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Contents vii
3 Matter & Minerals 66 4.2 Igneous Compositions 98

Compositional Categories 98
3.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks 68 Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition 100
Defining a Mineral 68
4.3 Igneous Textures: What Can They
What Is a Rock? 69
Tell Us? 100
3.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals 70 Types of Igneous Textures 100
Properties of Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons 70
4.4 Naming Igneous Rocks 103
Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons 71
Felsic Igneous Rocks 105
3.3 Why Atoms Bond 72 Intermediate Igneous Rocks 106
The Octet Rule & Chemical Bonds 72 Mafic Igneous Rocks 106
Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred 72 Pyroclastic Rocks 106
Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing 73
4.5 Origin of Magma 108
Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move 74
Generating Magma from Solid Rock 108
3.4 Properties of Minerals 74
4.6 How Magmas Evolve 110
Optical Properties 74
Bowen’s Reaction Series & the Composition
Crystal Shape, or Habit 75
of Igneous Rocks 110
Mineral Strength 76
Magmatic Differentiation & Crystal Settling 111
Density & Specific Gravity 78
Assimilation & Magma Mixing 111
Other Properties of Minerals 78
4.7 Partial Melting & Magma Composition 112
3.5 Mineral Groups 79
Formation of Basaltic Magma 113
Classifying Minerals 79
Formation of Andesitic & Granitic Magmas 113
Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals 79
4.8 Intrusive Igneous Activity 114
3.6 The Silicates 80
Nature of Intrusive Bodies 114
Silicate Structures 80
Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes & Sills 115
Joining Silicate Structures 81
Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, & Laccoliths 116
3.7 Common Silicate Minerals 82
4.9 Mineral Resources & Igneous Processes 117
The Light Silicates 82
Magmatic Differentiation & Ore Deposits 118
The Dark Silicates 85
Hydrothermal Deposits 119
3.8 Important Nonsilicate Minerals 86 Origin of Diamonds 120
3.9 Minerals: A Nonrenewable Resource 88 Concepts in Review 120
Renewable Versus Nonrenewable Resources 88 Give It Some Thought 124
Mineral Resources & Ore Deposits 88
Concepts in Review 91
Give It Some Thought 92
4 Igneous Rocks &

Intrusive Activity 94
4.1 Magma: Parent Material
of Igneous Rock 96
The Nature of Magma 96
From Magma to Crystalline Rock 97
Igneous Processes 97
A01_TARB6622_13_SE_FM.indd 7 11/11/16 4:06 PM

viii Contents
5 Volcanoes & Volcanic 6 Weathering & Soils 160

Hazards 126 6.1 Weathering 162
5.1 Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea 128 6.2 Mechanical Weathering 163
Frost Wedging 163
5.2 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions 129 Salt Crystal Growth 163
Magma: Source Material for Volcanic Eruptions 129
Sheeting 164
Effusive Versus Explosive Eruptions 130
Biological Activity 165
Effusive Hawaiian-Type Eruptions 131
How Explosive Eruptions Are Triggered 131 6.3 Chemical Weathering 166
The Importance of Water 166
5.3 Materials Extruded During an Eruption 133 How Granite Weathers 167
Lava Flows 133 Weathering of Silicate Minerals 167
Gases 135 Spheroidal Weathering 168
Pyroclastic Materials 135
6.4 Rates of Weathering 168
5.4 Anatomy of a Volcano 136 Rock Characteristics 168
5.5 Shield Volcanoes 137 Climate 169
Mauna Loa: Earth’s Largest Shield Volcano 137 Differential Weathering 169
Kilauea: Hawaii’s Most Active Volcano 138 6.5 Soil: An Indispensable Resource 170
5.6 Cinder Cones 139 What Is Soil? 171
Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone 140 Controls of Soil Formation 171
5.7 Composite Volcanoes 141 6.6 Describing & Classifying Soils 173
The Soil Profile 173
5.8 Volcanic Hazards 142 Classifying Soils 175
Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature 142
Lahars: Mudflows on Active & Inactive Cones 144 6.7 The Impact of Human Activities on Soil 176
Other Volcanic Hazards 144 Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest: A Case Study
of Human Impact on Soil 176
5.9 Other Volcanic Landforms 146 Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource 177
Calderas 146
Fissure Eruptions & Basalt Plateaus 147
6.8 Weathering & Ore Deposits 180
Bauxite 180
Lava Domes 149
Other Deposits 180
Volcanic Necks 149
5.10 Plate Tectonics & Volcanism 150
Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries 151
Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries 151
Intraplate Volcanism 154

Contents ix
7 Sedimentary Rocks 184 8.4 Common Metamorphic Rocks 225

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 226
7.1 An Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks 186 Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks 227
Importance 186
8.5 Metamorphic Environments 228
Origins 187
Contact, or Thermal, Metamorphism 229
7.2 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 188 Hydrothermal Metamorphism 229
Shale 189 Burial & Subduction Zone Metamorphism 231
Sandstone 190 Regional Metamorphism 231
Conglomerate & Breccia 192 Other Metamorphic Environments 231
7.3 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 192 8.6 Metamorphic Zones 232
Limestone 193 Textural Variations 232
Dolostone 195 Index Minerals & Metamorphic Grade 233
Chert 195 Concepts in Review 234
Evaporites 196
7.4 Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock 197
7.5 Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock:
Diagenesis & Lithification 198 9 Earthquakes & Earth’s Interior 238
Diagenesis 198
9.1 What Is an Earthquake? 240
Lithification 198
Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes 240
7.6 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 199 Aftershocks & Foreshocks 242
7.7 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Faults & Large Earthquakes 242
Past Environments 200 Fault Rupture & Propagation 243
Importance of Sedimentary Environments 201 9.2 Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves 244
Sedimentary Facies 201 Instruments That Record Earthquakes 244
Sedimentary Structures 201 Seismic Waves 244
7.8 Resources from Sedimentary Rocks 206 9.3 Locating the Source of an Earthquake 246
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources 206
9.4 Determining the Size of an Earthquake 248
Energy Resources 207
Intensity Scales 248
7.9 The Carbon Cycle & Sedimentary Rocks 210 Magnitude Scales 248
Concepts in Review 211 9.5 Earthquake Destruction 250
Give It Some Thought 214 Destruction from Seismic Vibrations 251
Landslides & Ground Subsidence 252
Fire 252
8 Metamorphism & Metamorphic Tsunamis 253
Rocks 216 9.6 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? 255

Earthquakes Associated with Plate Boundaries 255
8.1 What Is Metamorphism? 218 Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies 256
8.2 What Drives Metamorphism? 219 9.7 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? 257
Heat as a Metamorphic Agent 219
Short-Range Predictions 258
Confining Pressure 220
Long-Range Forecasts 259
Differential Stress 220
Chemically Active Fluids 221 9.8 Earth’s Interior 261
The Importance of Parent Rock 222 Probing Earth’s Interior: “Seeing” Seismic Waves 261
Earth’s Layered Structure 261
8.3 Metamorphic Textures 222
Foliation 222 Concepts in Review 263
Foliated Textures 224 Give It Some Thought 266
Other Metamorphic Textures 225

x Contents
10 Origin & Evolution of the Ocean 11.4 Mountain Building 306

11.5 Subduction & Mountain Building 307
Floor 268 Island Arc–Type Mountain Building 307
10.1 An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor 270 Andean-Type Mountain Building 307
Mapping the Seafloor 270 Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, & Great Valley 308
Provinces of the Ocean Floor 274 11.6 Collisional Mountain Belts 309
10.2 Continental Margins 274 Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building 309
Passive Continental Margins 274 Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions 310
Active Continental Margins 275 The Himalayas 311
The Appalachians 312
10.3 Features of Deep-Ocean Basins 276
Deep-Ocean Trenches 276 11.7 Vertical Motions of the Crust 314
Abyssal Plains 277 The Principle of Isostasy 314
Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor 277 How High Is Too High? 315
Explaining Coral Atolls—Darwin’s Hypothesis 278 Concepts in Review 316
10.4 Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge 279 Give It Some Thought 318
10.5 Oceanic Ridges & Seafloor Spreading 280
Seafloor Spreading 281 12 Mass Movement on Slopes: The
Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated? 281
Spreading Rates & Ridge Topography 281 Work of Gravity 320
10.6 The Nature of Oceanic Crust 282 12.1 The Importance of Mass Movement 322
How Does Oceanic Crust Form? 282 Landslides as Geologic Hazards 323
Interactions Between Seawater & Oceanic Crust 283 The Role of Mass Movement in Landscape Development 323
Slopes Change Through Time 324
10.7 Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin 284
Evolution of an Ocean Basin 284 12.2 Controls & Triggers of Mass Movement 324
Failed Rifts 286 The Role of Water 324
Oversteepened Slopes 324
10.8 Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere 286
Removal of Vegetation 326
Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts 286
Earthquakes as Triggers 327
Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins 287
The Potential for Landslides 328
12.3 Classification of Mass Movement Processes 328
Give It Some Thought 290 Type of Material 328
Type of Motion 329
11 Crustal Deformation & Mountain Rate of Movement 329
Building 292 12.4 Common Forms of Mass Movement:

