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8.1: PROBLEM DEFINITION
Situation:
Dimensions of density, viscosity and pressure.
Find:
Primary dimensions of density, viscosity and pressure.
SOLUTION
Density
M
[ρ] =
L3
Viscosity
M
[μ] =
LT
Pressure
M
[p] =
LT 2
1
Situation:
Application of the Buckingham Π theorem.
6 dimensional variables.
3 primary dimensions.
Find:
Number of dimensionless variables.
SOLUTION
Six dimensional variables, three primary variables (6-3)=3 dimensionless variables (or
π groups)
2
Situation:
Dimensional homogeneity.
Find:
Definition of dimensional homogeneity.
SOLUTION
An equation is dimensionally homogeneous if all the terms have the same dimensions.
3
Situation:
Consider equations:
√
(a) Q = (2/3)CL 2gH 3/2 .
(b) V = (1.49/n)R2/3 S 1/2 .
(c) hf = f(L/D)V 2 /2g.
(d) D = 0.074Re−0.2 BxρV 2 /2.
Find:
Determine which equations are homogeneous.
SOLUTION
a
p
Q = (2/3)CL 2gH 3/2
µ ¶1/2
L3 L
[Q] = =L L3/2
T T2
L3 L3
= homogeneous
T T
b
µ ¶
1.49
V = R2/3 S 1/2
n
[V ] = L/T = L−1/6 L2/3 not homogeneous
hf = f(L/D)V 2 /2g
(L/L) (L/T )2
[hf ] = L = homogeneous
L/T 2
d
0.074Re−0.2 BxρV 2
D =
2
µ ¶ µ ¶2
ML M L
[D] = = L × L × homogeneous
T2 L3 T
4
Situation:
Consider variables:
(a) T (torque).
ρV 2 /2.
(b) p
(c) τ /ρ.
(d) Q/ND3 .
Find:
Determine the dimensions of the variables.
SOLUTION
ML ML2
a [T ] = T2
×L= T2
¡ M ¢ ¡ L ¢2 M
b [ρV 2 /2] = L3 T
= LT 2
r³ ´ ¡ ¢
p ML/T 2
c [ τ /ρ] = L2
/ LM3 = L/T
³ ´
L3
d [Q/N D3 ] = T
/ (T −1 L3 ) = 1 → Dimensionless
5
Situation:
Liquid is draining out of a tank through an orifice at the bottom.
Find:
The π−groups in the form.
∆h
= f(π 1 , π 2 , π 3 )
d
.
PLAN
The fluid density and specific weight must also be included so functional form is
∆h = f (d, D, γ, t, hi , ρ)
Use the step-by-step method.
SOLUTION
∆h ∆h ∆h
∆h L d
0 d
0 d
0
t T t T t T
M
ρ L3
ρd3 M
D D D
D L d
0 d
0 d
0
d L
M M γ 1 γt2
γ L2 T 2
γd2 T2 ρd T2 ρd
0
h1 h1 h1
h1 L d
0 d
0 d
0
In the first step, length is taken out with d. In the second step, mass is taken out
with ρd3 . In the third step, time is taken out with t. The functional relationship is
2
∆h
d
= f( Dd , γt , h1 )
ρd d
This can also be written as
∆h d gt2 h1
= f( , , )
d D d d
6
Situation:
Liquid rises in a capillary tube.
Find:
The π−groups.
PLAN
SOLUTION
h h
h L d
0 d
0
d L
M M σ
σ T2
σ T2 γd2
0
M M
γ L2 T 2
γd2 T2
In the first step, d was used to remove length and in the second γd2 was used to
remove both length and time. The final functional form is
h
d
= f ( γdσ2 )
7
Situation:
Drag force on a small sphere.
Find:
The relevant π−groups.
PLAN
The functional form of the equation is
FD = f(V, d, μ)
SOLUTION
ML FD M FD 1 FD
FD T2 d T2 μd2 T μV d
0
L V 1 V 1
V T d T d T
M M
μ LT
μd T
d L
In the first step, length is removed with d. In the second, mass is removed with μd
and in the third time is removed with V /d. Finally
FD
μV d
=C
8
Situation:
The side thrust of a rough spinning ball in a fluid.
Find:
The π−groups in the form
Fs
= f(π 1 , π 2 , π 3 )
ρVo2 D2
.
PLAN
SOLUTION
ML F M F 1 F
F T2 D T2 ρD4 T2 ρV 2 D2
0
D L
L V 1 V 1
V T D T D T
M 3
ρ L3
ρD M
M M μ 1 μ
μ LT
μD T ρD2 T ρV D
0
ks ks ks
ks L D
0 D
0 D
0
1 1 1 ωD
ω T
ω T
ω T V
0
Length is removed in the first step with D, mass in the second step with ρD3 and
time in the third step with V /D. The functional form is
F
ρV 2 D2
= f ( ρVμD , kDs , ωD
V
)
There are other possible forms.
9
Situation:
Steady, viscous flow through a small horizontal tube.
Find:
The π−groups.
PLAN
The functional form is
∆p
= f(V, μ, D)
∆
There are four dimensional variables so there will only be one π-group. Use the
step-by-step method.
SOLUTION
∆p M ∆p 2 M ∆p D 1 ∆p D2
∆ L2 T 2 ∆
D T2 ∆ μ T ∆ μV
0
M M
μ LT
μD T
L V 1 V 1
V T D T D T
D L
Length is removed in the first step with D, mass is removed in the second with μD
and time is removed in the third with V /D. Finally we have
∆p D2
∆ μV
=C
or
∆p μV
=C 2
∆ D
10
Situation:
Vortex meter for flow rate measurement.
Find:
The functional relation in the form
Q
= f(π 1 , π 2 )
ωD3
PLAN The functional form of the equation is
Q = (ω, D, l, ρ, μ)
SOLUTION Setting up the table
L3 Q Q Q
Q T ω
L3 ωD3 ωD3
1
ω T
D L D L
l l
l L l L D D
M M ωρD2
ρ L3
ρ L3
ρD3 M μ
M μ M μD
μ LT ω L ω
M
The time was eliminated with ω, the length with D and the mass with ρD3 . The
function form is
Q l ωρD2
= f( , )
ωD3 D μ
11
Situation:
A centrifugal pump develops a pressure change when in operation.
Find:
The π−groups.
PLAN
∆p = f (D, n, Q, ρ)
There are 5 dimensional variables so there should be 2 π groups. Use the step-by-step
method.
SOLUTION
M M ∆p 1 ∆p
∆p LT 2
∆pD T2 ρD2 T2 n2 ρD2
0
D L
1 1 1
n T
n T
n T
L3 Q 1 Q 1 Q
Q T D3 T D3 T nD3
0
M 3
ρ L3
ρD M
In the first step, length is removed with D. In the second step, mass is removed with
ρD3 and time is removed in the third step with n. The functional form is
∆p Q
n2 ρD2
= f ( nD 3)
12
Situation:
The force on a satellite in the earth’s upper atmosphere.
Find:
The nondimensional form of equation.
PLAN
The dimensional form of the equation is
F = f (λ, D, ρ, c)
Use the exponent method.
SOLUTION
F = λa ρb Dc cd
µ ¶b µ ¶d
2 a M L
ML/T = L 3
Lc
L T
a−3b+c+d b −d
= L M T
Equating powers of M, L and T , we have
T :d = 2
M :b = 1
L:1 = a−3+c+c
1 = a−3+c+2
a+c = 2
a = 2−c
Therefore,
F = λ(2−c) ρDc c2
F/(ρc2 λ2 ) = f (D/λ)
Another valid answer would be
F/(ρc2 D2 ) = f(D/λ)
13
Situation:
A study involves capillary rise of a liquid in a tube.
Find:
h
= f (π1 , π2 , π 3 )
d
PLAN
h = f (t, d, σ, ρ, γ, μ)
There are 7 dimensional variables so there should be 4 π groups. Use the step-by-step
method.
SOLUTION
h h h
h L d
0 d
0 d
0
t T t T t T
M σt2
σ T2
σ TM2 σ
ρd3
1
T2 ρd3
0
M
ρ L3
ρd3 M
M γ γt2
γ L2 T 2
γd2 TM2 ρd
1
T2 ρd
0
M μ μt
μ LT
μd M T ρd2 T
1
ρd2
0
d L
In the first step, length is removed with d. In the second step, mass is removed with
ρd3 and in the final step, time is removed with t. The final functional form is
2 2
h σt γt μt
d
= f( ρd3 , ρd , ρd2 )
14
Situation:
An engineer characterizing power consumed by a fan.
Power depends on four variables: P = f (ρ, D, Q, n) .
• ρ is the density of air
• D is the diameter of the fan impeller
• Q is the flow rate produced by the fan
• n is the rotation rate of the fan.
Find:
(a) Find the relevant π-groups.
(b) Suggest a way to plot the data.
PLAN
Apply the π-Buckingham theorem to establish the number of π-groups that need to
be found. Apply the step-by-step method to find these groups and then use the
π-groups to decide how a plot should be made.
SOLUTION
π-Buckingham theorem. The number of variables is n = 5. The number of primary
dimensions is m = 3.
Number of π-group = n−m

