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Chapter 07 - Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Chapter 07
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (p. 240) _____ psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher
mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning,
and judging.
A. Clinical
B. Developmental
C. Cognitive
D. Evolutionary
APA Goal Outcome: 1.4, 10.2

Bloom's Taxonomy: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Outcome: 21-1
2. (p. 241) Which of the following is true about mental images?

A. They refer only to visual representations.
B. They have only a few of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent.
C. They are representations in the mind of an object or event.
D. They cannot be rotated.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

Difficulty: Easy
7-1
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in
any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part
3. (p. 241) Which of the following statements best expresses the nature of mental images?
A. They are binary in format.
B. They are always auditory in format.
C. They may be produced by any sensory modality.
D. They are linguistic.

Difficulty: Easy
4. (p. 241) Dr. Randazza shows participants a stylized map of a fictitious city. The map includes
landmarks, such as a post office, a library, a shopping mall, a bus depot, and an airport. Some of
the landmarks are close together, such as the library and the post office. Others are far apart,
such as the airport and the shopping mall. Dr. Randazza removes the map. Participants are
asked to imagine walking from one landmark to another, either a nearby one or a more distant
one. Participants press a key when they've reached the destination in their minds. Based on your
text's discussion of mental imagery, what do you think Dr. Randazza should find? What would
such a result say about mental imagery?
A. Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as
between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual
actions we perform with respect to real objects.
B. Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as
between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the
actual actions we perform with respect to real objects.
C. Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close
landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual actions we perform
with respect to real objects.
D. Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close
landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions we
perform with respect to real objects.

Bloom's Taxonomy: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
7-2
5. (p. 241) Clint is mentally rehearsing his golf swing in his mind's eye. Based on the text's
discussion of mental imagery, which of the following statements is MOST accurate?
A. Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. Carrying out the task involves the
same network of brain cells as the network used in mentally rehearsing it.
B. Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active
during Clint's mental rehearsal should be the same as those active when Clint actually swings
the golf club.
C. Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's
mental rehearsal should be different than those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.
D. Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active
during Clint's mental rehearsal should be different than those active when Clint actually swings
the golf club.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.4, 9.2, 9.3

Difficulty: Medium
6. (p. 241-242) Mental representations of objects are called _____; mental grouping of similar
objects, events, or people are called _____.
A. images; concepts
B. images; images as well
C. concepts; concepts as well
D. concepts; images

Difficulty: Easy
7-3
7. (p. 242) Which of the following is most nearly synonymous with the term concept, as it is used
by cognitive psychologists?
A. Idea
B. Relationship
C. Category
D. Image

Difficulty: Easy
8. (p. 242) Mental groupings of objects, events, or people that share common features are called:
A. concepts.
B. ideas.
C. heuristics.
D. algorithms.

Difficulty: Easy
9. (p. 243) A prototype is:

A. the most typical or highly representative example of a concept.
B. the first example of a concept that one encounters.
C. the most frequent or common example of a concept.
D. the most unusual or distinctive example of a concept.

Difficulty: Easy
7-4
10. (p. 243) Which of the following is MOST likely the prototype of the concept "fruit"?
A. Carrot
B. Apple
C. Tomato
D. Blueberry

Difficulty: Easy
11. (p. 243) You check the time on your phone. Your friend should be out of class by now. You
call her. She should answer if she's out of class. In this example, your thought processes are best
seen as exemplifying:
A. problem solving.
B. conceptualization.
C. reasoning.
D. creativity.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3, 4.4

Bloom's Taxonomy: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
12. (p. 243) A rule that guarantees the solution to a problem when it is correctly applied is termed
as a(n):
A. heuristic.
B. algorithm.
C. premise.
D. syllogism.

Difficulty: Easy
7-5
13. (p. 243) Which of the following is true of algorithms?

A. In cases where heuristics are not available we may use algorithms.
B. Even if it is applied appropriately, an algorithm cannot guarantee a solution to a problem.
C. Algorithms may sometimes lead to errors.
D. We can use an algorithm even if we cannot understand why it works.

Difficulty: Medium
14. (p. 243) Which of the following is true of heuristics?

A. In cases where algorithms are not available, we may use heuristics.
B. If applied appropriately, a heuristic guarantees a solution to a problem.
C. Heuristics never lead to errors.
D. Heuristics decrease the likelihood of success in coming to a solution.

Difficulty: Medium
15. (p. 243) Which of the following terms best captures the meaning of the term heuristic, as
cognitive psychologists use it?
A. Principle
B. Formula
C. Strategy
D. Program

Difficulty: Easy
7-6
16. (p. 243) When you play tic-tac-toe using certain mental shortcuts, you are using cognitive
strategies psychologists call:
A. algorithms.
B. mental sets.
C. heuristics.
D. syllogistic reasoning.

Difficulty: Easy
17. (p. 243) Matt picks up a pamphlet at a counseling center titled How to Succeed at College
Course Work. Which type of problem-solving strategies is MOST LIKELY offered in this
pamphlet?
A. Algorithms
B. Insights
C. Heuristics
D. Syllogisms

Difficulty: Medium
18. (p. 243) Which of the following most likely makes use of heuristics?
A. A chemical equation for the synthesis of sulfuric acid
B. A recipe for making cookies on the back of a box of cornflakes
C. An article by a Nobel Prize winner titled "How to Succeed in Science"
D. A computer program for keeping track of inventory at a department store

Difficulty: Medium
7-7
19. (p. 243) Which of the following is an advantage of the use of heuristics?
A. A heuristic will present a clearly defined solution to a problem.
B. A heuristic is often efficient.
C. A heuristic is guaranteed to result in a correct response.
D. A heuristic results in only one possible solution to a problem.

Difficulty: Medium
20. (p. 243) Which of the following is TRUE of heuristics?

A. Heuristics always lead to correct solutions of a problem.
B. Heuristics are a slower way to solve problems than are other strategies.
C. Heuristics represent commonly used approaches to the solution of a problem.
D. Heuristics are used by computers but not by humans as problem-solving tools.

Difficulty: Medium
21. (p. 243) Lori and Monica are looking at the cans of coffee on display at a local supermarket.
They are trying to decide which of two different-sized cans is the better buy. Lori attempts to
divide the price of each can by the number of ounces of coffee each _____ contains. Monica
suggests that "the larger size is usually a better buy". Lori is using a(n); Monica, a(n) _____.
A. heuristic; algorithm
B. algorithm; heuristic
C. prototype; algorithm
D. heuristic; prototype

Difficulty: Medium
7-8
22. (p. 243) The _____ is a rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they depict
a certain category or group of people.
A. availability heuristic
B. representativeness heuristic
C. confirmation bias
D. stereotypic bias

Difficulty: Easy
23. (p. 243) When you use the representativeness heuristic, you are:
A. making frequency estimates based on the ease with which things come to mind.
B. overcoming a mental set.
C. mistaking visual images and other forms of mental representations for reality.
D. assuming that something is typical of its class.

Difficulty: Medium
24. (p. 243) Suppose you meet a woman who opposes the death penalty. You then decide that,
generally, women are more likely to oppose the death penalty than are men. That is, you assume
that the individual case is depictive of its category. Here you have fallen prey to:
A. functional fixedness.
B. the representativeness heuristic.
C. the availability heuristic.
D. the confirmation bias.

Difficulty: Easy
7-9
25. (p. 243) Carl is the one person Craig has ever met from New Zealand. Carl strikes Craig as
being quite friendly and funny. When asked what he would expect to find if he went to New
Zealand, Craig says that he would expect the people to be quite friendly and funny. What might
he have used to make this judgment?
A. The representativeness heuristic
B. The confirmation bias
C. Functional fixedness
D. The availability heuristic

Difficulty: Medium
26. (p. 244) The _____ heuristic involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how
easily the event can be recalled from memory.
A. availability
B. representativeness
C. confirmation
D. frequency

Difficulty: Easy
27. (p. 244) According to the _____ heuristic we assume that events we remember easily are likely
to have occurred more frequently in the past—and are more likely to occur in the future—than
events that are harder to remember.
A. availability
B. representativeness
C. confirmation
D. frequency

Difficulty: Easy
7-10
28. (p. 244) Following the September 11, 2001, Twin Towers attacks, many Americans elected to
drive rather than fly. The media coverage of the hijackings caused Americans to overestimate
the danger of flying. As it was an event they remember easily they assumed it could occur more
frequently. This example illustrates the:
A. availability heuristic.
B. representativeness heuristic.
C. confirmation bias.
D. stereotypic bias.

Difficulty: Medium
29. (p. 244) When people are asked which is more common, death by homicide or death by stroke,
they often choose homicide because they simply hear more about murders than they do about
strokes. In this instance, people are led astray in their judgments by:
A. the representativeness heuristic.
B. the stereotypic bias.
C. the confirmation bias.
D. the availability heuristic.

Difficulty: Medium
30. (p. 244) Last week, Mike heard about five separate airplane crashes on the news. Even though,
overall, motorcycle accidents account for more accidents than plane crashes do, Mike decides
to ride his motorcycle from Washington to Atlanta instead of flying. Which bias is reflected in
Mike's decision?
A. The availability heuristic
B. The confirmation bias
C. The syllogistic error
D. The representativeness heuristic

Difficulty: Medium
7-11
31. (p. 244) Joanne will not go out at night because she hears from her local news station about the
large number of muggings and robberies that occur in her city. However, crime in Joanne's city
has actually gone down in the past few years. To which bias is Joanne falling victim?
A. The representativeness heuristic
B. Functional fixedness
C. The availability heuristic
D. The confirmation bias

Difficulty: Medium
32. (p. 244) "You always clam up when I ask you what's wrong," Iris tells her boyfriend. Iris is
probably making this frequency judgment because she can remember a few times that her
boyfriend wouldn't tell her what was bothering him. Iris is using the _____ heuristic.
A. representativeness
B. availability
C. functional
D. frequency

Difficulty: Medium
33. (p. 244) In a _____ heuristic, known items are seen as superior to those that are unknown.
A. representativeness
B. availability
C. functional
D. familiarity

Difficulty: Easy
7-12
34. (p. 244) When you go to the supermarket, you see the brand of cookies you usually buy, and
settle for it. Usually it's a good rule of thumb, because it saves a lot of time. You do not ponder
over every type of cookie available in the store. This is an example of a(n) _____.
A. representativeness heuristic
B. syllogistic reasoning
C. algorithm
D. familiarity heuristic

Difficulty: Easy
35. (p. 244) _____ intelligence is the field that examines how to use technology to imitate the
outcome of human thinking, problem solving, and creative activities.
A. Artificial
B. Bodily-kinesthetic
C. Spatial
D. Existential

Difficulty: Easy
36. (p. 246) Which of the following sequences best reflects the order of the three broad phases of
the problem-solving process, from first to last?
A. Preparation → judgment → production
B. Judgment → production → preparation
C. Preparation → production → judgment
D. Judgment → preparation → production

Difficulty: Easy
7-13
37. (p. 246) In _____ problems, the nature of the problem and the information needed to solve it
are clear; in _____ problems, either or both the nature of the problem and the information
required to solve it are unclear.
A. well-defined; ill-defined
B. algorithmic; heuristic
C. arrangement; inducing structure
D. transformation; arrangement

Difficulty: Easy
38. (p. 246) Which of the following is an ill-defined problem?

A. Navigating to a museum in a nearby city
B. Composing a good concerto
C. Finding out where several well-known authors were born
D. Playing Scrabble

Difficulty: Medium
39. (p. 246, 243) "Convert to a mixed numeral: 18/5," states one problem in a fifth-grader's
arithmetic text. This is a(n) _____ problem. It is best solved through the application of _____.
A. well-defined; algorithms
B. well-defined; heuristics
C. ill-defined; algorithms
D. ill-defined; heuristics

Difficulty: Medium
7-14
40. (p. 246) Dr. Ireland's class is attempting to find derivatives; Dr. Jamison's class is developing
campaign strategies for a local politician. Which of the following statements is MOST likely
TRUE?
A. Dr. Ireland's class is solving a well-defined problem.
B. Dr. Jamison's class is solving a well-defined problem.
C. Dr. Ireland's class is using syllogistic reasoning.
D. Dr. Jamison's class is using familiarity heuristic.

Difficulty: Medium
41. (p. 246) _____ problems require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a
way that will satisfy a certain criterion.
A. Arrangement
B. Inducing structure
C. Transformation
D. Prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
42. (p. 246) In problems of _____, a person must identify the existing relationships among the
elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them.
A. arrangement
B. inducing structure
C. transformation
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
7-15
43. (p. 246) _____ problems consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the
initial state into the goal state.
A. Arrangement
B. Inducing structure
C. Transformation
D. Prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
44. (p. 246) Which of the following problem types is CORRECTLY matched with a description?
A. Arrangement—moving from an initial to a goal state according to a specific method
B. Inducing structure—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing
new relationships
C. Transformation—rearranging or recombining elements to satisfy a particular criterion
D. Transformation— identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new
relationships

Difficulty: Medium
45. (p. 246) Janelle is solving anagrams; Kamika is puzzling over verbal analogies; Lamar is
playing chess with a friend. Which alternative below CORRRECTLY matches each individual
with the type of problem he or she is solving?
A. Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—transformation; Lamar—inducing structure
B. Janelle—transformation; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—arrangement
C. Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—transformation
D. Janelle—transformation; Kamika—arrangement; Lamar—inducing structure

Difficulty: Medium
7-16
46. (p. 248) Thomas Edison invented the lightbulb only because he experimented with thousands
of different kinds of materials for a filament before he found one that worked (carbon). This
shows that at the most basic level, we can solve problems through _____.
A. the availability heuristic
B. means-ends analysis
C. insight
D. trial and error

Difficulty: Easy
47. (p. 249) _____ involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what
currently exists.
A. Forming subgoals
B. Means-ends analysis
C. Insight
D. Trial and error

Difficulty: Easy
48. (p. 249) According to the text, the most frequently used problem-solving heuristic is:
A. forming subgoals.
B. means-ends analysis.
C. insight.
D. trial and error.