Rapid to Slow 330
11.1 Crustal Deformation 294
Rockslide & Debris Avalanche 331
What Causes Rocks to Deform? 294
Debris Flow 332
Types of Deformation 296
Earthflow 334
Factors That Affect How Rocks Deform 296
11.2 Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation 297 12.5 Very Slow Mass Movements 334
Creep 334
Anticlines & Synclines 298
Solifluction 335
Domes & Basins 299
The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape 335
Monoclines 300
11.3 Faults & Joints: Rock Structures Formed by Brittle
Deformation 301 Give It Some Thought 338
Dip-Slip Faults 301
Strike-Slip Faults 303
Joints 304

Contents xi
13 Running Water 340 14 Groundwater 368

13.1 Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle 342 14.1 The Importance of Groundwater 370
Earth’s Water 342 Groundwater & the Hydrosphere 370
Water’s Paths 342 Geologic Importance of Groundwater 370
Storage in Glaciers 343 Groundwater: A Basic Resource 371
Water Balance 343 14.2 Groundwater & the Water Table 372
13.2 Running Water 343 Distribution of Groundwater 372
Drainage Basins 344 Variations in the Water Table 372
River Systems 345 Interactions Between Groundwater & Streams 374
Drainage Patterns 346 14.3 Storage & Movement of Groundwater 374
13.3 Streamflow Characteristics 347 Influential Factors 374
Factors Affecting Flow Velocity 347 How Groundwater Moves 375
Changes Downstream 349 14.4 Wells & Artesian Systems 377
13.4 The Work of Running Water 350 Wells 377
Stream Erosion 350 Artesian Systems 378
Transport of Sediment by Streams 351 14.5 Springs, Geysers, & Geothermal Energy 379
Deposition of Sediment by Streams 353 Springs 379
13.5 Stream Channels 353 Hot Springs 380
Bedrock Channels 353 Geysers 380
Alluvial Channels 353 Geothermal Energy 381
13.6 Shaping Stream Valleys 355 14.6 Environmental Problems 383
Base Level & Graded Streams 356 Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource 383
Valley Deepening 356 Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal 384
Valley Widening 357 Saltwater Contamination 384
Incised Meanders & Stream Terraces 357 Groundwater Contamination 385
13.7 Depositional Landforms 359 14.7 The Geologic Work of Groundwater 386
Deltas 359 Caverns 387
The Mississippi River Delta 359 Karst Topography 388
Natural Levees 360 Concepts in Review 390
Alluvial Fans 361
13.8 Floods & Flood Control 362
Types of Floods 362
Flood Control 363

xii Contents
15 Glaciers & Glaciation 394 17 Shorelines 440

15.1 Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles 396 17.1 The Shoreline & Ocean Waves 442
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers 396 A Dynamic Interface 442
Ice Sheets 396 Ocean Waves 442
Other Types of Glaciers 398 Wave Characteristics 443
15.2 Formation & Movement Circular Orbital Motion 443
Waves in the Surf Zone 444
of Glacial Ice 399
Glacial Ice Formation 399 17.2 Beaches & Shoreline Processes 445
How Glaciers Move 399 Wave Erosion 446
Observing & Measuring Movement 400 Sand Movement on the Beach 446
Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation 17.3 Shoreline Features 449
Versus Wastage 401 Erosional Features 449
15.3 Glacial Erosion 402 Depositional Features 449
How Glaciers Erode 403 The Evolving Shore 451
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion 404 17.4 Contrasting America’s Coasts 452
15.4 Glacial Deposits 407 Coastal Classification 452
Glacial Drift 407 Atlantic & Gulf Coasts 453
Moraines, Outwash Plains, & Kettles 408 Pacific Coast 454
Drumlins, Eskers, & Kames 410 17.5 Hurricanes: The Ultimate Coastal Hazard 455
15.5 Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers 411 Profile of a Hurricane 455
Crustal Subsidence & Rebound 411 Hurricane Destruction 456
Sea-Level Changes 411 17.6 Stabilizing the Shore 459
Changes to Rivers & Valleys 412 Hard Stabilization 459
Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes 412 Alternatives to Hard Stabilization 461
Pluvial Lakes 413
17.7 Tides 462
15.6 The Ice Age 414 Causes of Tides 462
Historical Development of the Glacial Theory 414 Monthly Tidal Cycle 463
Causes of Ice Ages 415 Tidal Currents 463
Concepts in Review 418 Concepts in Review 464
Give It Some Thought 420 Give It Some Thought 466
16 Deserts & Wind 422

16.1 Distribution & Causes of Dry Lands 424
What Is Meant by Dry? 424
Subtropical Deserts & Steppes 424
Middle-Latitude Deserts & Steppes 425
16.2 Geologic Processes in Arid Climates 426
Dry-Region Weathering 426
The Role of Water 427
16.3 Basin & Range: The Evolution of
a Desert Landscape 428
16.4 Wind Erosion 430
Transportation of Sediment by Wind 430
Erosional Features 430
16.5 Wind Deposits 433
Sand Deposits 433
Types of Sand Dunes 434
Loess (Silt) Deposits 435

Contents xiii
18 Geologic Time 468 19.2 Birth of a Planet 497

From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements 497
18.1 Creating a Time Scale: Relative Dating Principles 470 From Planetesimals to Protoplanets 497
The Importance of a Time Scale 470 Earth’s Early Evolution 497
Numerical & Relative Dates 471
19.3 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans 499
Principle of Superposition 471
Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere 499
Principle of Original Horizontality 471
Oxygen in the Atmosphere 500
Principle of Lateral Continuity 472
Evolution of the Oceans 500
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 472
Principle of Inclusions 472 19.4 Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s
Unconformities 473 Continents 502
Applying Relative Dating Principles 475 Earth’s First Continents 502
The Making of North America 504
18.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life 476
Supercontinents of the Precambrian 505
Types of Fossils 476
Conditions Favoring Preservation 478 19.5 Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of
18.3 Correlation of Rock Layers 478 Earth’s Modern Continents 506
Paleozoic History 506
Correlation Within Limited Areas 478
Mesozoic History 507
Fossils & Correlation 478
Cenozoic History 508
18.4 Numerical Dating with Nuclear Decay 481
Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure 481
19.6 Earth’s First Life 510
Origin of Life 510
Changes to Atomic Nuclei 481
Earth’s First Life: Prokaryotes 510
Radiometric Dating 482
Half-Life 482 19.7 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes 513
Using Unstable Isotopes 483 Early Paleozoic Life-Forms 513
Dating with Carbon-14 483 Vertebrates Move to Land 514
Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates 514
18.5 Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary
The Great Permian Extinction 516
Strata 484
19.8 Mesozoic Era: Dinosaurs Dominant 516
18.6 The Geologic Time Scale 485
Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees 516
Structure of the Time Scale 485
Reptiles Take Over the Land, Sea, and Sky 516
Precambrian Time 486
Demise of the Dinosaurs 517
Terminology & the Geologic Time Scale 487
Concepts in Review 488 19.9 Cenozoic Era: Mammals Diversify 519
From Dinosaurs to Mammals 519
Give It Some Thought 489 Marsupial and Placental Mammals 520
Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion 520
19 Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Large Mammals and Extinction 521
Time 492 Concepts in Review 522

19.1 Is Earth Unique? 494
The Right Planet 494
The Right Location 495
The Right Time 495
Viewing Earth’s History 495

xiv Contents
20 Global Climate Change 526 20.6 Human Impact on Global Climate 542
Rising Co2 Levels 542
20.1 Climate & Geology 528 The Atmosphere’s Response 544
The Climate System 528 The Role of Trace Gases 544
Climate–Geology Connections 528 How Aerosols Influence Climate 546
20.2 Detecting Climate Change 529 20.7 Climate Feedback Mechanisms 547
Climates Change 529 Types of Feedback Mechanisms 547
Proxy Data 530 Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools 547
Seafloor Sediment: A Storehouse of Climate Data 530
20.8 Some Consequences of Global Warming 548
Oxygen Isotope Analysis 531
Sea-Level Rise 548
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice 531
The Changing Arctic 550
Tree Rings: Archives of Environmental History 532
Increasing Ocean Acidity 551
Other Types of Proxy Data 532
The Potential for Surprises 552
20.3 Some Atmospheric Basics 533 Concepts in Review 552
Composition of the Atmosphere 533
Extent & Structure of the Atmosphere 534
20.4 Heating the Atmosphere 536

Energy from the Sun 536 Appendix
The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy 537 Metric and English Units Compared 556
Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect 538
20.5 Natural Causes of Climate Change 539
Plate Movements & Orbital Variations 539
Glossary 557
Volcanic Activity & Climate Change 539
Solar Variability & Climate 541 Index 568