= 5−3
= 2
15
Step by step method. The variable of interest are P = f (ρ, D, Q, n) . The step-by-
step process is given in the table below. In the first step, the length dimension is
eliminated with D. In the second step, the mass dimension is eliminated with ρD3 .
In the third step, the time dimension is eliminated with 1/n.
ML2 P M P 1 P
P T3 D2 T3 ρD5 T3 ρD5 n3
0
M 3
ρ L3
ρD M
D L
L3 Q 1 Q 1 Q
Q T D3 T D3 T nD3
0
1 1 1
n T
n T
n T
The functional form of the equation using π-groups to characterize the variables is:
P
¡ Q
¢
ρD5 n3
=f nD3
Answer part b ==> Plot dimensionless power (P/ρD5 n3 )on the vertical axis, di-
mensionless flow rate (Q/nD3 )on the horizontal axis.
16
Situation:
A liquid in a pipe flows through an abrupt contraction.
Find:
The π-groups that characterize pressure drop. Express the answer as
∆pd4
= f(π 1 , π2 )
ρQ2
PLAN
The pressure change should depend on the upstream and downstream diameters, the
discharge, density, viscosity The functional form of the equation is
∆p = f (Q, ρ, μ, d, D)
SOLUTION
M M ∆p 1 ∆pd4
∆p LT 2
∆pd T2 ρd2 T2 ρQ2
0
L3 Q 1 Q 1
Q T d3 T d3 T
M 3
ρ L3
ρd M
M M μ 1 μd
μ LT
μd T ρd2 T ρQ
0
D D D
D L d
0 d
0 d
0
d L
Length is removed with d in the first step, mass with ρd3 in the second step and time
with Q/d3 in the third step. The final form is
∆pd4 μd D
ρQ2
= f ( ρQ ,d)
17
Situation:
A solid particle falls through a viscous fluid.
V = f(ρf , ρp , μ, D, g)
Find:
Find the π−groups–express the answer in the form:
V
√ = f (π 1 , π 2 )
gD
PLAN
SOLUTION
V a = ρbf ρcp μd De g f
Writing out the dimensions
µ ¶a µ ¶b µ ¶c µ ¶d µ ¶f
L M M M e L
= (L)
T L3 L3 LT T2
Setting up the equations for dimensional homogeneity
L : a = −3b − 3c − d + e + f
M : 0=b+c+d
T : a = d + 2f
Substituting the equation for T into the one for L gives
0 = −3b − 3c − 2d + e − f
0=b+c+d
Solving for e from the first equation and c from the second equation
e = 3b + 3c + 2d + f
c = −d − b
and the equation for e becomes
e = −d + f
Substituting into the original equation
V d+2f = ρbf ρ−d−b

p μd D−d+f gf
Collecting terms
18
µ ¶d µ ¶f µ ¶b
V ρp D Dg ρf
=
μ V2 ρp
The functional equation can be written as
³ ´
V ρp D ρf
√V =f ,ρ
gD μ p
19
Situation:
Calibration of a flow meter to measure mass flow through a pipe.
The dimensional functional form:
ṁ = f(D, μ, ∆p, ρ)
Find:
ṁ
p = f(π)
ρ∆pD4
PLAN
SOLUTION
The functional relationship is
ṁ = f(D, μ, ∆p, ρ)
Using the exponent method, we have
ṁa = Db μc ∆pd ρe
Writing out the dimensional equation
µ ¶c µ ¶d µ ¶e
Ma M M M
= Lb
T LT LT 2 L3
and the equations for the dimensions are
L : 0 = b − c − d − 3e
M : a=c+d+e
T : a = c + 2d
Substituting the equation for time into the equation for mass yields two equations
0 = b − c − d − 3e
0 = −d + e or d = e
and the first equation becomes
0 = b − c − 4d or b = c + 4d
Substituting back into the original equation
ṁc+2d = Dc+4d μc ∆pd ρd
20
Collecting like powers gives
µ ¶d µ ¶c
ṁ2 μD
=
D4 ρ∆p ṁ
A functional relationship is
µ ¶
ṁ μD
√ =f
ρ∆pD2 ṁ
21
Situation:
A torpedo-like device travels just below the water surface.
Find:
Identify which π−groups are significant.
Justify the answer.
SOLUTION
• Viscous stresses influence drag. Thus, Reynolds number is significant.
• Because the body in near the surface, the motion will produce waves. These
waves will influence drag. Thus, the Froude number is important.
• A major design consideration is the drag force on the object. The appropriate
π−group is the coefficient of drag (CD )which is defined by
Fdrag
CD =
ρV 2 /2Ar
Answer ==> Significant π−groups are Reynolds number, Froude number and the
coefficient of drag.
22
Situation:
Drag forces on an oscillating fin is being tested in a wind tunnel.
FD = f (ρ, V, S, ω)
Find:
FD
= f(π)
ρV 2 S
PLAN
Since there are 5 dimensional variables, there are only 2 π-groups. Use the exponent
method.
SOLUTION
FD = f (ρ, V, S, ω)
Writing out the dimensional parameters using the exponent method
FDa = ρb V c S d ω e
Including the dimensions
µ ¶a µ ¶b µ ¶c µ ¶e
ML M L 2d 1
= L
T2 L3 T T
Writing the equations for dimensional homogeneity,
M : a=b
L : a = −3b + c + 2d
T : 2a = c + e
Solving for a, b and c in terms of d, and e gives
a = d − e/2
b = d − e/2
c = 2d − 2e
Substituting into the original equation
d−e/2
FD = ρd−e/2 V 2d−2e S d ωe
µ ¶d Ã !e
1/2
FD FD ω
=
ρV 2 S ρ1/2 V 2
23
so
Ã !
1/2
FD FD ω
=f
ρV 2 S ρ1/2 V 2
It is standard practice to eliminate FD from the right side of the equation. To do
this, we may use the concept that π-groups may be combined by multiplication or
division. The result is
³ ´
FD ω2 S
ρV 2 S
=f V2
24
Situation:
Biofluid mechanics involves flow through tubes that change in size over time.
Find:
The π-groups in the form
Q
= f(π 1 , π 2 )
ωD3
PLAN
The dimensional functional form is
Q = f (ω, D, ρ, μ, ∆p/∆l)
Since there are 6 dimensional variables, there are 3 π-groups. Use the step-by-step
method..
SOLUTION
Set up the table
L3 Q Q Q
Q T ω
L3 ωD3
0 ωD3
0
1
ω T
D L D L
M M
ρ L3
ρ L3
ρD3 M
M μ M μD μ
μ LT ω L ω
M ωρD2
0
M ∆p/∆l M ∆p/∆l 2 ∆p/∆l
∆p/∆l L2 T 2 ω2 L2 ω 2 D M ρω 2 D
0
The time was eliminated with ω, the length with D and the mass with ρD3 . The final
functional form is µ ¶
Q μ ∆p/∆l
=f ,
ωD3 ωρD2 ρω 2 D
25
Situation:
A bubble rises in a fluid.
Find:
The π-groups in the form
V
√ b = f (π 1 , π2 )
gD
PLAN
Vb = f(D, ρf , μ, g, ρl − ρb )
There are 6 dimensional variables so there are 3 π-groups. Use the step-by-step
method.
SOLUTION
Setting up the table.
³ ´1/2
L Vb 1 Vb D √Vb
Vb T D T D g
0 gD
0
D L
M
ρf L3
ρf D3 M ρf D3 M
³ ´1/2
M M μ
μ LT
μD T
μD Dg M ρf g 1/2 D3/2
0
L g 1
g T2 D T2
M ρf −ρb
ρf − ρb L3
(ρf − ρb )D3 M (ρf − ρb )D3 M ρf
0
The length was eliminated with D, the time with (D/g)1/2 and the mass with ρf D3 .The
dimensionless form is
µ ¶
Vb μ ρf − ρb
√ =f ,
gD ρf g 1/2 D3/2 ρf
26
Situation:
Discharge through a centrifugal pump.
The dimensional functional form:
Q = f (N, D, hp , μ, ρ, g)
Find:
The π-groups in the π−groups in the form
Q
= f(π 1 , π 2 , π 3 )
ND3
.
PLAN
There are 7 dimensional groups so there should be 4 π-groups. Use the step-by-step
method. 3 Q Q Q
Q LT D3
1
T D3
1
T ND3
0
1 1 1 1
N T N T T T
D L
hp hp hp
hp L D
0 D
0 D
0
M M μ 1 μ
μ LT μD T ρD2 T ρN D2
0
M 3
ρ L3 ρD M
L g 1 g 1 g
g T2 D T2 D T2 N 2D
0
³ ´
Q hp
ND3
=f , μ , g
D ρND2 N 2 D
Some dimensionless variables can be combined to yield a different form

