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brief contents

1 What Is Psychology? 1

2 Scientific Methods in Psychology 27

3 Biological Psychology 61

4 Sensation and Perception 96

5 Nature, Nurture, and Human Development 143

6 Learning 194

7 Memory 233

8 Cognition and Language 272

9 Intelligence 313

10 Consciousness 340

11 Motivated Behaviors 373

12 Emotions, Stress, and Health 410

13 Social Psychology 451

14 Personality 498

15 Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues 536

16 Specific Disorders and Treatments 568

vii
 contents

1 What Is Psychology? 1

MODULE 1.1 From Freud to Modern Clinical Psychology 22

Psychologists’ Goals 3 Recent Trends 22
General Points About Psychology 3
IN CLOSING: Psychology Through the Years 24
Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology 4
Summary 24
What Psychologists Do 7
Key Terms 25
Should You Major in Psychology? 13
EXPLORATION AND STUDY 25
IN CLOSING: Types of Psychologists 14
Why Does This Matter to Me? 25
Summary 15
Suggestions for Further Exploration 26
Key Terms 15
Additional Resources 26

MODULE 1.2
Psychology Then and Now 16
The Early Era 16

The Rise of Behaviorism 21

2 Scientific Methods in Psychology 27

MODULE 2.1 MODULE 2.2

Thinking Critically and Evaluating Conducting Psychological Research 37
Evidence 29 General Principles of Psychological Research 37
Evidence and Theory in Science 29
Observational Research Designs 41
Steps for Gathering and Evaluating Evidence 29
Experiments 47
Replicability 31
What’s the Evidence? Inheritance of Acquired
Criteria for Evaluating Scientific Theories 31 Characteristics? 48
Ethical Considerations in Research 50
IN CLOSING: Scientific Thinking
in Psychology 36 IN CLOSING: Psychological Research 51
Summary 36
Summary 52
Key Terms 36
Key Terms 52
Answers to Other Questions in the Module 36

viii
MODULE 2.3 Why Does This Matter to Me? 58
Measuring and Analyzing Results 53 Suggestions for Further Exploration 58
Descriptive Statistics 53
Additional Resources 59
Evaluating Results: Inferential Statistics 56
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 2
IN CLOSING: Statistics and Conclusions 57 Statistical Calculations 60
Summary 57 Standard Deviation 60

Key Terms 58 Correlation Coefficients 60

EXPLORATION AND STUDY 58 Web/Technology Resources 60

3 Biological Psychology 61

MODULE 3.1 IN CLOSING: Drugs and Synapses 78

Neurons and Behavior 63 Summary 78
Nervous System Cells 63
Key Terms 78
The Action Potential 65

Synapses 66
MODULE 3.3
Brain and Behavior 79
What’s the Evidence? Neurons Communicate The Major Divisions of the Nervous System 79
Chemically 68
Measuring Brain Activity 85
Neurotransmitters and Behavior 69
The Autonomic Nervous System and Endocrine
IN CLOSING: Neurons, Synapses, System 86
and Behavior 70 Experience and Brain Plasticity 88
Summary 71
The Two Hemispheres and Their Connections 89
Key Terms 71
The Binding Problem 91

MODULE 3.2 IN CLOSING: Brain and Experience 93

Drugs and Their Effects 72
Summary 93
Stimulants 72
Key Terms 94
Depressants 73
EXPLORATION AND STUDY 94
Narcotics 74
Why Does This Matter to Me? 94
Marijuana 74
Suggestions for Further Exploration 94
Hallucinogens 75
Additional Resources 95

4 Sensation and Perception 96

MODULE 4.1 Key Terms 108
Vision 98 Answers to Other Questions in the Module 108
The Detection of Light 98

Color Vision 104

MODULE 4.2
The Nonvisual Senses 109

IN CLOSING: Vision as an Active Process 108 Hearing 109

Summary 108 The Vestibular Sense 113

ix
 The Cutaneous Senses 114 Perceiving Movement and Depth 132

The Chemical Senses 117 Optical Illusions 135

Synesthesia 120
IN CLOSING: Making Sense of Sensory
Information 139
IN CLOSING: Sensory Systems 121
Summary 139
Summary 121
Key Terms 140
Key Terms 122
Answers to Other Questions in the Module 140
MODULE 4.3 EXPLORATION AND STUDY 141
The Interpretation of Sensory
Information 123 Why Does This Matter to Me? 141

Perception of Minimal Stimuli 123 Suggestions for Further Exploration 141

Perception and the Recognition of Patterns 125 Additional Resources 141

What’s the Evidence? Feature Detectors 126

5 Nature, Nurture, and Human Development 143

MODULE 5.1 IN CLOSING: Developing Cognitive Abilities 171

Genetics and Evolution of Behavior 145 Summary 171
Genetic Principles 145
Key Terms 172
How Genes Influence Behavior 150

Evolution and Behavior 151

MODULE 5.3
Social and Emotional Development 173
The Fetus and the Newborn 152
Erikson’s Description of Human Development 173

IN CLOSING: Getting Started in Life 154 Infancy and Childhood 174

Summary 154 Social Development in Childhood

and Adolescence 175
Key Terms 154
Adulthood 177
MODULE 5.2 Old Age 178
Cognitive Development 155
The Psychology of Facing Death 179
Infancy 155

Research Designs for Studying Development 158 IN CLOSING: Social and Emotional Issues
Through the Life Span 180
Jean Piaget’s View of Cognitive Development 161
Summary 180
Infancy: Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage 162
Key Terms 180
What’s the Evidence? The Infant’s Concept of
Object Permanence 162
MODULE 5.4
Early Childhood: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 164 Diversity: Gender, Culture, and Family 181

What’s the Evidence? Children’s Understanding Gender Influences 181

of Other People’s Knowledge 164 Cultural and Ethnic Influences 184
Later Childhood and Adolescence: Piaget’s Stages of The Family 186
Concrete Operations and Formal Operations 168
How Grown Up Are We? 170

x
IN CLOSING: Many Ways of Life 191 Why Does This Matter to Me? 192

Summary 191 Suggestions for Further Exploration 192

Key Terms 191 Additional Resources 192

EXPLORATION AND STUDY 192

6 Learning 194

MODULE 6.1 Additional Phenomena of Operant Conditioning 215

Behaviorism 196 B. F. Skinner and the Shaping of Responses 216
The Rise of Behaviorism 197
Applications of Operant Conditioning 219
The Assumptions of Behaviorism 198
IN CLOSING: Operant Conditioning and Human
IN CLOSING: Behaviorism as a Theoretical Behavior 221
Orientation 199
Summary 221
Summary 199
Key Terms 222
Key Terms 199
MODULE 6.4
MODULE 6.2 Variations of Learning 223
Classical Conditioning 200 Conditioned Taste Aversions 223
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning 200
Birdsong Learning 226
What’s the Evidence? Emotional Conditioning
Social Learning 227
Without Awareness 204
Drug Tolerance as an Example of Classical IN CLOSING: All Learning Is Not the Same 230
Conditioning 205
Summary 230
Explanations of Classical Conditioning 206
Key Terms 231

IN CLOSING: Classical Conditioning Is More EXPLORATION AND STUDY 231

Than Drooling Dogs 209
Why Does This Matter to Me? 231
Summary 209
Suggestions for Further Exploration 231
Key Terms 209
Additional Resources 232

MODULE 6.3
Operant Conditioning 210
Thorndike and Operant Conditioning 210

Reinforcement and Punishment 212

7 Memory 233

MODULE 7.1 The Information-Processing View of Memory 240

Types of Memory 235 Working Memory 243
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory 235
IN CLOSING: Varieties of Memory 245
Methods of Testing Memory 236
Summary 245
Application: Suspect Lineups as Recognition
Memory 238 Key Terms 246

Children as Eyewitnesses 239 Answers to Other Question in the Module 246

xi
 MODULE 7.2 MODULE 7.3
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval 247 Forgetting 259
Encoding 247 Retrieval and Interference 259

The Timing of Study Sessions 252 A Controversy: “Recovered Memories” or “False

Memories”? 260
The SPAR Method 253
What’s the Evidence? Suggestions and False
Mnemonic Devices 253
Memories 262
Storage 254
Amnesia 263
Retrieval 255
IN CLOSING: Memory Loss and Distortion 268
IN CLOSING: Improving Your Memory 258
Summary 269
Summary 258
Key Terms 269
Key Terms 258
Exploration and Study 270
Answers to Other Questions in the Module 258
Why Does This Matter to Me? 270

