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Miask, the discovery was disproved by H. Rose (Pogg. Ann. B. 73, s.
449). 626

In general the insulation of the new simple substances, the

metallic bases of the earths, and the like,—their separation from their
combinations, and the exhibition of them in a metallic form—has
been a difficult chemical process, and has rarely been executed on
any considerable scale. But in the case of Aluminium, the basis of
the earth Alumina, the process of its extraction has recently been so
much facilitated, that the metal can be produced in abundance. This
being the case, it will probably soon be applied to special economical
uses, for which it is fitted by possessing special properties.
B O O K X V.

MINERALOGY.
B Y the kindness of W. H. Miller, Esq., Professor of Mineralogy in
the University of Cambridge, I am able to add to this part the
following notices of books and memoirs.

1. Crystallography.

Elemente der Krystallographie, nebst einer tabellarischen

Uebersicht der Mineralien nach der Krystallformen, von Gustav
Rose. 2. Auflage. Berlin, 1838. The crystallographic method here
adopted is, for the most part, that of Weiss. The method of this work
has been followed in

A System of Crystallography, with its Applications to Mineralogy.

By John Joseph Griffin. Glasgow, 1841. Mr. Griffin has, however,
modified the notation of Rose. He has constructed a series of
models of crystalline forms.

Frankenheim’s System der Krystalle. 1842. This work adopts

nearly the Mohsian systems of crystallization. It contains Tables of
the chemical constitution, inclinations of the axis, and magnitude of
the axes of all the crystals of which a description was to be found,
including those formed in the laboratory, as well as those usually
called minerals; 713 in all.

Fr. Aug. Quenstedt, Methode der Krystallographie, 1840, employs

a fanciful method of representing a crystal by projecting upon one
face of the crystal all the other faces. This invention appears to be
more curious than useful.
 Dr. Karl Naumann, who is spoken of in Chap. ix. of this Book, as
the author of the best of the Mixed Systems of Classification,
published also Grundriss der Krystallographie, Leipzig, 1826. In this
and other works he modifies the notation of Mohs in a very
advantageous manner. 628

Professor Dana, in his System of Mineralogy, New Haven (U.S.),

1837, follows Naumann for the most part, both in crystallography and
in mineral classification. In the latter part of the subject, he has made
the attempt, which in all cases is a source of confusion and of failure,
to introduce a whole system of new names of the members of his
classification.

The geometry of crystallography has been investigated in a very

original manner by M. Bravais, in papers published in the Journal of
the Ecole Polytechnique, entitled Mémoires sur les Systèmes formés
par des Points. 1850. Etudes Crystallographiques. 1851.

Hermann Kopp (Einleitung in die Krystallographie, Braunschweig.

1849) has given the description and measurement of the angles of a
large number of laboratory crystals.

Rammelsberg (Krystallographische Chemie, Berlin, 1855) has

collected an account of the systems, simple forms and angles of all
the laboratory crystals of which he could obtain descriptions.

Schabus of Vienna (Bestimmung der Krystallgestalten in

Chemischen Laboratorien erzeugten Producte, Wien, 1855; a
successful Prize Essay) has given a description, accompanied by
measurements, of 90 crystalline species from his own observations.
 To these attempts made in other countries to simplify and improve
crystallography, I may add a remarkable Essay very recently made
here by Mr. Brooke, and suggested to him by his exact and familiar
knowledge of Mineralogy. It is to this effect. All the crystalline forms
of any given mineral species are derived from the primitive form of
that species; and the degree of symmetry, and the parameters, of
this form determine the angles of all derivative forms. But how is this
primitive form selected and its parameters determined? The
selection of the kind of the primitive form depends upon the degree
of symmetry which appears in all the derivative forms; according to
which they belong to the rhombohedral, prismatic, square pyramidal,
or some other system: and this determination is commonly clear. But
the parameters, or the angles, of the primitive form, are commonly
determined by the cleavage of the mineral. Is this a sufficient and
necessary ground of such determination? May not a simplification be
effected, in some cases, by taking some other parameters? by taking
a primitive form which belongs to the proper system, but which has
some other angles than those given by cleavage? Mr. Brooke has
tried whether, for instance, crystals of the rhombohedral system may
not be referred with advantage to primitive rhombohedrons which
have, in all 629 the species, nearly the same angles. The advantage
to be obtained by such a change would be the simplification of the
laws of derivation in the derivative forms: and therefore we have to
ask, whether the indices of derivation are smaller numbers in this
way or with the hitherto accepted fundamental angles. It appears to
me, from the examples given, that the advantage of simplicity in the
indices is on the side of the old system: but whether this be so or
not, it was a great benefit to crystallography to have the two methods
compared. Mr. Brooke’s Essay is a Memoir presented to the Royal
Society in 1856.
 2. Optical Properties of Minerals.