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experience, and help you grasp difficult geology concepts.
Chapter 1 Chapter 5
1.5 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: A geologist’s Grand Canyon (p. 7) 5.5 VIDEO: Eruption column generated by viscous, silica-rich magma (p. 132)
1.7 TUTORIAL: Magnitude of geologic time (p. 9) 5.11 TUTORIAL: Anatomy of a volcano (p. 137)
1.10 VIDEO: Two classic views of Earth from space (p. 12) 5.13 ANIMATION: Comparing scales of different volcanoes (p. 138)
1.18 TUTORIAL: Nebular theory (p. 17) 5.14 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Kilauea volcano (p. 139)
1.20 TUTORIAL: Earth’s layers (p. 20) 5.15 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: S. P. Crater (p. 139)
1.23 TUTORIAL: The rock cycle (p. 23) 5.16 CONDOR VIDEO: Cinder cones and basaltic lava flows (p. 140)
1.25 TUTORIAL: The continents (p. 27) 5.23 ANIMATION: Formation of Crater Lake–type calderas (p. 146)
5.24 TUTORIAL: Super-eruptions at Yellowstone (p. 147)
Chapter 2 5.28 TUTORIAL: Volcanic neck (p. 150)
2.2 TUTORIAL: Reconstructions of Pangaea (p. 35) 5.30 TUTORIAL: Earth’s zones of volcanism (p. 152)
2.9 TUTORIAL: The rigid lithosphere overlies the weak asthenosphere (p. 40) 5.31 TUTORIAL: Subduction-produced Cascade Range volcanoes (p. 154)
2.12 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Fire and ice land (p. 42) 5.32 TUTORIAL: Global distribution of large basalt provinces. (p. 154)
2.13 TUTORIAL: Continental rifting: Formation of new ocean basins (p. 43)
2.14 CONDOR VIDEO: Continental rifting (p. 44) Chapter 6
2.15 TUTORIAL: Three types of convergent plate boundaries (p. 45) 6.1 ANIMATION: Arches National Park (p. 162)
2.18 ANIMATION: The collision of India and Eurasia formed the Himalayas (p. 47) 6.2 TUTORIAL: Mechanical weathering increases surface area (p. 163)
2.19 TUTORIAL: Transform plate boundaries (p. 48) 6.4 TUTORIAL: Ice breaks rock (p. 164)
2.21 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: The San Andreas Fault (p. 50) 6.5 TUTORIAL: Unloading leads to sheeting (p. 164)
2.29 TUTORIAL: Time scale of magnetic reversals (p. 56) 6.10 TUTORIAL: The formation of rounded boulders (p. 168)
2.31 ANIMATION: Magnetic reversals and seafloor spreading (p. 57) 6.11 TUTORIAL: Rock type influences weathering (p. 169)
6.13 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Bisti Badlands (p. 170)
Chapter 3 6.17 TUTORIAL: Soil horizons (p. 174)
3.3 TUTORIAL: Most rocks are aggregates of minerals (p. 69)
3.12 TUTORIAL: Color variations in minerals (p. 75) Chapter 7
3.13 VIDEO: Streak (p. 75) 7.2 TUTORIAL: The big picture (p. 187)
3.15 TUTORIAL: Some common crystal habits (p. 76) 7.7 TUTORIAL: Sorting and particle shape (p. 191)
3.16 TUTORIAL: Hardness scales (p. 76) 7.17 TUTORIAL: Bonneville salt flats (p. 196)
3.17 ANIMATION: Micas exhibit perfect cleavage (p. 77) 7.18 TUTORIAL: From plants to coal (p. 197)
3.18 TUTORIAL: Cleavage directions exhibited by minerals (p. 77) 7.22 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: The sedimentary rocks of Capitol Reef National Park (p. 200)
3.21 VIDEO: Calcite reacting with a weak acid (p. 79) 7.24 TUTORIAL: Lateral change (p. 204)
3.24 TUTORIAL: Five basic silicate structures (p. 81) 7.30 TUTORIAL: U.S. energy consumption, 2014 (p. 207)
7.32 TUTORIAL: Common oil traps (p. 209)
Chapter 4
4.3 TUTORIAL: Intrusive versus extrusive igneous rocks (p. 97) Chapter 8
4.5 TUTORIAL: Mineral makeup of common igneous rocks (p. 99) 8.3 TUTORIAL: Sources of heat for metamorphism (p. 220)
4.7 TUTORIAL: Igneous rock textures (p. 101) 8.4 TUTORIAL: Confining pressure and differential stress (p. 221)
4.12 TUTORIAL: Classification of igneous rocks (p. 104) 8.7 ANIMATION: Mechanical rotation of platy mineral grains to produce foliation
4.13 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Yosemite: Granite and glaciers (p. 105) (p. 223)
4.24 TUTORIAL: Partial melting (p. 113) 8.10 TUTORIAL: Development of rock cleavage (p. 224)
4.25 ANIMATION: Formation of granitic magma (p. 113) 8.19 TUTORIAL: Contact metamorphism (p. 229)
4.26 ANIMATION: Intrusive igneous structures (p. 114) 8.25 TUTORIAL: Metamorphism along a fault zone (p. 232)
4.27 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Dikes and sills of the Sinbad country (p. 115) 8.26 TUTORIAL: Textural variations caused by regional metamorphism (p. 233)
4.28 CONDOR VIDEO: Intrusive igneous bodies (p. 115) 8.29 Tutorial: Garnet, an index mineral, provides evidence of medium- to high-grade
4.33 TUTORIAL: Pegmatites and hydrothermal deposits (p. 119) metamorphism (p. 234)
xv

xvi Smartfigures
Chapter 9 13.7 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Drainage patterns (p. 346)

13.10 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: The Mississippi River (p. 348)
9.4 TUTORIAL: Elastic rebound (p. 242)
13.13 TUTORIAL: Channel changes from head to mouth (p. 350)
9.8 ANIMATION: Principle of the seismograph (p. 244)
13.15 ANIMATION: Transport of sediment (p. 351)
9.9 TUTORIAL: Body waves (P and S waves) versus surface waves (p. 245)
13.18 TUTORIAL: Formation of cut banks and point bars (p. 354)
9.11 ANIMATION: Two types of surface waves (p. 246)
13.19 ANIMATION: Formation of an oxbow lake (p. 355)
9.16 TUTORIAL: USGS Community Internet Intensity Map (p. 249)
13.24 CONDOR VIDEO: Meandering rivers (p. 357)
9.25 TUTORIAL: Turnagain Heights slide caused by the 1964 Alaska earthquake (p. 253)
13.25 TUTORIAL: Incised meanders (p. 358)
9.26 TUTORIAL: How a tsunami is generated by displacement of the ocean floor during
an earthquake (p. 254) 13.26 CONDOR VIDEO: River terraces and base level (p. 358)
9.27 ANIMATION: Tsunami generated off the coast of Sumatra, 2004 (p. 254) 13.29 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Mississippi River delta (p. 360)
13.30 ANIMATION: Formation of a natural levee (p. 361)
13.33 TUTORIAL: Dams have multiple functions (p. 364)
Chapter 10
10.1 TUTORIAL: HMS Challenger (p. 270) Chapter 14
10.8 TUTORIAL: Passive continental margins (p. 275)
14.4 TUTORIAL: Water beneath Earth’s surface (p. 372)
10.16 TUTORIAL: Rift valleys (p. 280)
14.11 TUTORIAL: Hypothetical groundwater flow system (p. 376)
10.21 TUTORIAL: East African Rift Valley (p. 284)
14.12 ANIMATION: Cone of depression (p. 377)
10.22 ANIMATION: Formation of an ocean basin (p. 285)
14.14 TUTORIAL: Artesian systems (p. 378)
10.25 TUTORIAL: The demise of the Farallon plate (p. 288)
14.19 TUTORIAL: How a geyser works (p. 381)
14.29 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: A Mammoth Cave (p. 387)
Chapter 11
11.1 TUTORIAL: Deformed sedimentary strata (p. 294) Chapter 15
11.6 CONDOR VIDEO: Anticlines and synclines (p. 298) 15.2 VIDEO: Ice sheets (p. 397)
11.7 TUTORIAL: Common types of folds (p. 298) 15.4 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Fire and ice land (p. 398)
11.8 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Sheep Mountain anticline (p. 299) 15.6 TUTORIAL: Movement of a glacier (p. 400)
11.9 TUTORIAL: Domes versus basins (p. 299) 15.9 TUTORIAL: Zones of a glacier (p. 401)
11.12 CONDOR VIDEO: Monoclines of the Colorado Plateau (p. 301) 15.14 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Erosional glacial landforms (p. 404)
11.13 CONDOR VIDEO: Faults versus joints (p. 301) 15.15 ANIMATION: A U-shaped glacial trough (p. 405)
11.14 ANIMATION: Hanging wall block and footwall block (p. 301) 15.21 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: The glaciers of Alaska (p. 408)
11.16 TUTORIAL: Normal dip-slip fault (p. 302) 15.24 TUTORIAL: Common depositional landforms (p. 410)
11.17 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Death Valley (p. 303) 15.25 ANIMATION: Changing sea level (p. 411)
11.18 ANIMATION: Reverse faults (p. 303) 15.33 TUTORIAL: Orbital variations (p. 417)
11.19 ANIMATION: Thrust fault (p. 304)
11.27 TUTORIAL: Collision and accretion of small crustal fragments to a continental Chapter 16
margin (p. 310) 16.1 TUTORIAL: Dry climates (p. 425)
11.28 ANIMATION: Terranes that have been added to western North America during the 16.2 ANIMATION: Subtropical deserts (p. 425)
past 200 million years (p. 310) 16.3 ANIMATION: Rainshadow deserts (p. 426)
11.29 ANIMATION: Continental collision: The formation of the Himalayas (p. 311) 16.7 Tutorial: Landscape evolution in the Basin and Range region (p. 429)
11.30 TUTORIAL: India’s continued northward migration severely deformed much 16.8 CONDOR VIDEO: Characteristics of alluvial fans (p. 429)
of China and Southeast Asia (p. 312)
16.9 ANIMATION: Transporting sand (p. 430)
11.31 TUTORIAL: Formation of the Appalachian Mountains (p. 313)
16.10 VIDEO: Wind’s suspended load (p. 431)
11.32 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: The folded rocks of Massanutten Mountain (p. 314)
16.13 TUTORIAL: Formation of desert pavement (p. 432)
11.33 ANIMATION: The principle of isostasy (p. 315)
16.15 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: The dunes of White Sands
11.34 TUTORIAL: The effects of isostatic adjustment and erosion on mountainous National Monument (p. 433)
topography (p. 315)
16.16 TUTORIAL: Cross-bedding (p. 434)
16.17 TUTORIAL: Types of sand dunes (p. 435)
Chapter 12
12.1 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: Landslide! (p. 322) Chapter 17
12.2 TUTORIAL: Excavating the Grand Canyon (p. 323) 17.3 ANIMATION: Wave basics (p. 443)
12.10 ANIMATION: Watch out for falling rock! (p. 329) 17.4 TUTORIAL: Passage of a wave (p. 444)
12.15 TUTORIAL: Gros Ventre rockslide (p. 332) 17.5 ANIMATION: Waves approaching the shore (p. 444)
12.19 TUTORIAL: Creep (p. 335) 17.9 TUTORIAL: Wave refraction (p. 447)
12.21 TUTORIAL: When permafrost thaws (p. 336) 17.10 TUTORIAL: The longshore transport system (p. 448)
17.14 MOBILE FIELD TRIP: A trip to Cape Cod (p. 450)
Chapter 13 17.17 TUTORIAL: East coast estuaries (p. 452)
13.2 TUTORIAL: The hydrologic cycle (p. 343) 17.23 TUTORIAL: Hurricane source regions and paths (p. 456)
13.4 TUTORIAL: Mississippi River drainage basin (p. 344) 17.24 VIDEO: Cross section of a hurricane (p. 457)
13.5 TUTORIAL: Headward erosion (p. 345) 17.34 ANIMATION: Spring and neap tides (p. 463)