Suggestions for Further Exploration 270

Additional Resources 270

8 Cognition and Language 272

MODULE 8.1 IN CLOSING: Successful and Unsuccessful

Attention and Categorization 274 Problem Solving 296
Research in Cognitive Psychology 274 Summary 296

What’s the Evidence? Mental Imagery 274 Key Terms 296

Attention 275 Answers to Other Questions in the Module 297

Attention-Deficit Disorder 280

MODULE 8.3
Categorization 281 Language 298
Nonhuman Precursors to Language 298
IN CLOSING: Thinking About Attention
and Concepts 284 Human Specializations for Learning Language 300

Summary 284 Language Development 302

Key Terms 284 Understanding Language 305

Answers to Other Questions in the Module 285 Reading 307

MODULE 8.2 IN CLOSING: Language and Humanity 310

Solving Problems, Making Decisions, Summary 310
and Thinking 286
Key Terms 311
Algorithms and Heuristics 287
EXPLORATION AND STUDY 311
Other Common Errors in Human Cognition 290
Why Does This Matter to Me? 311
Expertise 293
Suggestions for Further Exploration 311
Unconscious Thinking and Problem Solving 294
Additional Resources 312

xii
9 Intelligence 313

MODULE 9.1 What’s the Evidence? Stereotype Threat 333

Intelligence and Intelligence Tests 315 Individual Differences in IQ Scores 334
What Is Intelligence? 315
IN CLOSING: Consequences of Testing 336
IQ Tests 319
Summary 337
IN CLOSING: Measuring Something We Don’t
Key Terms 337
Fully Understand 322
Answers to Other Question in the Module 337
Summary 323
EXPLORATION AND STUDY 338
Key Terms 323
Why Does This Matter to Me? 338
Answers to Other Question in the Module 323
Suggestions for Further Exploration 338
MODULE 9.2
Additional Resources 338
Evaluation of Intelligence Tests 324
The Standardization of IQ Tests 324

Evaluation of Tests 327

Are IQ Tests Biased? 330

10 Consciousness 340

MODULE 10.1 IN CLOSING: The Mysteries of Sleep

Conscious and Unconscious Processes 342 and Dreams 363
Brain Mechanisms Necessary Summary 363
for Consciousness 342
Key Terms 363
Can We Use Brain Measurements to
Infer Consciousness? 343 MODULE 10.3
Consciousness as a Threshold Phenomenon 344
Hypnosis 364
Ways of Inducing Hypnosis 364
Consciousness as a Construction 345
The Uses and Limitations of Hypnosis 365
Unconscious or Altered Perception 345
What’s the Evidence? Hypnosis and Memory 367
Consciousness and Action 347
What’s the Evidence? Hypnosis and Risky
What’s the Evidence? Consciousness and Acts 368
Action 347
Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness? 369
IN CLOSING: The Role of Consciousness 349
Meditation as an Altered State
Summary 349 of Consciousness 370
Key Terms 350
IN CLOSING: What Hypnosis Is and Isn’t 370

MODULE 10.2 Summary 371

Sleep and Dreams 351 Key Terms 371
Our Circadian Rhythms 351
EXPLORATION AND STUDY 371
Why We Sleep 354
Why Does This Matter to Me? 371
Stages of Sleep 356
Suggestions for Further Exploration 372
Abnormalities of Sleep 358
Additional Resources 372
The Content of Our Dreams 360

xiii
 11 Motivated Behaviors 373

MODULE 11.1 What’s the Evidence? Sexual Orientation

General Principles of Motivation 375 and Brain Anatomy 400
Views of Motivation 375
IN CLOSING: The Biology and Sociology
Conflicting Motivations 377 of Sex 401
Summary 401
IN CLOSING: Many Types of Motivation 379
Key Terms 401
Summary 379

Key Terms 380 MODULE 11.4

Work Motivation 402
MODULE 11.2 Goals and Deadlines 402
Hunger Motivation 381
What’s the Evidence? The Value
The Physiology of Hunger and Satiety 381
of Deadlines 402
Social and Cultural Influences on Eating 384
Job Design and Job Satisfaction 404
Eating Too Much or Too Little 384
Leadership 406

IN CLOSING: The Complexities of Hunger 389

IN CLOSING: Work as Another Kind
Summary 389 of Motivation 407
Key Terms 389 Summary 407

Key Terms 408

MODULE 11.3
Sexual Motivation 390 EXPLORATION AND STUDY 408
What Do People Do and How Often? 390 Why Does This Matter to Me? 408
Sexual Anatomy and Identity 394 Suggestions for Further Exploration 408
Sexual Orientation 397 Additional Resources 408

12 Emotions, Stress, and Health 410

MODULE 12.1 MODULE 12.2

The Nature of Emotion 412 A Survey of Emotions 429
Measuring Emotions 412 Fear and Anxiety 429

Emotion, Arousal, and Action 414 Anger and Aggressive Behavior 431

What’s the Evidence? The Cognitive Aspect Happiness, Joy, and Positive Psychology 433
of Emotion 416
Sadness 436
Do We Have a Few “Basic” Emotions? 418
Other Emotions 437
Usefulness of Emotions 423
In Closing: Emotions and the Richness of Life 437
Emotional Intelligence 425
Summary 438
IN CLOSING: Research on Emotions 427
Key Terms 438
Summary 427

Key Terms 428

Answers to Other Question in the Module 428

xiv
MODULE 12.3 Summary 448
Stress, Health, and Coping 439 Key Terms 448
Stress 439
EXPLORATION AND STUDY 449
How Stress Affects Health 441
Why Does This Matter to Me? 449
Coping with Stress 443
Suggestions for Further Exploration 449

IN CLOSING: Health Is Mental as Well Additional Resources 449

as Medical 447

13 Social Psychology 451

MODULE 13.1 MODULE 13.4

Cooperation and Competition 453 Interpersonal Attraction 480
Developing Morality and Cooperation 453 Establishing Relationships 480

Altruistic Behavior 455 Special Concerns in Selecting a Mate 484

Accepting or Denying Responsibility Marriage 486

Toward Others 458
IN CLOSING: Choosing Your Partners
IN CLOSING: Is Cooperative Behavior Carefully 487
Logical? 460
Summary 487
Summary 461
Key Terms 488
Key Terms 461
MODULE 13.5
MODULE 13.2 Interpersonal Influence 489
Social Perception and Cognition 462 Conformity 489
First Impressions 462
Obedience to Authority 491
Stereotypes and Prejudices 463
What’s the Evidence? The Milgram
Attribution 466 Experiment 492
Group Decision Making 494
IN CLOSING: How Social Perceptions Affect
Behavior 471
IN CLOSING: Fix the Situation, Not Human
Summary 471 Nature 495
Key Terms 471 Summary 496

Key Terms 496

MODULE 13.3
Attitudes and Persuasion 472 EXPLORATION AND STUDY 496

Attitudes and Behavior 472 Why Does This Matter to Me? 496

Central and Peripheral Routes of Attitude Change Suggestions for Further Exploration 497
and Persuasion 474
Additional Resources 497

IN CLOSING: Persuasion and Manipulation 479

Summary 479

Key Terms 479

xv
 14 Personality 498

MODULE 14.1 MODULE 14.3

Personality Theories 500 Personality Assessment 524
Sigmund Freud and the Psychodynamic Standardized Personality Tests 524
Approach 500
An Objective Personality Test: The Minnesota
Carl Jung and the Collective Unconscious 506 Multiphasic Personality Inventory 525
Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology 508 The NEO PI-R 526

The Learning Approach 509 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 527

Humanistic Psychology 510 Projective Techniques 527

Implicit Personality Tests 529

IN CLOSING: In Search of Human Nature 512
Uses and Misuses of Personality Tests 530
Summary 513
Personality Tests in Action: Criminal Profiling 531
Key Terms 513
What’s the Evidence? Criminal Profiling 532
MODULE 14.2
Personality Traits 514 IN CLOSING: Possibilities and Limits
Personality Traits and States 514 of Personality Tests 533

The Search for Broad Personality Traits 514 Summary 533

The Big Five Model of Personality 516 Key Terms 534

The Origins of Personality 518 EXPLORATION AND STUDY 534

Why Does This Matter to Me? 534

IN CLOSING: The Challenges of Classifying
Personality 522 Suggestions for Further Exploration 535