µ ¶
Q hp g μ g
=f , ,
ND3 N 2 D2 ρND2 N 2 D
27
Situation:
Drag of a square plate placed normal to a free stream velocity.
Find:
FD
= f(π 1 , π 2 , π 3 )
ρV 2 B 2
.
PLAN
The functional form of the dimensional equation is
FD = f (ρ, V, B, μ, urms , Lx )
There are 7 dimensional parameters so there are 4 π-groups Use the step-by-step
method.
SOLUTION
Setting up the table,
ML FD M FD 1 FD
FD T2 B T2 ρB 4 T2 ρV 2 B 2
0
L V 1 V 1
V T B T B T
M
ρ L3
ρB 3 M
B L
M M μ 1 μ
μ LT
μB T ρB 2 T ρV B
0
L urms 1 urms 1 urms
urms T B T B T V
0
Lx Lx Lx
Lx L B
0 B
0 B
0
Length is removed in first step with B, mass is removed in second with ρB 3 and time
is removed in the third with V /B. The function form is
µ ¶
FD μ urms Lx
=f , ,
ρV 2 B 2 ρV B V B
Other forms are possible. The π-group urms /V is referred to as "turbulence intensity"
28
Situation:
Using Wikipedia, read about the Womersley Number (α) and answer the following
questions.
Find:
a. Is α dimensionless? How do you know? Show that all the terms in fact cancel
out.
b. Like other independent π-groups, α is the ratio of two forces. Of what two forces
is it the ratio?
c. What does the velocity profile in a blood vessel look like for α ≤ 1? For α ≥ 10?
d. What is the aorta and where in the human body is it located? What is a typical
value for α in the aorta? What might you conclude about the velocity profile there?
SOLUTION
q
ωρ
a. To check whether α is dimensionless, use the relationship α = r μ
,and insert
the dimensions of these variables.
∙ r ¸ r
ωρ 1 1 LT
[α] = r =L
μ T L3 M
r
1 L
[α] = L 2
= = dimensionless
L L
b. From the internet, α is given as a ratio of [pulsatile transient force]/[viscous force].
c. In the range α ≤ 1, a parabolic (laminar) velocity distribution has time to develop
in a tube during each heartbeat cycle. When α ≥ 10, the velocity profile is relatively
flat (called plug flow) in the blood vessel.
d. The aorta is the largest artery, which delivers oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the rest of the body. According to the Wikipedia definition for Womersley Number
(accessed Feb 12, 2012), a typical value for α in a dog is in the range 11−13. Sources
in medical journals give values for humans of α ≈ 20.
29
The Womersley Number (α) is a π-group given by the ratio of [pulsatile transient
force]/[viscous force]. Biomedical engineers have applied this to characterize flow in
blood vessels. The Womersley Number is given by:
r
ωρ
α=r
μ
where r = blood vessel radius, and ω = frequency, typically the heart rate. Like Re, α
has different practical implications in critical ranges. In the range α ≤ 1, a parabolic
(laminar) velocity distribution has time to develop in a tube during each heartbeat
cycle. When α ≥ 10, the velocity profile is relatively flat (called plug flow) in the
blood vessel.
Situation:
Assume a human subject with the following features:
ω = 70 beats/s, or 70 s−1
radiusaorta = 4 mm
ρ = 1060 kg/m3
radiuscapillary = 7 μm
μ = 3 × 10−3 Pa · s
Find:
a. Find α for the aorta of this subject.
b. Find α for the capillary of this subject.
c. Does either the aorta or the capillary have an α that would predict plug flow?
Does either have an α indicating a parabolic velocity distribution?
PLAN
Use the equation for Womersley Number (α)
r
ωρ
α=r
μ
SOLUTION
a. To find α for the aorta,
sµ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
70 1060 kg 1
αaorta = 0.004 m
s m3 3 × 10−3 Pa · s
¡ ¢
αaorta = (0.004 m) 4793 m−1
αaorta = 19.89
b. To find α for the capillary,
30
sµ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
−6 70 1060 kg 1
αcapillary = 7 × 10 m
s m3 3 × 10−3 Pa · s
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
αcapillary = 7 × 10−6 m 4793 m−1
αcapillary = 0.035
c. The aorta was found to have an α ≥ 10, indicating that plug flow is occurring in
the aorta. The capillary was found to have an α ≤ 1, which indicates that a parabolic
(laminar) velocity distribution has time to develop in this blood vessel during each
heartbeat cycle.
31
Find:
For each item below, which π-group (Re, We, M or Fr) would best match the given
description?
a. (Kinetic force)/(Surface-tension force)
b. (Kinetic force)/(Viscous force)
c. (Kinetic force)/(Gravitational force)
d. (Kinetic force)/(Compressive force)
e. Used for modeling water flowing over a spillway on a dam
f. Used for designing laser jet printers
g. Used for analyzing the drag on a car in a wind tunnel
h. Used to analyze the flight of supersonic jets
SOLUTION
Answers are provided to the right, bolded.
a. (Kinetic force)/(Surface-tension force) We
b. (Kinetic force)/(Viscous force) Re
c. (Kinetic force)/(Gravitational force) Fr
d. (Kinetic force)/(Compressive force) M
e. Used for modeling water flowing over a spillway on a dam Fr
f. Used for designing laser jet printers We
g. Used for analyzing the drag on a car in a wind tunnel Re
h. Used to analyze the flight of supersonic jets M
32
Situation:
Geometric similitude.
Find:
Definition of geometric similitude.
SOLUTION
Geometric similitude exists when the model is a scale model of the prototype. All
the ratios of corresponding dimensions are the same for the model and prototype;
33
Situation:
Gather information on wind tunnel testing of automobiles.
SOLUTION
The information will depend on the sources utilized.
34
Situation:
Testing of an automobile in a wind tunnel.
Find:
Discuss the effect of the ground on the aerodynamic performance of automobiles.
SOLUTION
The effects of the road surface may effect the automobile drag increasing the velocity
on the underside and larger drag force. The rotating tires may promote turbulent
flow fields which enhance the drag force
35
Situation:
Wind tunnel at NASA Facility at Moffat Field, CA
Find:
Summarize information on the facility.
SOLUTION
36
Situation:
Hydrodynamics of a sailboat.
Find:
Information on simulations of sailboat performance.
SOLUTION
37
Situation:
Drag force on a submarine is studied using a scale model in water tunnel.
1
V = 3 m/ s, 18 scale model.
Find:
Speed of water in the tunnel for dynamic similitude.
The ratio of drag forces (ratio of drag force on the model to that on the prototype).
Properties:
Sea Water (20 ◦ C): ρ = 1015 kg/ m3 , ν = 1.4 × 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
Dynamic similarity is achieved when the Reynolds numbers are the same. With
similitude, the force coefficients are the same.
SOLUTION
Match Reynolds number for dynamic similitude.
Equating Reynolds number of model and prototype,
Rem = Rep
Um Lm Up Lp
=
νm νp
Lp ν m
Um = Up
Lm ν p
18 1 × 10−6 m2 /s
= 3 m/s
1 1.4 × 10−6 m2 /s
Um = 38.57 m/s
The ratio of the drag force on the model to that on the prototype is
CF p = CF m
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
FD,m ρm Vm lm
=
FD,p ρp Vp lp
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
998 38.57 1
=
1015 3 18
FD,m
= 0.502
FD,p
38
Situation:
Water flows through a pipe.
V = 0.5 m/ s, D = 4 cm.
Find:
Velocity of water for dynamic similarity with oil (ν = 10−5 m2 /s) at 0.5 m/s.
Properties:
Water: ν = 10−6 m2 / s.
Oil: ν = 10−5 m2 / s.
PLAN
Dynamic similarity is achieved when the Reynolds numbers are the same.
SOLUTION
Match Reynolds number
Rew = Re0
Vw d V0 d
=
νw ν0
V0 ν w
Vw =
ν0
µ ¶
10−6 m2 / s
= 0.5 m/s
10−5 m2 / s
Vw = 0.05 m/ s
39
Situation:
Oil flows through a smooth pipe.
D12 = 12 cm, V12 = 2.3 m/ s.
D5 = 5 cm.
Find:
Velocity of water at 5 cm pipe for dynamic similarity.
Properties:
Oil (20 ◦ C): ν 12 = 4 × 10−6 m2 / s.
Water (20 ◦ C): ν 5 = 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
Dynamic similarity is achieved when the Reynolds numbers are the same.
SOLUTION
Re5 = Re12
V5 D5 V12 D12
=
ν5 ν 12
µ ¶µ ¶
D12 ν5
V5 = V12
D5 ν 12
µ ¶µ ¶
12 cm 10−6 m2 / s
= (2.3 m/s)
5 cm 4 × 10−6 m2 / s
V5 = 1.38 m/ s
40
Situation:
A large venturi meter is calibrated with a scale model using a prototype liquid.
1
10
scale model, p = 400 kPa.
Find:
The discharge ratio (Qm /Qp )
Pressure difference (∆pp ) expected for the prototype.
Assumptions:
Same fluids used; densities and viscosities are the same in model and prototype.
SOLUTION
Rem = Rep
Vm Lm Vp Lp
=
νm νp
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
Vm Lp νm Lp
= = (1) (1)
Vp Lm νp Lm
Multiply both sides of Eq. (1) by Am /Ap = L2m /L2p :