Difficulty: Easy
7-17
49. (p. 249-250) Millie is stumped by a problem in her pre-calculus text. She furtively glances at the
answer provided in the back of the text to get an idea of how the solution should look before she
returns to the problem. Millie's strategy most closely resembles the problem-solving heuristic
of:
B. trial and error.
C. working backward.
D. insight.

Difficulty: Medium
50. (p. 250) A political science professor attempts to facilitate her students' completion of a term
paper assignment by requiring to first submit a topic statement, then a list of references, then a
draft of the introduction, then, finally, the completed paper. The professor is encouraging her
students to use the problem-solving strategy of:
B. working backward.
C. means-ends analysis.
D. trial and error.

Difficulty: Medium
7-18
51. (p. 250) Which problem-solving strategy or method is CORRECTLY matched with its
definition?
A. Means-ends analysis - dividing a problem into intermediate steps
B. Forming subgoals - focusing on a problem's goal rather than its starting point
C. Working backward - reducing the apparent difference between the current state of the
problem and the goal
D. Insight - experiencing a sudden awareness of the relationships among a problem's
components

Difficulty: Medium
52. (p. 250) Kent and Kirsten are both trying to reduce their consumer debt. Kent isolates several
more concrete problems he can solve to achieve his goal, such as paying the highest-interest
debts first and freezing credit card spending. Kirsten simply pays her largest debt first, because
this would seem to be the fastest way to move her debt as close to zero as possible. Kent's plan
reflects the problem-solving strategy of _____. Kirsten's method illustrates the strategy of
_____.
A. forming subgoals; trial and error
B. means-end analysis; trial and error
C. working backward; means-end analysis
D. forming subgoals; means-end analysis

Difficulty: Difficult
7-19
53. (p. 250) The study of insight is associated with the German psychologist _____; he studied
problem solving among _____.
A. Kohler; chimpanzees
B. Kohler; humans
C. Wundt; cats
D. Wundt; humans

Difficulty: Easy
54. (p. 250) _____ is defined as a sudden awareness of the relationship among problem elements;
it is thought to lead rapidly to the problem's solution.
A. Convergent thinking
B. Divergent thinking
C. Insight
D. Creativity

Difficulty: Easy
55. (p. 250) The text's discussion of insight suggests that its key characteristic is its:
A. brevity.
B. complexity.
C. uniqueness.
D. suddenness.

Difficulty: Easy
7-20
56. (p. 250) According to the text, the apparent suddenness of insightful problem solutions:
A. may rest in part on the foundation of trial and error.
B. may be based on the availability heuristic.
C. has been affirmed by empirical research.
D. requires the application of confirmation bias.

Difficulty: Medium
57. (p. 252) Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is INCORRECTLY
matched with an illustrative problem?
A. Confirmation bias—problem of security in the Middle East
B. Functional fixedness—water jar problem
C. Mental set—water jar problem
D. Functional fixedness—candle problem

Difficulty: Medium
58. (p. 252) _____ refers to the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist.
A. Mental set
B. Representativeness heuristic
C. Availability heuristic
D. Syllogistic frame

Difficulty: Easy
7-21
59. (p. 252) Zelma is asked to think of all the words she can, beginning with the letters "squ," such
as squeak. She is then given a fill-in-the-blank task on which one of the items is "s _ _ o n g."
Zelma keeps trying to make "squong" a word, and has trouble thinking of the common word
strong. Zelma's ability to solve this problem has been hampered by:
A. syllogistic reasoning.
B. a mental set.
D. the representativeness heuristic.

Difficulty: Medium
60. (p. 252) Which of the following statements best expresses the relationship between mental and
functional fixedness?
A. Functional fixedness is an example of a broader phenomenon known as mental set.
B. Mental set is actually a specific instance of functional fixedness.
C. Functional fixedness and mental set are the same thing.
D. Functional fixedness and mental set are distinct problem-solving impediments.

Difficulty: Medium
61. (p. 252) Making several minor household repairs, Alyssa uses a shoe as a hammer and a butter
knife as a screwdriver. Which of the following statements best characterizes Alyssa's problem
solving?
A. She is constrained by a powerful mental set.
B. She has been released from functional fixedness.
C. She is taking advantage of the representative heuristic.
D. She is forming subgoals.

Difficulty: Medium
7-22
62. (p. 252) A jeweler is unable to fix a particular mounting in a ring because she can imagine only
the conventional uses for her tools. This best demonstrates which of the following?
A. Syllogistic reasoning
B. Functional fixedness
C. Algorithmic thinking
D. Means-end analysis

Difficulty: Medium
63. (p. 252) Henry's dog, Sparky, has been rolling in the mud. Henry must bathe Sparky before the
dog gets mud all over the carpet. However, Henry is unable to find the plug for the tub. Sitting
on the counter right beside the tub is a fifty-cent piece. In his frustration, Henry fails to see that
the coin could be used as an emergency plug for the tub. What happened to Henry?
A. He took a heuristic approach.
B. He fell prey to the confirmation bias.
C. He suffered from mental set.
D. He employed representational thought.

Difficulty: Medium
64. (p. 253) _____ is the tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that supports
one's initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports alternative
hypotheses or solutions.
A. Functional fixedness
B. A mental set
C. Confirmation bias
D. Representativeness heuristic
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Easy
7-23
65. (p. 253) Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is CORRECTLY
matched with its definition?
A. Functional fixedness—the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
B. Mental set—the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its customary use
C. Confirmation bias—the tendency to favor existing hypotheses and to ignore evidence
favoring alternatives
D. Representative heuristic—involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how
easily the event can be recalled from memory.

Difficulty: Medium
66. (p. 253) Nigel often cites newspaper editorials favoring the presidential candidate he supports;
he appears to ignore editorials critical of the candidate. Nigel appears prone to:
A. functional fixedness.
B. mental set.
D. the representativeness heuristic.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
7-24
67. (p. 253) Sandy, a true believer in astrology, reads in her horoscope that today is her lucky day.
She gets so excited that she spills coffee all over herself, necessitating a change of clothes. As a
result, she is late for work and for a very important meeting, which in turn gets her into serious
trouble with her boss. That evening, her brother is taken to the emergency room. On her way to
visit him, Sandy finds a dime in the hospital parking lot. What does research on the
confirmation bias suggest that Sandy will do?
A. Sandy will renounce astrology as completely wrong because of all the horrible things that
happened on her "lucky day."
B. Sandy will begin to question her belief in astrology because of all the horrible things that
happened on her "lucky day."
C. Sandy will seize on the dime she found as evidence of astrology's accuracy.
D. Confirmation bias has little or no relevance to how Sandy will think about astrology in the
future.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
68. (p. 253) The ability to generate original ideas or develop novel solutions to problems is known
as:
A. convergent thinking.
B. insight.
C. creativity.
D. syllogistic reasoning.

Difficulty: Easy
7-25
69. (p. 253) Which of the following statements accurately expresses one failing of cognitive
psychologists' study of problem solving?
A. Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the strategies people use in solving problems.
B. Cognitive psychologists have failed to explain why some people generate better solutions
than others do.
C. Cognitive psychologists have failed to specify how people represent problems in their minds.
D. Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the barriers to effective problem solving that
people face.

Difficulty: Medium
70. (p. 253) Someone relying on convergent thinking would answer _____ to the query "What can
you do with a toothbrush?"
A. "You brush your teeth with it"
B. "You use it for painting"
C. "You use it for cleaning tools"
D. "You use it to make toys"

Difficulty: Medium
71. (p. 253) Someone relying on divergent thinking would answer _____ to the query "What can
you do with a pencil?"
A. "You write with it"
B. "You use it for sketching"
C. "You use it when you can't find a pen"
D. "You use it to make toys"

Difficulty: Medium
7-26
72. (p. 253) As compared to less creative individuals, creative persons:

A. prefer more complex stimuli.
B. are more dependent.
C. are more interested in concrete problems.
D. have a narrower range of interests.

Difficulty: Easy
73. (p. 253) Which of the following is true of creativity?

A. One factor that is closely related to creativity is intelligence.
B. Traditional tests are a good way to gauge an individual's creativity.
C. Highly creative individuals show signs of convergent thinking.
D. Cognitive complexity is an important aspect of creativity.

Difficulty: Medium
74. (p. 254) Which of the following factors is NOT closely related to creativity?
A. Cognitive complexity
B. Abstract problems
C. Range of interests
D. Intelligence
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.3, 3.2, 4.1

Difficulty: Easy
7-27
75. (p. 254) Traditional intelligence tests tend to assess _____ thinking; tests of creativity tap into
_____.
A. divergent; convergent thinking
B. divergent; divergent thinking as well
C. convergent; divergent thinking
D. convergent; convergent thinking as well
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.3, 3.2, 4.1

Difficulty: Easy
76. (p. 254) According to the text, critical or creative thinking may be enhanced by each of the
following strategies EXCEPT:
A. using analogies.
B. considering opposites.
C. avoiding heuristics.
D. experimenting with solutions.

Difficulty: Medium
77. (p. 257) Phonology is the study of:

A. combination of words.
B. speech sounds.
C. word order.
D. meaning.

Difficulty: Easy
7-28
78. (p. 257) Linguists have identified more than _____ different phonemes among all the world's
languages.
A. 26
B. more than 800
C. 52
D. an infinite number

Difficulty: Easy
79. (p. 257) Approximately how many phonemes are found in English?
A. 26
B. more than 800
C. 52
D. an infinite number

Difficulty: Easy
80. (p. 257) Dr. Salim is a linguist, studying the rules guiding the order of words and phrases in
several of the world's languages. Dr. Salim is a(n):
A. syntactician.
B. semanticist.
C. phonologist.
D. translator.

Difficulty: Easy
7-29
81. (p. 257) In written language, letters most closely represent _____, whereas sentences may be
said to reflect _____.
A. syntax; semantics
B. syntax; phonemes
C. phonemes; syntax
D. phonemes; semantics

Difficulty: Medium
82. (p. 258) Which of the following language acquisition stages or phenomena is CORRECTLY
matched with an illustrative example?
A. Babbling—"Goo goo, ga ga."
B. Telegraphic speech—"I ran from the library to the bus stop."
C. Overgeneralization—"Daddy has come home."
D. Overgeneralization—"Drawing house"

Difficulty: Medium
83. (p. 259) What is meant by the notion of a critical period for language acquisition?
A. It is the period of transition between one-word and two-word utterances.
B. It is the time in one's childhood in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and
most easily acquires language.
C. It is the period isolated children spend by themselves before someone teaches them language.
D. It is the period between six and ten years of age in which certain complex aspects of syntax
are learned.

Difficulty: Easy
7-30
84. (p. 259) The text reports the case of a girl named Genie, who was exposed to virtually no
language from the age of 20 months until the age of 13. In what way does Genie's case offer
support for the notion of a critical period in language acquisition?
A. With intensive instruction, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary after the age of 13;
moreover, she eventually mastered the rules of syntax.
B. Even with intensive instruction, Genie acquired only a very small vocabulary after the age of
13; furthermore, she never mastered the complexities of language.
C. Once she was no longer isolated, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary and eventually
mastered the rules of syntax, even without intensive formal instruction.
D. Genie's case is irrelevant to the notion of a critical period.

Difficulty: Medium
85. (p. 259-260) Tina is 6 months old, Vincenzo is 2 years and 7 months old, and Wayne is 3.5 years
old. Which alternative below CORRECTLY pairs each child with the appropriate language
acquisition stage or phenomenon?
A. Tina—overgeneralization; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—telegraphic speech
B. Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—telegraphic speech; Wayne—overgeneralization
C. Tina—telegraphic speech; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—overgeneralization
D. Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—overgeneralization; Wayne—telegraphic speech

Difficulty: Medium
86. (p. 259) Dorian is 2 years old; Constance is 2.5. Dorian's vocabulary probably contains around
_____ words; Constance's, _____ words.
A. about 100; several hundred
B. about 50; about 100
C. about 50; several hundred
D. several hundred; about 1000

Difficulty: Medium
7-31
87. (p. 259) "All gone milk," says two-year-old Wesley, placing the empty glass on the table.
Wesley's remark exemplifies the language acquisition phenomenon termed:
A. babbling.
B. telegraphic speech.
C. holographic speech.
D. agrammatism.

Difficulty: Medium
88. (p. 259) Ricky tells his grandmother, "Momma holded the rabbit." According to your text,
Ricky's statement exemplifies:
A. idiomatic speech.
B. telegraphic speech.
C. babbling.
D. overgeneralization.

Difficulty: Medium
89. (p. 259) Connie is telling her mother a story about a scary dog she encountered in a neighbor's
yard. "Then I runned away," Connie concludes. Which language acquisition phenomenon is
Connie demonstrating? About how old is Connie?
A. Connie is babbling. She is probably about 2 years old.
B. Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 3-4 years old.
C. Connie is babbling. She is probably about 4 years old.
D. Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 5-6 years old.