The Handbuch der Optik, von F. W. G. Radicke, Berlin, 1839,

contains a chapter on the optical properties of crystals. The author’s
chief authority is Sir D. Brewster, as might be expected.

M. Haidinger has devoted much attention to experiments on the

pleochroism of minerals. He has invented an instrument which
makes the dichroism of minerals more evident by exhibiting the two
colors side by side.

The pleochroism of minerals, and especially the remarkable

clouds that in the cases of Iolite, Andalusite, Augite, Epidote, and
Axinite, border the positions of either optical axis, have been most
successfully imitated by M. de Senarmont by means of artificial
crystallizations. (Ann. de Chim. 3 Ser. xli. p. 319.)

M. Pasteur has found that Racemic Acid consists of two different

acids, having the same density and composition. The salts of these
acids, with bases of Ammonia and of Potassa, are hemihedral, the
hemihedral faces which occur in the one being wanting in the other.
The acids of these different crystals have circular polarization of
opposite kinds. (Ann. de Chim. 3 Ser. xxviii. 56, 99.) This discovery
was marked by the assignation of the Rumford Medal to M. Pasteur
in 1856.

M. Marbach has discovered that crystals of chlorate of soda, which

apparently belongs to the cubic or tessular system, exhibit
hemihedral faces of a peculiar character; and that the crystals have
circular polarization of opposite kinds in accordance with the
differences of the plagihedral faces. (Poggendorf’s Annalen, xci.
482.)
 M. Seybolt of Vienna has found a means of detecting plagihedral
faces in quartz crystals which do not reveal them externally. (Akad.
d. Wissenschaft zu Wien, B. xv. s. 59.) 630

3. Classification of Minerals.

In the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, B. viii. C. iii., I have

treated of the Application of the Natural-history Method of
Classification to Mineralogy, and have spoken of the Systems of this
kind which have been proposed. I have there especially discussed
the system proposed in the treatise of M. Necker, Le Règne Minéral
ramené aux Méthodes d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris, 1835). More
recently have been published M. Beudant’s Cours élémentaire
d’Histoire Naturelle, Minéralogie (Paris, 1841); and M. A. Dufresnoy’s
Traité de Minéralogie (Paris, 1845). Both these works are so far
governed by mere chemical views that they lapse into the
inconveniences and defects which are avoided in the best systems
of German mineralogists.

The last mineral system of Berzelius has been developed by M.

Rammelsberg (Nürnberg, 1847). It is in principle such as we have
described it in the history.

M. Nordenskiöld’s system (3rd Ed. 1849,) has been criticised by G.

Rose, who observes that it removes the defects of the system of
Berzelius only in part. He himself proposes what he calls a
“Krystallo-Chemisches System,” in which the crystalline form
determines the genus and the chemical composition the species. His
classes are—

1. Simple Substances.
 2. Combinations of Sulphur, Selenium, Titanium, Arsenic,
Antimony.

3. Chlorides, Fluorides, Bromides, Iodides.

4. Combinations with Oxygen.

We have already said that for us, all chemical compounds are
minerals, in so far that they are included in our classifications. The
propriety of this mode of dealing with the subject is confirmed by our
finding that there is really no tenable distinction between native
minerals and the products of the laboratory. A great number of
eminent chemists have been employed in producing, by artificial
means, crystals which had before been known only as native
products.
 BOOK XVI.

CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES.
 BOTANY.

F OR the purpose of giving to my reader some indication of the

present tendency of Botanical Science, I conceive that I cannot
do better than direct his attention to the reflections, procedure, and
reasonings which have been suggested by the most recent
extensions of man’s knowledge of the vegetable world. And as a
specimen of these, I may take the labors of Dr. Joseph Hooker, on
the Flora of the Antarctic Regions, 41 and especially of New Zealand.
Dr. Hooker was the Botanist to an expedition commanded by Sir
James Ross, sent out mainly for the purpose of investigating the
phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism near the South Pole; but
directed also to the improvement of Natural History. The extension of
botanical descriptions and classifications to a large mass of new
objects necessarily suggests wider views of the value of classes
(genera, species, &c.,) and the conclusions to be drawn from their
constancy or inconstancy. A few of Dr. Hooker’s remarks may show
the nature of the views taken under such circumstances.
41The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H. M. Discovery Ships
Erebus and Terror, in the years 1839–40. Published 1847. Flora
Novæ Zelandiæ. 1853.