µ ¶ µ ¶2
Vm Am Lp Lm
= × (1) ×
Vp Ap Lm Lp
µ ¶
Qm Lm
=
Qp Lp
Qm 1
Qp
= 10
Cpm = Cpp
µ ¶ µ ¶
∆p ∆p
=
ρV 2 m ρV 2 p
µ ¶ µ ¶2 µ ¶
ρp Vp ρp
∆pp = ∆pm ; where = 1*
ρm Vm ρm
µ ¶2
Lm
= ∆pm (1)
Lp
µ ¶2
1
= 400 kPa ×
10
∆pp = 4.0 kPa
* because the same fluid is assumed to be used in both model and prototype
41
Situation:
Drag is to be measured with a scale model of a bathysphere.
Find:
The ratio of towing speeds (ratio of speed of the model to the speed of the proto-
type).
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on matching Reynolds number of the model and prototype.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number matching
Rem = Rep
Vm Lm Vp Lp
=
νm νp
Assume ν m = ν p
Vm Lm = Vp Lp
Vm Lp
= =5
Vp Lm
Vm /Vp = 5
42
Situation:
A spherical balloon is tested by towing a scale model in a lake.
Dm = 1.4 ft, Dp = 16.8 ft.
Vm = 5 ft/sec, Fm = 37 lbf.
Find:
Drag force on the prototype ( lbf, N).
Properties:
Air (60 ◦ F), Table A.3: ν p = 1.58 × 10−4 ft2 /s, ρp = 0.00237 kg/ m3 .
Water (60 ◦ F) , Table A.5: ν m = 1.22 × 10−5 ft2 /s, ρm = 1.94 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on Reynolds number and same force coefficient.
SOLUTION
Match Reynolds numbers
Rem = Rep
Vm Dm /ν m = Vp Dp /ν p
or
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
Vp Dm νp 1.4 1.58 × 10−4 ft2 / s
= =
Vm Dp νm 16.8 1.22 × 10−5 ft2 / s
= 1.079
Match force coefficients
CF m = CF p
µ ¶ µ ¶2 µ ¶2
Fp ρp Vp Dp
=
Fm ρm Vm Dm
µ ¶
Fp 0.00237 kg/ m3
= (1.079)2 (12)2
Fm 1.94 kg/ m3
= 0.2049
Fp = 37 × 0.2049
Fp = 7.58 lbf = 33.72 N
43
Situation:
Lift force for an airplane.
The π−group for lift coefficient is
FL
CL = 2
ρV 2 S
Air: ρ = 1.1 kg/ m3 , CL = 0.4.

V = 80 m/ s, S = 15 m2 .
Find:
Lift force (N) .
PLAN
Use the specified value of CL = 0.4 along with the definition of this π-group.
SOLUTION
From the definition of CL :
µ ¶
ρV 2
FL = CL S
2
Ã !
2
3
1.1 kg/ m × (80 m/ s) ¡ ¢
= 0.4 15 m2
2
= 21, 100 N
FL = 21.1 kN
REVIEW
This lift force is about 4750 lbf.
44
Situation:
A scale model of a plane is tested in a wind tunnel.
1
8
scale model.
Find:
Density of the air in tunnel.
Properties:
Air (10 ◦ C, 100 kPa), Table A.4: R = 287 J/ kg K.
Air (10 ◦ C, 100 kPa) , Table A.3: μp = 1.76 × 10−5 N s/ m2 .
Air (25 ◦ C, 100 kPa) , Table A.3: μm = 1.83 × 10−5 N s/ m2 .
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on matching Reynolds number and Mach number.
SOLUTION
Rem = Rep
µ ¶ µ ¶
VD VD
=
ν m ν p
µ ¶µ ¶
Vm Dp vm
=
Vp Dm vp
νm Vm Dm
=
νp Vp Dp
μm ρp Vm Dm
=
μp ρm Vp Dp
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
μm Vp Dp
ρm = ρp (1)
μp Vm Dm
Match Mach number
Mm = Mp
µ ¶ µ ¶
V V
=
c m c p
Vm cm
=
Vp cp
µ ¶1/2
Tm
=
Tp
µ ¶1/2
298
= (2)
283
= 1.026 (1)
45
Density of air at 100 kPa and 10o C
p
ρ =
RT
100 × 1000 Pa
=
287 J/kg-K × 283 K
= 1.23 kg/m3
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2):
µ ¶
1.83 × 10−5 N s/ m2
ρm = 1.23 (1.026)(8)
1.76 × 10−5 N s/ m2
ρm = 10.51 kg/ m3
46
Situation:
A windtunnel is used to do tests for the Airbus.
z = 10000 m.
Lm = 1 m, Lp = 79.8 m.
Find:
Wind tunnel pressure to have Reynolds number similitude.
Properties:
patm = 101.3 kPa.
Air (20 ◦ C), Table A.4: R = 287 J/ kg K.
PLAN
Find the velocity ratio for the same Mach number, set the Reynolds numbers the
same and solve for the pressure.
SOLUTION
The properties at 10,000 m. From Chapter 3, Eq. (3.18) of EFM10e.
T = To − αz
T = 296 K − 5.87 × 10−3 K/m × 10, 000 m
= 237.3 K
µ ¶5.823
T
p = po
To
µ ¶5.823
237.3
= 101.3 kPa ×
296
= 27.97 kPa
The density at 10000 m is
p 27.97 × 103 Pa
ρ= = = 0.4107 kg/m3
RT 287 J/kg-K × 237.3 K
For Mach number similitude
Mm = Mp
Vm Vp
=
cm cp
s
Vm cm Tm
= =
Vp cp Tp
47
For Reynolds number similitude
Rem = Rep
ρm Lm Vm ρp Lp Vp
=
μm μ
µ p ¶µ ¶µ ¶
ρm Lp Vp μm
=
ρp Lm Vm μp
µ ¶r s
Lp Tp Tm
=
Lm Tm Tp
79.8 m
= = 79.8
1m
The model density must be
ρm = 79.8 × 0.4107 kg/m3 = 32.77 kg/m3
From the ideal gas law
p = ρRT
= 32.77 kg/m3 × 293 K × 287 J/kg-K
= 2.76 MPa
p = 27.6 kbar
48
Situation:
Wind tunnel test done for a Beoing 787 to simulate forces on model with only Mach
number similitude.
z = 10, 000 m, Lm = 1 m.
Lp = 52 m, V = 945 km/ h.
cm = 340 m/ s, M = 0.85.
Find:
The ratio of force on prototype to force on model.
Properties:
patm = 101.3 kPa.
Air, Table A.4: R = 287 J/ kg K.
Air, Table A.3: ρ = 0.98 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Assume Reynolds number similitude is not important and find velocity ratio using
Mach number similitude. Equate force coefficients to find force ratio.
SOLUTION
From Chapter 3, the temperature at 10,000 m is
T = To − 5.87 × 10−3 K/m × h