Difficulty: Medium
7-32
90. (p. 259) The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and
conditioning is known as the _____ approach.
A. learning-theory
B. nativist
C. interactionist
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
91. (p. 260) The theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language
development is known as the _____ approach.
A. learning-theory
B. nativist
C. interactionist
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
92. (p. 260) The nativist approach to language acquisition is associated with:
A. B. F. Skinner.
B. Benjamin Whorf.
C. Noam Chomsky.
D. Wolfgang Kohler.

Difficulty: Easy
7-33
93. (p. 261) The view that language development is produced through a combination of
genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach
language is known as the _____ approach.
A. learning-theory
B. nativist
C. interactionist
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
94. (p. 261) Theorists taking an interactionist approach to language acquisition:

A. reject both the learning theory and nativist approaches.
B. agree that the brain is hardwired to acquire language.
C. downplay the role of the environment in language acquisition.
D. remain unconvinced by the idea of a language-acquisition device.

Difficulty: Medium
95. (p. 261) The notion that language shapes and may determine the way people in a particular
culture perceive and understand the world is known as the _____ hypothesis.
A. output
B. interaction
C. linguistic-relativity
D. monitor

Difficulty: Easy
7-34
96. (p. 261) The _____ hypothesis suggests language leads to thought.
A. output
B. interaction
C. linguistic-relativity
D. monitor

Difficulty: Easy
97. (p. 263) Which figure best approximates the number of Americans for whom English is a
second language?
A. 13 million
B. 25 million
C. 47 million
D. 100 million

Difficulty: Medium
98. (p. 263) In _____, students are educated in their native language and in English
simultaneously; in _____, they are educated only in English.
A. immersion programs; bilingual education
B. bilingual education; immersion programs
C. an alternation approach; immersion programs
D. immersion programs; alternation programs
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Easy
7-35
99. (p. 267) In the introduction to its discussion of intelligence, your text suggests that conceptions
of intelligence vary cross-culturally. To the Trukese of the South Pacific, for example,
intelligence may mean the ability to navigate on the open water without technological
assistance; to an American high schooler, it may mean the ability to score well on standardized
tests of academic achievement and aptitude. Nevertheless, one element of the understanding of
intelligence that is consistent across culture is:
A. the ability to use the resources provided by one's environment.
B. the ability to understand and relate to others.
C. to think rationally; that is, with one's head rather than one's heart.
D. to solve abstract, complex problems.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 5.5, 8.2, 8.3

Difficulty: Medium
100. (p. 267) Psychologists define _____ as the capacity to understand the world, think rationally,
and use resources effectively.
A. cognition
B. intelligence
C. sensation
D. perception

Difficulty: Easy
101. (p. 267) Ashley, a psychology major, remarks that she has become interested in the study of
intelligence. In other words, Ashley is interested in:
A. the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively.
B. how behavior changes as a result of experience.
C. the factors directing behavior toward a goal.
D. the ability to generate novel solutions to problems.

Difficulty: Medium
7-36
102. (p. 267) The g-factor is:

A. the factor that helps us reason abstractly.
B. a broad factor that supports every aspect of intelligence.
C. one of several components of intelligence.
D. the same thing as crystallized intelligence.

Difficulty: Medium
103. (p. 267) _____ is the single factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some
early theories of intelligence.
A. G-factor
B. P-factor
C. I-factor
D. M-factor

Difficulty: Easy
104. (p. 267) Laverne's scores on different parts of an IQ test are very different from one another.
Laverne's profile of scores on the test:
A. contradicts the view of intelligence offered by early theorists such as Spearman.
B. supports the view of intelligence offered by early theorists such as Spearman.
C. contradicts the view of intelligence offered by contemporary theorists such as Gardner.
D. supports the g-factory theory of mental ability.

Difficulty: Medium
7-37
105. (p. 267) Early theorists such as Spearman argued that g represented general intelligence.
According to these theorists, individuals high in g:
A. have an advantage in every intellectual endeavor.
B. excel at numerical but not verbal tasks.
C. excel at visual but not verbal tasks.
D. excel at verbal and numerical tasks, but not visual ones.

Difficulty: Easy
106. (p. 267) Early theorists inferred the existence of a general intelligence g factor from:
A. the high reliability coefficients for the results of individual tests.
B. the low correlations among tests of different intellectual skills.
C. the negative correlations among tests of different intellectual skills.
D. the positive correlations among tests of different intellectual skills.

Difficulty: Medium
107. (p. 272) In what way do current theories of intelligence differ from those offered earlier in
psychology's history?
A. Contemporary theories propose that there may be many multiple forms of intelligence,
rather than just one.
B. Contemporary theories propose that there may be a single broad factor underlying every
aspect of intelligence; earlier theories proposed that there are probably multiple forms of
intelligence.
C. Contemporary theories tend to dismiss the notion that cultural differences are important to a
definition of intelligence.
D. Contemporary theories claim that people who did poorly on one test tended to do poorly on
others as well.

Difficulty: Medium
7-38
108. (p. 273) Intelligence that reflects the ability to reason abstractly is termed _____
intelligence.
A. fluid
B. reflexive
C. spatial
D. crystallized

Difficulty: Easy
109. (p. 273) Janet has a knack for figuring things out. When faced with puzzles and problems she
has never seen before, Janet always manages to find a solution. Janet is high in _____
intelligence.
A. spatial
B. flexible
C. fluid
D. crystallized

Difficulty: Medium
110. (p. 272) _____ intelligence is the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that
people have learned through experience.
A. Fluid
B. Reflexive
C. Spatial
D. Crystallized

Difficulty: Easy
7-39
111. (p. 272) In contrast to _____, _____ is more a reflection of the culture in which a person is
raised.
A. existential intelligence; fluid intelligence
B. crystallized intelligence; existential intelligence
C. fluid intelligence; crystallized intelligence
D. existential intelligence; kinesthetic intelligence

Difficulty: Medium
112. (p. 272) Which of the following is MOST likely to draw on fluid intelligence?
A. Solving a new kind of puzzle
B. Answering trivia questions
C. Figuring out how to fix a familiar appliance
D. Participating in a discussion about the solution to the causes of poverty

Difficulty: Medium
113. (p. 272) Jody is completing a test in which she has to name as many state capitals as she can
in one minute; Alex is trying to complete analogies between pairs of abstract diagrams. Jody is
taking a test of _____ intelligence; Alex, a test of _____.
A. fluid intelligence; crystallized intelligence
B. fluid intelligence; fluid intelligence as well
C. crystallized intelligence; crystallized intelligence as well
D. crystallized intelligence; fluid intelligence

Difficulty: Medium
7-40
114. (p. 272) Bonnie studied car mechanics in high school and spent a lot of time helping out at
her dad's garage. Her ability to replace a blown gasket relies primarily on her _____
intelligence.
A. fluid
B. flexible
C. kinesthetic
D. crystallized

Difficulty: Easy
115. (p. 272) Studies of changes in intelligence as a function of aging suggest that:
A. crystallized intelligence tend to decline with age in adults.
B. crystallized intelligence tends to increase with age in adults.
C. fluid intelligence tends to decline with age in adults.
D. fluid intelligence tends to increase with age in adults.

Difficulty: Easy
116. (p. 272) _____ is Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct
spheres of intelligence.
A. Triarchic theory of intelligence
B. Theory of primary mental abilities
C. Theory of multiple intelligences
D. Theory of general intelligence

Difficulty: Easy
7-41
117. (p. 268) _____ involves identifying and thinking about the fundamental questions of human
continuance.
A. Emotional intelligence
B. Analytical intelligence
C. Crystallized intelligence
D. Existential intelligence

Difficulty: Easy
118. (p. 268) According to the text, a positive feature of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
is:
A. the empirical support it has received.
B. the intuitive appeal of the underlying concept.
C. that it has led to the development of intelligence tests that allow test takers to be creative.
D. its focus on cases of brain damage, as well as of mental retardation and giftedness.

Difficulty: Medium
119. (p. 268) Which of the following is one of Gardner's forms of intelligence?
A. General intelligence
B. Analytical intelligence
C. Crystallized intelligence
D. Musical intelligence

Difficulty: Easy
7-42
120. (p. 268) Gardner's theory includes each of the following types of intelligence EXCEPT:
A. tacit intelligence.
B. musical intelligence.
C. bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
D. interpersonal intelligence.

Difficulty: Easy
121. (p. 269) Bodily kinesthetic intelligence refers to skills:

A. in problem solving and scientific thinking.
B. in using the whole anatomy or various portions of it in the solution of problems or in the
construction of products or displays.
C. involving spatial configurations.
D. involved in the production and use of language.

Difficulty: Easy
122. (p. 269) Dancers, athletes, actors, and surgeons display:

A. bodily kinesthetic intelligence.
B. naturalist intelligence.
C. intrapersonal intelligence.
D. spatial intelligence.

Difficulty: Easy
7-43
123. (p. 269) Which of the following professionals would most likely display spatial intelligence?
A. Dancer
B. Actor
C. Social worker
D. Architect

Difficulty: Easy
124. (p. 269) Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to skills:

A. in problem solving and scientific thinking.
B. in using the whole anatomy or various portions of it in the solution of problems or in the
construction of products or displays.
C. involved in the ability to identify patterns in nature.
D. involved in the production and use of language.

Difficulty: Easy
125. (p. 269) Knowledge of the internal aspects of oneself is termed as _____.
A. naturalistic intelligence
B. interpersonal intelligence
C. intrapersonal intelligence
D. spatial intelligence

Difficulty: Easy
7-44
126. (p. 269) _____ refers to skills involved in the production and use of language.
A. Naturalistic intelligence
B. Linguistic intelligence
C. Intrapersonal intelligence
D. Spatial intelligence

Difficulty: Easy
127. (p. 269) Kyana is an excellent salesperson because she can always find a way of connecting
with a potential client. Based on this information, in which kind of intelligence would Gardner
expect Kyana to be high?
A. Analytic
B. Bodily kinesthetic
C. Interpersonal
D. Spatial

Difficulty: Easy
128. (p. 269) Collectivist cultures, such as Taiwan's, place a high priority on how individuals
relate to each other. It might be reasonable to hypothesize that Taiwanese adults might outscore
American adults on a test of Gardner's _____ intelligence.
A. naturalistic
B. intrapersonal
C. practical
D. interpersonal

Difficulty: Medium
7-45
129. (p. 269) Which of the following alternatives does NOT correctly use Gardner's terminology
to identify the type of intelligence with the characteristic of a well-known individual?
A. Babe Ruth - athletic
B. Barbara McClintock - numerical
C. T. S. Eliot - linguistic
D. Virginia Wolf - naturalistic

Difficulty: Medium
130. (p. 268) Etta is taking an intelligence test based on Gardner's multiple intelligences theory.
How is Etta's performance likely to be scored?
A. She will receive a score for each of eight types of intelligence.
B. She will receive a score for each of three types of intelligence.
C. She will be classified as having one of eight types of intelligence.
D. She will receive an overall intelligence score, like an IQ.

Difficulty: Medium
131. (p. 270) According to Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living is known as
_____ intelligence.
A. practical
B. crystallized
C. emotional
D. creative

Difficulty: Easy
7-46
132. (p. 270) The notion of practical intelligence is associated with:

A. Gardner.
B. Sternberg.
C. Weschler.
D. Spearman.

Difficulty: Easy
133. (p. 270) Traditional tests were designed to relate to _____.

A. academic success
B. career success
C. spiritual success
D. familial success

Difficulty: Medium
134. (p. 270) People who are high in _____ intelligence are able to learn general norms and
principles and apply them appropriately.
A. practical
B. crystallized
C. emotional
D. linguistic

Difficulty: Easy
7-47
135. (p. 270) Which of the following is true of academic success and career success?
A. Academic success and career success both rely on the sort of intelligence assessed by
traditional intelligence tests.
B. Academic success and career success are based on two different types of intelligence.
C. Traditional tests were designed to relate to career success while, contemporary tests are
designed to relate to academic success.
D. Both academic and career success relate to practical intelligence.

Difficulty: Medium
136. (p. 272) The three types of intelligence proposed by Sternberg include each of the following
except _____ intelligence.
A. analytical
B. practical
C. logical
D. creative

Difficulty: Easy
137. (p. 272) _____ intelligence is the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment,
evaluation, expression, and regulation of one's mental state.
A. Emotional
B. Practical
C. Fluid
D. Crystallized

Difficulty: Easy
7-48
138. (p. 272) Which of the major intelligence concepts described in your text is CORRECTLY
matched with a description?
A. Practical intelligence - intelligence attuned to the feelings and needs of oneself or others
B. Crystallized intelligence - information, skills, and strategies learned through experience
C. Gardner's theory - intelligence relates to reasoning, memory, and information-processing
capabilities
D. Information-processing approach - eight independent forms of intelligence

Difficulty: Medium
139. (p. 272) The first intelligence tests were developed by:
A. Galton.
B. Binet.
C. Spearman.
D. Weschler.

Difficulty: Easy
140. (p. 272) The practical problem Alfred Binet was trying to solve when he developed his
intelligence test was:
A. devising a culturally fair measure of intelligence.
B. devising an uncontaminated measure of intelligence.
C. identifying gifted children for accelerated programs.
D. identifying slow learners for remedial aid.