I may notice, in the first place, (since this work is intended for
general rather than for scientific readers,) Dr. Hooker’s testimony to
the value of a technical descriptive language for a classificatory
science—a Terminology, as it is called. He says, “It is impossible to
write Botanical descriptions which a person ignorant of Botany can
understand, although it is supposed by many unacquainted with
science that this can and should be done.” And hence, he says, the
state of botanical science demands Latin descriptions of the plants;
and this is a lesson which he especially urges upon the Colonists
who study the indigenous plants. 632

Dr. Hooker’s remarks on the limits of species, their dispersion and

variation, are striking and instructive. He is of opinion that species
vary more, and are more widely diffused, than is usually supposed.
Hence he conceives that the number of species has been needlessly
and erroneously multiplied, by distinguishing the specimens which
occur in different places, and vary in unessential features. He says
that though, according to the lowest estimate of compilers, 100,000
is the commonly received number of known plants, he thinks that
half that number is much nearer the truth. “This,” he says, “may be
well conceived, when it is notorious that nineteen species have been
made of the Common Potatoe, and many more of Solanum nigrum
alone. Pteris aquilina has given rise to numerous book species;
Vernonia cinerea of India to fifteen at least. . . . . . . Many more plants
are common to most countries than is supposed; I have found 60
New Zealand flowering plants and 9 Ferns to be European ones,
besides inhabiting numerous intermediate countries. . . . . . So long
ago as 1814, Mr. Brown drew attention to the importance of such
considerations, and gave a list of 150 European plants common to
Australia.”

As an example of the extent to which unessential differences may

go, he says (p. xvii.,) “The few remaining native Cedars of Lebanon
may be abnormal states of the tree which was once spread over the
whole of the Lebanon; for there are now growing in England varieties
of it which have no existence in a wild state. Some of them closely
resemble the Cedars of Atlas and of the Himalayas (Deodar;) and
the absence of any valid botanical differences tends to prove that all,
though generally supposed to be different species, are one.”
 Still the great majority of the species of plants in those Southern
regions are peculiar. “There are upwards of 100 genera, subgenera,
or other well marked groups of plants, entirely or nearly confined to
New Zealand, Australia, and extra-tropical South America. They are
represented by one or more species in two or more of those
countries, and thus effect a botanical relationship or affinity between
them all which every botanist appreciates.”

In reference to the History of Botany, I have received corrections

and remarks from Dr. Hooker, with which I am allowed to enrich my
pages.

“P. 359. Note 3. Nelumbium speciosum, the Lotus of India. The

Nelumbium does not float, but raises both leaf and flower several
feet above the water: the Nymphæa Lotus has floating leaves. Both
enter largely into the symbolism of the Hindoos, and are often
confounded. 633

“P. 362. Note 5. For Arachnis read Arachis. The Arachidna of

Theophrastus cannot, however, be the Arachis or ground-nut.

“Pp. 388 and 394. For Harlecamp read Hartecamp.

“P. 394. For Kerlen read Kalm.

“P. 394. For Asbech read Osbeck.

“P. 386. John Ray. Ray was further the author of the present
Natural System in its most comprehensive sense. He first divided
plants into Flowerless and Flowering; and the latter into
Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous:—’Floriferas dividemus in
Dicotyledones, quarum semina sata binis foliis, seminalibus dictis,
quæ cotyledonorum usum præstant, e terra exeunt, vel in binos
saltem lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos supra terram foliorum specie
non efferant; et Monocotyledones, quæ nec folia bina seminalia
efferunt nec lobos binos condunt. Hæc divisio ad arbores etiam
extendi potest; siquidem Palmæ et congeneres hoc respectu eodem
modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo Monocotyledones a reliquis
herbis.’

“P. 408. Endogenous and Exogenous Growth. The exact course of

the wood fibres which traverse the stems of both Monocotyledonous
and Dicotyledonous plants has been only lately discovered. In the
Monocotyledons, those fibres are collected in bundles, which follow
a very peculiar course:—from the base of each leaf they may be
followed downwards and inwards, towards the axis of the trunk,
when they form an arch with the convexity to the centre; and curving
outwards again reach the circumference, where they are lost
amongst the previously deposited fibres. The intrusion of the bases
of these bundles amongst those already deposited, causes the
circumference of the stem to be harder than the centre; and as all
these arcs have a short course (their chords being nearly equal), the
trunk does not increase in girth, and grows at the apex only. The
wood-bundles are here definite. In the Dicotyledonous trunks, the
layers of wood run in parallel courses from the base to the top of the
trunk, each externally to that last formed, and the trunk increases
both in height and girth; the wood-bundles are here indefinite.

“With regard to the Cotyledons, though it is often difficult to

distinguish a Monocotyledonous Embryo from a Dicotyledonous,
they may always be discriminated when germinating. The
Cotyledons, when two or more, and primordial leaves (when no
Cotyledons are visible) of a Monocotyledon, are alternate; those of a
Dicotyledon are opposite.