= 296 K − 5.87 × 10−3 K/ m × 10, 000 m
= 237.3 K
The pressure is
µ ¶5.823
T
p = po
To
µ ¶5.823
237 K
= 101.3 kPa ×
296 K
= 27.967 kPa
The density is
p 27.967 × 103 Pa
ρ = =
RT 287 J/kg-K × 237.3 K
= 0.4106 kg/m3
The velocity in the wind tunnel is
Vm = 0.85cm = 0.85 × 340 m/s

= 289 m/s
49
Speed of the airplane
1000 m 1 hr
Vp = 945 km/hr × ×
1 km 3600 s
= 262.5 m/s
Equating the force coefficients
CF p = CF m
µ ¶ µ ¶
Fp ρp Vp 2 Lp 2
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
3
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
0.4106 kg/ m 262.5 m/ s 52 m
= ×
0.98 kg/ m3 289 m/ s 1m
Fp
Fm
= 935
50
Situation:
Flow in a pipe is being tested with air and water.
Find:
Velocity ratio: Vair /Vwater for dynamic similitude.
Assumptions:
T = 60 ◦ F.
Properties:
Air (60 ◦ F), Table A.3: ν A = 1.6 × 10−4 m2 / s.
Water (60 ◦ F), Table A.5: ν A = 1.2 × 10−5 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
ReA = ReW
VA LA VW LW
= ; but LA /LW = 1
νA νW
VA vA 1.6 × 10−4
∴ = ≈
VW vW 1.2 × 10−5
VA /VW > 1
The correct choice is c)
51
Situation:
Crude oil flows in a smooth pipe.
dp = 47 in, dm = 4 in.
Vp = 2 ft/ s.
Find:
Mean velocity of water in model to insure dynamic similarity.
Properties:
Crude Oil: ρp = 1.75 slug/ ft3 , μp = 4 × 10−4 lbf s/ ft2 .
Water (60 ◦ F), Table A.5: ρm = 1.94 slug/ ft3 , μm = 2.36 × 10−5 lbf s/ ft2 .
SOLUTION
Rem = Rep
Vm dm ρm Vp dp ρp
=
μm μp
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
dp ρp μm
Vm = Vp
dm ρm μp
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
47 in 1.75 slug/ ft3 2.36 × 10−5 lbf s/ ft2
Vm = (2 ft/s)
4 in 1.94 slug/ ft3 4 × 10−4 lbf s/ ft2
Vm = 1.25 ft/ s
52
Situation:
A student team is designing a radio-controlled blimp.
Drag force is characterized with a coefficient of drag:.
FD
CD = 2 = 0.3
ρV 2 Ap
V = 800 mm/ s, D = 0.475 m.

Ap = πD2 /4.
Find:
a.) Reynolds number.
b.) Force of drag ( N).
c.) Power in watts ( W).
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Assume the blimp cross section is round.
Properties:
Air (20 ◦ C), Table A.3: ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , μ = 18.1 × 10−6 N · s/ m2 .
PLAN
Find the Reynolds number by direct calculation. Find the drag force using the
definition of CD . Find power (P ) by using the product of force and speed: P = FDrag V.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
V Dρ
Re =
μ
(0.8 m/ s) (0.475 m) (1.2 kg/ m3 )
=
(1.81 × 10−5 N · s/ m2 )
Re = 25, 200
53
Projected area
πD2 π (0.475 m)2

Ap = =
4 4
2
= 0.177 m
Drag force
µ ¶
ρV 2
FD = CD Ap
2
(1.2 kg/ m3 ) (0.8 m/ s)2 ¡ ¢
= (0.3) 0.177 m2
2
−3
FD = 20.4 × 10 N
Power
P = FD V
¡ ¢
= 20.4 × 10−3 N (0.8 m/ s)
P = 16.3 × 10−3 W
REVIEW
1. The drag force is about 1/50th of a Newton, which is about 1/200th of a lbf.
2. The power is about 16 milliwatts. The supplied power would need to be higher
to account for factors such as propeller efficiency and motor efficiency.
54
Situation:
Flow in a conduit (on earth) to be used to characterize a prototype that will be
build on the moon.
Find:
Kinematic viscosity of fluid for model on earth.
Properties:
Fluid: ν = 0.5 × 10−5 m2 / s.
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on Reynolds number and Froude number.
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
F rmoon = F rearth
µ ¶ µ ¶
V V
√ = √
gL m gL e
µ ¶0.5 µ ¶0.5
Ve ge Le
=
Vm gm Lm
0.5
= (5) (1)
Rem = Ree
µ ¶ µ ¶
VL VL
=
ν m ν
µ ¶e
Ve ¡ ¢
νe = ν m = (5)0.5 0.5 × (10−5 ) m2 /s
Vm
ν e = 1.12 × 10−5 m2 /s
55
Situation:
A scale model of a drying tower is to be tested with water.
Vp = 12 m/ s.
1
15
scale model.
Find:
Entry velocity of the model for similitude.
Properties:
Air: ν p = 4 × 10−5 m2 / s.
Water: ν m = 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
Similitude based on matching Reynolds numbers.
SOLUTION
Rem = Rep
Vm Lm Vp Lp
=
νm ν
µ p ¶µ ¶
Lp νm
Vm = Vp
Lm νp
µ ¶
1 × 10−6
= (15) (12 m/s)
4 × 10−5
Vm = 4.50 m/s
56
Situation:
A scale model is of a discharge meter for oil is tested using water.
1
9
scale model.
Vm = 1.6 m/ s, ∆pm = 3 kPa.
Find:
Velocity for the prototype for dynamic similitude ( m/ s).
Pressure difference for the prototype ( kPa).
Properties:
Oil (20 ◦ C): ν p = 10−5 m2 / s, ρp = 860 kg/ m3 .
Water: ν m = 10−6 m2 / s, ρm = 998 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on Reynolds number and pressure coefficients.
SOLUTION
Rep = Rem
µ ¶µ ¶
Lm νp
Vp = Vm
Lp νm
µ ¶ µ −5 2 ¶
1 10 m / s
Vp = 1.6
9 10−6 m2 / s
Vp = 1.78 m/ s
Match pressure coefficients
³ C´ p,m = C³ p,p ´
∆p ∆p
ρV 2
= ρV 2
m ³ ´ ³ p ´2
ρ Vp
∆pp = ∆pm ρ p Vm
³ ´ ³
m
´2
860 kg/ m3 1.78 m/ s
= 3.0 × 998 kg/ m3 × 1.6 m/ s
∆pp = 3.19 kPa
57
Situation:
Water flowing through a rough pipe is modeled with air.
D = 10 cm, V = 1.5 m/ s.
ppipe = 150 kPa, ∆pa = 780 Pa.
Find:
Air velocity to achieve dynamic similarity ( m/ s).
Pressure difference for the water flow ( kPa).
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5: μw = 1.31 × 10−3 N s/ m2 , ρw = 1000 kg/ m3 .
Air (20 ◦ C), Table A.5: μw = 1.81 × 10−5 N s/ m2 , ρa = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Dynamic similitude based on Reynolds number and pressure coefficients.
SOLUTION
Reair = Rewater
µ ¶ µ ¶
V Dρ V Dρ
=
μ air μ water
µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
Dw ρw μa
Va = Vw
Da ρa μw
3
ρw = 1, 000 kg/m
µ ¶
150 kPa
ρ = ρa, std. atm. ×
101 kPa
µ ¶
150
= 1.20 × = 1.78 kg/m3
101
μa = 1.81 × 10−5 N · s/m2
μw = 1.31 × 10−3 N · s/m2
Then
µ ¶µ ¶
1000 kg/ m3 1.81 × 10−5 N s/ m2
Va = 1.5 m/s
1.78 kg/ m3 1.31 × 10−3 N s/ m2
Va = 11.6 m/s
58
Cpw = Cpa
µ ¶ µ ¶
∆p ∆p
=
ρV 2 w ρV 2 a
µ ¶ µ ¶2
ρw Vw
∆pw = ∆pa
ρa Va
µ ¶µ ¶2
1000 kg/ m3 1.5 m/ s
= 780 Pa
1.78 kg/ m3 11.6 m/ s
= 7, 330 Pa
∆pw = 7.33 kPa
59
Situation:
An "acoustic" minesweeper (a noisemaker) will be studied by using a scale model
in a water tunnel.
1
5
scale model.
Vprot. = 5 m/ s.
Find:
Velocity to use in the water tunnel ( m/ s).
Drag force on the prototype ( N).
Assumptions:
Sea water under the same conditions is used in both tests.
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on matching Reynolds number and drag force with force
coefficient.
SOLUTION
Retunnel = Reprototype
µ ¶
5 ν tunnel
Vtunnel = Vprot. ( )
1 ν prot.
µ ¶
5
Vtunnel = 5 m/ s (1)
1
Vtunnel = 25 m/ s
CF m = CF p
.
µ ¶ µ 2 ¶ µ ¶2
Dtunnel ρtunnel Vtunnel Ltunnel
= × 2
×
Dprot ρprot. Vprot. Lprot
µ ¶ µ ¶2
1 1
= (5)2 =1
1 5
Ftunnel = Fprot. = 2400 N
60
Situation:
Forces due to wind on a building are to be modeled by using a scale model in wind
tunnel.
1
500
scale model.
Vp = 47 ft/ s, Vm = 300 ft/ s.
Fm = 50 lbf.
Find: ¡ ¢
Density needed for the air in the wind tunnel slug/ ft3 .
Force on the full-scale building (prototype) ( lbf).
Properties:
Air, ρp = 0.0024 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
Equate the Reynolds number for dynamic similitude and equate force coefficients for
force ratio.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
Rem = Rep
µ ¶ µ ¶
ρLV ρLV
=
μ m μ
µ ¶ µp ¶ µ ¶
ρm Vp Lp μm
=
ρp Vm Lm μp
µ ¶
47 ft/ s
= (500)(1)
300 ft/ s
= 78.33
ρm = 78.33ρp
ρm = 0.188 slug/ ft3
Equating force coefficients
CF p = CF m
µ ¶ µ ¶2 µ ¶2
Fp ρp Vp Lp
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
µ ¶ µ ¶2 µ ¶2
1 47 ft/ s 500
= × ×
78.33 300 ft/ s 1
= 78.33
61
Force on prototype
Fp = 78.33Fm
= 78.33 × 50 lbf
Fp = 3920 lbf
62
Situation:
Performance of a large valve in petroleum pipeline is characterized by recording
data on a scale model in water.
D = 60 cm, Q = 0.5 m3 / s.
1
3
scale model, Cp = 1.07.
Find:
Flow rate to be used in the model (laboratory) test ( m3 / s).
The pressure coefficient for the prototype.
Properties:
Petroleum: S = 0.82, μ = 3 × 10−3 N s/ m2 .
Water: μ = 10−3 N s/ m2 .
PLAN
Equate flow rates by Reynolds number matching With dynamic similitude, the pres-
sure coefficients will be the same for model and prototype.
SOLUTION
Matching Reynolds number
Rem = Rep
µ ¶ µ ¶
V Dρ V Dρ
=
μ m μ p
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
Vm Dp ρp μm
=
Vp Dm ρm μp
Multiply both sides of above equation by Am /Ap = (Dm /Dp )2
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶2 µ ¶ µ ¶
Am Vm Dp Dm ρp μm
=
Ap Vp Dm Dp ρ μp
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ m¶
Qm Dm ρp μm
=
Qp Dp ρm μp
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 10−3
= (0.82)
3 3 × 10−3
Qm
= 0.0911
Qp
Qm = Qp × 0.0911
= 0.50 × 0.0911 m3 /s
Qm = 0.0455 m3 / s
Cp = 1.07
63
Situation:
The moment acting on the rudder of submarine in sea water is studied using a 1/50
scale model in a water tunnel.
1
40
scale model.
Vm = 6.6 m/ s, Mm = 2 N m.
Find:
Speed of the prototype that corresponds to the speed in the water tunnel ( m/ s).
Moment that corresponds to the data from the model ( N m).
Properties:
Sea Water (10 ◦ C) , Table A.4: ν p = 1.4 × 10−6 m2 / s, ρp = 1026 slug/ ft3 .
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5: ν m = 1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s, ρm = 1000 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
Match the Reynolds number for dynamic similitude and extend force coefficient to
model the moment.
SOLUTION
Vm Lm Vp Lp
ν m³
=
´³
νp ´
Vm Lp νm
Vp
= Lm νp
so
µ ¶µ ¶
1 1.41 × 10−6 m2 / s
Vp = 6.6
40 1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s
Vp = 0.176 m/ s
In the same way as a force coefficient was defined there is a corresponding moment
coefficient in the form
M
CM = 1 2 2
2
ρV L
which is the same for the model and the prototype when conditions for similitude are
satisfied. Thus µ ¶ µ ¶2 µ ¶2
Mp ρp Vp Lp
=
Mm ρm Vm Lm
Using the velocity ratio from the Reynolds number matching
µ ¶µ ¶
Vp Lm νp
=
Vm Lp νm
64
gives
µ ¶µ ¶2 µ
¶
Mp ρp νp
Lp
=
Mm ρm νm
Lm
3 µ ¶2 µ ¶
1, 026 kg/m 1.4 × 10−6 m2 /s 40
= 3 × −6 2
×
1000 kg/m 1.31 × 10 m /s 1
= 46.875
Moment on the submarine
Mp = 46.875 × 2 N · m
Mp = 93.75 N · m
65
Situation:
A scale model hydrofoil is tested in a water tunnel.
Vm = 15 m/ s, Fm = 25 kN.
Find:
Lift force on the prototype.
PLAN
Match the Reynolds number to obtain model-prototype velocity ratio and match force
coefficients for force ratio.
SOLUTION
µ ¶ µ ¶
V Lρ V Lρ
=
μ m μ p
µ ¶2 µ ¶2 µ ¶2 µ ¶2
Vp Lm ρm μp
=
Vm Lp ρp μm
CF p = CF m
µ ¶ µ ¶2 µ ¶2
Fp ρp Vp Lp
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
Using velocity ratio from Reynolds number matching