Summary 522 Additional Resources 535

Key Terms 523

15 Abnormality, Therapy, and Social Issues 536

MODULE 15.1 Humanistic Therapy 551

Abnormal Behavior: An Overview 538 Family Systems Therapy 552
Defining Abnormal Behavior 538
Trends in Psychotherapy 552
Classifying Psychological Disorders 541
What’s the Evidence? How Effective Is
Psychotherapy? 554
IN CLOSING: Is Anyone Normal? 544
Comparing Therapies and Therapists 556
Summary 545

Key Terms 545 IN CLOSING: Trying to Understand Therapy 559

Summary 559
MODULE 15.2
Psychotherapy: An Overview 546 Key Terms 560
Historical Trends in Psychotherapy 546
MODULE 15.3
Psychoanalysis 547 Social and Legal Aspects
Behavior Therapy 548 of Treatment 561
Therapies That Focus on Thoughts Deinstitutionalization 561

and Beliefs 550 Involuntary Commitment and Treatment of Potentially

Dangerous Patients 562

xvi
The Duty to Protect 562 Key Terms 565

The Insanity Defense 563 EXPLORATION AND STUDY 566

Preventing Mental Illness 564 Why Does This Matter to Me? 566

Suggestions for Further Exploration 566

IN CLOSING: The Science and Politics of Mental
Illness 565 Additional Resources 566

Summary 565

16 Specific Disorders and Treatments 568

MODULE 16.1 MODULE 16.3

Anxiety Disorders 570 Mood Disorders 590
Disorders with Excessive Anxiety 570 Depression 590

Disorders with Exaggerated Avoidance 572 Bipolar Disorder 597

What’s the Evidence? Learning Fear by Mood Disorders and Suicide 599
Observation 573
IN CLOSING: Mood and Mood Disorders 600
IN CLOSING: Emotions and Avoidance 579
Summary 600
Summary 580
Key Terms 600
Key Terms 580
MODULE 16.4
Answers to Other Questions in the Module 580
Schizophrenia and Autism 601

MODULE 16.2 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 601

Substance-Related Disorders 581 Types and Prevalence 603
Substance Dependence (Addiction) 581
Causes 604
Alcoholism 583
Therapies 606
What’s the Evidence? Ways of Predicting
Autism 609
Alcoholism 585
Opiate Dependence 587 IN CLOSING: The Elusiveness of Schizophrenia
and Autism 609
IN CLOSING: Substances, the Individual, and
Summary 609
Society 588
Key Terms 610
Summary 588
EXPLORATION AND STUDY 610
Key Terms 589
Why Does This Matter to Me? 610