Difficulty: Easy
7-49
141. (p. 272) The age for which a given level of performance is average or typical is known as
_____.
A. mental age
B. societal age
C. chronological age
D. behavioral age

Difficulty: Easy
142. (p. 273) Imagine that overall, 6-year-olds can complete a particular block design puzzle in 5
minutes. It takes Bailey almost 8 minutes to complete the task. In Binet's terms, Bailey's _____
age is _____ than 6.
A. chronological; higher
B. chronological; lower
C. mental; higher
D. mental; lower

Difficulty: Medium
143. (p. 273) The formula for the intelligence quotient as Binet defined it is:
A. CA/MA x 100.
B. MA/CA x 100.
C. CA/(MA x 100).
D. MA/(CA x 100).

Difficulty: Medium
7-50
144. (p. 273) Laura is 8; her performance on a series of tasks is equivalent to that of the average
10-year-old. Her intelligence quotient is:
A. 125.
B. 80.
C. 110.
D. 150.

Difficulty: Easy
145. (p. 273) If we were to plot the IQ scores of every person living in the United States on a graph,
we would end up with:
A. a downward sloping curve.
B. a vertical line.
C. a uniform distribution—that is, a straight horizontal line.
D. a bell-shaped curve.

Difficulty: Easy
146. (p. 273) Coral's IQ score is 104. She is in good company: nearly _____ out of 10 people have
IQ scores between 85 and 115.
A. 3
B. 7
C. 5
D. 9

Difficulty: Easy
7-51
147. (p. 274) Approximately _____ of the population have an IQ score between 85 and 115.
A. 52%
B. 68%
C. 77%
D. 85%

Difficulty: Easy
148. (p. 273-274) Below are several statements about the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Which
statement is CORRECTLY identified as false?
A. The test is administered orally - False
B. The test includes verbal and nonverbal assessments - False
C. The same items are used for test-takers of different ages - False
D. The test can be scored on 20 different subtests. - False

Difficulty: Medium
149. (p. 273-274) Which of the following statements best describes the fate of Binet's intelligence
test within psychology?
A. It really has had little lasting influence on contemporary intelligence testing.
B. It is still used, and it is in virtually the same form as Binet's original test.
C. It was used for a number of decades, but was then abandoned.
D. It is still used, but in a heavily revised form.

Difficulty: Medium
7-52
150. (p. 274) The most commonly used IQ test in the United States is the:
A. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
B. Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV.
C. Spearman G Scale.
D. Terman Intelligence Batter.

Difficulty: Easy
151. (p. 275) Which of the following best expresses the distinction between the WAIS-IV and
WISC-IV?
A. The WAIS-IV is for use on males only, whereas the WISC-IV is used on females only.
B. The WAIS-IV is a test of verbal intelligence, whereas the WISC-IV is a test of nonverbal
intelligence.
C. The WAIS-IV is used to test adult intelligence, whereas the WISC-IV is used to test
children's intelligence.
D. The WAIS-IV is the current successor to the WISC-IV, an older test of intelligence.

Difficulty: Medium
152. (p. 275) Contemporary tests of intelligence are in widespread use in the United States
EXCEPT the:
A. WISC-IV.
B. WAIS-IV.
C. Spearman G Scale.
D. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.

Difficulty: Easy
7-53
153. (p. 275) Which of the following is NOT among the disadvantages of group IQ tests?
A. Group IQ tests offer fewer types of questions than do individually administered tests.
B. People may be less motivated to do their best work on a group-administered than on an
individually administered test.
C. It is not always possible to test people in groups.
D. They are difficult to administer and score on a large-scale basis.

Difficulty: Easy
154. (p. 276) The property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure is
known as _____.
A. specificity
B. validity
C. reliability
D. sensitivity

Difficulty: Easy
155. (p. 276) A psychological test is reliable when it:

A. measures what it is actually supposed to measure.
B. has been normed using samples representative of those for whom the test has been designed.
C. yields consistent measurements.
D. measures the positives in the test.

Difficulty: Medium
7-54
156. (p. 276) A psychological test is valid when it:

A. actually measures what it is supposed to measure.
B. has been normed using samples representative of those for whom the test has been designed.
C. yields consistent measurements.
D. measures the positives in the test.

Difficulty: Medium
157. (p. 276) Which of the following is true about tests?

A. Even if a test is unreliable, it cannot be valid.
B. Test validity and reliability are prerequisites for accurate assessment of intelligence.
C. Test reliability and validity are highly desirable for an accurate assessment of intelligence.
D. Knowing that a test is reliable guarantees that it is also valid.

Difficulty: Medium
158. (p. 276) An online intelligence test yields a different IQ each time you take it. The test is:
A. possibly reliable, but definitely not valid.
B. not reliable, and probably not valid either.
C. not reliable, but still possibly valid.
D. possibly reliable, and potentially valid.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.4, 4.2, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
7-55
159. (p. 276) Sir Francis Galton assumed that skull size is related to intelligence, this was _____
measure of intelligence.
A. a reliable, but not a valid
B. a valid, but not a reliable
C. both a reliable and a valid
D. neither a reliable nor a valid

Difficulty: Medium
160. (p. 276) A researcher develops a questionnaire to assess the personality trait of impulsivity
among adults. In a journal article, she presents evidence that college students tend to get
essentially the same score if they take the test twice, two months apart. She also presents the
average score, the highest score, and the lowest score obtained by two large samples: one of
2,000 college students, and one of 750 community-dwelling non-college adults. However,
when you look at the sample questionnaire items she included in the article, it seems to you that
they relate more to whether a person is sociable, outgoing, and fun than to whether an
individual is impulsive. You are questioning the _____ of the researcher's questionnaire.
A. reliability
B. validity
C. sensitivity
D. reliability and the validity

Difficulty: Medium
7-56
161. (p. 277) Dr. Cavanaugh examines the relationship between the personality trait of resilience
and senior citizens' compliance with medication regimes; however, the resilience measure he
used was normed only on college students. Based on this information, which of the following is
the most apparent weakness of Dr. Cavanaugh's study?
A. The simplicity of the resilience measure
B. The standardization of the resilience measure
C. The specificity of the resilience measure
D. The operationalization of compliance

Difficulty: Medium
162. (p. 277) Which of the following statements does not reflect a valid or empirically supported
point in favor of or against adaptive or computerized testing?
A. It is faster than traditional testing.
B. It requires careful calibration of large number of items based on their difficulty.
C. Some groups of test-takers may become more anxious than others during computerized test
taking.
D. Test-takers are forced to spend a great deal of time answering questions that are either much
easier or much harder than they can handle.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5

Difficulty: Medium
163. (p. 277) Regarding standardized testing, which piece of advice is least likely to be right?
A. Check your answers if you can.
B. Time yourself carefully.
C. Guess if you don't know.
D. Practice makes perfect.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 4.4, 9.3

Difficulty: Medium
7-57
164. (p. 277) Based on the text's discussion, which of the following alternatives best captures the
difference, if any, between the terms mental retardation and intellectual disability?
A. The terms are used interchangeably and equally.
B. Intellectual disability is becoming the preferred term, while mental retardation is the
traditional term.
C. The term intellectual disability has replaced the term mental retardation.
D. The terms refer to different types of deficits in functioning.

Difficulty: Medium
165. (p. 278) Of those who are mentally retarded, what percentage are classified as mildly
retarded?
A. 90%
B. 75%
C. 65%
D. 50%

Difficulty: Easy
166. (p. 278) Peyton has an IQ score of 60. Although her development was typically slower than
that of her peers, she is now able to hold a job and will soon start a family of her own. Peyton is
most probably:
A. mildly retarded.
B. moderately retarded.
C. severely retarded.
D. profoundly retarded.

Difficulty: Medium
7-58
167. (p. 278) People whose IQ score ranges from 40-54 are most probably:
A. mildly retarded.
B. moderately retarded.
C. severely retarded.
D. profoundly retarded.

Difficulty: Easy
168. (p. 278) People who are _____ have deficits in their language and motor skills. Although
these individuals can hold simple jobs, they need to have a certain degree of supervision
throughout their lives.
A. mildly retarded
B. moderately retarded
C. severely retarded
D. profoundly retarded

Difficulty: Easy
169. (p. 278) Anita is mildly retarded; Brady is moderately retarded; Candace is severely retarded;
and Denny is profoundly retarded. Which of these individuals can probably hold a job? Which
of these individuals is probably unable to care for himself or herself?
A. Anita; Denny
B. Anita; Brady
C. Candace; Anita
D. Candace; Denny

Difficulty: Medium
7-59
170. (p. 278) People with severe retardation have an IQ:

A. of 40 to 54.
B. of 25 to 39.
C. of 55 to 69.
D. below 25.

Difficulty: Easy
171. (p. 278) Which of the following alternatives correctly identifies the range of IQ scores
encompassed by the terms profound, severe, moderate, and mild retardation, respectively?
A. 0-29; 30-49; 50-64; 65-79
B. 0-19; 20-39; 40-59; 60-79
C. 0-24; 25-39; 40-54; 55-69
D. 0-19; 20-34; 35-49; 50-69

Difficulty: Easy
172. (p. 278) In approximately _____ of the cases of mental retardation there is an identifiable
biological cause; the most common of these is _____.
A. one-third; fetal alcohol syndrome
B. one-third; Down syndrome
C. one-quarter; fetal alcohol syndrome
D. one-quarter; Down syndrome

Difficulty: Easy
7-60
173. (p. 278) Which of the following alternatives offers the most accurate assessment of the origin
of familial retardation in nature on the one hand, or nurture on the other?
A. Familial retardation is almost always genetic in origin, thereby reflecting nature.
B. About 1/3 of the cases of familial retardation have a known basis in biology, or nature.
C. Familial retardation is most often environmental in origin; that is, it reflects nurture.
D. We do not know the extent to which familial retardation reflects nature and nurture.

Difficulty: Medium
174. (p. 278) Intellectual disability in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a
history of it in the kin is known as _____ retardation.
A. syndromic
B. cultural
C. familial
D. non-syndromic

Difficulty: Easy
175. (p. 278) The inclusive philosophy behind the educational mainstreaming of mentally retarded
individuals reflects federal laws passed in the:
A. late 1960s.
B. mid-1970s.
C. late 1970s.
D. early 1980s.

Difficulty: Easy
7-61
176. (p. 278) Regarding the integration of mentally retarded students into regular classrooms,
which of the following statements is true?
A. In full inclusion programs, mentally retarded students are integrated into regular classroom
activities to a greater extent than in the case of mainstreaming.
B. In full inclusion programs, mentally retarded students are integrated into regular classroom
activities to a somewhat lesser extent than in the case of mainstreaming.
C. Full inclusion is widely applied today.
D. Schools with full inclusion have separate special education classes.

Difficulty: Medium
177. (p. 279) The IQ of intellectually gifted individuals is _____.

A. between 100-110
B. 75
C. 130 or above
D. 90 or below

Difficulty: Easy
178. (p. 279) Terman's long-term study of the intellectually gifted found that they tend to be:
A. social misfits.
B. physically gifted.
C. awkward.
D. outgoing.

Difficulty: Medium
7-62
179. (p. 278) As compared to more typical individuals, the intellectually gifted are characterized
by being all of the following EXCEPT:
A. outgoing.
B. well-adjusted.
C. awkward.
D. healthy.

Difficulty: Medium
180. (p. 279) Which of the following is true of people with high intelligence or intellectually
gifted individuals?
A. High intelligence is a homogeneous quality.
B. A person with a high overall IQ is gifted in every academic subject.
C. Intellectually gifted individuals account for 2%-4% of the population.
D. A high IQ is a universal guarantee of success.

Difficulty: Medium
181. (p. 279) The study of the intellectually gifted is associated with Terman, who began studying
high-IQ children in the:
A. 1920s.
B. 1930s.
C. 1940s.
D. 1950s.

Difficulty: Medium
7-63
182. (p. 280) A test that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group is
termed as a _____ test.
A. culture-neutral
B. culture-fair
C. culture-free
D. culture-liberated
APA Goal Outcome: 4.2, 4.3, 5.5, 8.2, 8.5

Difficulty: Easy
183. (p. 281) Imagine that American children and African children are asked to memorize the
locations of objects on a chessboard. In one condition, the objects are rocks; in the other, they
are household objects common in the West. What might you predict regarding the children's
performance?
A. The performance of the American children will exceed that of the African children in both
conditions.
B. The performance of the African children will exceed that of the American children in both
conditions.
C. The performance of the African children will be equivalent to that of the American children
in both conditions.
D. The performance of the African children will exceed that of the American children when the
objects are rocks but not when they are Western household objects.

Difficulty: Medium
7-64
184. (p. 281) In The Bell Curve, Herrnstein and Murray argued that:
A. intelligence is a product of nurture alone.
B. intelligence is a product of nature alone.
C. the IQ gap between Caucasian and African Americans reflects genetics.
D. both nature and nurture have no role in the IQ gap between Caucasian and African
Americans.

