in the

middle to sweep a room or cook a dinner," cried the girl,
"but I sit up late at night to make up."
"I don't look on that Sophy Puller as your true friend,"

observed Ned Franks.
"Oh, don't say that—she is so kind: she wanted me to come

out and spend the evening with her sometimes, when she
has each fun, and dancing, and larking with her
companions. I should have liked of all things to go; but
when I asked mistress, she shook her head and said that
she did not approve of young girls being out late at night."
"I say, wasn't that a shame?" exclaimed Dan.
"It's a hard thing that she should keep you so tight, and not
let you have a bit of fun, when you're slaving all day," cried
Bessy.
"A hard thing is it," said Ned Franks, "that the lady won't let
your child go swimming amongst the sharks?"
"If I was you, Norah," cried Dan, "I'd slip off without leave
after the old dame was abed; you said she shut up soon
after eight."
"That's just what Sophy told me," said Norah.
"But you was afraid, I s'pose, of being caught," observed

Dan.
"I was more afraid," replied Norah, simply, "that mistress

might be taken ill in the night, and you know she depends
upon me."
"God help that poor child, she's beset with snares," thought
the one-armed sailor. "When she comes home she learns
nothing but dishonesty, covetousness, and untruth; at her
place there's an evil influence drawing her in like a whirlpool
to folly, and may be to worse. And she so simple and
artless. Simple and artless now, but if she have much to do
with that Sophy Puller, it is not long that she'll keep so. I
should like to drop in a word of warning, but I can't do it
here, as Bessy is always driving on the opposite tack."
"Norah," he said aloud, "will you let me walk back with you
in the evening?"
"I should be so glad to have you," cried the girl, "and then I
need not hurry back so early. Mistress told me unless my
brother or some one would see me home, I was not to stay
out after sunset."
"A careful mistress," observed Ned.
"The cross old crab!" exclaimed his nephew, both speaking

at the same moment.
"Oh, no, she's not cross," cried Norah. "My mistress is good,
very good; I never knew any one like her but Mr. Curtis, our
vicar, and my dear kind teacher at school."
"You'd like her a deal better, I guess, if she wasn't so strict,"

said Mrs. Peele.
"I don't know, I'm not quite sure of that," replied Norah, in
a hesitating tone. "I should like Mrs. Martin to see more
company, and to let me have a little more freedom, but she
does not keep me in out of crossness. If you only knew how
good she is to the poor, and how dearly she loves her Bible,
and how patient she is when in pain, and she suffers a
great, great deal, 'specially from her poor eyes, but she
never murmurs at all!" The girl's face kindled with emotion
as she spoke of her kind old mistress, and Ned watched it
with a feeling of pleasure, while his heart warmed towards
his young niece.
"Blessings on the child, they've not spoilt her yet," thought

he. "She sees the light, and she's bearing towards it; shame
is it that those nearest to her should try to turn her out of
her course."
CHAPTER III.
PROFESSION AND PRACTICE.
"MIND now that you manage to give the old woman the
slip, and have a jolly night of it with your friend Sophy
Puller—" such were the words with which Dan Peele parted
from his sister, as she set out with the sailor on her long
walk back to the county town in which her mistress resided.
It was a glorious evening. The sun had just stink below the
horizon, but lines of glowing fire showed where his orb had
dipped below the blue hills, and his beams had left a rich
rosy flush on the clouds that floated above.
Ned Franks, as he gazed on that beautiful sky, felt that the

young girl who tripped on by his side shared his sense of
peaceful enjoyment.
Norah was the first to break silence. "I do like to look on

such a sunset," she said, adding softly, "it makes one think
of heaven."
"The home we're bound for," said Ned.
"I hope so," murmured Norah, in a tone that was scarcely

above a whisper.
"And how do you think we are ever to get to heaven?"

asked the sailor.

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11 Physical and Health Disabilities  313 13.3 Characteristics 

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People and Situations  467 Appendix

A01_SMIT0766_02_SE_FM.indd 8 22/03/17 2:37 pm

A01_SMIT0766_02_SE_FM.indd 9 22/03/17 2:37 pm

To support others through adventure-based activities, Erik co-founded

Check Your Understanding 11.3

strate important methods or key points; interactive widgets

provide further feedback on each chapter’s content. Each

Putting Exceptionalities Into Perspective

vided to students who are gifted and talented.

Putting Exceptionalities Into Perspective1 Additional Resources

A01_SMIT0766_02_SE_FM.indd 10 22/03/17 2:37 pm

A01_SMIT0766_02_SE_FM.indd 11 22/03/17 2:37 pm

A01_SMIT0766_02_SE_FM.indd 12 22/03/17 2:37 pm

LeDerick Horne is a poet, playwright, inspirational speaker, advocate, entrepreneur,

M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 1 22/03/17 9:47 am

Putting Exceptionalities Into Perspective1

1References for Chapter 1 are found at the end of this text.

M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 2 22/03/17 9:47 am

Topic 1.1 All Students

M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 3 22/03/17 9:47 am

Demographics of U.S. Public School Students, 2013–2014 School

White Hispanic African American

we attempt to reach a balance in the use of these terms.

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Topic 1.2 Students With Disabilities

M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 5 22/03/17 9:47 am

IDEA Disability Categories in Order of Prevalence

length of time it may take them to prepare for post-school options.

M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 6 22/03/17 9:47 am

Order of Disabilities by Prevalence

Prevalence Rate vs. Severity

M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 7 22/03/17 9:47 am

Topic 1.3 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

M01_SMIT0766_02_SE_C01.indd 8 22/03/17 9:47 am

Something to Think About: Twice Exceptional

Check Your Understanding 1.1

Disabilities and Social Justice

Topic 1.4 Issues of Social Justice

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Topic 1.5 Disability as a Minority Group

Topic 1.4 Issues of Social Justice

On the Screen: Warm Springs

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Such discrimination is not relegated to the distant past. For decades,

Center on Human Policy, SU. Reprinted with permission.

11 Physical and Health Disabilities 313 13.3 Characteristics

People and Situations 467 Appendix