SmartFigures xvii
Chapter 18 Chapter 20
18.5 VIDEO: Cross-cutting fault (p. 472) 20.1 VIDEO: Earth’s climate system (p. 529)
18.7 TUTORIAL: Inclusions (p. 473) 20.5 TUTORIAL: Ice cores: Important sources of climate data (p. 531)
18.8 TUTORIAL: Formation of an angular unconformity (p. 473) 20.9 TUTORIAL: Composition of the atmosphere (p. 534)
18.13 TUTORIAL: Applying principles of relative dating (p. 476) 20.10 VIDEO: Aerosols (p. 534)
18.18 TUTORIAL: Fossil assemblage (p. 480) 20.14 VIDEO: The electromagnetic spectrum (p. 537)
18.21 TUTORIAL: Changing parent/daughter ratios (p. 482) 20.15 TUTORIAL: Paths taken by solar radiation (p. 537)
20.17 TUTORIAL: The greenhouse effect (p. 538)
Chapter 19 20.20 VIDEO: Sunspots (p. 541)
19.4 TUTORIAL: Major events that led to the formation of early Earth (p. 498) 20.23 TUTORIAL: Monthly concentrations (p. 543)
19.10 TUTORIAL: The formation of continents (p. 503) 20.26 VIDEO: Global temperatures (p. 544)
19.12 TUTORIAL: The major geologic provinces of North America (p. 504) 20.27 VIDEO: Temperature projections to 2100 (p. 545)
19.15 TUTORIAL: Connection between ocean circulation and 20.30 VIDEO: Sea ice as a feedback mechanism (p. 547)
the climate in Antarctica (p. 506) 20.32 VIDEO: Changing sea level (p. 549)
19.17 TUTORIAL: Major provinces of the Appalachian Mountains (p. 508) 20.33 TUTORIAL: Slope of the shoreline (p. 550)
19.28 TUTORIAL: Relationships of vertebrate groups and their divergence 20.34 VIDEO: Climate change spurs plant growth beyond 45° north (p. 550)
from lobefin fish (p. 515) 20.35 VIDEO: Tracking sea ice changes (p. 551)

Preface
The thirteenth edition of Essentials of Geology, like its predeces- 1. SmartFigure Tutorials. Each of these 2- to 4-minute tutorials, pre-
sors, is a college-level text that is intended to be a meaningful, nontech- pared and narrated by Professor Callan Bentley, is a mini-lesson
nical survey for students taking their first course in geology. In addition to that examines and explains the concepts illustrated by the figure.
being informative and up-to-date, a major goal of this book is to meet the 2. SmartFigure Mobile Field Trips. Scattered throughout this new edi-
need of students for a readable and user-friendly text that is a valuable tion are 24 video field trips that explore classic geologic sites from
tool for learning the basic principles and concepts of geology. Iceland to Hawaii. On each trip you will accompany geologist/pilot/
photographer Michael Collier in the air and on the ground to see
Although many topical issues are treated in the 13th edition of Essentials,
and learn about landscapes that relate to discussions in the chapter.
it should be emphasized that the main focus of this new edition remains
the same as the focus of each of its predecessors: to promote stu- 3. SmartFigures Condor. The 10 Project Condor videos take you
to sites in the American Mountain West. By coupling videos
dent understanding of basic principles. As much as possible, we have
acquired by a quadcopter aircraft with ground-level views, effec-
attempted to provide the reader with a sense of the observational tech-
tive narrative, and helpful animations, these videos will engage
niques and reasoning processes that constitute the science of geology.
you in real-life case studies.
4. SmartFigure Animations. These animations bring the art to life,
New & Important Features illustrating and explaining difficult-to-visualize topics more effec-
tively than static art alone.
This 13th edition is an extensive and thorough revision of Essentials of
Geology that integrates improved textbook resources with new online 5. SmartFigure Videos. Rather than providing a single image to illus-
features to enhance the learning experience: trate an idea, these figures include short video clips that help illus-
trate such diverse subjects as mineral properties and the structure
• Significant updating and revision of content. A basic function of a of ice sheets.
college science textbook is to provide clear, understandable pre-
sentations that are accurate, engaging, and up-to-date. In the long • Objective-driven active learning path. Each chapter in this 13th edition
history of this textbook, our number-one goal has always been to begins with Focus on Concepts: a set of learning objectives that cor-
keep Essentials of Geology current, relevant, and highly readable respond to the chapter's major sections. By identifying key knowledge
for beginning students. With this goal as a priority, every part of this and skills, these objectives help students prioritize the material. Each
text has been examined carefully. The following are a few examples. major section concludes with Concept Checks so that students can
In Chapter 9, the text and figures for Section 9.3, “Locating the check their learning. Two end-of-chapter features complete the learn-
Source of an Earthquake,” are substantially revised, and a discussion ing path. Concepts in Review is coordinated with the Focus on Con-
of the USGS Community Internet Intensity Map project is added. cepts at the beginning of the chapter and with the numbered sections
In Chapter 11, the treatment of stress, strain, and rock deformation within the chapter. It is a readable and concise overview of key ideas,
are substantially revised, as is the final section on isostatic balance. with photos, diagrams, and questions. Finally, the questions and prob-
In Chapter 12, the mechanism responsible for long-runout landslides lems in Give It Some Thought challenge learners by requiring higher-
is updated, with reference to the occurrence of such landslides on order thinking skills to analyze, synthesize, and apply the material.
Mars, and the 2015 Nepal earthquake is used as a landslide-trigger- • An unparalleled visual program. In addition to more than 100 new
ing event. In Chapter 13, a section on the loss of wetlands in coastal high-quality photos and satellite images, dozens of figures are new
Louisiana is added, and the treatment of flood control is updated or have been redrawn by the gifted and highly respected geoscience
and tightened. Many discussions, case studies, examples, and illus- illustrator Dennis Tasa. Maps and diagrams are frequently paired
trations have been updated and revised. with photographs for greater effectiveness. Further, many new and
revised figures have additional labels that narrate the process being
• SmartFigures make this 13th edition much more than a traditional text-
book. Through its many editions, an important strength of Essentials illustrated and guide students as they examine the figures, resulting
has always been clear, logically organized, and well-illustrated expla- in a visual program that is clear and easy to understand.
nations. Now complementing and reinforcing this strength are a series
of SmartFigures. Simply by scanning the Quick Response (QR) code
next to a SmartFigure with a mobile device, students can link to hun-
Digital & Print Resources
dreds of unique and innovative digital learning opportunities that will
increase their understanding of important ideas. Each SmartFigure MasteringGeology™ with Pearson eText
also displays a short URL for students who may lack a smartphone. Used by over 1 million science students, the Mastering platform is the
SmartFigures are truly media that teach! The more than 200 Smart- most effective and widely used online tutorial, homework, and assess-
Figures in the 13th edition of Essentials of Geology are of five types: ment system for the sciences. Now available with Essentials of Geology,
xviii