Suggestions for Further Exploration 610

Additional Resources 611

EPILOGUE 612

REFERENCES 613

NAME INDEX 657

SUBJECT INDEX/GLOSSARY 672

xvii
preface to the instructor
A few years ago, I was on a plane that had to turn
around shortly after takeoff because one of its two
engines had failed. When we were told to get into
crash position, the first thing I thought was, “I
don’t want to die yet! I was looking forward to
writing the next edition of my textbook!” True
story.
I remember taking my first course in psy-
chology as a freshman at Duke University in
1965. Frequently, I would describe the fascinat-
ing facts I had just learned to my roommate,
friends, relatives, or anyone else who would lis-
ten. I haven’t changed much since then. When I
read about new research or think of a new ex-
ample to illustrate some point, I want to tell my
wife, children, colleagues, and students. Through
this textbook, I can tell even more people. I hope
my readers will share this excitement and want
to tell still others.
Ideally, a course or textbook in psychology
should accomplish two goals. The first is to instill
a love of learning so that our graduates will con-
tinue to update their education. Even if students
remembered everything they learned in this
text—and I know they won’t—their understand-
ing would gradually go out of date unless they
continue to learn about new developments. I fan-
tasize that some of my former students occasion-
ally read Scientific American Mind or similar
publications. The second goal is to teach people
skills of evaluating evidence and questioning as-
sertions, so that when they do read or hear about
some newly reported discovery, they will ask the
right questions and draw the appropriate conclu-
sions (or draw no conclusion if the evidence is
weak). That skill can carry over to fields other
than psychology.
Throughout this text, I have tried to model
the habit of critical thinking or evaluating the evi-
dence, particularly in the What’s the Evidence
features, which describe research studies in some
detail. I have pointed out the limitations of the
evidence and the possibilities for alternative inter-
pretations. The goal is to help students ask their
own questions, distinguish between good and
weak evidence, and ultimately, appreciate the ex-
citement of psychological inquiry.
xviii
APPROACHES, FEATURES,
AND STUDENT AIDS
Many years ago, I read an educational psychology
textbook that said children with learning disabili-
ties and attention problems learn best from spe-
cific, concrete examples. I remember thinking,
“Wait a minute. I do, too! Don’t we all learn best
from specific, concrete examples?” For this reason,
science classes use laboratories, to let students try
demonstrations and experiments. Few introduc-
tory psychology classes offer laboratories, but we
can nevertheless encourage students to try proce-
dures that require little or no equipment. At vari-
ous points, the text describes simple Try It Your-
self exercises, such as negative afterimages,
binocular rivalry, encoding specificity, and the
Stroop effect. Some of these activities are available
as Online Try It Yourself activities on the compan-
ion website at www.cengage.com/psychology/
kalat. Students who try these activities will under-
stand and remember the concepts far better than
if they read about them only in abstract terms. A
few of the online activities enable students to col-
lect and report their own data.
Reading the material is good, but using it is
better. Researchers find that we learn more if we
alternate between reading and testing than if we
spend the same amount of time reading. The Con-
cept Checks pose questions that attentive readers
should be able to answer with a little thought.
Students who answer correctly can feel encour-
aged; those who miss a question should use the
feedback to reread the relevant passages.
Education was long a very traditional field in
which the procedures hardly changed since the
invention of chalk and desks. Recently, however,
educators have been learning to use the power of
new technologies, and this text offers several im-
portant technological enhancements. The website
already mentioned includes the Online Try It
Yourself exercises as well as flash cards, quizzes,
an online glossary, and links to other interesting
sites related to each chapter. An eBook (electronic
version of the text) is available at www.ichapters.
com. In addition to the usual text material, it in-
cludes links to videos, animations, and Online Try
It Yourself activities. It also includes multiple-
choice questions with feedback. If a student
chooses an incorrect answer, the eBook explains
why it was wrong and then explains the correct
answer.
Each chapter of this text is divided into two to
five modules, each with its own summary. Mod-
ules provide flexibility for the instructor who
wishes to take sections in a different order—for
example, operant conditioning before classical
conditioning—or who wishes to omit a section.
Modular format also breaks up the reading assign-
ments so that a student reads one or two modules
for each class. Key terms are listed at the end of
each module, and a list with definitions can be
downloaded from the website. At the end of the
text, a combined Subject Index and Glossary pro-
vides definitions of key terms as well as page ref-
erences for those terms and others.
WHAT’S NEW
IN THE NINTH EDITION
Does psychology really change fast enough to jus-
tify a new edition of an introductory text every 3
years? Some areas of psychology admittedly do
not, but others do. This edition has more than 600
new references, including more than 500 from
2006 or later. The chapter on memory was sub-
stantially reorganized. A few new topics have
been added, such as the Myers-Briggs and NEO-PI-
R personality tests. Many of the figures are new or
revised. Two of the “What’s the Evidence?” sec-
tions are new, dealing with criminal profiling
(chapter 13) and the problems of a before-and-
after study without a control group (chapter 2).
Even in topics where the content has not changed
much, an author always finds many small ways to
improve the presentation. Here are a few of my
favorite new studies:
• People show a slight preference for a job that
sounds similar to their own name (e.g. Larry
and lawyer), as well as a place to live, em-
ployer, or spouse who shares their initials.
(chapter 1)
• If students take a test with the instructions in
red letters, or any other red mark on the test,
their scores suffer. Evidently, the red discourages
students by reminding them of teachers’ correc-
tions on past tests and papers. (chapter 1)
• If you measure how strongly various people’s
brains respond to somewhat frightening pic-
tures, you can predict their political leanings
with moderate accuracy. (chapter 3)
• Although males and females differ on the aver-
age in their interests, even in early childhood,
supposed differences in abilities are either ab-
sent or elusive. In cultures where women have
low status, males do better than females in
mathematics, but where status is about equal,
so is math performance. (chapter 5)
• After you have learned something, such as a
vocabulary list, additional study at the same
time is nearly a complete waste of time. Study
is much more effective if you go away from it
for a day or so and then return to review.
(chapter 7)
• People often do not know why they made a
decision. If you ask, “Why did you choose this
picture instead of the other one?” and then
show the picture that the person didn’t choose,
the person often doesn’t recognize that you
made a switch and confidently describes plau-
sible reasons for the choice. (chapter 8)
• The Flynn effect is the observation that mean
IQ performance has increased from one gen-
eration to the next for several generations.
New data show a similar generational in-
crease in developmental milestones of the
first 2 or 3 years. Because health and nutrition
seem the preeminent explanations for this
change in early development, they become
likely candidates to explain the Flynn effect,
too. (chapter 9)
• If you monitor people’s brain activity while
they are about to make a “spontaneous” deci-
sion to press the left or right key, you can pre-
dict their choice 5 to 10 seconds before they are
conscious of their decision. (chapter 10)
• When an area shifts to daylight savings time,
people’s alertness and performance suffer for
a week or two. The effects are greatest for
people who were already sleep deprived, such
as most college students. (chapter 10)
• Men with higher testosterone levels are less
likely than other men to marry, and if they
do marry, they are less likely to be faithful.
(chapter 11)
• After you make a decision about anything,
even something trivial, you become more
likely than before to take action on other mat-
ters instead of procrastinating. (chapter 11)
• Spending a little money on a gift for someone
else raises your happiness more than spending
that money on yourself would. (chapter 12)
• Happiness is contagious. If your friends be-
come happier, you probably will, too, and
then you may spread it to still other people.
(chapter 12)
• Becoming familiar with someone does not
necessarily increase liking. You find out what
you have in common but also what you don’t
have in common, and you discover the other
person’s flaws. (chapter 13)
• Psychologists have long assumed that no one
would ever again replicate Milgram’s obedi-
xix
 ence experiment, but J. M. Burger did, in part.
He asked people to deliver shocks only up to
150 volts, relieving the serious ethical prob-
lem of the original study. He found that peo-
ple obeyed authority almost as much today as
they did in the 1960s. (chapter 13)
• If you ask people in different countries to rate
how conscientious they are, the reports don’t
differ much from one country to another.
However, direct observations of conscientious
behaviors show clear differences among coun-
tries. (chapter 14)
• People with early-onset depression usually
have other relatives with the same or other
psychiatric conditions. People with late-onset
depression usually have relatives with blood
circulation disorders. (chapter 16)
• Apparently, schizophrenia can be caused by
mutations (including new mutations) in so
many different genes that no one gene will
emerge as consistently linked to schizophre-
nia. (chapter 16)
TEACHING AND LEARNING
SUPPLEMENTS
You’re familiar with those television advertise-
ments that offer something, usually for $19.95,
and then say, “But wait, there’s more!” Same here.
In addition to the text, the publisher offers many
supplements:
Study Guide, revised by Mark Ludorf, pro-
vides learning objectives, chapter outlines,
other study aids, and practice test items, with
an explanation of why each wrong answer is
wrong. It also includes a language-building
component especially helpful for nonnative
speakers of English.
Test Bank, revised by Ralf Greenwald, includes
questions from the previous edition, hundreds
of new items contributed by James Kalat and
tested in his classes, and many new ones by
Ralf Greenwald. That bank is also available in
ExamView® electronic format. Many of the
items have already been tested with classes at
North Carolina State University, and the Test
Bank indicates the percentage correct and point
biserial. Note also that the Test Bank includes a
special file of items that cut across chapters,
intended for a comprehensive final exam.
Instructor’s Resource Manual, revised by
Nancy Jo Melucci, is both thorough and cre-
ative. It includes suggestions for class demon-
strations and lecture material. It also contains
the author’s suggested answers to the Step
Further questions available online.
xx
PowerLecture with JoinIn and ExamView is
designed to facilitate an instructor’s assem-
bly of PowerPoint® or similar demonstra-
tions and contains lecture slides, figures and
tables from the text, the Instructor’s Resource
Manual and Test Bank, and Resource Integra-
tion Guide. With PowerLecture, all of your
media resources are in one place, including
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cludes all of the test items from the printed
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tem offers instant assessment and better stu-
dent results.
CengageNOW with Critical Thinking Vid-
eos is an online self-study and assessment
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with. Students take a pretest, and based on
their answers, the system creates a personal-
ized learning plan unique to each student.
This learning plan is full of engaging peda-
gogy that aids student understanding of core
concepts in psychology. After completing the
personalized learning plan, the student fol-
lows up with a posttest to ensure mastery of
the material. The self-study and assessment
questions were revised for this edition by
Alisha Janowsky.
Available on the website, WebTutor, and
CengageNow for Introduction to Psychology,
9th Edition, Online Try It Yourself exercises
illustrate concepts and promote critical think-