Difficulty: Medium
185. (p. 281) The term _____ refers to a measure of the degree to which a characteristic can be
attributed to genetic factors.
A. heritability
B. specificity
C. concordance rate
D. cohort effect

Difficulty: Easy
186. (p. 281) Which of the following findings support the position Herrnstein and Murray outlined
in The Bell Curve?
A. Middle- and upper-SES blacks score the same as middle- and upper-SES whites
B. The black-white IQ gap remains, even when socioeconomic status is controlled.
C. Lower-SES blacks score higher on average than lower-SES whites
D. Whites score 35 points higher than blacks on traditional IQ tests even when socioeconomic
status (SES) is taken into account.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Medium
7-65
187. (p. 281) Which of the following statements is true about Herrnstein and Murray's arguments
in The Bell Curve?
A. Whites score lower than blacks on traditional IQ tests when socioeconomic status (SES) is
taken into account.
B. An analysis of IQ differences between whites and blacks demonstrated that there were basic
genetic differences between the two races.
C. Middle- and upper-SES blacks score higher than middle- and upper-SES whites.
D. Intelligence differences between blacks and whites can be attributed to environmental
differences alone.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Medium
7-66
Fill in the Blank Questions
188. (p. 241) Estelle is playing with images and concepts in her mind. Her cognitive psychology
professor would say that she is _____.
thinking

Difficulty: Easy
189. (p. 241) _____ are representations in the mind of an object or event.
Mental images

Difficulty: Easy
190. (p. 243) A researcher finds that her participants think most readily of a carrot when prompted
with the category "vegetable." On this basis, the researcher might argue that a carrot is the
_____ vegetable.
prototypical

Difficulty: Medium
191. (p. 243) A high school physics teacher reassures his class that no matter how confusing this
week's word problems appear, they all may be solved quite handily through the use of the
formula F = MA. The teacher has offered his students a(n) _____.
algorithm

Difficulty: Medium
7-67
192. (p. 243) Sometimes we are prone to judge an individual based on our notion of the category
of people he or she most closely resembles; that is, we fall prey to the _____ heuristic.
representativeness

Difficulty: Medium
193. (p. 246) A calculus problem has one correct answer and contains all the information
necessary for its solution; thus, it is a(n) _____ problem.
well-defined

Difficulty: Medium
194. (p. 246) Because they involve rules for moving from an initial to a goal state, many board
games may be seen as examples of _____ problems.
transformation

Difficulty: Medium
195. (p. 249) Renee has an idea of how her living room ought to look. She's moving furniture,
paintings, and accessories to get closer and closer to that picture in her head. Renee is using the
problem-solving technique of _____.
means-ends analysis

Difficulty: Medium
7-68
196. (p. 250) "Eureka! I've got it!" That sudden awareness of the path toward a problem's solution
is termed _____.
insight

Difficulty: Easy
197. (p. 252) Functional fixedness may be seen as a particular example of _____.
mental set

Difficulty: Medium
198. (p. 253) People seek and remember evidence in support of their existing hypotheses; they
ignore or discount contradictory evidence. In other words, people are prone to the _____.
confirmation bias

Difficulty: Easy
199. (p. 254) "How many uses can you think of for a brick?" asks the examiner. You are taking a
test of _____ thinking.
divergent

Difficulty: Easy
7-69
200. (p. 255) One synonym for forming subgoals is _____.

fractionation

Difficulty: Medium
201. (p. 257) The rules indicating how words and phrases may be combined to form legitimate
sentences are referred to as _____.
syntax

Difficulty: Easy
202. (p. 258) If children are not exposed to language during a(n) _____ period early in life, they
may never acquire it.
critical

Difficulty: Medium
203. (p. 259) "Sophie kitty," Tara says, when her aunt asks her whether the stuffed animal belongs
to her or to her sister. Tara's reply exemplifies _____ speech.
telegraphic

Difficulty: Medium
7-70
204. (p. 259-260) With respect to language acquisition, Skinner is to learning theory what _____ is
to nativism.
Chomsky

Difficulty: Easy
205. (p. 260) Chomsky suggested that the human brain has an inherited neural system that lets us
understand the structure language provides. This is known as _____.
universal grammar

Difficulty: Easy
206. (p. 261) According to the _____, language provides us with categories that we use to
construct our view of people and events in the world around us.
linguistic-relativity hypothesis

Difficulty: Medium
207. (p. 263) In _____, students are immediately plunged into English instruction in all subjects.
immersion programs
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Easy
7-71
208. (p. 267) Jesse is very resourceful in the face of adversity; psychologists view this
characteristic as one component of _____.
intelligence

Difficulty: Medium
209. (p. 267) Early psychologists believed that a single, overarching factor called the _____ factor
influenced every aspect of intelligence.
g

Difficulty: Easy
210. (p. 267) Holly is attempting to put together a 3D puzzle. Holly is completing a test of _____
intelligence.
fluid

Difficulty: Medium
211. (p. 268) Fernando is attempting to recall all of the capitols of each state in the union.
Fernando is completing a test of _____ intelligence.
crystallized

Difficulty: Medium
7-72
212. (p. 268) As compared to crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence is _____ likely to decline
with advancing age.
more

Difficulty: Easy
213. (p. 268) _____ is associated with a theory of intelligence proposing eight or more distinct
forms of intelligence.
Gardner

Difficulty: Easy
214. (p. 268) Gardner's _____ proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence.
theory of multiple intelligences

Difficulty: Easy
215. (p. 270) Mavis has advanced rapidly in the corporate world, despite her middling scores on
such tests as the WAIS-IV, the SAT, and the GRE. Sternberg would suspect Mavis of high
_____ intelligence.
practical

Difficulty: Medium
7-73
216. (p. 270) _____ intelligence is the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment,
evaluation, expression, and regulation of feelings.
Emotional

Difficulty: Easy
217. (p. 272) Using Binet's formula, the IQ of a 6-year-child with a mental age of 8 is _____.
125

Difficulty: Medium
218. (p. 273) A plot of the IQ scores of the entire population would yield a(n) _____ distribution.
normal/bell-shaped

Difficulty: Easy
219. (p. 276) "Every time I take it, it tells me something different!" complains your friend, turning
away from the online personality quiz she just completed. Your friend is complaining about the
test's _____.
reliability
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.3, 2.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
7-74
220. (p. 276) "That's so not true! This test can't have anything to do with my ability to attract
women!" Ignacio protests. Ignacio is disputing the test's _____.
validity
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.3, 2.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
221. (p. 277) Psychologists are beginning to favor the term _____ in place of the term mental
retardation.
intellectual disability

Difficulty: Easy
222. (p. 277) _____ are standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's
score on a test to the scores of others who have taken the same test.
Norms
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.3, 2.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
223. (p. 278) Individuals who have IQ scores ranging from 55 to 69 are classified as having
_____.
mild retardation

Difficulty: Easy
7-75
224. (p. 280) Tests for which norms have been developed are known as _____ tests.
standardized

Difficulty: Easy
225. (p. 278) _____ is a process by which individuals with intellectual disabilities are integrated
into regular classrooms as much as possible.
Mainstreaming

Difficulty: Easy
226. (p. 279) The IQ of an intellectually gifted person is greater than or equal to _____.
130

Difficulty: Medium
227. (p. 280) Psychologists continue to seek _____ IQ tests that do not discriminate against the
members of minority groups.
culture-fair
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Easy
7-76
228. (p. 281) As recently as the mid-1990s, Herrnstein and Murray argued in their book _____ that
race differences in IQ are a matter of genetics and not the environment alone.
The Bell Curve
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Easy
229. (p. 308) The degree to which a characteristic can be attributed to genetic factors is known as
_____.
heritability

Difficulty: Medium
7-77
Essay Questions
230. (p. 241) Describe in as much detail as you can the mental representation of objects and
categories. Provide illustrative examples where appropriate.
Students' examples may vary.

The answer should contain the following points:
Objects. Objects are represented by mental images. Mental images are not only visual; they can
be produced by any of our sensory systems. A familiar example might be the experience of
"hearing" a song in one's head. Images retain many of the properties of the objects they
represent; in addition, we can often perform the same operations on images that we can on the
real objects they represent. For example, it takes longer to scan an image of a large object than it
does to scan an image of a small object, just as it takes longer to scan an actual large object than
a small one. We can also rotate an object's image in our mind, just as we can rotate objects in the
physical world. Mental images have been used to enhance the practice and performance of
athletes and musicians.
Categories. Categories of objects, events, and people that are similar in some way are
represented by concepts. Concepts enable us to respond appropriately to stimuli in the
environment and to identify novel objects. Some concepts, such as geometrical shapes and
kinship terms, may be represented by a unique set of properties or features (e.g., triangle—three
sides, interior angles sum to 180 degrees). Most concepts are represented by a best or most
typical example, or prototype. An apple, for example, may be the prototypical fruit. Other
objects are categorized as fruits to the extent that they resemble an apple.

Difficulty: Medium
7-78
231. (p. 243-244) Distinguish between an algorithm and a heuristic. Provide an example of each.
Algorithm vs. heuristic. An algorithm is a rule that is guaranteed to produce a solution to a

problem if it is applied correctly. An example might be a formula in physics: If F = MA is
appropriately applied to a particular word problem, the solution will result. A heuristic is a
cognitive strategy that may result in the solution to a problem, but it is not guaranteed to do so.
Heuristics require less time, expertise, and cognitive effort to apply than do algorithms. In
addition, for certain problems, no algorithm may exist. An example of a heuristic is to assume
that one can afford the mortgage to a house if the house costs 2.5 times one's salary or less;
applying this rule is easier than calculating and projecting mortgages for houses of different
prices.

Difficulty: Easy
232. (p. 245) Can computers think? Provide as thoughtful an answer as you can, considering the
ability of current computers to solve complex problems and to demonstrate creativity.
Students' answers may vary.
The following text information is relevant to the answer:
Computers can solve complex problems. For example, computer programs can evaluate
potential chess moves and ignore unimportant possibilities. Computers can also create new
compositions in the style of such masters as Bach, complete with the full scope and emotional
appeal of actual Bach works.
It is a matter of opinion, though, as to whether mimicking someone else's creativity is the same
as being completely original on one's own.

Difficulty: Medium
7-79
233. (p. 246) Distinguish between well-defined and ill-defined problems. Provide an example of
each.
The answer should contain the following elements:
Well-defined vs. ill-defined problems. In well-defined problems, the nature of the problem is
clear, as is the information needed to solve it. An example might be an algebra word problem.
In ill-defined problems, either or both the nature of the problem or the information needed to
solve it is unclear. Determining how to get along with a prickly supervisor may be one example.

Difficulty: Easy
234. (p. 249-251) Identify and describe three different problem-solving strategies described in your
text. Suggest how each strategy might be fruitfully applied in one or more college courses.
The answer should mention the strategies described below. Examples may vary.
Means-ends analysis. Means-ends analysis involves repeatedly comparing the current state of
the problem to the goal state and attempting to reduce the difference between the two. In an art
course, for example, one might have an idea of the piece one would like to create; one might try
to reduce the difference between the current piece and the desired one by shading here, adding a
brush stroke there, smoothing this portion of the clay a little, and so on.
Forming subgoals. This strategy involves dividing a problem into a series of intermediate steps,
then solving those. A computer program assignment might offer an example: one might code
one section of the program, then another, and so on. A term paper might be divided into
separate introduction, body, conclusion, and reference assignments.
Working backward. The strategy involves focusing on the goal rather than the current state of
the problem, then determining the action that would most immediately produce the goal. A
common example is looking up the answer to a mathematics problem, then figuring out the
preceding steps.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4, 9.2, 9.3

Difficulty: Easy
7-80
235. (p. 267-268) How do psychologists define creativity? Identify some of the cognitive processes
and personality characteristics that appear to be associated with creativity. How might you
describe the relationship between creativity and intelligence? To what extent does this
relationship reflect the traditional assessment of intelligence?
The answer should mention the following points:
Creativity—the ability to generate novel, yet appropriate solutions to problems. Creativity is

associated with divergent thinking—considering multiple, original answers to questions or
solutions to problems. It is associated with a preference for cognitive complexity—a preference
for elaborate or intricate stimuli or thought patterns. Creative individuals often have
wide-ranging interests and an interest in abstract or philosophical problems. They tend to be
independent and autonomous.
Creativity is only weakly associated with intelligence, probably because traditional intelligence
tests are strongly centered on convergent, rather than divergent, thinking problems.

Difficulty: Medium
7-81
236. (p. 257-258) Your friend asks you, "So, what did you get up to last night?" Write two or three
sentences in response to your friend; use your sentences to illustrate the three components of
language described in your text.
Students' answers may vary.
The answer should be similar to the following:
"I met two friends for pizza. We then went to the library for two hours to work on a homework
assignment. After that, I watched TV for a while."
Phonemes: speech sounds. The vowel sound in "I" and the beginning consonant in "met" are
examples.
Syntax: rules to order words so that the appropriate meaning is communicated. For example, in
the last sentence, "TV watched I" would not convey the idea that it was I who watched the
television set. Similarly, "Met pizza friends I two" would barely get across the idea of what
happened, if at all.
Semantics: the external meaning of language. Taken together, the three sentences in the
example allow the listener to construct a mental picture or model of how the evening went; they
take the listener into a meaningful world.

Difficulty: Medium
7-82
237. (p. 259) Describe babbling, telegraphic speech, and overgeneralization. Provide an example
of each. At which ages might you expect children to demonstrate each of these language
development phenomena?
The answer should include definitions and examples similar to the following:
Babbling: Speech-like but meaningless sounds, such as "goo goo, ga, ga." Children babble from
about 3 months to approximately 1 year of age.
Telegraphic speech: Brief sentence-like constructions which omit noncritical words. Example:
"Mommy home." Telegraphic speech is common around age 2.
Overgeneralization: Applying grammatical rules even when doing so results in an error.
Example: "It costed one dollar." Overgeneralization is common among children 3-4 years of
age.