µ ¶ µ ¶2 µ ¶2
Fp ρp Vp Lp
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
µ ¶2
ρ μp
= m
ρp μm
When the same fluid is used for the model and prototype
Fp = Fm
Fp = 25 kN
66
Situation:
A scale model of an automobile will be tested in a pressurized wind tunnel.
1
10
scale model.
Vp = 100 km/ h, c = 345 m/ s.
Find:
Pressure in tunnel test section for same Mach number and Reynolds numbers.
PLAN
Match the Mach number and Reynolds number and solve for pressure.
SOLUTION
Match Mach number
Mm = Mp
Vm Vp Vm cm
= ; =
cm cp Vp cp
The speed of sound the same for both model and prototype so
Vm
=1
Vp
Rem = Rep
Vm Lm ρm Vp Lp ρp
=
μm μp
ρm Vp Lp μm
=
ρp Vm Lm μp
Lp μm
=
Lm μp
The dynamic viscosity is the same for model and prototype with same temperature
so
ρm Lp
= = 10
ρp Lm
From ideal gas law
p = ρRT
pm ρ
= m = 10
pp ρp
so
pm = 10 atm
pm = 1010 kPa
67
Situation:
A scale model of an automobile will be tested in a wind tunnel at atmospheric
pressure.
1
10
scale model.
Vm = 80 km/ h, cm = 345 m/ s.
Find:
Speed of air in the wind tunnel to match the Reynolds number of the prototype.
Determine if Mach number effects would be important in the wind tunnel.
PLAN
Match the Reynolds number and find velocity for model. Evaluate Mach number for
compressibility effects.
SOLUTION
Rem = Rep
Vm Lm ρm Vp Lp ρp ρ ρp
= ; But m =
μm μp μm μp
so
µ ¶
Lp
Vm = Vp = 80 km/ h × 10 = 800 km/hr
Lm
Vm = 222 m/ s
Mach number
V 222 m/ s
M= = = 0.644
c 345 m/ s
Because M ≥ 0.3, Mach number effects would be important .
68
Situation:
Water
√ droplets are in an air stream.
We / Re = 0.5, Vair = 12 m/ s.
Find:
Droplet diameter for break up ( mm).
Properties:
pair = 1.01 kPa, σ = 0.041 N/ m.
Air (20 ◦ C), Table A.3: ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , μ = 1.81 × 10−5 N s/ m2 .
PLAN
√
Apply the We / Re = 0.5 criteria, combined with the equations for Weber number
and Reynolds number.
SOLUTION
Weber number and Reynolds number
√
We ρdV 2 ν
√ = √
Re σ Vd
√
V 3/2 ρdμ
=
σ
So breakup occurs when √
V 3/2 ρdμ
= 0.5
σ
Solve for diameter
∙ ¸2
0.5σ
d = 3/2 √
V ρμ
2
0.25σ
=
V 3 ρμ
Calculations
0.25σ 2
d =
V 3 ρμ
0.25 × (0.041 N/ m)2
=
(12 m/ s)3 × (1.2 kg/ m3 ) × (18.1 × 10−6 N s/ m2 )
d = 11.2 mm
69
Situation:
Breakup of a jet of water into droplets in airstream.
V = 30 m/ s, We = 6.0.
Find:
Estimated diameter of droplets.
Properties:
Table A.3: ρ = 1.20 kg/m3 .
Table A.5: σ = 0.073 N/m.
PLAN
Set the Weber number equal to 6 and solve for droplet size.
SOLUTION
Weber number
ρdV 2
We = 6.0 =
σ
6σ 6 × 0.073 N/ m3
d = 2
= 3 2
= 4.055 × 10−4 m
ρV (1.2 kg/ m × (30 m/ s) )
d = 0.406 mm
70
Situation:
Satisfying both Froude number and Reynolds number criteria for model testing.
Find:
Relationship between kinematic viscosity ratio and scale ratio.
PLAN
Match Froude number and Reynolds numbers and solve for ratios.
SOLUTION
Match Froude numbers
F = Fp
µ ¶m µ ¶
V V
√ = √
gL m gL p
s
Vm gm Lm
=
Vp gp Lp
However, because
gm = gp
then s
Vm Lm
=
Vp Lp
Rem = Rep
µ ¶ µ ¶
VL VL
=
ν m ν p
µ ¶µ ¶
Vm Lp νm
=
Vp Lm νp
Eliminate Vm /Vp between equations