ing about various topics in the text.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To begin the job of writing a textbook, a potential
author needs self-confidence bordering on arro-
gance and, to complete it, the humility to accept
criticism of favorite ideas and carefully written
prose. A great many people provided helpful sug-
gestions that made this a far better text than it
would have been without them.
During preparation of this edition, I have
worked with three acquisition editors, Erik Evans,
Michelle Sordi, and Jane Potter. The transition
proceeded as smoothly as I could hope, and I par-
ticularly thank Jane Potter for guiding the text
through most of the process. Tali Beesley served
as developmental editor, offering detailed sugges-
tions ranging from organization of a chapter to
choice of words to new and improved figures. I
thank each of these people for their tireless help.
Rebecca Rosenberg supervised the supple-
ments, a task that grows bigger with each edition.
I have now had the pleasure to work with Frank
Hubert as my copy editor for several editions,
and I greatly appreciate his careful reading and
attention to detail. Nic Albert secured numerous
quality peer reviews throughout the entire proj-
ect. Nancy Shammas and Pat Waldo did a marvel-
ous job of supervising the production, a compli-
cated task with a book such as this. Vernon Boes,
who managed the design development, Lisa Torri,
who managed the art development, and Jeanne
Calabrese, who designed the interior and the
cover, had the patience and artistic judgment to
counterbalance their very nonartistic author.
Tierra Morgan planned and executed the market-
ing strategies. Martha Hall, the photo researcher,
found an amazing variety of wonderful photo-
graphs and managed the permissions requests.
To each of these, my thanks and congratulations.
My wife, Jo Ellen Kalat, not only provided
support and encouragement, but also listened to
my attempts to explain concepts and offered
many helpful suggestions and questions. My son
Samuel Kalat provided many insightful ideas and
suggestions. I thank my department head, Doug-
las Gillan, and my N.C. State colleagues—espe-
cially David Martin, Bob Pond, Bart Craig, and
Rupert Nacoste—for their helpful suggestions.
Many reviewers provided helpful and insight-
ful comments. I thank the following people, as
well as those who wish to remain anonymous:
Jennifer Ackil, Gustavus Adolphus College;
Melanie M. Arpaio, Sussex County Community
College; Thomas Carskadon, Mississippi State
University; Alicia M. Doerflinger, Marietta College;
Andrew Johnson, Park University; Jonathan Lytle,
Temple University; Michelle Merwin, University
of Tennessee at Martin; Todd Nelson, California
State University; William Price, North Country
Community College; and Robert A. Rosellini, Uni-
versity at Albany.
Each edition builds on contributions from re-
viewers of previous editions. I would also like to
thank the following reviewers who contributed
their insight to previous editions: Jeffrey Adams,
Trent University; Judi Addelston, Valencia Com-
munity College; Mark Affeltranger, University of
Pittsburgh; Catherine Anderson, Amherst College;
Susan Anderson, University of South Alabama;
Bob Arkin, Ohio State University; Susan Baillet,
University of Portland; Cynthia Bane, Denison
University; Joe Bean, Shorter College; Mark
Bodamer, John Carroll University; Richard W.
Bowen, Loyola University Chicago; Michael
Brislawn, Bellevue Community College; Delbert
Brodie, St. Thomas University; John Broida, Uni-
versity of Southern Maine; Gordon Brow, Pasa-
dena City College; Gregory Bushman, Beloit Col-
lege; James Calhoun, University of Georgia;
Bernardo Carducci, Indiana University Southeast;
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ritos College; Darlene Earley-Hereford, Southern
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Elaine Hogan, University of North Carolina Wilm-
ington; Debra Hollister, Valencia Community Col-
lege; Susan Horton, Mesa Community College;
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Linda Jackson, Michigan State University; Alisha
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Jensen, California State University, Sacramento;
James Johnson, Illinois State University; Craig
Jones, Arkansas State University; Lisa Jordan, Uni-
versity of Maryland; Dale Jorgenson, California
State University, Long Beach; Jon Kahane, Spring-
field College; Peter Kaplan, University of Colorado,
Denver; Arthur Kemp, Central Missouri State Uni-
versity; Mark J. Kirschner, Quinnipiac University;
Kristina T. Klassen, North Idaho College; Martha
Kuehn, Central Lakes College; Cindy J. Lahar, Uni-
versity of Calgary; Chris Layne, University of To-
ledo; Cynthia Ann Lease, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University; Chantal Levesque,
University of Rochester; John Lindsay, Georgia
College and State University; Mary Livingston,
Louisiana Technical University; Linda Lockwood,
Metropolitan State College of Denver; Sanford
xxi
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Ludorf, Stephen F. Austin State University;
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Steve Madigan, University of Southern California;
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pher Mayhorn, North Carolina State University;
Michael McCall, Ithaca College; David G. McDon-
ald, University of Missouri; Tracy A. McDonough,
College of Mount St. Joseph; J. Mark McKellop,
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mar College; Dianne Mello-Goldner, Pine Manor
College; Nancy J. Melucci, Long Beach City Col-
lege; Rowland Miller, Sam Houston State Univer-
sity; Gloria Mitchell, De Anza College; Paul Moore,
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sity; Bethany Neal-Beliveau, Indiana University-
Purdue University at Indianapolis; Jan Ochman,
Inver Hills Community College; Wendy Palmquist,
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nesaw State University; Gerald Peterson, Saginaw
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kota State University; Shane Pitts, Birmingham
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versity; Bridget Rivera, Loyola College in Mary-
land; Jeffrey Rudski, Muhlenberg College; Linda
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xxii
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ington; Troy Schiedenhelm, Rowan-Cabarrus Com-
munity College; Michele N. Shiota, University of
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Texas A&M University; Jay Wright, Washington
State University; John W. Wright, Washington
State University.
James Kalat
preface to the student
Welcome to introductory psychology! I hope you
will enjoy reading this text as much as I enjoyed
writing it. When you finish, I hope you will send
me your comments via email at psych.feedback@
cengage.com or by mail using the student reply
page at the end of this book. The publisher will
pass your comments along to me.
The first time I taught introductory psychol-
ogy, several students complained that the book we
were using was interesting to read but impossible
to study. What they meant was that they had
trouble finding and remembering the main points.
I have tried to make this book interesting and as
easy to study as possible.
FEATURES OF THIS TEXT
Modular Format
Each chapter is divided into two or more modules
so that you can study a limited section at a time.
Each chapter begins with a table of contents to
orient you to the topics considered. At the end of
each module is a list of key terms and a summary
of some important points, each with page refer-
ences. If a point is unfamiliar, you should reread
the appropriate section. At the end of a chapter,
you will find suggestions for further reading, a
few Internet sites to visit, and other suggestions.
Key Terms
When an important term first appears in the text,
it is highlighted in boldface and defined in italics.
All the boldface terms are listed in alphabetical
order at the end of each module. They appear
again with definitions in the combined Subject
Index and Glossary at the end of the book. You
might want to find the Subject Index and Glossary
right now and familiarize yourself with it. You
can also consult or download a list of key terms
with their definitions from this Internet site:
www.cengage.com/psychology/kalat.
I sometimes meet students who think they
have mastered the course because they have mem-
orized the definitions. You do need to understand
the defined words, but don’t memorize the defini-
tions word for word. It would be better to try to
use each word in a sentence or think of examples
of each term. Better yet, when appropriate, think
of evidence for or against the concept that the
term represents.
Questions to Check Your
Understanding
People remember material better if they alternate
between reading and testing than if they spend
the whole time reading. (We’ll consider that point
again in the chapter on memory.) At various
points in this text are Concept Checks, questions
that ask you to use or apply the information you
just read. Try to answer each of them before read-
ing the answer. If your answer is correct, you can
feel encouraged. If it is incorrect, you should re-
read the section.
Try It Yourself Activities
The text includes many items marked Try It Your-
self. Most of these can be done with little or no
equipment in a short time. You will understand
and remember the text far better if you try these
exercises. Online Try It Yourself activities are also
available at www.cengage.com/psychology/kalat.
The purpose of these is the same as the Try It
Yourself activities in the text; the difference is
that online activities can include sounds and mo-
tion. The description of a research study will be
easier to understand and remember after you
have experienced it yourself.
What’s the Evidence Sections
Every chapter except the first includes a section ti-
tled What’s the Evidence? These sections highlight
research studies in more than the usual amount of
detail, specifying the hypothesis (idea being tested),
research methods, results, and interpretation. In
some cases, the discussion also mentions the limita-
tions of the study. The purpose of these sections is
to provide examples of how to evaluate evidence.
xxiii
 Internet Site
The text website is www.cengage.com/psychology/
kalat. This site offers flash cards, quizzes, interac-
tive art, an online glossary, and links to other in-
teresting websites related to each chapter. The site
also includes the Online Try It Yourself activities.
All of these opportunities are highly recom-
mended; please explore them.
Indexes and Reference List
A list of all the references cited in the text is at the
back of the book in case you want to check some-
thing for more details. The combined Subject In-
dex and Glossary defines key terms and indicates
where in the book to find more information. The
name index provides the same information for all
names mentioned in the text.
Optional Study Guide
Also available is a Study Guide to accompany this
text, written by Mark Ludorf. It provides detailed
chapter outlines, learning objectives, study hints,
and other helpful information. The most valuable
part for most students is the sample test ques-
tions, with an answer key that explains not only
which answer is right but also why each of the
others is wrong. The website offers some sample
questions but not as many. The Study Guide also
includes a language-building component. The
Study Guide is recommended for students who
have struggled with multiple-choice tests in the
past and who are willing to spend some time in
addition to reading the book and studying lecture
notes. If your bookstore does not stock the Study
Guide, you can ask them to order a copy. The
ISBN is 0495909475.
ANSWERS TO SOME
FREQUENTLY ASKED
QUESTIONS
Do you have any useful suggestions for improv-
ing study habits? Whenever students ask me why
they did badly on the last test, I ask, “When did you
read the assignment?” Many answer, “Well, I didn’t
exactly read all of the assignment,” or “I read it the
night before the test.” If you want to learn the sub-
ject matter well, read the assigned material before
the lecture, review it again after the lecture, and
quickly go over it again a few days later. Then re-
read the textbook assignments and your lecture
notes before a test. Memory researchers have estab-
lished that you will understand and remember
something better by studying it several times
spread out over days than by studying the same
amount of time all at once. Also, of course, the
more total time you spend studying, the better.
xxiv
When you study, don’t just read the text but
stop and think about it. The more actively you use
the material, the better you will remember it. One
way to improve your studying is to read by the
SPAR method: Survey, Process meaningfully, Ask
questions, Review.
Survey: Know what to expect so that you can
focus on the main points. When you start a
chapter, first look over the outline to get a pre-
view of the contents. When you start a new