“A further physiological distinction between Monocotyledons and

634 Dicotyledons is observed in germination, when the
Dicotyledonous radicle elongates and forms the root of the young
plant; the Monocotyledonous radicle does not elongate, but pushes
out rootlets from itself at once. Hence the not very good terms,
exorhizal for Dicotyledonous, and endorhizal for Monocotyledonous.

“The highest physiological generalization in the vegetable kingdom

is between Phænogama and Cryptogama. In the former, fertilization
is effected by a pollen-tube touching the nucleus of an ovule; in
Cryptogams, the same process is effected by the contact of a sperm-
cell, usually ciliated (antherozoid), upon another kind of cell called a
germ-cell. In Phænogams, further, the organs of fructification are all
modified leaves; those of Cryptogams are not homologous.” (J. D.
H.)
 ZOOLOGY.

I have exemplified the considerations which govern zoological

classification by quoting the reflexions which Cuvier gives us, as
having led him to his own classification of Fishes. Since the varieties
of Quadrupeds, or Mammals (omitting whales, &c.), are more
familiar to the common reader than those of Fishes, I may notice
some of the steps in their classification; the more so as some curious
questions have recently arisen thereupon.

Linnæus first divides Mammals into two groups, as they have

Claws, or Hoofs (unguiculata, ungulata.) But he then again divides
them into six orders (omitting whales, &c.), according to their number
of incisor, laniary, and molar teeth; namely:—

Primates. (Man, Monkey, &c.)

Bruta. (Rhinoceros, Elephant, &c.)

Feræ. (Dog, Cat, Bear, Mole, &c.)

Glires. (Mouse, Squirrel, Hare, &c.)

Pecora. (Camel, Giraffe, Stag, Goat, Sheep, Ox, &c.)

Belluæ. (Horse, Hippopotamus, Tapir, Sow, &c.)

In the place of these, Cuvier, as I have stated in the Philosophy

(On the Language of Sciences, Aphorism xvi.), introduced the
following orders: Bimanes, Quadrumanes, Carnassiers, Rongeurs,
Edentés, Pachyderms, Ruminans. Of these, the Carnassiers
correspond to the Feræ of Linnæus; the Rongeurs to his Glires; the
Edentés are a new order, taking the Sloths, Ant-eaters, &c., from the
Bruta of Linnæus, the Megatherium from extinct animals, and the
Ornithorhynchus, &c., from the new animals of Australia; the
Ruminans agree with the 635 Pecora; the Pachyderms include some
of the Bruta and the Belluæ, comprehending also extinct animals, as
Anoplotherium and Palæotherium.

But the two orders of Hoofed Animals, the Pachyderms and the
Ruminants, form a group which is held by Mr. Owen to admit of a
better separation, on the ground of a character already pointed out
by Cuvier; namely, as to whether they are two-toed or three-toed.
According to this view, the Horse is connected with the Tapir, the
Palæotherium, and the Rhinoceros, not only by his teeth, but by his
feet, for he has really three digits. And Cuvier notices that in the two-
toed or even-toed Pachyderms, the astragalus bone has its face
divided into two equal parts by a ridge; while in the uneven-toed
pachyderms it has a narrow cuboid face. Mr. Owen has adopted this
division of Pachyderms and Ruminants, giving the names
artiodactyla and perissodactyla to the two groups; the former
including the Ox, Hog, Peccary, Hippopotamus, &c.; the latter
comprehending the Horse, Tapir, Rhinoceros, Hyrax, &c. And thus
the Ruminants take their place as a subordinate group of the great
natural even-toed Division of the Hoofed Section of Mammals; and
the Horse is widely separated from them, inasmuch as he belongs to
the odd-toed division. 42
42 Owen, Odontography.

As we have seen, these modern classifications are so constructed

as to include extinct as well as living species of animals; and indeed
the species which have been discovered in a fossil state have
tended to fill up the gaps in the series of zoological forms which had
marred the systems of modern zoologists. This has been the case
with the division of which we are speaking.

Mr. Owen had established two genera of extinct Herbivorous

Animals, on the strength of fossil remains brought from South
America:—Toxodon, and Nesodon. In a recent communication to the
Royal Society 43 he has considered the bearing of these genera upon
the divisions of odd-toed and even-toed animals. He had already
been led to the opinion that the three sections, Proboscidea,
Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla, formed a natural division of
Ungulata; and he is now led to think that this division implies another
group, “a distinct division of the Ungulata, of equal value, if not with
the Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla at least with the Proboscidea.
This group he proposes to call Toxodonta.
43 Phil. Trans., 1853.