Physics 12; Summaries; Module 7

Isaac Learson
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Conduct investigations of historical and contemporary methods used to
determine the speed of light and its current relationship to the measurement of
time and distance:
- Contributing scientists:
○ Galileo
■ First known person to attempt to measure the speed of light
■ Stood on hilltops with a known distance between them. Both him and his
assistant had lanterns. Galileo uncovered his lantern, and when his assistant saw
the light, he immediately uncovered his lantern. Galileo noted the time he saw
his assistants light.
■ He concluded the speed of light was at least 10 times that of the speed of sound,
and also that his results would be inaccurate due to the time delay of human
reaction
■ Proposed a method of telling time aboard a sea vessel: Observing Jupiter’s moon,
Io, coming in and out of eclipses, which were thought to be predictable, but later
found to be inaccurate.
○ Romer
■ Noticed that the variation in times of the eclipses (<16.6 minutes) coincided
with the times that Jupiter was closer to/further from Earth, as a result of their
different orbital speeds
■ He explained that the variations were a result of light having to travel across
Earth further or lesser.
■ Made a rough estimate that it would take light 11 minutes to travel from the Sun
to the Earth (2.1x108ms-1)
■ However, due to the fact that Earth’s orbit was not accurately known, the result
was incorrect.
■ However, he became the first person to suggest that light travelled at a finite
speed.
○ Fizeau
■ Used a method similar to Galileo,
but with more advanced technology
 ■ Fizeau passed a light through a spinning toothed-wheel, and after reflecting a
light from a mirror 8km away, he adjusted the speed of the wheel until the
reflected light passed through the next gap in the wheel.
■ He obtained a value of 3.13x108ms-1 for the speed of light (1.5% above today’s
accepted value)
○
○ Foucault
■ Friend and collaborator of Fizeau, but had a falling out.
■ Foucault used an improved version of Fizeau’s experiment, in which he replaced
the cogwheel with a rotating mirror
■ A light shone onto the rotating mirror, was reflected onto a fixed mirror, which
reflected it back onto the rotating mirror, and in turn, reflected back to the
source, having rotated through a slight angle. By measuring this angle, Foucault
could measure the speed of light.
■ He used these calculations:
● t = 2d/c
○ t: time for light to travel from rotating - fixed - rotating
○ d: distance between rotating and fixed
○ c: speed of light
● θ = 2dω / c = ωt
○ ω: speed of rotation in radians per second
○ θ: angle it moves during the round trip
■ Arrived at a value of 298000kms-1
○ Michelson
■ Used an improved version of Foucault’s method
■ Arrived at a value of 299944 +/- 51 km s-1, within 0.05% of the modern accepted
value, in 1879
■ In 1926, he incorporated even more refinements and got 299796 +/- 4km s-1, just
4km over today’s accepted value

Investigate Maxwell’s contribution to the classical theory of electromagnetism,

including:
> unification of electricity and magnetism
> prediction of electromagnetic waves
> prediction of velocity
- Maxwell's contributions to the Theory of Electromagnetism
 - Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism combined all the theory and observations that
had been developed in relation to electrical and magnetic physics and summarised this
using four equations. He also demonstrated mathematically that an electromagnetic
wave was expected. Qualitatively, Maxwell’s equations summarise the interactions
between electric and magnetic fields and this led to the prediction of an electromagnetic
wave which can propagate through space.

Describe the production and propagation of electromagnetic waves and relate

these processes qualitatively to the predictions made by Maxwell’s
electromagnetic theory:
- Electromagnetic Waves are transverse waves made up of perpendicularly orientated and
oscillating electric and magnetic waves
- They oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation
- Oscillating charges produce EM waves of the same frequency as the oscillation.
- v = f λ can calculate the frequency and wavelength of a wave, with the speed as 3x108ms-1
- Maxwell’s theoretical calculations for the EM Radiation (EMR) speed closely matched the
experimental values, and to such an extent that it supported the idea that light is of EMR.
- Because light is an EM wave, v = c and hence: c = f λ
 - The shorter the wavelength of EMR, the more penetrative it is

Conduct investigations of historical and contemporary methods used to

determine the speed of light and its current relationship to the measurement of
time and distance. Critical and creative thinking Information and
communication technology capability:
-

Conduct an investigation to examine a variety of spectra produced by discharge

tubes, reflected sunlight or incandescent filaments:
-

Investigate how spectroscopy can be used to provide information about:

> the identification of elements
- Spectroscopy investigates the spectra that is produced when matter interacts with or emits
EMR
- A spectroscope can identify the chemical makeup of a visible source of light because each
element has its own distinctive line spectrum of emission spectra.
- There are two types of spectra, Emission and Absorption
- An emission spectrum shows only certain colours of specific wavelengths:
- When elements are heated to high temperatures, or have an electrical current passed through
them, they produce a light.
 - Atoms within the material absorb energy and become ‘excited’, making the atom unstable.
Eventually, the atom becomes ‘unexcited’ and returns to ground state. When this happens, the
energy that was absorbed is released. The wavelength of this energy (which is now known as a
photon) will depend on the amount of energy released.
- An absorption spectra is when dark
lines appear on a spectra as a result
of the colours (wavelengths or
frequencies) being absorbed by
other gases
- By comparing the emission and
absorption spectrums, the chemical
makeup of an object can be learnt.
- Because an emission spectrum is produced when an atom is energised, and an absorption
spectrum is produced when a white light is passed through a cold gas, astronomers could
determine the sun is largely composed of hydrogen.

Investigate how the spectra of stars can provide information on:

> surface temperature
- Colour of a star determines its surface temperature
- Using the lettering system: OBAFGKM (on the right), we can classify a star's colour and hence
temperature.
- Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me
> rotational and translational velocity
- Red and Blue shift
> density
-
> chemical composition
- Chemical composition of a star is found through analysis of the absorption and emission
spectra.
Light: Wave Model
Analyse the experimental evidence that supported the models of light that were
proposed by Newton and Huygens:
-

Conduct investigations to analyse quantitatively the interference of light using

double slit apparatus and diffraction gratings:
-

Conduct investigations to analyse qualitatively the diffraction of light:

-

Conduct investigations quantitatively using the relationship of Malus’ Law for

plane polarisation of light, to evaluate the significance of polarisation in
developing a model for light:
-
Light: Quantum Model
Analyse the experimental evidence gathered about black body radiation,
including Wien’s Law related to Planck’s contribution to a changed model of
light:

Investigate the evidence from photoelectric effect investigations that

demonstrated inconsistency with the wave model for light:

Analyse the photoelectric effect as it occurs in metallic elements by applying the

law of conservation of energy and the photon model of light:
Light and Special Relativity
Analyse and evaluate the evidence confirming or denying Einstein’s two
postulates:
– the speed of light in a vacuum is an absolute constant
– all inertial frames of reference are equivalent

Investigate the evidence, from Einstein’s thought experiments and subsequent

experimental validation, for time dilation and length contraction and analyse
quantitatively situations in which these are observed, for example:
– observations of cosmic-origin muons at the Earth’s surface
– atomic clocks (Hafele–Keating experiment)
– evidence from particle accelerators
– evidence from cosmological studies

Describe the consequences and applications of relativistic momentum with

reference to:
– Pv=
– the limitation on the maximum velocity of a particle imposed by special
relativity

Use Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship (E = mc2) to calculate the

energy released by processes in which mass is converted to energy, for example:
– production of energy by the sun
– particle-antiparticle interactions, eg positron-electron annihilation
– combustion of conventional fuel