module, turn to the end and read the summary.
Process meaningfully: Read the chapter care-
fully, stopping to think from time to time. Tell
your roommate something you learned. Think
about how you might apply a concept to a
real-life situation. Pause when you come to
the Concept Checks and try to answer them.
Do the Try It Yourself exercises. Try to moni-
tor how well you understand the text and ad-
just your reading accordingly. Good readers
read quickly through easy, familiar content
but slowly through difficult material.
Ask questions: When you finish the chapter,
try to anticipate what you might be asked
later. You can use questions in the Study
Guide, on the website, or compose your own.
Write out the questions and think about
them, but do not answer them yet.
Review: Pause for at least an hour, preferably a
day. Now return to your questions and try to
answer them. Check your answers against the
text or the answers in the Study Guide. Reinforc-
ing your memory a day or two after you first
read the chapter will help you retain the material
longer and deepen your understanding. If you
study the same material several times at lengthy
intervals, you increase your chance of remem-
bering it long after the course is over.
What do those parentheses mean, as in “(Bau-
meister, 2008)”? Am I supposed to remember
the names and dates? Psychologists generally
cite references in the text in parentheses rather
than in footnotes. “(Baumeister, 2008)” refers to
an article written by Baumeister, published in
2008. All the references cited in the text are listed
in alphabetical order (by the author’s last name)
in the References section at the back of the book.
You will also notice a few citations that in-
clude two dates separated by a slash, such as
“(Wundt, 1862/1961).” This means that Wundt’s
document was originally published in 1862 and
was republished in 1961.
No, you should not memorize the parentheti-
cal source citations. They are provided so an inter-
ested reader can look up the source of a statement
and check for further information. The names
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
other jays to his help. If one of them is killed by the hawk, they all
give loud, wild cries. Then they fly off and, hidden in the wood,
complain of their disaster.
 LESSON XXXVIII.
THE BIRDS IN THE HOUSE.
As so many of you have cage birds, I think you will like to hear a little
about the kinds of birds that most often live in cages. I will tell you of
only the two most common kinds of pet birds,—the canary and the
parrot.
As the parrot is the larger bird and of more ancient fame, we will
speak of him first. Parrots have been favorite cage birds for many
hundred years. They are notable for size, splendor of plumage,
docility, long life, and power of learning to speak.
Like the woodpecker, the parrot belongs to the division of climbing
birds. The feet of climbing birds have two toes turned forward, and
two turned backward.
The parrot family is a group of large and splendid birds. You will
know even the smaller members of it by their bills. The bills are high
and thick, and have the upper part much curved and longer than the
under part. This bill is useful in aiding the birds in climbing, and in
holding fast to the branches of trees. It is just the right kind of bill for
eating fruit, which forms the chief food of the parrot in its wild state.
The tongue of the parrot is short, thick, and fleshy. The wings and tail
are long. The plumage is gay.
To the parrot family belong the parrakeets, cockatoos, macaws, and
lories. These are all birds of hot countries.
Nothing can exceed the splendor of the plumage of these birds. Red,
lemon, green, scarlet, blue, white, and a mixture of these colors, will
be found upon them. Many of them have brilliant crests, and many of
them long gay tail feathers.
The head and bill of the parrot are large. While their bill tells us what
kind of food they live on, and their feet show that they can climb,
their long strong wings show that they are birds of flight.
Parrots are social birds. They live in large flocks. They make their
nests in hollow trees, as woodpeckers do. In their native homes they
are much like woodpeckers in some of their ways. But they eat fruit,
not insects.
The natural voice of the parrot is a loud, harsh call. Parrots can learn
to speak only when they are carefully taught. Not every kind of parrot
can learn even when taught. The common short-tailed, red and
green parrot makes the best talker. Some of them are very amusing.
Parrots are usually of a kind, gentle disposition, easily tamed, and
learn to live very happily in a cage. When captive they eat sugar,
crackers, and almost any little dainty that is offered to them. They
are fond of water, and bathe often.
The very long-tailed parrots called macaws, and parrakeets, are
birds of Central and Southern America. In India there are also very
long-tailed parrots. In old times they were sent as presents to kings
and queens. The parrakeets of Asia and Africa are called ring
parrakeets, because each one has a collar of bright feathers about
the neck. The two parrots called “the gray,” and “the festive,” or “jolly”
parrot, are the most common as pets, are most amusing, and learn
many words and tricks.
What are called “love birds” are very small and beautiful parrots,
from North Africa. They are as small as bluebirds. They are the
smallest of their race, and rather rare.
The cockatoos are kept in cages, not for their speech, as they do not
learn to talk, but for their great beauty. You will know them by their
high crests. They have their name from their note, or call. They are
natives of tropic islands. Most of them have light-colored feathers,
pink, lemon or white, with markings of brighter tints.
If you live where you can visit a large bird-store, you will do well to
go to see some of these birds.
Let us now turn to that other house bird, and common pet, the
canary.
This little bird has its name from some islands on the coast of Africa,
which are its native home. It is about three hundred years since
these birds began to be reared and sold for cage birds.
Canaries are very small birds, of a delicate yellow color, graceful
shape, bright and lively ways, and sweet song.
In their native woods they have not the clear yellow color which they
now wear. They are of an olive green with spots of black and yellow.
The yellow color has become common to the cage birds.
Canaries are intelligent, affectionate little birds. They can be taught
to whistle tunes, if you train them with care and patience. If given
plenty of water, clean cages, plenty of light, and good fresh seed,
they will be healthy and live a long time.
You should give them a lump of sugar for a treat, some chick-weed
for fresh food, a bit of cuttle-fish bone to sharpen their beak upon.
You must also be careful to keep them out of a draught.
These birds of hot lands, reared in cages, would die if we let them fly
out of the cage. So, if we treat them well, it does not seem cruel to
keep them in their little wire palaces.
For my part, I prefer to see birds flying, feeding, and singing in the
woods and fields, which are their natural home.
 LESSON XXXIX.
THE LOST BIRDS.
Hidden in the earth, in peat swamps, or in rocks, we find the bones
of birds of various kinds that lived long ago, and are now lost. Some
of these lost birds were on the earth before men and beasts were.
Others have been well known until a recent time. I shall tell you of a
few that have lived until lately.
First I shall mention the great auk. This was a large handsome bird,
which lived along the shores and islands of northern seas. As auks
were good to eat, large numbers of them were killed.
There should have been a law to protect them while they were
raising their young. As there was no such law, the birds were killed at
any time, and their eggs and young were taken. Thus year by year
they perished, until none are left.
The auk was a very large bird, with black and white feathers. It had
very short legs, broad, webbed feet, and very small wings. When
sitting at rest on a rock, it held itself straight up and was nearly a
yard high.
It was a wonderful swimmer and diver, but could not walk much, and
did not fly except from rock to rock. Its bill was very large and strong.
The auk was a fish-catcher and eater.
As to these very big bills, such as you see on the toucan and hornbill
in museums, where the bill is nearly as large as all the rest of the
bird, let me tell you a secret. Do not they look very heavy? Do you
not wonder how the bird can carry them, or fly with them?
Here is the truth. The horny hard part is very thin, not thicker than a
sheet of paper. Then all the inside of the bill is built up in cells,
something like a fine honey-comb, and these cells are full of air! So
instead of being heavy, these huge bills are very light.
The bill of the auk was large, but not nearly so large as that of the
hornbill or toucan.
A neighbor of the auk was the Labrador duck. This bird often built its
nest close by where the auk laid its great, bright-colored eggs, near
the water’s edge. The Labrador duck and the auk swam in the same
waters, and were both very gentle birds.
This duck, like the auk, is now lost. The last one seems to have been
killed a few years ago. The Labrador duck was a very beautiful bird.
People wanted its eggs, flesh and feathers, and did not spare the old
birds to raise their broods.
This makes me think of the fable of the greedy man, who killed the
goose that laid golden eggs. Then he had neither goose nor eggs. I
think it served him right.
Chief among lost birds is the famous dodo. This dodo was an
immense pigeon. It was a helpless, quiet, kind, clumsy bird. It was
too heavy and too short of wing to fly. It had no weapon of defence;
no sharp, strong bill; no tearing claws.
Such a bird was easily caught and torn to pieces by dogs or cats.
When these animals were taken to the island of Mauritius, where the
dodo lived, they were allowed to run wild in the woods. They soon
became more like wolves and panthers than decent dogs and cats.
The dodo had never before seen any wild animals larger than rats or
squirrels. The dodos lived in peace and friendship with other birds
and small wild beasts. When ships began to visit the islands where
the poor dodos lived, men, dogs, and cats soon put an end to the
gentle birds.
Lost, with the auk and dodo, we may count two kinds of beautiful
parrots, and a starling with a splendid crest, like an unfurled fan; also
a tall, handsome bird, called a rail, has been hunted out of existence.
But some other rails are still plentiful.
The last bird to disappear has been the great vulture of the Alps.
This was a big bird indeed. It was two yards wide across the
outspread wings. It lived on the high peaks of the Alps.
This bird had a large hooked beak and large strong claws. You know
that eagles and vultures are flesh eaters. This big vulture did not
confine its diet to dead flesh. It would pick up and carry off a little
lamb. It has been known, also, to carry off a baby child.
So, as this was a cruel and dangerous bird, I am glad it has gone
from the earth.
The garefowl, often called a penguin, is another lost bird. It was a
great bird, living on the coast. It had such small wings that it could
not fly. Thus you see it could not get away from dogs and wild
animals, except when it could take to the water.
When men joined in the hunt, the garefowl soon perished. Is it not
right, then, to kill birds for food? Yes. But they should never be killed
until the season is over when they are laying eggs and raising the
young brood. If old birds are killed before the young ones are reared,
you can see that the birds must soon die out.
Then, too, while birds may be killed for food, it is not right to kill them
for the mere pleasure of killing. It is wrong to find a pleasure in taking
away life. You should never waste the life of beast, bird, insect, or
plant.
I have seen people nearly destroy a variety of rare wild flower, by
tearing up masses of the plant before seeds had time to form. The
people took much that they did not need and soon threw away. Then
only few and small plants were left for seed.
We should remember that as we are not the first people on the earth,
so we shall not be the last, and we should not rob the future of things
that are pleasing to us. We should all try to make the earth richer
and better, not poorer, for our having been in it.
 LESSON XL.
THE FIN FAMILY.
I remember when I thought that no living thing was of so little interest
as a fish. I used to wonder how it was that the great Agassiz began
his studies in Nature with fish. I did not think that fish were even
pretty.
I suppose that was because I knew nothing about them. When we
are quite ignorant of a subject, we are apt to think it has no interest.
One reason why, in these Nature Readers, I am telling you
something of many things is, that by knowing a little of these
subjects, your interest in them may be aroused. Then you will try to
learn more; and the more you know, the more you will enjoy.