s µ ¶µ ¶
Lm Lp νm
=
Lp Lm νp
Therefore: ν m /ν p = (Lm /Lp )3/2
71
Situation:
The spillway of a dam is simulated using a scale model.
1
20
scale model.
tm = 2 s, Lm = 8 cm.
Find:
Wave height (prototype).
Wave period (prototype).
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on Froude number.
SOLUTION
Since it is a scale model, the wave height will scale directly
Lp = 20Lm
Wave heightp = 20 × 8 cm
Lp = 1.6 m
Match Froude number

V Vp
√ m = p
gLm gLp
µ ¶1/2
Vp Lp
=
Vm Lm
√
= 20 = 4.472
The time will scale as

L
t∼
V
so
tp Lp Vm
=
tm Lm Vp
√ √
= 20/ 20 = 20
Thus
tp = 4.472 × 2 s
tp = 8.94 s
72
Situation:
A prototype of a dam spillway is represented with a scale model.
1
25
scale model.
V = 2.5 m/ s, Q = 0.10 m3 / s.
Find:
Velocity for prototype ( m/ s).
Discharge for prototype ( m3 / s).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
F rm = F rp
Vm Vp
=
(gm Lm )0.5 (gp Lp )0.5
µ ¶0.5
Vp Lp
= =5
Vm Lm
Vp = (2.5)(5) m/s
Vp = 12.5 m/ s
The discharge ratio is

µ ¶2
Qp Vp Lp
=
Qm Vm Lm
µ ¶1/2 µ ¶2
Lp Lp
=
Lm Lm
µ ¶2.5
Lp
=
Lm
Discharge for prototype
Qp = 0.1 m3 /s × 252.5
Qp = 312 m3 / s
73
Situation:
A seaplane model has a scale to simulate take-off.
1
6
scale model.
Vp = 117 km/ h.
Find:
Model speed to simulate a takeoff conditions ( m/ s).
PLAN
Use Froude number scaling.
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
s
Lm
Vm = Vp
Lp
µ ¶ µ ¶ r
1h 1000 m 1
= 117 km/ h × × ×
3600 s 1 km 6
Vm = 13.27 m/ s = 47.8 k m/hr
74
Situation:
A model spillway has a scale.
1
36
scale model.
Q = 3000 m3 / s.
Find:
Velocity ratio.
Discharge ratio.
Model discharge ( m3 / s) .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
s
Vm Lm
= (1)
Vp Lp
or for this case
q
Vm 1 1
Vp
= 36
= 6
Multiply both sides of Eq. (1) by Am /Ap = (Lm /Lp )2

µ ¶1/2 µ ¶2
Vm Am Lm Lm
=
Vp Ap Lp Lp
µ ¶5/2
Qm Lm
=
Qp Lp
or for this case
µ ¶5/2
Qm 1
=
Qp 36
Qm 1
Qp
= 7776
3000 m3 / s
Qm =
7776
Qm = 0.386 m3 / s
75
Situation:
Flow in a river is to be studied using a scale model.
1
64
scale model.
dp = 20 ft, Vp = 15 ft/ s.
Find:
Model velocity ( ft/ s) .
Model depth ( ft/ s) .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
F rm = F rp
Vm Vp
=
(gm Lm )0.5 (gp Lp )0.5
µ ¶0.5
Lm
Vm = Vp = 15 ft/s × (1/8)
Lp
Vm = 1.875 ft/ s
Geometric similitude
dm 1
=
dp 64
1
dm = dp
64
1
= (20)
64
dm = 0.312 ft
76
Situation:
A model of spillway modeled in laboratory.
1
40
scale model.
Vm = 3.2 ft/ s, Qm = 3.53 ft3 / s.
Find:
Prototype velocity ( ft/
¡ s) . ¢
Prototype discharge ft3 / s .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
r
Lp
Vp = Vm (1)
L
√ m
= 3.2 40
Vp = 20.2 ft/ s
Multiply both sides of Eq. (1) by Ap /Am = (Lp /Lm )2

µ ¶5/2
Vp Ap Lp
=
Vm Am Lm
So
µ ¶5/2
Qp Lp
=
Qm Lm
Qp = 3.53 ft3 / s × (40)5/2
Qp = 35, 721 ft3 / s
77
Situation:
Flow around a bridge pier is studied using a scale model.
1
12
scale model.
Vm = 0.9 m/ s, Lm = 2.5 cm.
Find:
(a) Velocity.
(b) Wave height in prototype.
PLAN
Use Froude number matching.
SOLUTION
r
Lp √
Vp = Vm = 0.90 12
Lm
Vp = 3.12 m/ s
Lp /Lm = 12; therefore, wave heightprot. = Lp = 12 × 2.5 cm = 30 cm
78
Situation:
A scale model of a spillway is tested.
1
25
scale model.
Qm = 0.1 m3 / s, tm = 1 min.
Find:
Time for a particle to move along a corresponding path in the prototype ( min).
Prototype discharge ( m3 / s).
PLAN
SOLUTION
r
Vp Lp
=
Vm Lm
or
µ ¶1/2
Lp /tp Lp
=
Lm /tm Lm
Then
µ ¶µ ¶1/2
tp Lp Lm
=
tm Lm Lp
µ ¶1/2
tp Lp
=
tm Lm
√
tp = 1 × 25
tp = 5 min
Also
µ ¶5/2
Qp Lp
=
Qm Lm
Qp = 0.10 m3 / s × (25)5/2
Qp = 312 m3 / s
79
Situation:
A tidal estuary is modeled using a scale model.
1
600
scale model.
Vp = 3.6 m/ s, tp = 12.5 h.
Find:
Velocity and period in the model.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
F rm = F rp
or
µ ¶ µ ¶
V V
√ = √
gL m gL p
Because gm = gp ,
µ ¶1/2
Vm Lm
=
Vp Lp
µ ¶1/2
1
Vm = 3.6 m/s ×
600
Vm = 0.147 m/ s
The time varies as t ∼ L/V so
tm Lm Vp
=
tp Lp Vm
Lm Lm −1/2
= ( )
Lp Lp
µ ¶1/2
Lm
=
Lp
The model period is
µ ¶1/2
1
tm = 12.5 hr ×
600
= 0.510 hr
tm = 30.6 min
80
Situation:
A scale sea wall tests maximum wave force.
1
36
scale model.
Fm = 80 N.
Find:
Force on the wall for the prototype ( N).
Assumptions:
Fresh water (model) and seawater (prototype).
Properties:
Sea Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.4: ρp = 1026 kg/ m3 .
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5: ρm = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Dynamic similarity based on force coefficient and Froude number.
SOLUTION
F rm = F rp
s
Vm Lm
=
Vp Lp
Match force coefficients.
CF m = CF p
µ ¶ µ ¶
Fp ρp Vp 2 Lp 2
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
Using result from Froude number scaling
µ ¶
Fp ρp Lp Lp 2
=
Fm ρm Lm Lm
µ ¶
ρp Lp 3
=
ρm Lm
1026 kg/m3 3
= 3 × 36
1000 kg/m
= 4.787 × 104
Force on wall
Fp = 80 N × 4.787 × 104
Fp = 3.83 MN
81
Situation:
A scale model of a spillway is built to test flow conditions.
1
80
scale model.
Qp = 800 m3 / s, Fm = 51 N.
Find:
Water discharge in model for dynamic similarity ( m3 / s).
Force on the prototype ( kN).
PLAN
Dynamic similitude based on matching force coefficients and Froude numbers.
SOLUTION
Match Froude number s
Vm Lm
=
Vp Lp
The discharge ratio is µ ¶2
Qm Vm Lm
=
Qp Vp Lp
Using velocity ratio from Froude number equality
µ ¶2.5
Qm Lm
=
Qp Lp
µ ¶2.5
1
= = 3.2 × 10−4
80
Discharge for model
Qm = 800 m3 /s × 1.75 × 10−5
Qm = 0.014 m3 / s
Match force coefficients,