Preface xix
13th edition, MasteringGeology™ offers tools for use before, during, files allow you to electronically poll your class for responses to
and after class: questions, pop quizzes, attendance, and more.
• Before class: Assign adaptive Dynamic Study Modules and reading • The IRC provides Word and PDF versions of the Instructor
assignments from the eText with Reading Quizzes to ensure that stu- Resource Manual.
dents come prepared to class, having done the reading.
Instructor Resource Manual (Download Only)
• During class: Learning Catalytics, a “bring your own device” student
The Instructor Resource Manual has been designed to help seasoned
engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system, allows
and new instructors alike, offering the following sections in each chapter:
students to use smartphones, tablets, or laptops to respond to ques-
an introduction to the chapter, outline, learning objectives/focus on
tions in class. With Learning Catalytics, you can assess students in
concepts; teaching strategies; teacher resources; and answers to Concept
real-time, using open-ended question formats to uncover student
Checks and Give It Some Thought questions from the textbook.
misconceptions and adjust lectures accordingly.
www.pearsonhighered.com/irc
• After class: Assign an array of assignments such as Mobile Field
Trips, Project Condor videos, GigaPan activities, Google Earth TestGen Computerized Test Bank (Download Only)
Encounter Activities, Geoscience Animations, and much more. TestGen is a computerized test generator that lets instructors view and
Students receive wrong-answer feedback personalized to their edit Test Bank questions, transfer questions to tests, and print the test
answers, which will help them get back on track. in a variety of customized formats. This Test Bank includes more than
MasteringGeology Student Study Area also provides students with 2,000 multiple-choice, matching, and essay questions. Questions are
self-study material including videos, geoscience animations, In correlated to Bloom's Taxonomy, each chapter's learning objectives, the
the News articles, Self Study Quizzes, Web Links, Glossary, and Earth Science Learning Objectives, and the Pearson Science Global
Flashcards. Outcomes to help instructors better map the assessments against both
broad and specific teaching and learning objectives. The Test Bank is
Pearson eText 2.0 gives students access to the text whenever and wher- also available in Microsoft Word and can be imported into Blackboard,
ever they can access the Internet. Features of Pearson eText include: www.pearsonhighered.com/irc
• Now available on smartphones and tablets using the Pearson eText
2.0 app For Students
• Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media
Laboratory Manual in Physical Geology, 11th Edition by the
• Fully accessible (screen-reader ready) American Geological Institute and the National Association of
• Configurable reading settings, including resizable type and night Geoscience Teachers, edited by Vincent Cronin, illustrated by Dennis
reading mode G. Tasa (0134446607)
• Instructor and student note-taking, highlighting, bookmarking, and This user-friendly, best-selling lab manual examines the basic processes
search of geology and their applications to everyday life. Featuring contribu-
For more information or access to MasteringGeology, please visit tions from more than 170 highly regarded geologists and geoscience
www.masteringgeology.com. educators, along with an exceptional illustration program by Dennis
Tasa, Laboratory Manual in Physical Geology, 11th edition, offers an
inquiry- and activities-based approach that builds skills and gives stu-
For Instructors dents a more complete learning experience in the lab. Pre-lab videos
Instructor Resource Center (Download Only) linked from the print labs introduce students to the content, materials,
The IRC puts all of your lecture resources in one easy-to-reach place: and techniques they will use each lab. These teaching videos help TAs
prepare for lab setup and learn new teaching skills. The lab manual is
• The IRC provides all the line art, tables, and photos from the text in available in MasteringGeology with Pearson eText, allowing teachers to
JPEG files. use activity-based exercises to build students’ lab skills.
• PowerPoint™ Presentations: Found in the IRC are three PowerPoint
files for each chapter. Cut down on your preparation time, no matter Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Climate Change,
what your lecture needs, by taking advantage of these components of 2nd Edition by Michael Mann, Lee R. Kump (0133909778)
the PowerPoint files:
Periodic reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• Exclusive art. All the photos, art, and tables from the text, in (IPCC) evaluate the risk of climate change brought on by humans.
order, have been loaded into PowerPoint slides.
But the sheer volume of scientific data remains inscrutable to the gen-
• Lecture outline. This set averages 50 slides per chapter and eral public, particularly to those who may still question the validity
includes customizable lecture outlines with supporting art. of climate change. In just over 200 pages, this practical text presents
• Classroom Response System (CRS) questions. Authored for use in and expands upon the latest climate change data and scientific con-
conjunction with classroom response systems, these PowerPoint sensus of the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report in a visually stunning

xx Preface
and undeniably powerful way to the lay reader. Scientific findings that • Callan Bentley. Callan Bentley made many contributions to the new
provide validity to the implications of climate change are presented in edition of Essentials. Callan is a professor of geology at Northern
clear-cut graphic elements, striking images, and understandable analo- Virginia Community College in Annandale, where he has been hon-
gies. The second edition integrates mobile media links to online media. ored many times as an outstanding teacher. He is a frequent contrib-
The text is also available in various eText formats, including an eText utor to EARTH magazine and is author of the popular geology blog
upgrade option from MasteringGeology courses. Mountain Beltway. Callan assisted with the revision of Chapter 11,
“Crustal Deformation & Mountain Building,” and was responsible
for preparing the SmartFigure Tutorials that appear throughout the
Acknowledgments text. As you take advantage of these outstanding learning aids, you
will hear his voice explaining the ideas.
Writing a college textbook requires the talents and cooperation of many
people. It is truly a team effort, and the authors are fortunate to be part • Scott Linneman. We were fortunate to have Scott Linneman join the
of an extraordinary team at Pearson Education. In addition to being Essentials of Geology team as we prepared the 13th edition. Scott
great people to work with, all of them are committed to producing the provided many thoughtful suggestions and ideas and was responsible
best textbooks possible. Special thanks to our geology editor, Christian for revising Chapter 12, “Mass Movement on Slopes: The Work of
Botting. We appreciate his enthusiasm, hard work, and quest for excel- Gravity.” Scott is an award-winning professor of geology and science
lence. We also appreciate our conscientious project manager, Lizette education and director of the Honors Program at Western Washing-
Faraji, whose job it was to keep track of all that was going on—and a ton University in Bellingham.
lot was going on. As always, our marketing managers, Neena Bali and Great thanks also go to our colleagues who prepared in-depth reviews.
Mary Salzman, who talk with faculty daily, provide us with helpful Their critical comments and thoughtful input helped guide our work
advice and many good ideas. The 13th edition of Essentials of Geology and clearly strengthened the text. Special thanks to:
was certainly improved by the talents of our developmental editor, Mar-
got Otway. Our sincere thanks to Margot for her fine work. It was the Jessica Barone, Monroe Community College
job of the production team, led by Patty Donovan at SPi Global, to turn Paul Belasky, Ohlone College
our manuscript into a finished product. The team also included copy- Larry Braile, Purdue University
editor Kitty Wilson, proofreader Erika Jordan, and photo researcher Alan Coulson, Clemson University
Kristin Piljay. We think these talented people did great work. All are Nels Forsman, University of North Dakota
true professionals, with whom we are very fortunate to be associated. Edward Garnero, Arizona State University
Maria Mercedes Gonzales, Central Michigan University
The authors owe special thanks to four people who were very important Callum Hetherington, Texas Tech University
contributors to this project: Uwe Richard Kackstaetter, Metropolitan State University
• Dennis Tasa. Working with Dennis Tasa, who is responsible for all of Denver
of the text’s outstanding illustrations and several of its animations, is Haraldur Karlsson, Texas Tech University
always special for us. He has been part of our team for more than 30 Johnny MacLean, Southern Utah University
years. We value not only his artistic talents, hard work, patience, and Jennifer Nelson, Indiana University–Purdue University
imagination but his friendship as well. Indianapolis
Cassiopeia Paslick, Rock Valley College
• Michael Collier. As you read this text, you will see dozens of extraor-
Jeff Richardson, Columbus State Community College
dinary photographs by Michael Collier. Most are aerial shots taken
Jennifer Stempien, University of Colorado–Boulder
from his nearly 60-year-old Cessna 180. Michael was also respon-
Donald Thieme, Valdosta State University
sible for preparing the remarkable Mobile Field Trips that are scat-
tered through the text. Among his many awards is the American Last but certainly not least, we gratefully acknowledge the support and
Geological Institute Award for Outstanding Contribution to the encouragement of our wives, Nancy Lutgens and Joanne Bannon. Prep-
Public Understanding of Geosciences. We think that Michael’s pho- aration of this edition of Essentials would have been far more difficult
tographs and field trips are the next best thing to being there. We without their patience and understanding.
were very fortunate to have had Michael’s assistance on Essentials Fred Lutgens
of Geology, 13th edition. Thanks, Michael. Ed Tarbuck

Use Dynamic Media to Bring
Geology to Life

Bring Field Experience to
Students’ Fingertips...
How to download a QR Code Reader

Using a smartphone, students are encouraged to download
a QR Code reader app from Google Play or the Apple App
Store. Many are available for free. Once downloaded,
students open the app and point the camera to a QR
Code. Once scanned, they’re prompted to open the url to
immediately be connected to the digital world and deepen
their learning experience with the printed text.
NEW! QR Codes link out to SmartFigures

Quick Response (QR) codes link out to over 200 videos and
animations, giving readers immediate access to five types
of dynamic media: Project Condor Quadcopter Videos,
Mobile Field Trips, Tutorials, Animations, and Videos to
help visualize physical processes and concepts. SmartFigures
extend the print book to bring geology to life.
NEW! SmartFigure: Project Condor

Quadcopter Videos
Bringing Physical Geology to life for geology students,
three geologists, using a quadcopter-mounted GoPro
camera, have ventured into the field to film 10 key
geologic locations and processes. These process-
oriented videos, accessed through QR codes, are
designed to bring the field to the classroom and
improve the learning experience within the text.