IN THE COOL DEPTHS.

Once, if you had asked me, “What is a fish?” I should have said, “Oh,
a fish is a long thing, with scales and fins; and it lives in the water!”
How many of you can tell me anything more than that? Perhaps you
will add that a fish is good to eat.
Well, one day I went into a house where there was a great glass
tank. It was like a glass room full of water. As I stood looking in
through the glass side of this tank, I saw, gliding through the water, a
large, lovely creature, in silver and rose color. It had big black eyes,
set in a golden ring.
This creature seemed to move without the least effort. It made no
sound. It slid by me like the figures in a beautiful dream. It rose. It
turned. It sank,—and all without seeming to exert itself in the least. I
saw no effort at motion; but now and then a tremor of a forked tail,
and now and then the gentle wave to and fro of a pair of gleaming,
thin, silken things, like fans, half unfurled.
This, then, was a fish at home! Here was a fish living in the water,
and doing as it pleased. The clear water added to its beauty. It shone
like a gem. Other creatures, as beautiful, but different, lived with it.
They crossed and recrossed each other’s course. They left no track.
They had no path. They moved on, far more easily than a bird
moves in the air, or a man on the land.
From that day I loved the fin family. Let us look at this family.
I told you that a bird is built on the plan of a boat to sail in the air. The
fish, also, is built on the boat plan. He is a boat to move not on, but
in, the water.
Perhaps this is not a fair way of speaking; for birds and fish were
made long before men. And no doubt men built their boats on the
plan of the water-birds and the fish.
The fishes vary much in shape and size. We will speak now of the
ordinary fish type. We will take a model or pattern fish, such as the
perch or the mackerel.
The head is sharp and wedge-shaped. It serves as the prow of the
boat, to divide the water. The body is long, narrow, smooth. It has
scales lapping over each other, and are all turned from the head
toward the tail.
The tail is like the rudder of a boat, to direct its course. It serves also
as the paddle, or propeller, to drive it through the water. There is a
long slim fin on each side, just below and behind the head. These
serve as balances, and, also, sometimes as oars.
There is a long fin, sometimes there are two fins, on the ridge of the
back. There are also two fins on the lower line of the body. These
steady the fish in the water. They help to keep it, as you would say,
“right side up.” There are two more fins under the body, near the tail.
What you call the tail is really a fin. The true tail is the narrow end of
the body, just above this final fin.
Let us look at the head. Just on the front is the mouth. It has plenty
of teeth. I shall tell you of these teeth in another lesson, when I tell
you about the scales. Just above and behind the mouth are the
eyes, one on each side of the head. They never have any eyelids.
Below and back of the eyes are the gills and gill-covers. Gills are
wonderful things, which serve the fish for lungs. These gills can take,
or sift, out of the water, the oxygen of the air that is mixed with the
water.
The fish takes the water in at his mouth. Then, by a motion like
swallowing, he drives it out through the gills; and the gills sift out the
oxygen, as the water passes through them. Fish need that part of air
called oxygen to purify their blood, just as you need it.
If fish are kept in a vase where the water is not renewed, they soon
die for lack of oxygen. If they are put into water which has been
boiled, they die, because boiling has driven out the oxygen.
Perhaps you have been told that fish breathe water, as you breathe
air. That is not true. Fish breathe air, but the air must be sifted
through their fine gills. When you pull a fish out of water, he pants
and struggles and cannot get his breath. His fine gills stick together,
and cannot do their work. So the fish chokes to death. His panting
action is an effort to get air.
Fish with the thinnest and finest gills, as herring, choke very soon. A
carp, perch, or other fish that have gill-covers that will hold moisture,
and gills that will keep wet a long time, will live one, two, or more
hours in the air.
Fish have inside the body an air-bladder, or bag of air. This may help
them in breathing, but its chief use is to keep them up in the water.
The bladder lies under the backbone. This backbone runs from the
head to the tail of the fish. It is made of little pieces like cups. Each
piece has two or more long spines, like ribs, on each side of it.
The bony frame of a fish is very curious. You should try to have a fish
skeleton to look at. There are little bones that extend from each
division of the fins. You will see that the skeleton looks somewhat
like the ribs or frame of a boat before the planks are put on.
The bright color and gleam of the fish is in the scales. I will tell you of
these later. The scales are like a rich, flexible suit of armor.
Fish have cold blood, not warm like yours. They have very keen
sight and smell. Probably they have good hearing, and but little
sense of touch or taste. They have small brains, and not very much
intelligence.
 LESSON XLI.
OUTSIDE AND INSIDE.
If I ask you what is the largest of all fish, you will say “a whale.” But
let me tell you that a whale is not a fish. A whale is an animal that
spends all its time in the water, but cannot live constantly under
water. If cast ashore it will die, because it has no means of getting
back into the water, and no food on the land.