Difficulty: Easy
7-83
238. (p. 259-260) Contrast learning-theory and nativist theory of language development. Point out
the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.
The answer should include the following points:
Learning-theory. By this account, language is acquired through reinforcement—parents shape

their children's successive approximations to adult language. The more that parents speak to
their children, the more proficient the children become in their native language. However, in
reality, adults reinforce incorrect language use by their children just as often as they reinforce
correct use, calling into question the central role of shaping in the theory.
Nativist theory. Associated with Noam Chomsky, the nativist approach to language
development suggests that humans have an innate capacity to acquire language that unfolds as a
result of biological maturation. All the world's languages share a common underlying structure
called a universal grammar. The brain has a neural system called the language-acquisition
device that allows us to acquire this universal grammar, as well as develop strategies for
learning our particular language. Neuroscientists have identified brain areas closely involved in
language; in addition, genes have been identified that contribute to language acquisition. Critics
of the nativist approach suggest that the ability of nonhuman animals—e.g., chimpanzees—to
acquire language argues against such uniquely human constructs as a universal grammar and a
language-acquisition device.

Difficulty: Medium
7-84
239. (p. 267-268) Distinguish between crystallized and fluid intelligence. Provide an example of (a)
an intellectual task that mainly reflects crystallized intelligence and (b) an intellectual task that
mainly reflects fluid intelligence. How do crystallized and fluid intelligence change with age in
later adulthood?
The answer should contain the following points:
Crystallized intelligence: Crystallized intelligence refers to the accumulation of information,

skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience. A vocabulary test is an
example of a test of crystallized intelligence.
Fluid intelligence: Fluid intelligence refers to an individual's basic information processing,
memory, and reasoning abilities. A sample fluid intelligence task is a digit span test.
In later adulthood, scores on measures of fluid intelligence often decline; by contrast, scores on
measures of crystallized intelligence hold steady or even increase.

Difficulty: Medium
240. (p. 268-269) Outline Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Make sure to list and describe
each of the types Gardner argues for and provide an example to illustrate the construct.
This theory proposes that there are at least eight distinct forms of intelligence: musical, bodily
kinesthetic, logical, mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
There may exist even more types of intelligence, such as existential intelligence. The types of
intelligence are linked to relatively independent brain systems. Each individual possesses each
type of intelligence to either a greater or lesser extent; that is, an individual may have an
intelligence "profile" across the eight types. While the types of intelligence may be associated
with different neural systems, most tasks involve the cooperation of multiple forms of
intelligence: an architect's work, for example, may involve both spatial and mathematical
intelligence.

Difficulty: Medium
7-85
241. (p. 270-271) Outline Sternberg's theory of intelligence.
Sternberg proposes three forms of intelligence: analytical, the type of intelligence that drives
the solution of the sorts of abstract problems typically found on intelligence; practical, "street
smarts"—the intelligence that underlies overall success in life; and creative, the intelligence
that drives the generation of novel ideas and products.
With respect to educational practice, the answer should suggest that classroom activities and the
assessment of learning might consider forms of intelligence other than those that traditionally
form the backbone of education—namely, logical, mathematical, linguistic and analytical
forms of intelligence. A greater focus on alternative forms of intelligence might allow a greater
proportion of students to realize their true potential.

Difficulty: Medium
242. (p. 271-272) Define (a) practical and (b) emotional intelligence. To what extent are these types
of intelligence related to the sort of intelligence that is traditionally assessed by standardized
tests?
Practical intelligence—proposed by Sternberg; the sort of intelligence that underlies life and
career success. It is developed through the careful observation of others' behavior.
Emotional intelligence—comprises a set of skills underlying the accurate assessment,
evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions. Underlies the ability to get along with
others; the basis of empathy, self-awareness, and social skills. Like practical intelligence,
emotional intelligence may be more strongly related than traditional academic intelligence to
life success.
Practical and emotional intelligence are only weakly related to traditional academic intelligence,
if at all.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 4.3, 4.5

Difficulty: Medium
7-86
243. (p. 278) Identify the levels of mental retardation described in the text. Associate a range of IQ
scores with each level. Review what is known about the causes of mental retardation.
The response should include the following points:
Levels of mental retardation:
Mild: IQ 55-69
Moderate: IQ 40-54
Severe: IQ 25-39
Profound: IQ below 25
Causes of mental retardation: There is an identifiable biological or environmental cause in
nearly 1/3 of the cases of mental retardation. Among the most common of these causes are fetal
alcohol syndrome and Down syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome results from the mother's use
of alcohol while pregnant. In the U.S., one in every 750 infants is born with fetal alcohol
syndrome. Down syndrome occurs when an individual is born with an extra copy of the 21st
chromosome.
Most cases of mental retardation reflect familial retardation. In these instances, there is no
apparent biological deficit, but there is history of retardation in the family.

Difficulty: Easy
7-87
244. (p. 279) "Nerds." "Geeks." Briefly describe Terman's pioneering study of the intellectually
gifted and suggest how its results contradict popular stereotypes of the intellectually gifted.
The answer should include the following points:
Beginning in the 1920s, psychologist Lewis Terman began tracking 1,500 children with IQs of
140 or higher. The children were followed for the rest of their lives.
The results showed that from the beginning, the participants were more successful
academically and professionally than were their nongifted peers. More surprisingly, they were
better adjusted socially than were their nongifted peers, contradicting the stereotype of the
intellectually gifted as social misfits. Terman's participants also reported higher life satisfaction
than did nongifted individuals.