...with SmartFigures
NEW! SmartFigure: Mobile Field Trips

On each trip, students will accompany geologist-
pilot-photographer Michael Collier in the air
and on the ground to see and learn about iconic
landscapes that relate to discussions in the chapter.
These extraordinary field trips are accessed by using
QR codes throughout the text. New Mobile Field
Trips for the 13th edition include Formation of a
Water Gap, Ice Sculpts Yosemite, Fire and Ice Land,
Dendrochronology, and Desert Geomorphology.
NEW! SmartFigure: Animations

Brief animations created by text illustrator Dennis
Tasa animate a process or concept depicted in the
textbook’s figures. With QR codes, students are given a
view of moving figures rather than static art to depict
how geologic processes move throughout time.
HALLMARK! SmartFigure: Tutorials

These brief tutorial videos present the
student with a 3- to 4-minute feature (mini-
lesson) narrated and annotated by Professor
Callan Bentley. Each lesson examines and
explains the concepts illustrated by the
figure. With over 100 SmartFigure Tutorials
inside the text, students have a multitude of
ways to enjoy art that teaches.

Award-Winning Contributing Authors
The language of this text is straightforward and written to be understood. Clear, readable discussions
with a minimum of technical language is the rule. In the 13th edition, we have continued to improve
readability with the addition of two new contributing authors, Scott Linnenman and Callan Bentley.
Scott Linneman provided many thoughtful

suggestions and idea throughout the text and was
responsible for revising Chapter 12: Mass
Movement on Slopes: The Work of Gravity.
Linneman is an award-winning Professor of Geology and
Science Education and director of the Honors Program at
Western Washington University in Bellingham.
Callan Bentley is Professor of Geology at Northern

Virginia Community College in Annandale, where he has
been honored many times as an outstanding teacher.
He is a frequent contributor to EARTH magazine and is
author of the popular geology blog Mountain Beltway.
Bentley assisted with the revision of Chapter 11:
Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building
and created the SmartFigure Tutorials that appear
throughout the text. As students take advantage of
these outstanding learning aids, they will hear his voice
explaining the ideas.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
CONTINUOUS PROGRESS.
Already the new bakery was becoming too small for the work, and
in August 1908 it was agreed to complete the central portion of the
building by the addition of other two storeys at a cost of £2,263. Just
prior to this time, however, the committee felt compelled to dispense
with the services of their foreman baker, and Mr W. H. Bell, who had
been his assistant, was appointed in his place. For several years
Belfast Society used the stable at the bakery for stabling their horses,
while they were also permitted to erect a cart shed and a shoeing
forge. Later this society erected stables, etc., for themselves on
property adjoining the bakery, and the ground which had been
occupied by them was utilised by the Federation for necessary
extensions to the bakery.
By March 1909 the extended premises were ready for occupation.
It was not long ere the directors were in the mortar tub again,
however, for another extension costing almost £4,000 was entered
on in the autumn of 1910; and not long after it was completed there
came, in December 1911, an urgent request from the advisory
committee for more ovens, and another extension, at a total cost of
almost £5,000, was entered on and completed in 1912. These various
extensions practically completed the bakery as it stands at present,
except for alterations, minor in themselves, which were made from
time to time during the war period with the object of increasing the
working facilities.
In July 1909 the committee recorded their satisfaction that the
average weekly sales from the bakery amounted to £1,219, while in
March 1910 the weekly turnover had reached 500 sacks; and to meet
the increasing demand three new ovens had to be erected. The
Bakery continued to win prizes at the Agricultural Hall and other
exhibitions, thus proving that Co-operative bread baking on a large
scale was equal to producing bread of the finest quality.
Early in 1910 the directors were saddened by the news that one of
the members of the first advisory committee, Mr Crook, of Lisburn,
had passed away.
Although most of the societies in the North were doing well, there
were one or two which were in a bad way. In 1908 Lurgan Society
had to close its doors. The Federation were creditors to the extent of
£114, and when settling day came it was found that the assets of the
dead society were only capable of returning 1/6 in the pound. In 1910
Newry Society went the same way. The Federation were creditors to
the extent of £200, and it was expected that the assets would realise
10/ per pound. In Newry the Federation made temporary
arrangements to carry on the bread trade, as had been done in
Banbridge, but after some time this course was abandoned.
Shortly after the new bakery was opened the two Dublin societies
were in consultation with the committee of the Federation about the
erection of a bakery, and the committee agreed to assist them. The
two societies were unable to agree, however, and the idea of a federal
bakery for Dublin was departed from. In 1910 Dublin Industrial
Society erected a bakery for themselves, and the opening of this
bakery was followed in a short time by the amalgamation of the two
societies. The Dublin Society, however, experienced considerable
difficulty in acquiring the knack of baking good bread—their position
in this respect recalls some of the earlier experiences of the U.C.B.S.
—and the Federation readily consented to Mr Bell or his assistant
visiting Dublin to put them on right lines. In 1913, when the distress
due to the strike was at its height in Dublin and the Trade Unions
Congress was coming to the rescue with financial support, the
Industrial Society received a contract for the supply of from 3,000 to
5,000 loaves daily. As they were unable to handle the contract in
their own bakery they secured the assistance of the U.C.B.S. bakery
in Belfast, which supplied them with the needed quantity of bread
during the period covered by the contract. Later, during the period of
the war, the Industrial Society was in considerable difficulty for a
time, and those responsible for its management were exceedingly
anxious that the U.C.B.S. should take over the bakery. This was not
done, however, and fortunately the society was able to maintain and
even to improve its position.
GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS.
At the beginning of 1909 the Bakery secured a contract for the
supply of bread and flour to Newtownards Barracks, and since then
have supplied from time to time that Barracks, as well as those of
Holywood, Belfast, and Kilroot, while, either directly or through local
societies, they have been successful in securing contracts for various
local institutions, one society during the war securing the contract
for the Admiralty.
In 1912 the Society had loaned some motor lorries for an
excursion, and during the day a painful accident took place whereby
one child was killed and three others were severely injured. The
Society’s motorman was completely exonerated from blame for the
accident, but in token of their sympathy the Society paid the doctor’s
fees and granted £55 to the relatives. In 1913 two of the societies
were experiencing difficulty in selling the bread because of the unfair
competition to which they were being subjected in attempts to cause
them to give up the bread trade, but the Federation came to their
assistance by allowing them a little additional discount on their
purchases. In 1911 the Irish Agricultural Wholesale Society was
appointed agent in Ireland for the Federation, and some time later it
was stated that since that federation had become agent the trade had
increased. At the Dublin Congress in 1914 the Federation erected a
scone and oatcake baking plant as part of their exhibit in the
Congress exhibition, and this exhibit was an object of much interest
to the Dublin visitors to the exhibition.
THE WAR AND ITS EFFECTS.
In Ireland, as in Scotland, the commanding position of the
U.C.B.S. had a steadying effect on the price of bread at the outbreak
of war. The Society carried good stocks of flour, and by adopting the
fixed policy of regulating the price of bread by the average price of
the flour in stock was able to maintain the price at a lower level than
the current price of flour warranted. In this way, while it was
possible to maintain full stocks of flour, the Bakery was able to keep
the price of bread at a halfpenny per 4–lb. loaf below the price at
which other bakers wished to sell it, and so saved the people of the
North many thousands of pounds.
The difficulties of transport were experienced by the branch,
however, in a much more marked degree than by the parent body. All
coal, flour, sugar, etc., used in the bakery had to be imported, and as
transport costs went up so also did prices, until bread was being sold
in Belfast at one shilling for the 4–lb. loaf. So short did the supply of
coal become that in 1915 Belfast Corporation was unable to supply
the Bakery with coke for firing purposes and a supply had to be sent
over from Glasgow. Flour and sugar also became very scarce, but
notwithstanding those facts the output of the Bakery continued to
increase rapidly until the coming of Government Regulation flour,
with its huge proportion of offal and other nastinesses, created a
distaste for bread amongst the public. At the outbreak of war the
output of the Bakery averaged 766 sacks per week, while by the end
of 1916 this had risen to 892 sacks per week, an increase of 16½ per
cent. in two and a half years. From then it gradually declined, until at
the end of the 63rd quarter of the working life of the branch it was
only 683 sacks per week. From that time and during the next six
months the trade again increased, so that by the end of the period
with which this history deals, although it had not reached the high-
water mark of 1916, all the evidence went to show that that point
would soon be left behind.
In 1918, with the object of relieving the congestion at M‘Neil
Street, it was resolved to establish an oatcake baking department at
Belfast, and for this purpose several hot-plates were transferred to
the Belfast bakery, as well as several girls from the M‘Neil Street
oatcake factory. This department has since proved a valuable adjunct
to the branch, the plant having had to be augmented and the number
of bakers employed increased.
Just at the end of the period Belfast became involved in one of the
most widespread strikes in the history of the Labour movement, and
practically all work except that of bread baking was brought to a
standstill. The electricity workers of the Corporation came out on
strike along with the other workmen, but fortunately for the branch
it had a power-generating plant of its own, and so was able to
continue at work. By this means the trade of the branch was
materially increased. The fact that the Federation has always been
willing to meet the requests of the employees in a reasonable manner
has always enabled the branch to maintain its popularity with the
Belfast workmen, and so impressed were the executives of the
Operative Bakers’ Society with the fairness and even liberality of the
committee that on one occasion an official letter was sent from the
union in which the board of management were thanked for the
assistance which their prompt action in agreeing to the request of the
union for a shorter working week had been in enabling that
concession to be imposed in the baking trade of the city.
When the branch was established in Belfast the distinct
understanding on which the U.C.B.S. took action was that as soon as
convenient it should be taken over by the local societies, but as the
years pass the likelihood of this being done seems to become more
remote. As has already been stated, the branch has been of great
assistance not only to Belfast Society but also to the majority of other
societies in the North. It has fostered the Co-operative spirit and Co-
operative idealism. From a weakling which was very much in need of
the fostering care of the movement in Scotland Co-operation in
Ireland, and especially in the North of Ireland, has grown to be a
strong and healthy organisation, with its centre in Belfast and with
branches scattered all over Ulster. It is probable that the Irish
societies are strong enough now to take over the branch if they were
so disposed, but the farseeing spirits amongst them see that there is
other work lying to their hand to which, relieved of the working of
the bakery, they can turn their undivided attention.
On the other hand, the proposal, adopted in 1917, that the
Federation should proceed, as and when expedient, to plant
branches in other centres of Co-operation in Ireland, will in course of
time cause the U.C.B.S. in Ireland to cease to be an exclusively North
of Ireland concern. It will do much, just as the other federation in
Ireland, the I.A.W.S., is doing much, to weld together into one united
movement the whole of the Co-operative societies in the country. It
will serve for Ireland, as it and its kindred associations in Scotland
and England are serving to-day, as an illustration of the fact that Co-
operation is not merely a principle for adoption by a few farmers or a
few workmen in a given district, but is also a principle on which
these isolated groups can be united into one powerful whole, by
becoming an institution where all can meet on a common platform.
CHAPTER XV.
A NEW PRESIDENT.
A GREAT DEMONSTRATION—A NEW TYPE OF OVEN—ST