CF p = CF m
µ ¶ µ ¶
Fp ρp Vp 2 Lp 2
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
Using Froude number matching
µ ¶µ ¶2
Fp ρp Lp Lp
=
Fm ρm Lm Lm
µ ¶3
ρp Lp
=
ρm Lm
= 1 × 803 = 51.2 × 104
82
Force on prototype
Fp = 51 N × 51.2 × 104
Fp = 26, 112 kN
83
Situation:
A scale model of a dam will be constructed in a laboratory.
Lp = 1200 m, Wp = 300 m.
Qp = 5000 m3 / s, Qm = 0.9 m3 / s.
Am = 50 m × 20 m = 1000 m2 .
Find:
The largest feasible scale ratio.
SOLUTION
Check the scale ratio as dictated by Qm /Qp
µ ¶5/2
Qm 0.90 m3 / s Lm
= =
Qp 5, 000 m3 / s Lp
or
Lm
= 0.0318
Lp
Then with this scale ratio
Lm = 0.0318 × 1, 200 m = 38.1 m

Wm = 0.0318 × 300 m = 9.54 m
Therefore, model will fit into the available space, so use
Lm 1
Lp
= 31.4
= 0.0318
84
Situation:
A scale model of a ship is tested in a towing tank.
Lm = 4 ft, Lp = 100 ft.
Vm = 5 ft/ s.
Find:
Speed for the prototype that corresponds to the model test.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Match Froude number
V V
√ m =p p
gm Lm gp Lp
p
Vm Lp
Vp = √
Lm
µ ¶1/2
100 ft
= (5 ft/ s)
4
Vp = 25 ft/ s
85
Situation:
A scale model of a ship is tested in tank.
1
25
scale model.
Vm = 5 ft/ s, Fm = 2 lbf.
Find:
Velocity of the prototype ( ft/ s).
Wave resistance of the prototype ( lbf).
Assumptions:
Same fluids used, therefore ρp = ρm .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Match the Froude number
s
Vm Lm
=
Vp Lp
√
Vp = 5 × 25
Vp = 25 ft/s
Equating the force coefficients
CF p = CF m
µ ¶ µ ¶
Fp ρp Vp 2 Lp 2
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
With Froude number matching
µ ¶µ ¶2
Fp ρp Lp Lp
=
Fm ρm Lm Lm
µ ¶3
ρp Lp
=
ρm Lm
= 253
Force on prototype
Fp = 2 lbf × 253
Fp = 31, 200 lbf
86
Situation:
A scale model of a building is being tested.
1
20
scale model.
Fm = 200 N, Vm = 20 m/ s.
Vp = 40 m/ s.
Find:
Drag on the prototype building.
Assumptions:
Reynolds sufficiently high that dynamic similitude is satisfied.
SOLUTION
CF p = CF m
µ ¶ µ ¶
Fp ρp Vp 2 Lp 2
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
µ ¶2
40 m/ s
= 1× 202
20 m/ s
= 1600
Fp = 1600 × Fm
= 1600 × 200 N
Fp = 320 kN
Choice (d) is correct.
87
Situation:
A scale model of a building is being tested in a wind tunnel.
1
550
scale model.
Vm = 20 m/ s, Vp = 200 km/ h.
Fm = 20 N, Cpm = 1, −2.7, −0.8.
Find:
Pressure values on the prototype.
• windward wall
• side wall
• leeward wall
Lateral force on the prototype in a 150 km/hr wind.

Properties:
Model: Air at 20◦ C, ρm = 1.20 kg/ m3
Prototype: Air at 10◦ C, ρm = 1.25 kg/ m3
Assumptions:
Assume Reynolds number sufficiently large that dynamic similitude is satisfied.
PLAN
Match the pressure coefficients and the force coefficient.
SOLUTION
Cp,model = Cp,prot.
then
∆pp
= Cpp = Cpm
(1/2)ρp Vp2
Velocity for prototype is
km 1000 m 1 hr
Vp = 200 × ×
hr km 3600 s
= 55.56 m/s
or
∆pp = Cpm ((1/2)ρp Vp2 )

= Cpm × (1/2) × 1.25 × 55.562
p − p0 = 1929.0Cpm
88
but p0 = 0 gage so
p = 1929Cpm Pa
Extremes of pressure are therefore:
pwindward wall = 1.93 kPa

pside wall = 1929 Pa × (−2.7) = −5.21 kPa
pleeward wall = 1929 Pa × (−0.8) = −1.54 kPa
Match force coefficient
CF m = CF p
µ ¶ µ ¶
Fp ρp Vp 2 Lp 2
=
Fm ρm Vm Lm
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
1.25 kg/ m3 55.56 m/ s 550
=
1.2 kg/ m3 20 m/ s 1
6
= 2.431 × 10
Lateral Force:
Fp = 20 N × 2.431 × 106
Fp = 48.63 MN
89
Situation:
Drag force is measured in a water tunnel and a wind tunnel on three different
models.
Model sizes: 5 cm, 8 cm, 15 cm.
Find:
Find the relevant π-groups.
Write a computer program and reduce the given data.
Plot the data using the relevant π-groups.
SOLUTION
The drag force on an object is quantified by the force coefficient. The only significant
π-group is Reynolds number so
CF = f(Re)
or µ ¶
F VL
1 =f
2
ρV 2 L2 ν
The data are reduced and plotted below.
90
Situation:
Pressure drop is measured in a pipe with water and oil.
Find:
Find the relevant π-groups.
Write a computer program and reduce the given data.
Plot the data using the relevant π-groups.
SOLUTION
Performing a dimensional analysis on the equation for pressure drop shows which is
³ ´
∆pD ρV D
LρV 2
=f μ
where the independent parameter is Reynolds number. Plotting the data using the
dimensionless parameters gives the following graph.
Dimensionless pressure drop
0.020
0.018
0.016 Water
0.014 Crude oil
0.012
0.010
0.008
0.006
0 1e+5 2e+5 3e+5 4e+5 5e+5 6e+5
Reynolds number
91
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Instant Download PDF Engineering Fluid Mechanics 10th Edition Elger Solutions Manual Full Chapter

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Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications 4th

Use the step-by-step method.

This can also be written as

Use the step-by-step method.

There are other possible forms.

PLAN The functional form of the equation is

Use the step-by-step method.

SOLUTION Setting up the table

Use the exponent method.

Equating powers of M, L and T , we have

Another valid answer would be

• ρ is the density of air

• D is the diameter of the fan impeller

• Q is the flow rate produced by the fan

• n is the rotation rate of the fan.

Number of π-group = n−m

Use the step-by-step method.

V d+2f = ρbf ρ−d−b

ṁc+2d = Dc+4d μc ∆pd ρd

• Viscous stresses influence drag. Thus, Reynolds number is significant.

Some dimensionless variables can be combined to yield a diﬀerent form

b. To find α for the capillary,

Multiply both sides of Eq. (1) by Am /Ap = L2m /L2p :

Match force coeﬃcients

Air: ρ = 1.1 kg/ m3 , CL = 0.4.

This lift force is about 4750 lbf.

Combining Eqs. (1) and (2):

The density at 10000 m is

For Mach number similitude

ρm = 79.8 × 0.4107 kg/m3 = 32.77 kg/m3

From the ideal gas law

T = To − 5.87 × 10−3 K/m × h

The velocity in the wind tunnel is

Vm = 0.85cm = 0.85 × 340 m/s

Equating the force coeﬃcients

The correct choice is c)

V = 800 mm/ s, D = 0.475 m.

πD2 π (0.475 m)2

Match Reynolds number

Match pressure coeﬃcients

Match pressure coeﬃcients

Match force coeﬃcients

Equating force coeﬃcients

Moment on the submarine

Match force coeﬃcients

Using velocity ratio from Reynolds number matching

Eliminate Vm /Vp between equations

Therefore: ν m /ν p = (Lm /Lp )3/2

Match Froude number

The time will scale as

The discharge ratio is

Discharge for prototype

Multiply both sides of Eq. (1) by Am /Ap = (Lm /Lp )2

or for this case