Difficulty: Easy
245. (p. 279-280) "The discrepancy in IQ scores between whites and blacks in the United States has
nothing to do with race." Support this reference using empirical data.
—Although there may be a substantial genetic component to intelligence, racial categories are
more socially constructed than genetically based; twin data and so forth is thus irrelevant to the
race-IQ debate
—There is more variability within racial categories than between them, calling the relevance of
the whole race-IQ debate into question. The focus should be on individuals rather than groups.
—The IQ gap attenuates greatly when blacks are in white environments, such as when black
children are adopted by white families, or when blacks attend college.
—The environment of black individuals differs in many ways from that of whites, not just in
SES; there may be many environmental factors, then, that could explain an IQ gap.
—In other societies, if an IQ gap exists, it is always the economically disadvantaged that come
out on the bottom. In a society in which blacks were an empowered majority and whites a
disenfranchised minority, any IQ gap would favor the blacks.
—IQ tests are still not culture-fair; black respondents may be at an unfair disadvantage from the
start when taking the test.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Medium
7-88
Another random document with
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great power of attorney from American citizens to their only
American government—gives no power whatever to the states or
their governments. Nevertheless, with amusement and absolute
incredulity, we shall hear every statesman of 1917 and every lawyer
of 1920 assume and act and argue upon the extraordinary concept
that the Fifth Article of that Constitution is a great power of attorney
to the state legislatures as attorneys in fact for the American citizens.
“We all know the severe scrutiny to which the Constitution was
exposed—some from their own knowledge, others from different
sources. We know with what jealousy, with what watchfulness, with
what scrupulous care its minutest provisions were examined,
discussed, resisted, and supported by those who opposed and those
who advocated its ratification.” (4 Ell. Deb. 486.) So spoke Martin
Van Buren in the Senate on April 7, 1826. We sit in the conventions
which made the Constitution of which he spoke. We listen to every
word that is said therein. We hear the Fifth Article explained by its
worder, Madison, as nothing but a mode of procedure. From not one
of the opponents of the Constitution, not even from Henry, do we
hear a single word of attack upon the Fifth Article except as to the
weakness of the mode of procedure which it provides for evoking the
power of the “people” themselves, assembled in “conventions” of the
very same kind, to withdraw from the one American legislature, the
Congress, some enumerated power of the First Article which is
found oppressive to individual liberty. On the contrary, we not only
hear no single word of complaint that the Fifth Article or any Article
gives one iota of power to the state legislatures, but the whole
complaint of all the opponents of the Constitution which we do hear
is that it practically destroys all existing ability and power of those
state governments. Only a moment ago we have heard Henry ask:
“If you adopt this Constitution, why continue the state legislatures at
all?”
Anticipating the extraordinary concept which we are later to hear in
1917 and 1920, that the citizens of America by the Fifth Article made
a collection of the state legislatures an omnipotent government over
everything in America, including every individual right, we wonder if
the constitutional thinkers of 1917 and 1920 remember that we are
sitting with a people who, just five years before the conventions in
which they and we sit, ended an eight-year war to make certain that
there never again should be a government of that kind in America, to
make certain that they themselves should never be the “subjects” of
any government or the citizens of any nation whose government
should have even one power to interfere with individual liberty,
except power of that kind granted directly by its citizens themselves.
It was Maclaine in the North Carolina convention who first used
the exact expression that the Americans, who sit in the conventions
where we are, were a people “better acquainted with the science of
government than any other people in the world.” In the same
convention, on July 29, 1788, this is what he had to say about the
consistent attack upon the Constitution, because it robbed the state
legislative governments of so much of their previous power. “Mr.
Chairman, that it will destroy the state sovereignty is a very popular
argument.... Government is formed for the happiness and prosperity
of the people at large. The powers given it are for their own good....
The powers to be given the general government are proposed to be
withdrawn from the authority of the state governments, in order to
protect and secure the union at large. This proposal is made to the
people. No man will deny their authority to delegate powers and
recall them, in all free countries.... It may be justly said that it [the
Constitution which contains the Fifth Article] diminishes the power of
the state legislatures, and the diminution is necessary to the safety
and prosperity of the people.” (4 Ell. Deb. 180.) It certainly would
have surprised Maclaine, as well as all the Americans in those
conventions, to have heard any one of themselves stating that the
same Constitution vested the state governments with an
omnipotence they had never possessed, the very omnipotence
denied to the British Parliament eleven years earlier.
In the Virginia convention we hear Madison, who drafted and
suggested the Fifth Article at Philadelphia, speak of the important
distinction between the makers of the federal Articles of 1781, only
seven years made, when we sit in that Virginia convention, and the
“convention” makers of the proposed Articles of the new national
Constitution. If these “conventions” make it, he says, it will be a
government established, not through the intervention of the
legislatures but by the people at large. Fie goes on to say “In this
particular respect, the distinction between the existing and proposed
governments is very material. The existing system has been derived
from the dependent derivative authority of the legislatures of the
states; whereas this is derived from the superior power of the
people. If we look at the manner in which alterations are to be
made,” now referring directly to the Fifth Article, “the same idea is, in
some degree, attended to.” (3 Ell. Deb. 94.)
We feel that it will be quite difficult, when we come later to the
constitutional thinkers of 1917 and 1920, for them to convince us that
Madison meant his Fifth Article to alter “the dependent derivative
authority of the legislatures of the state” and, whenever another
government makes the suggestion, put that dependent authority
above what he calls “the superior power of the people.”
And we feel that these “constitutional thinkers” will find it
impossible to convince us when we recall Madison’s other words,
directly referring to his Fifth Article and the existing power of the
people, mentioned therein by the word “conventions.” These are the
words to which we allude: “Were it [his Fifth Article] wholly national,
the supreme and ultimate authority would reside in the majority of
the people of the Union, and this authority would be competent at all
times, like that of a majority of every national society, to alter or
abolish its established government.” It is Madison himself who puts
the one word “majority” in italics. He does so to call attention to the
fact that his Article leaves “the supreme and ultimate authority” in the
people (named as “conventions” in his Article) but not necessarily
capable of exercise by the majority in any constitutional manner. He
goes on to explain this very fact by saying that when the mode of
procedure prescribed in his Article is read, it is found that “in
requiring more than a majority, and particularly in computing the
proportion by states, not by citizens, it departs from the national and
advances towards the federal character.” (Fed. No. 39.)
In New York we find Hamilton, who seconded the suggestion of
Madison’s Fifth Article at Philadelphia, almost immediately after he
had stated that there would be no danger in permitting Congress to
propose amendments since “the final decision in the case will rest
with the people.” As we recall, Hamilton said this when the tentative
Fifth Article mentioned no one but the people, “conventions,” as the
maker of future Articles, because he and Madison and their
associates at Philadelphia, whose minds had so far been
concentrated upon the national First Article, had not yet grasped the
fact, later stated by Hamilton to be his conviction, that all future
changes would probably relate “to the organization of government
and not to the mass of its powers.” We are, therefore, interested to
find Hamilton, in New York, on Friday, December 14, 1787, pointing
out that “It has not a little contributed to the infirmities of the existing
federal system that it never had a ratification by the people. Resting
on no better foundation than the consent of the several legislatures,
it has been exposed to frequent and intricate questions concerning
the validity of its powers.... The possibility of a question of this nature
proves the necessity of laying the foundations of our national
government [the First Article grant of national powers] deeper than in
the mere sanction of delegated authority [referring directly to the
state legislatures which are mentioned in the Fifth Article]. The fabric
of American empire ought to rest on the solid basis of the consent
of the people. The streams of national power ought to flow
immediately from that pure, original fountain of all legitimate
authority.” (Fed. No. 22.) The capitals are those of Hamilton himself.
We rather feel that his stress upon the “people” sharply contrasted
with the state “legislatures,” as the only legitimate direct source of
national power, such as is granted in the First Article and the
Eighteenth Amendment, will be somewhat of a shock to the
“constitutional thinkers” of 1917 and 1920. Sitting in the conventions
of old, we rather recognize the capitalized words, where Hamilton
says that national power in America “ought to rest on the solid basis
of the consent of the people,” as a direct echo from the Statute of
’76, enacted only eleven years before those conventions. That
Statute says that every just power of government must be derived
directly from the governed.
And we become rather convinced that Hamilton and Madison,
when submitting the Fifth Article at Philadelphia, never worded it so
that national power in America could be granted through the
illegitimate authority of the state legislatures, when we read what
either one or both of them have to say on Tuesday, February 5,
1788, in The Federalist, No. 49. “As the people are the only
legitimate fountain of power, and it is from them that the
constitutional charter, under which the several branches of
government hold their power, is derived, it seems strictly consonant
to the republican theory to recur to the same original authority”—a
direct reference to the “conventions” of the Seventh and the Fifth
Articles—“whenever it may be necessary to enlarge, diminish, or
new-model the powers of government.”
If we ever had any doubt as to what Hamilton meant the Fifth
Article to provide, our doubt is ended forever when we hear
Hamilton, in the New York Convention, speak of the state
legislatures, which the “constitutional thinkers” of 1917 and 1920
assume to have been made attorney in fact for the American people
for every purpose by that Fifth Article. “Look through their history,” he
says, speaking of those state legislative governments. “What
factions have arisen from the most trifling causes! What intrigues
have been practiced for the most illiberal purposes! Is not the State
of Rhode Island, at this moment, struggling under difficulties and
distresses, for having been led blindly by the spirit of the multitude?
What is her legislature but the picture of a mob?” Most of the states
“are either governed by a single democratic assembly, or have a
senate constituted entirely upon democratic principles. These have
been more or less embroiled in factions, and have generally been
the image and echo of the multitude.... Let us beware that we do not
make the state legislatures a vehicle in which the evil humors may
be conveyed into the national system.” (2 Ell. Deb. 317.) When
Hamilton knew that these state legislatures were not the legitimate
source of national powers in a republic and when he had this view of
their general character, will any sane man believe that he advocated
that the citizens of America should make these legislatures (although
the citizens of America elect not a single member in them) absolute
attorney in fact for the citizens of America for all purposes? Will any
sane man believe that he proposed to substitute them, as grantors of
national power, for the “conventions” of the Fifth Article, which
“conventions” already excited the admiration of the entire world,
according to the author of the Fifth Article, as the only safe or
effective mode in which the free citizens of a nation could vest its
government with any power to interfere with their own individual
liberty.
“The authority of Constitutions over governments, and the
sovereignty of the people over Constitutions, are truths which are at
all times necessary to be kept in mind; and at no time, perhaps,
more necessary than at present.” This impressive statement of the
truth that the “governments,” state “legislatures,” never were placed
by the Fifth Article above the Constitution in which it is, and above
the sovereignty of the people, mentioned therein as “conventions,”
and cannot be placed there by another government, the Congress, is
not a statement made in the heat of the controversy about the
Eighteenth Amendment. It is the statement of James Madison,
author of the Fifth Article, made in the Virginia House of Delegates in
1799;
It is becoming almost impossible for us, as we sit in these
conventions and hear every word that is said, to understand the
source of the modern thought, if we can dignify it by calling it
“thought,” that the Fifth Article is a power of attorney from the citizens
of America to the state governments, every member of which is
elected by the citizens of the respective states and not by the
citizens of America. It is beginning to grow upon us that any such
“thought” is based on sheer assumption and that the entire record of
the “conventions” is a closed book to those who hold the
assumption. We know that they have the explicit statement of the
Tenth Amendment, that the Constitution gives no power of any kind
to any donee except the one new American government, the
government with the enumerated powers of the First Article. As no
power of attorney was ever written or can be conceived except one
which grants the attorney in fact some power, the Tenth Amendment
makes absolutely certain that neither the Fifth Article nor the entire
Constitution gives to the state legislatures any power as attorneys in
fact for the citizens of America.
Moreover, breathing the atmosphere of those first “conventions” of
the kind named in the Seventh and the Fifth Articles, the
“conventions” where individual liberty of the American is the only
object of advocate and opponent of the Articles under consideration,
we begin to sense that the holders of the impossible assumption
have never fully grasped the amazing and vital distinction between
“state legislatures” and “conventions” of the kind named in the
Seventh and the Fifth Articles. When we shall hear the “constitutional
thinkers” of 1917 and 1920 speak of the “legislatures” and the
“conventions” as two different agents given omnipotent attorneyship
in fact over all the individual rights of the citizens of America, we
shall wonder if these thinkers appreciate that the “state legislatures”
are permanent bodies, always existing, and that the “conventions” of
the Fifth Article are, to the “conventions” in which we sit, bodies that
never would have an existence until some future moment, when the
American citizens themselves would again be called to assemble in
and thus make those “conventions.” Nothing could show more
clearly that the “conventions” of the Seventh Article looked upon the
“conventions” of the Fifth Article, not as the donee of any power of
attorney, but as themselves or their posterity, the citizens of America,
assembling again to determine whether there shall be any change in
the distribution of power to interfere with their individual liberty. And
our thought, re-echoed again and again by Marshall and others from
the Bench of the Supreme Court in the century that follows the first
assembling of these “conventions,” seems but the repetition of what
we hear said in the Massachusetts Convention as the tribute of its
Americans to the Fifth Article.
On January 23, 1788, the Americans, assembled in
Massachusetts, took up the consideration of that Article. As in every
convention, there had been great opposition to the earlier Articles; as
in every convention, nearly all of it had been to the great national
powers of the First Article granted to the new government and taken
from the state governments; and, as in every convention, almost all
of this opposition had been the continued complaint that the state
governments were being destroyed.
It was not that the Americans loved the state governments. The
truth is that, like every natural human being, they objected to all
governments. Their sole thought was fear of oppressive government
infringement upon their individual liberty. In this respect, the
Americans in each convention feared their own legislative
government less than the new proposed Congress, because they
would elect all the members of the former and only a few members
of the latter. If it had been suggested, by any of the many opponents
of the new Constitution, that any possible twisting of the words of the
Fifth Article meant that governments outside their state, not one of
whose members they themselves would elect, could infringe upon
their every individual right, without any constitutional restraint, the
record of every convention would have been one unanimous “no,”
against the new Constitution. But, as no “constitutional thinker” of
1917 or 1920 sat in any of those conventions, no such suggestion
was ever made therein.
And so, on that January 23, we hear the Fifth Article read in that
Massachusetts convention, and we see Rufus King rising and we
hear him state that “He believed gentlemen had not, in their
objections to the Constitution, recollected that this Article was a part
of it; for many of the arguments of gentlemen were founded on the
idea of future amendments being impracticable.” He dwelt “on the
superior excellence of the proposed Constitution in this particular,
and called upon gentlemen to produce an instance, in any other
national constitution, where the people had so fair an opportunity to
correct any abuse which might take place in the future administration
of the government under it.”
And then we hear Dr. Jarvis: “Mr. President, I cannot suffer the
present Article to be passed, without rising to express my entire and
perfect approbation of it. Whatever may have been my private
opinion of any other part, or whatever faults or imperfections I have
remarked, or fancied I have seen, in any other instance, here, sir, I
have found complete satisfaction: this has been a resting place, on
which I have reposed myself in the fullest security, whenever a doubt
has occurred, in considering any other passage in the proposed
Constitution. The honorable gentleman last speaking has called
upon those persons who are opposed to our receiving the present
system, to show another government, in which such a wise
precaution has been taken to secure to the people the right of
making such alterations and amendments, in a peaceable way, as
experience shall have proved to be necessary. Allow me to say, sir,
as far as the narrow limits of my own information extend, I know of
no such example. In other countries, sir,—unhappily for mankind,—
the history of their respective revolutions has been written in blood;
and it is in this only that any great or important change in our political
situation has been effected, without public commotions. When we
shall have adopted the Constitution before us, we shall have in this
Article an adequate provision for all the purposes of political
reformation. If, in the course of its operation, this government shall
appear to be too severe, here are the means by which this severity
may be assuaged and corrected.... We have united against the
British; we have united in calling the late federal convention; and we
may certainly unite again in such alterations as in reason shall
appear to be important for the peace and happiness of America.” (2
Ell. Deb. 116.)
No man ever voiced such sentiments, no conventions of
Americans ever listened to them, with any knowledge or thought that
the Fifth Article, “the wise precaution” to secure the liberty of the
individual if the government with the national powers of the First
Article oppressed that liberty, was itself a grant to another
government, ten legislatures outside of the Massachusetts in which
that convention was held, to infringe upon the individual liberty of
every American in Massachusetts on every subject without any
constitutional restraint.
And so, we average Americans end our education in the only
“conventions,” named in the Seventh or the Fifth Articles, which yet
have assembled. And we end that education knowing that there is
nothing anywhere in the Constitution those conventions adopted,
and especially nothing in the Fifth Article, which changed the free
American into a subject of any government or governments in
America. Everything we have heard—and what we have repeated is
but little of what we have heard—serves but to emphasize the only
meaning of its “apt, precise and classic English,” the plain meaning
which we got from its language when we read it at the beginning of
these conventions with the Americans who made it.
It is, as its author explained it, naught but a constitutional mode of
procedure in which may be thereafter exercised, in a constitutional
manner, either the limited ability of state governments to make
Articles which do not concern themselves with the infringement of
individual liberty or the unlimited ability of the people themselves, the
“conventions” of the kind in which we have sat, to make any Articles.
The procedure prescribed for such constitutional exercise is
simplicity itself to those who sit in those conventions. It is exactly the
procedure just followed (up to the point where the work of any
proposer of a new Article and its mode of ratification must end) by
the Philadelphia Convention which drafted it and the other six
Articles. The Philadelphia Convention found itself without any
constitutional mode of procedure in which could be evoked to
exercise the existing and exclusive power of the people of America
to grant any government power to infringe upon the individual liberty
of the American citizens. There being no constitutional mode of
procedure, no designated body to draft Articles with such grants and
to propose them and to ascertain and propose the valid mode of
ratification for them, the Philadelphia Convention did that work,
guided only by basic American doctrine, the Statute of ’76 and the
experience of the “conventions” which had made the national Articles
of 1776. It followed a certain mode of procedure in the doing of these
things, knowing and stating that to draft Articles and propose them
and ascertain and propose the right mode of ratification for them is
not the exercise of any power. With a knowledge which we of a later
generation never should have forgotten—and which we who have
been educated with them never will forget—the Philadelphia
Convention knew that there were two makers of Articles in America,
each of which had exercised its respective and different ability to
make them, during the eleven years which preceded the
Philadelphia Convention. They knew that every Article that was
national could be made by no one but the people themselves, the
“conventions,” which had made the national Articles of ’76 and which
are named as the makers of all future Articles of that kind in the
Seventh and the Fifth Articles proposed by Philadelphia.
And so, when the Philadelphia Convention had drafted its Articles
and was about to propose them, it recognized the legal necessity of
ascertaining, from the nature of those Articles, whether they were in
the power of both or only of one of those existing makers of Articles.
In the ascertainment, with their minds on the First Article grants of
national power to interfere with individual liberty, they knew that no
governments in America could make an Article of that kind. Their
ascertainment was then ended and they knew that they must
propose that mode of ratification which would send their Articles to
the only valid ratifiers, the people themselves, the “conventions” of
the Seventh and the Fifth Articles.
This was the procedure they had followed, when there was no
constitutional mode of procedure provided. And so, with the
extraordinary wisdom that characterized everything they did, that
Philadelphia Convention wrote exactly the same procedure into the
Fifth Article so that never again there might be lacking in America a
constitutional mode of procedure for the evoking and the exercise of
the only power that is ever exercised when constitutional Articles are
made, the power of making them. As the Philadelphia Convention
ended its existence with its own proposals, some new body had to
do that work, when any new Article was to be proposed. As the work
of the Philadelphia Convention had not been the exercise of any
power but merely the work of proposing, it was a certainty that the
new constitutional mode, exactly the same mode as that of
Philadelphia, would also be the exercise of no power. And so, the
Philadelphia Convention named the Congress (or a convention
demanded by the state legislatures) to do the work of the
Philadelphia Convention in drafting and proposing any new Article,
and it named the Congress to perform the duty of ascertaining (by
the nature of the new drafted Article) which of the two makers could
make it, and then to propose a mode of ratification by which it would
be validly ratified by such competent maker. As to the only powers
ever to be exercised in the making of any new Article, the power of
legislatures to make federal Articles, and the exclusive power of the
people or “conventions” to make national Articles, the constitutional
mode of procedure did not (nor could it, if Americans were not to
become “subjects”) give the governments any of the exclusive ability
of the people or “conventions,” and it did not (nor could it, if America
were to be a republic) alter the existing ability of the majority of the
American people to make their governments what they will. But, for
the very practical purpose which Madison so clearly explained, the
purpose of providing some check upon the tyranny of the majority or
an aggressive minority over the individual rights of all Americans, the
Fifth Article procedure could and did fail to provide any
constitutional method in which government power to interfere with
individual liberty, as all surrendered power of that kind was
distributed between different governments in the Constitution, could
be changed in any way or transferred from one government to
another, unless the “conventions” of the American citizens in three
fourths of the states said “Yes” to any proposed change or transfer.
The Philadelphia Convention having proposed this particular
check upon the existing ability of the people themselves to oppress
individual liberty, a check which makes the words “by conventions in
three fourths thereof” by far the most important words, the Fifth
Article goes on to prescribe exactly the same check on the exercise
of the ability of the state legislatures to make federal Articles.
That the Fifth Article, a constitutional mode of procedure for the
exercise of two different existing abilities, was not a grant of any
power to the state legislative governments is something that was
known to every man in the conventions which made that Fifth Article.
In the Pennsylvania convention, Wilson plainly stated the
knowledge of all that the supreme power “resides in the people, as
the fountain of government; that the people have not—that the
people meant not—and that the people ought not—to part with it to
any government whatsoever. In their hands it remains secure. They
can delegate it in such proportions to such bodies, on such terms,
and under such limitations, as they think proper. I agree with the
members in opposition, that there cannot be two sovereign powers
on the same subject.... My position is, sir, that, in this country, the
supreme, absolute, and uncontrollable power resides in the people
at large.” (2 Ell. Deb. 456 et seq.)
When more than half a century had passed, the same thing was
known to those who knew American Constitutional Law.
“It is obviously impossible for the whole people to meet, prepare
and discuss the proposed alterations, and there seems to be no
feasible mode by which an expression of their will can be obtained,
except by asking it upon the single point of assent or disapproval.
But no body of representatives, unless specially clothed with power
for that purpose by the people when choosing them, [ergo, no
permanent state governments or legislatures] can rightfully take
definitive action upon amendments or revisions; they must submit
the result of their deliberations to the people—who alone are
competent to exercise the powers of sovereignty in framing
the fundamental law—for ratification or rejection.”
So spoke the great Cooley in reference to making changes in
national constitutions in his work on Constitutional Limitations (7th
ed., 1903, at p. 61).
When one hundred and seventeen years had passed since the
conventions in which we just sat, the same thing was known in the
Supreme Court, in 1907.
The powers the people have given to the General
Government are named in the Constitution, and all not there
named, either expressly or by implication, are reserved to the
people and can be exercised only by them, or upon further
grant from them. (Justice Brewer in Turner v. Williams, 194 U.
S. 279.)
CHAPTER XIV
SEVENTEEN ARTICLES RESPECT HUMAN
FREEDOM
“For my own part, I acknowledge a thorough conviction that