QUEER NOSES.
But whales have no gills, and they breathe air as you do. They are
so made that they can, with safety, remain under water for a much
longer time than you can. If a whale is kept under water too long, he
drowns. So we must leave whales, nar-whales, and porpoises out of
our account of fishes.
Among real fish you will find some of great size. Sturgeon have been
caught which weighed five hundred pounds. They were twelve or
fourteen feet long. Yet this size seems small when we compare it
with that of the great shark which has been found thirty feet long.
A queer contrast with such a vast creature is the little minnow, which
you catch in ponds and brooks. It is not much over an inch long.
Little English boys in their first fishing trips go for sticklebacks, a fish
from one to two inches long. I shall tell you in another lesson of this
amusing little fish.
The fish usually chosen as a type, or model, of the fish race, is a
perch. We find fishes[29] differing from the general perch pattern as
much as flower differs from flower.
The perch is a wedge-shaped fish, and is a beautiful creature. Let us
see how others of the fin family differ from the pattern I described to
you in the last lesson.
Instead of having a clear, round, full, bright eye like that of a perch,
some fishes, which live in mud, or in very deep water, have tiny
eyes, like dots. Some fishes which live in streams in dark caves have
really no eyes.
The perch is covered with scales of a rich green-brown and a golden
white. Some fish, as the eel and sword-fish, have no scales. A shark
has no true scales, but his skin has hardened into little bony points.
Some other fish, instead of scales, have large bony plates. The
heads and the fins seldom have any scales upon them.
If you could see a large collection of fish, you would wonder at the
variety of shape. You would see the “perch pattern” changed in
almost every possible way. Perhaps the first odd-shaped family to
notice would be the rays.
The fish of this family are flat. Their bodies are shaped much like a
flat triangle, finished with a long slim tail. The ray’s mouth is on the
under side of his body. The most common members of the ray family
are the skates. They are of a dark color above, and light below. I
shall soon tell you a queer thing about skates’ eggs.
One of the rays is called the sting ray, because its tail extends in a
huge lash, like an immense whip. Another ray is called the eagle,
because his body and fins widen out on each side, like the wings of
a big bird.
Another odd-shaped fin family is that of the flat fish. These, like the
rays, are dark above and light below. These fish are very flat or thin
in the body, and usually have both eyes and mouth on the upper or
dark side. There is one kind where the eyes and mouth are so raised
as to look much like the head of a bird. They swim with a queer
wave-like motion of the whole body. To this family belong the turbot,
flounder, plaice, and sole.
Then, too, there is a family of fish that are nearly as round as balls.
They have wide stripes of light and dark color, and look more like
nice play bells, furnished with tails and fins, than like fish.
A queer contrast to them is the pipe-fish. Pipe-fish have no scales.
Their bodies are long and slender, like very slim canes. They get
their name from the queer shape of their noses. The pipe-fish’s nose
is very slim and hard, and half as long as the fish. People think it
looks like a pipe, or cigar.
Many fish have very odd noses. Instead of the wedge-shaped head,
with the nose and mouth set exactly on the front, the nose may be of
a queer shape, and the mouth above or below.
The bellows-fish gets its name from a nose shaped almost exactly
like a bellows. One kind of sturgeon is called the shovel-fish,
because its head is shaped much like a wide shovel. Another
sturgeon is called the spoon-bill, because its nose runs out in a long,
horny plate, like a spoon, or a paddle. The hammer-headed shark,
has its head broadened on each side like a great hammer, with the
neck for a handle. One eye is set at the end of each projection.
I cannot tell you of all the queer shapes that fish take. If you examine
those which you catch in the ponds and rivers, or see brought to
market, you will observe that no two kinds are alike. What a narrow,
graceful, active fish a trout is! What a queer little fellow is the fish
that from his shape you call “a pumpkin seed.”
I told you just now, that one ray fish has a very long tail. With it he
strikes, and stuns or kills, his prey, or his enemy. Most fish live on
animal food. Some fish eat sea-weeds, but most of them prefer other
fish, crabs, insects, shell-fish, or other live creatures. Very many fish
have some weapon for securing prey, or fighting their enemies.
Some fish, depend on their quickness of motion to secure their food
or escape enemies. But I will now tell you of some of their weapons.
The lower lip of a salmon turns up into a sharp, cutting hook. The
sword-fish has a long, hard, sharp, strong horn, which it can drive
into the side of a ship. With this weapon it will also kill a man. The
sword is formed by some bones of the side of the head, growing out
very long and strong. The sword-fish belongs to the ray order.
Another ray is the saw-fish. This fish carries on its head a long, flat
bone set with great points like the teeth of a coarse saw. With this
weapon the saw-fish charges into a shoal of fishes. He maims and
wounds a number so that they die or cannot swim away. Then he
feasts on them at his leisure.
A very queer fish is the torpedo.[30] He is a very big fellow. He can
give a shock like electricity, that stuns or kills his prey. There is a
large eel which has the same power. They are both much feared by
other fishes.
But no fish is more feared by other fish, or by men, than the shark.
No doubt you have heard of him, with his huge mouth set with great
hooked teeth. He can kill almost any creature which is in the sea.
While much more could be said about weapons, we must now leave
them to take a look at the first pair of fins, or the breast fins.
In the rays the breast fins are broad and long. They are the chief
means of swimming. The flat fish have these breast fins extended all
along the side of the body. By the wave-like motion of these fins and
of the body they swim.
In some fish these breast fins are turned to feet, for walking at the
bottom of the water. There are one or two kinds of fish that can climb
trees. These have the under fins turned to sucker-like plates to help
them climb.
Did you ever hear of the flying fish? That fish has the breast fins long
and wide like wings. The fish can rise from five to twenty feet above
the water, and these fin wings support it, so that it can fly about two
hundred yards. Thus it escapes from its enemies.
You will see some fish with fleshy, finger-like organs near the mouth.
These are called barbels. Fish with barbels are bottom feeders. With
these barbels they hunt for food in the mud.

FOOTNOTES:
[29] Both fish and fishes are correct plural forms, and both are
used to accustom the child to both words.
[30] Also of the ray order.
 LESSON XLII.
WHERE THEY LIVE.
Where does the fin family live? “In the water,” you say. Yes. There is
perhaps no natural body of water in the world without its fish. There
are forty families of fresh-water fish. There are fish that live in water
that is partly salt and partly fresh, as where the sea-tides run back
into rivers. There are fish that live in the salt water of the ocean.

IN FRESH WATER.
The ocean fish are divided into three classes. First there are the
coast fish, that seldom go far from shore. They need a certain kind of
food and a certain warmth of water that they find near land. Then
there are surface, or upper-sea fish, that live far from land, but never
very deep in the water. And there are the fish of the very deep sea.
The surface, or upper-sea fish, are most of them very strong
swimmers. The deep-sea fish live far down where there is little air
and almost no light. It is only about twenty years since people began
to study deep-sea fish, and as yet little is known about them.
Many of the shore, or coast fish, that live in sea-water, enter the
rivers to lay their eggs. They arrive in the rivers in the spring, and
sometimes go up even hundreds of miles from the mouth to find safe
places for their young. Thus these fish are born in fresh water, and
grow up in salt water.
Among fish of this habit, we find the shad and the salmon. So you
see a fish may live part of its time in salt water, part of the time in
fresh, and part of the time in the brackish water at the river’s mouth.
Some fish, that are accustomed to spend all their lives in sea-water,
can be made to live in fresh water, if this is changed gradually.
When fish live in a tank, air must be driven into the water to supply
what the fish use out of it. If air is not driven in, the fish will die. As
the oxygen in the water becomes scarce, the fish seem uneasy.
They come up to the top of the water, and put their mouths out for
air. They give a gasp as if choking.
In such tanks, where fish live, a jet of water is driven with some force
into the water of the tank from above. As it goes down, you see a
stream of shining bubbles. These bubbles are air. They break in the
water, and the air mingles with the water in the tank.
You may see gold-fish in globes coming to the top of the water, and
seeming uneasy and unhappy. Then if you dash in a little fresh
water, or take some of the water from the globe and pour it back
from a little height, the fish seem content.
You know that the driving winds and the tumbling waves that break
in foam will keep plenty of fresh air in ocean water, for all the finny
tribes that live there.
So rivers, as they rush and ripple, toss their waves, and are driven
with winds, get air bubbles mixed in their waters.
Some fish need more air than others, and often come to the surface
to breathe. Some, as the sturgeon, leap above the surface into the
air. Perhaps you have seen cat-fish jumping in this way. Did you ever
see dolphins and porpoises[31] roll themselves quite above the
surface of the water in their play? I have told you of the fish that
make short flights. In all these ways these creatures help themselves
to air in their water home. But what do they do for food?
As I told you, fish eat fish and insects and crabs and such living
things. Some few are feeders on vegetables. Fish will also devour
almost anything that is thrown into the water for them. Did you ever
feed fish in a pond with bread and worms?
Carp will hurry to the top of the water to get food that they have
learned to look for when people come near. Fish of a kind often keep
together and feed together. You know in a stream there may be
some places where you will catch only trout, or only bullheads. And
in some other place you will find pickerel.
In the sea you will find millions of herring together at certain
seasons. This is called a shoal of herring. Fish move from place to
place along many miles of sea-coast or river, as they seek their
especial food, or a certain warmth.
Sometimes a particular fish, or pair of fishes, will live for years in
some certain place. They may find a nice spot under a bank, where
they feel safe, and where plenty of food drifts near them.
I knew of a fish that went into a hole made by the roots of a great
willow-tree. The roots formed a close cage about him. He liked it
well. His enemies could not get at him. Water rippled in and out
about him. Grubs and worms were close to his mouth. He grew fat
and big. He grew so big he could not get out. He began to grow to fit
the shape of his cage. As he had no room to grow long, he grew
broad.
After some years he was a very queer-looking fish. Finally, some
men were making an embankment, and they came upon this fish-
home in the roots of the tree. They took the fish out with care, and
sent him to a pond. I fancy it seemed odd to him to swim at first, after
being so long a prisoner.
There are some kinds of fish that live and thrive in the icy-cold
waters of polar seas. There are other fish that live in hot springs or
ponds, where the water is so hot that you can hardly bear your hand
in it.
Some fish can live only in very clean water. Others live in black and
muddy streams, and their flesh takes the dark hue of their home. In
fact, there seem to be some kinds of fish made to suit every kind of
water. This is very fortunate, as so many birds and beasts and so
many people eat fish.

FOOTNOTES:
[31] The dolphin of the Mediterranean is of the whale family, and
is not a true fish. The dolphin of the Atlantic is a true fish. The
porpoise is of the whale family, not a true fish, but a mammal.