MUNGO HALLS—TEAROOMS BURNED DOWN—MR
M‘CULLOCH RETIRES; MR GERRARD ELECTED
PRESIDENT—AN AMALGAMATION PROPOSAL—PURVEY
AND CONTRACT DEPARTMENT—THE FIRST MOTOR VAN
—A BREAD EXPERIMENT—PROPAGANDA AND PUBLICITY
—UNEMPLOYMENT—THE EFFECT ON CO-OPERATION—
CO-OPERATION THE REMEDY—SOME BUSINESS ITEMS—
THE SOCIETY’S POSITION.
In tracing the history of the two branches at Clydebank and Belfast

we have wandered far ahead of the general development of the
Society, and must now retrace our steps to the main road of our story
at the point at which we left it. In the period which began with the
beginning of the thirty-third year the directors were kept very busy
with business which was connected with the development of the two
new branches, but the parent institution was not allowed to suffer
from neglect. The great demonstration which was held in the
summer of 1902 to celebrate the attainment of an average output of
3,000 sacks per week proved a great success. The demonstration was
in two parts. In the first place, the employees and their families and
friends, to a number which filled three special trains, went picnicing
in the morning to Milngavie. In the second place, a gigantic vehicular
procession, which included about 100 vehicles and 150 horses,
paraded through the city and out the Milngavie Road as far as
Canniesburn Toll, returning to M‘Neil Street by another route. This
procession was headed by a charabanc containing the members of
the Society’s band, and the gaily decorated lorries and vans attracted
much attention as they passed through the streets. All the mottoes
displayed in the procession had some reference to Co-operation.
But, while it is good to demonstrate and advertisement has
certainly its uses, bread must also be baked, and the object of a Co-
operative society is, or ought to be, to produce the best possible
bread at a minimum cost. This was a fact of which there was not
much danger that the directors would lose sight, and even if they did
the representatives of the societies would very quickly remind them
of the lapse. They were about to build a new bakery; and, with the
view of testing the efficiency of a type of oven then practically
unknown in Scotland, they decided to erect two draw-plate ovens at
M‘Neil Street. The tests seem to have been satisfactory, for in both
Clydebank and Belfast branches this type of oven formed the
majority of those installed.
ST MUNGO HALLS.
Meantime other matters were engaging their attention. When the
new stables had been erected on the land purchased at the south
corner of South York Street and Govan Street a considerable portion
of the ground—more than half indeed—remained unbuilt on, and
early in 1902 the educational committee of the Society came forward
with the recommendation that in any further building which might
be erected a hall which could be used for educational purposes
should be included. The committee also were desirous that the
Society should have a hall of their own, and later in the same year the
architects were instructed to prepare plans for the utilisation of this
vacant land which should include halls and accommodation for the
headquarters of the purvey department. At the quarterly meeting in
March 1903 power was given to proceed with the erection of the
buildings. These were to consist of five halls, containing
accommodation for from 200 to 1,500 people, with the necessary
siderooms, etc., and with ample accommodation for the purvey
department. Permission was also given for the erection of three
tenements of dwellinghouses, with shops on the ground floor; the
total cost to be from £14,000 to £15,000 for the halls and purvey
department buildings, and £6,400 for the tenements. Eleven months
passed, however, before the building of the halls was begun, and they
were not completed until 1906.
Toward the end of 1903 the Paisley Road tearooms were destroyed
by fire, and in restoring them the committee decided to add another
storey. The landlord agreed to bear a proportion of the cost, and on
the reconstruction being completed they were named the
“Wheatsheaf” tearooms.
MR M‘CULLOCH RETIRES.
For several years the chairman had been desirous of retiring, but
had been induced to remain in office until the schemes on which he
had set his heart—the erection of Clydebank and Belfast branches—
were well on the way. In 1904, however, he definitely decided to end
his official connection with the Society. For fifteen years he had acted
as president. He was first appointed to the board by his society in
June 1888, and had continued to act on the board until his retiral.
Mr Daniel H. Gerrard was elected president in succession to Mr
M‘Culloch. For a short time he had represented St George Society on
the board prior to his election, while the active part which he had
taken, as a member of the Scottish Sectional Board, in combating the
boycott in the later “’nineties” and his position as chairman of St
George Society had made him well known to the majority of Scottish
Co-operators.
AN AMALGAMATION PROPOSAL.
In the autumn of 1903 an interesting proposal was made by the
directors of Hamilton Baking Society. This was to the effect that the
two societies should become amalgamated. During the following year
several meetings took place between representatives of the two
societies, but ultimately negotiations were broken off, the members
of Hamilton Baking Society having expressed disapproval of the
proposal. If the scheme could have been carried through it would
have left the Baking Society in the position of being the only
federated society producing bread in the West, with the exception of
Chapelhall, and might have paved the way for that society to come in
also.
PURVEY AND CONTRACT DEPARTMENT.
Meantime the work of the purvey department was growing. For the
two years 1902 and 1903 the department secured contracts from
Glasgow Corporation for the supply of bags of eatables on Children’s
Day. In the aggregate the bags supplied numbered 190,000, of a total
value of about £1,800, and requiring somewhere about twenty-five
tons of flour for their manufacture. When the “Wheatsheaf”
tearooms were reopened after the fire an “at home” was held to
which the customers were invited. The purvey department was also
an offerer on most occasions when purveys on a large scale had to be
carried through, often with success. The department was successful
in securing the purveying contract for the tearooms in the East-End
Exhibition. It was also a successful offerer in 1904 for the supply of
bread to Gailes Territorial Camp, and in the following year
Jamestown Camp was supplied from Clydebank.
The tearooms continued to give cause for a considerable amount of
anxiety on the part of the committee. Sometimes a small profit was
made on the working and sometimes a loss resulted, but there never
was that increase in trade for which the board thought they had a
right to look. With the erection of St Mungo Hall and the
transference of the catering headquarters to South York Street the
need for Main Street as a depot for the catering department
disappeared, but for some time it was carried on as a workmen’s
tearoom, always without any signs of assured success, however.
Finally, in 1904, it was given up altogether. Nor were the London
Street halls or the Union rooms much more successful. Several
experiments were made at London Street, with the object of making
the place more popular. The whole of the three upper flats were
taken by the Society, and several trade union and friendly society
branches made the rooms their headquarters, but the place was
never really popular. An attempt which was made to run the second
flat as workmen’s dining and tea rooms did not meet with much
success, and it seemed as if anything the board could do was not of
much use in popularising the place. Nor were the Union rooms much
more successful. They just managed to keep going, but they did not
become, as had been hoped, a rendezvous for the men and women of
the Co-operative movement. Nevertheless the committee did not
despair. They always kept on hoping that the tide would turn and
renewed the lease time after time, still looking for the Co-operative
patronage which never came in sufficient quantity to make the place
a success.
THE FIRST MOTOR VAN.
For practically the whole of the nineteenth century the power-
driven road vehicle had to struggle against the bigotry of the people
and the interested opposition of the proprietors of other systems of
locomotion. Steam-driven road cars and wagons were in use long
before Stephenson had designed and completed his first railway, but
they met with strong and unreasoning opposition on the part of
many people instigated by the owners of post and passenger coaches,
who saw in the new method of locomotion a menace to their welfare,
and also by other horse owners, who found these steam-driven, noisy
vehicles intolerable nuisances which frightened into panic the high-
strung horses unfortunate enough to meet them on the roads. This
opposition translated itself into Acts of Parliament which imposed
heavy taxation on the newer mode of locomotion, and culminated in
1836 in the famous “man with the red flag” provision in the Act of
that year, which was the means of clearing practically every “faster
than walking pace” power-driven vehicle off the roads. This Act,
passed at the instance and in the interests of the railways, had a most
detrimental effect on the development of road and also of canal
traffic, and left the country completely at the mercy of the railway
companies until the “red flag” restriction was practically laughed out
of existence in the last decade of the century by the development of
petrol-driven motors, and the prohibition was removed in 1896.
After 1896 the development of power-driven vehicles for road
traffic made rapid strides, but it was not until some seven years later
that the U.C.B.S., on the instigation of the makers, put a bread motor
van on the road for a trial. After working for some months, the
committee decided to send a note of their experience of its working
to the makers, and at the same time to point out some defects which
they had discovered. Gradually, however, the new means of delivery
superseded the old, until all the Society’s long-distance work was
done by means of motor vans. For many years, however, the
construction of the motor engines placed a serious obstacle in the
way of the adoption of motor vans for short journeys or for journeys