Amendments which may, upon mature consideration, be thought
useful, will be applicable to the organization of the government, not
to the mass of its powers.” (Fed. No. 85.)
This was the statement of Hamilton to the American people when
he was asking them, about to assemble in their conventions, to
make their First Article grants of enumerated powers to interfere with
their individual freedom and to make their Fifth Article mode of
procedure, in which they could exercise constitutionally their
exclusive ability, assembled again in “conventions,” to add or
subtract from that grant of enumerated powers of that kind.
When he used the words, “mass of its powers,” he referred directly
to that First Article grant. It contains all the powers that were ever
given to any government to interfere with the individual freedom of
the American citizen. He knew what the Supreme Court clearly
declared in United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. 542, that, beyond
the scope of its enumerated powers, there is no government of the
American citizens. He knew that, in the geographical territory which
is each state, there would thereafter be two governments, the
government of enumerated powers, governing the American citizens
in that state under the First Article grants from the American citizens,
and the state governments, governing the citizens of the state, under
whatever grants of national power its state citizens gave that
government.
The two governments in each state stand in their respective
spheres of action in the same independent relation to each
other, except in one particular, that they would if their authority
embraced distinct territories. That particular consists in the
supremacy of the authority of the United States when any
conflict arises between the two governments. (Justice Field, in
Tarble’s case, in the Supreme Court, 13 Wall. 397.)
With such knowledge, he would have found it impossible to make
the blunder of assuming that either government could give or join
with governments in giving to the other any power to interfere with
the citizens of the grantee in their enjoyment of individual liberty. He
knew that, “In our republican forms of government, the absolute
sovereignty of the nation is in the people of the nation; and the
residuary sovereignty of each state, not granted to any of its public
functionaries, is in the people of the state.” (Story, 1 Ell. Deb. 65.)
When Hamilton stated, in those days of 1788, his conviction that
new Articles would relate to the “organization of government and not
to the mass of its powers,” he was epitomizing the common
knowledge of everyone, at that time, that the new Constitution was
both federal and national. He was predicting that the power to
interfere with individual liberty, to the extent which Americans had
surrendered any power of that kind to their governments, had been
so wisely distributed, between the government of the citizens of
America and the political entity which was each state, that it would
never be necessary for the citizens of America to alter that
distribution by giving any more to their government. That is why he
prophesied that no new Article of the kind which only “conventions”
of those citizens can make, Articles changing the “mass of powers”
granted to that government by the First Article, would ever be
needed.
And we recall that this conviction probably influenced the last day
remembrance in the Philadelphia Convention by Madison and
himself, that the Fifth Article should also contain some reference to
the state legislatures and their future exercise of their existing
abilities to make federal or declaratory Articles, which do not change
the “mass of powers” in that First Article grant and do not relate to
government interference with the individual liberty of the American
citizen.
The statement of Hamilton was not meant as a prophecy. It was
the result of a great mind reasoning from cause to probable effect.
As we come down through the century or more that follows that
statement and reach the beginning of the year 1917, we pay our
tribute to a mind which could reason so correctly as to what would
happen for more than a hundred years. We shall find that never
again, from 1787 to 1917, did experience find it necessary that the
“conventions” of the American citizens, the “conventions” named in
the Seventh and the Fifth Articles, should again be assembled to
alter, as they alone can alter, the mass of enumerated powers to
interfere with their own individual liberty, which they granted in that
First Article.
It is a striking commentary upon the ability of Hamilton and his
generation, when contrasted with our modern “constitutional
thinkers,” that he knew and appreciated what would happen in a
century to come, while they have not understood what had
happened in a century that had gone, although the record of that
century was spread out before them to read. None of our leaders
have appreciated the fact that every one of the first seventeen
Amendments to our Constitution was of the kind that state
legislatures had ability to make before our Constitution was even
drafted at Philadelphia, because all were federal (or declaratory)
Articles and were not national Articles. If they had known, after these
seventeen Amendments were history, what he prophesied before the
Constitution itself was adopted, the story of the last five years might
not have been what we shall learn hereafter that it was.
That we may know, of our knowledge, what he prophesied and
what they entirely overlooked and ignored, let us briefly examine the
nature of those seventeen Amendments. Thus we will learn why
governments, known at Philadelphia in 1787 to be incompetent to
make national Articles, could and did make those seventeen Articles
in the constitutional mode of procedure which the Fifth Article
provided for the exercise of their existing ability limited to the making
of federal or declaratory Articles.
The first ten Amendments were declarations insisted upon by the
American citizens, assembled in “conventions” where we have sat,
as specific security against government usurpation of power over
their individual freedom. The Supreme Court has repeatedly
declared that everything in those ten Amendments was in the
Constitution when it was ratified by those “conventions” and that the
Amendments simply declared what the will of the people themselves,
assembled in those “conventions,” had already established as the
fundamental law in America. Certainly no man would challenge the
prophecy of Hamilton on the theory that any one of those
Amendments added to the mass of government powers to interfere
with human freedom. They are, each and every one of them, the
declaration that government cannot do “this” and government cannot
do “that.” So far from being national Articles, the kind which only
“conventions” of American citizens could or can make, the kind which
tell government that it can command the American citizens on this or
that subject, they are all Articles which tell government that it cannot
command the American citizen. And, for the further security of the
individual freedom of the American citizen, a security never needed
more than in this year 1923, the Tenth Declaration emphatically
declares who it is that retains the exclusive ability to alter, in one
iota, “the mass of powers” (over the individual freedom of the
American citizen) granted by them in the First Article and the
exclusive ability to exercise any power of that kind over them, which
was not granted in the First Article. Who can deny that, stated in our
own words, this is what we find in the plain declaration of the Tenth
Amendment? “We, the people of America, assembled in our
conventions, have granted to the American government enumerated
powers of the First Article. They are the only powers of that kind
delegated to any government, by which it can interfere with our
individual freedom in our capacity as American citizens. All powers,
which the citizens of each state have hitherto had and which we
have not taken from them herein, we have left with them; and the
citizens of each state can grant so much of said powers as they
please to their own government to govern them as citizens of that
state. All other powers, outside those we have granted to our
government to interfere with us and those we have left to the citizens
of each state for their own respective exercise, we reserve
exclusively to ourselves, in our capacity as citizens of America. And,
if any government should deem it wise that any one of these powers
(which we so reserve exclusively to ourselves) should be exercised,
we have provided in the Fifth Article the mode of procedure in which
we, assembled in our conventions, can constitutionally exercise
it or grant it to the government which wants to exercise it.”
The powers the people have given to the General
Government are named in the Constitution, and all not there
named, either expressly or by implication, are reserved to the
people and can be exercised only by them, or upon further
grant from them. (Justice Brewer in Turner v. Williams, 194 U.
S. 279.)
Later herein we Americans, fresh from the “conventions” which
demanded these declarations for the better protection of individual
liberty, are going to hear expounded a doctrine, which would mean
that these declarations were themselves the American Magna
Charta. We are going to hear, to our amazement, that these
declarations were a compact between an omnipotent government
and its subjects, ourselves, who have always imagined that we were
“citizens” and not “subjects.” We are going to hear, to our utter
incredulity, that these declarations are the promise of a government
—itself omnipotent over ourselves and our Constitution and our
government which we thought to be the supreme government in
America—that we, the subjects of that omnipotent government, may
have certain privileges which this omnipotent government will not
take from us.
When first we shall hear this 1917 resurrection of the Tory concept
that government is master and Americans are “subjects,” that
government is the state and we are its assets, we shall naturally be
astounded and indignant that even a few inhabitants should still
retain what Madison called “the impious doctrine” of the Old World,
that people are made for governments, not governments for the
people. Quickly, however, we shall become alarmed to find how
wide-spread, among the “constitutional thinkers” of our own
generation, is the complacent acceptance of the Tory concept and to
learn that, when its application in any given instance injures a client
of one of those constitutional thinkers, no matter how he may argue
against the application in the particular instance, he neither knows
nor uses for his client the fact that the Statute of ’76 repealed the
doctrine on which Magna Charta rested, the Tory concept that
government is the state and that we are its “subjects.”
It will be difficult for us to understand these leaders of our
generation. In addition to what we have just lived through with the
early Americans, these leaders will have before them countless
decisions of the Supreme Court, flatly contradicting the Tory concept
on which all these leaders reason. “The concessions of Magna
Charta were wrung from the King as guarantees against the
oppressions and usurpations of his prerogatives.... The omnipotence
of Parliament over the common law was absolute, even against
common right and reason. The actual and practical security for
English liberty against legislative tyranny was the power of a free
public opinion represented by the Commons.” We are going to find
many of our leaders with the fixed Tory concept that there is in
America a legislative government, unknown to the generation of
Americans who created all government in America, and that this
omnipotent government can do whatever it pleases, without any
constitutional restraint, with almost everything in America, including
ourselves and our Constitution and our American government.
Curiously enough, we are going to be told that the one thing, in
which this omnipotent legislative government falls short of absolute
omnipotence, has nothing to do with any individual human freedom,
but is its inability to change the equal representation of every state in
our Senate. It will be quite amazing to us to hear these men, not
proving this Tory concept but stating it as axiomatic American law
and on it basing their every argument and audaciously claiming that
our Supreme Court has no right even to consider whether it is so or
not. But there will be something to alarm us even more. We will find
our other “constitutional thinkers,” by circumstances obliged to
challenge some particular deduction from this Tory concept, without
any knowledge of the invincible facts which challenge the concept
itself. To most of these men it will be as if the Statute of ’76 had been
repealed and the result of our Revolution reversed, in 1787, by the
very “conventions” in which we have sat. It will be our amazement to
hear that these “conventions” never created the citizen of America
but that the American people, assembled therein, voluntarily made
themselves “subjects” of the omnipotent government. And these
modern “constitutional thinkers” will discuss this omnipotent
government on the basis that those “conventions” made that
particular government (not the one to whom the First Article grants
its powers) attorney in fact for the general people of America,
authorized to interfere with their individual freedom, “on all matters
whatsoever.” To most of these men, it will be as if the Supreme
Court, in countless ways, had not declared:
In this country, written constitutions were deemed essential
to protect the rights and liberties of the people against the
encroachment of power delegated to their governments, and
the provisions of Magna Charta were incorporated into bills of
rights.... Applied in England only as guards against executive
usurpation and tyranny, here they have become bulwarks
against arbitrary legislation; but in that application, as it would
be incongruous to measure and restrict them by the ancient
customary English Law, they must be held to guarantee, not
particular forms of procedure, but the very substance of
individual rights to life, liberty and property.
Of course, fresh from the conventions of old, we shall know that
these men are talking nonsense. We shall know that the last two
quoted statements from the Supreme Court, in Hurtado v. California,
110 U. S. 516, are but the expression of what was once the common
knowledge of a people then “better acquainted with the science of
government than any other people in the world.” But, as our
knowledge shall be as the knowledge of the Americans of old, who
fought an eight year war of sacrifice to make any such Tory concept
in America absolute nonsense, it is well for us, while we are
examining the nature of the first seventeen Amendments of our
Constitution, to keep in mind one thing, which we now know and
which, if it had not been forgotten, would have prevented the
monumental blunder of the generation in which we ourselves are the
American citizens. This one thing is the fact that the Constitution,
made in the conventions we have just left, is a federal and a national
Constitution. That fact and its influence upon the Convention, which

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Multiple Choice Questions

APA Goal Outcome: 1.4, 10.2

2. (p. 241) Which of the following is true about mental images?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.4, 9.2, 9.3

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

9. (p. 243) A prototype is:

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

13. (p. 243) Which of the following is true of algorithms?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

14. (p. 243) Which of the following is true of heuristics?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

20. (p. 243) Which of the following is TRUE of heuristics?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

38. (p. 246) Which of the following is an ill-defined problem?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4