which entailed frequent stops. The engine, from its nature, requires
that the cylinder should be charged and the charge compressed
before ignition can take place. Drivers were therefore faced with the
alternatives of putting the engine out of gear and leaving it running—
at a considerable expenditure for fuel which gave no return in work
done—or of having much laborious cranking for the purpose of
charging the cylinder and compressing and igniting the gas, the latter
plan, particularly in cold weather, often entailing considerable
expenditure of time as well as of energy. Nowadays, however, most
up-to-date motor engines have a small electric engine for doing this
work.
A BREAD EXPERIMENT.
For a long time it had been the wish of the manager and directors
of the Baking Society to introduce a natural working day into the
bread trade, and they had done their best some years earlier to have
the matter taken up by the societies and the public, but without
success. Now, in the autumn of 1905, another attempt was made, a
squad of bakers beginning work at 9 a.m.; the bread thus baked
being delivered on the following morning. A number of the societies
in Glasgow and neighbourhood were induced to take up the sale of
this bread, with the result that the sales speedily rose; but after a trial
which lasted several months the scheme was abandoned, as the
directors found that instead of helping the general work of delivery it
was proving a hindrance to that work.
This decision of the committee met with a considerable amount of
opposition from delegates to the quarterly meeting, but the directors
were not in a position to do other than they had done. The real
obstacle was to be found in the fact that the public insisted on having
new bread, and with a number of the bakers beginning work late in
the day for the production of “natural working day” bread, as it had
been named, there was not labour enough in the early morning to
meet the demand for new bread by ten o’clock. Thus the second
attempt of the Baking Society directors to introduce a natural
working day into the baking trade came to naught, through no fault
of theirs, but because of a public who would insist on having bread
steaming from the ovens.
PROPAGANDA AND PUBLICITY.
During these years the directors continued to adopt every
reasonable method of keeping the Federation and its productions
before the public. They took advantage of every opportunity offered
by exhibitions to show the quality of goods which were produced by
the Society; they exhibited also at shows, and were occasionally
successful in securing prizes, although the rush conditions under
which their bread had to be produced in order to cope with the ever-
increasing demands of the societies did not provide the conditions
necessary for producing bread of show quality.
At the same time the entertaining of women’s guilds, conference
associations, and other Co-operative organisations was further
developed, and many Co-operators who before had but a very hazy
idea of the size and importance of the U.C.B.S. were enlightened as a
result of these visits. The cake shows, also, held annually, were
excellent propaganda. Here, inside one hall, were to be found
specimens of all the productions of the three bakeries; and these
productions came latterly to include many novelties which were not
to be found in everyday use, as well as the more common specimens
of cakes, buns, bread, etc., and a large variety of biscuits. Thus the
cake show came to be regarded as the annual exhibition of Bakery
productions, which indeed it was, and it was one of the most eagerly
anticipated Co-operative functions of the year.
UNEMPLOYMENT.
Unfortunately, during the years 1904–1905 there was a very severe
economic crisis which was the cause of widespread unemployment,
and Glasgow and the West suffered severely. Such economic crises
had been periodic during the past century, and differed materially
from those which occurred in earlier centuries. Until the beginning
of the nineteenth century economic crises were really due to actual
scarcity of foodstuffs, and people went hungry as much because there
was not enough food to go round as because they had no money with
which to buy their share of what there was. Thus, in Scotland, until
about the close of the Napoleonic wars, the periods of comparative
plenty or of scarcity depended largely on the character of the
seasons. While it is true that the common people were always in
want, in bad seasons they died of starvation.
With the coming of the industrial era, however, there took place a
gradual change. While prices still depended on the seasons, and were
moderately or extravagantly high as the seasons were good or bad,
there entered into the problem a new factor, and the people became
poor and were unable to purchase because they had produced too
much and there was not an effective market for the goods. As it has
been tersely put: “The shoemaker’s children went barefoot because
their father had produced too many boots; and the tailor’s, naked,
because he had made too many clothes.”
This was a new phenomenon for which history provides no
parallel, and it has persisted, ever increasing in intensity, until
towards the end of the first decade of the twentieth century as many
as 42 per cent. of the breadwinners in a respectable working-class
district in the East-End of Glasgow have been found to be
unemployed at the same time.
These periods of unemployment seem to be in the form of more or
less regularly recurring cycles. There is first a gradually increasing
inflation of the volume of trade. New works are started, old works are
enlarged, and everywhere there is a boom, until the zenith is
reached. Then comes a gradual slackening off. The supply of goods
has outstripped the limits of effective demand and sales gradually
decline as warehouses become full. The rate of slackening increases;
statisticians begin to watch the rapidly ascending unemployment
curve, which in itself does not record the full slackening, as many
workers are on short time. This increase of unemployment still
further weakens the effective demand for goods and still further
accelerates the growth of unemployment, with the result that in
about another year the unemployment crisis is reached, soup
kitchens and relief works open; thousands of hitherto steady
workmen become derelicts—and the huge commercial and industrial
concerns take advantage of the slackness to squeeze small rivals out
of business or to swallow them up, while at the same time improving
their own machinery of production.
Another feature of these industrial phenomena is the acceleration
of their periodicity. During the decades which marked the end of the
nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, the number
of years which elapsed between one crisis and the next was becoming
smaller and the periods were appreciably shorter than those of the
earlier cycles. Fourteen, twelve, or ten years used to be the intervals
between crises, but in the last forty years this interval has gradually
shortened, until only three years intervened between the end of one
crisis and the beginning of the next. This is in strict accordance with
what we would expect to find. The means of supplying the effective
demand of the people for goods has increased out of all proportion to
the increase in that effective demand, with the natural result that the
market gets choked full to overflowing in an ever-shortening time.
When to this is added the continuous perfecting of processes and
equally continuous speeding up of production, we see that under the
conditions which obtain it necessarily follows that the periods which
must elapse before the markets are choked up with goods must get
progressively shorter, while the periods necessary to relieve the glut
again grow gradually longer. Thus, we had a crisis in the late
“’seventies,” another in 1888–89; another in 1893, of a milder type;
another in 1898; another, very acute, in 1904–05; and another, the
worst the industrial world in Britain has known, in 1908–09–10;
while evidences were not wanting when war broke out that we were
again on the downward sweep of the cycle.
THE EFFECT ON CO-OPERATION.
The Co-operative movement in general is profoundly influenced by
conditions of unemployment, which is our excuse for what has been
written above. The vast majority of Co-operators depend for their
incomes on their being employed in ordinary industrial
undertakings, and when the machinery of industry breaks down their
spending power is affected. Those in fortunate positions can carry on
economically for a longer or shorter period on their investments in
their societies, but those fortunate individuals constitute but a small
proportion of the whole membership. When an unemployment crisis
comes it means distress to a large number of Co-operators, for those
who have large savings to fall back on are usually in more or less
important positions in the concerns by which they are employed and
are amongst the last to be dismissed—are, in fact, rarely out of
employment at all. Sales of Co-operative societies go down, while
working expenses continue. In this respect, however, the Baking
Society has always been the last to suffer, for people continue to buy
bread when they have almost ceased to be able to purchase anything
else. But there is always during such crises a proportion of Co-
operators, varying in different districts, whose incomes are barely
sufficient to meet physical needs while they are in constant
employment and who are thrown on their beam ends by even a
fortnight of unemployment, and the hardship of these crises is that
this is the class of people on whom the curse of unemployment falls
first and on whom it rests longest.
Fortunately, the milk of human kindness is not quite dried up in
Co-operators, and so soon as genuine cases of distress are known
steps are taken to ameliorate the condition. In this process of
amelioration the Baking Society has always played a big part. We
have already seen that during the miners’ and engineers’ strikes and
during periods of distress due to unemployment the Society
distributed thousands of pounds worth of bread, and now, during
1904–05, the same policy was pursued.

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In tracing the history of the two branches at Clydebank and Belfast

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