Condition Monitoring

CONDITION MONITORING
OF
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
PRESENTED
BY
PROF. V. G. PATEL
6/1/2024 V. G. PATEL 1
PRESENTATION FLOW
➢What is Condition Monitoring?
➢Why it is required?
➢Why is Condition Monitoring important?
➢How does it work?
➢Why does it NOT always work?
➢Maintenance philosophy.
➢Basic requirements of condition monitoring.
➢Types of Condition Monitoring?
➢What and when to Monitor?
➢How to Monitor?
➢Typical Condition Monitoring programme.
➢Conclusion.
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PRESENTATION FLOW
CONDITION MONITORING OF VARIOUS
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS (INTRODUCTION ONLY):
❖GENERATOR.
❖ MOTOR.
❖LINE – PID (Puncture Insulator Detector).
THERMOVISION SCANNING OF LINES.
❖CABLE AND INSULATORS
❖BATTERY
❖CIRCUIT BREAKERS
❖ISOLATORS
❖CLAMPS AND CONNECTORS
❖L.A. (LIGHTNING ARRESTERS).
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PRESENTATION FLOW
CONDITION MONITORING OF TRANSFORMER:
❖Causes of Transformer failure
❖Ageing process and accelerated ageing
factors
❖Transformer diagnostic techniques
❖What to monitor in Transformer
❖Tools for monitoring
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PRESENTATION FLOW
CONDITION MONITORING OF TRANSFORMER:
• Moisture of oil
• IR/AI/PI --- Insulation (DC)
• Dielectric Discharge (Tan delta/Capacitance) --- Insulation (AC)
• PD (Partial Discharge - inception voltage) --- Insulation (void)
• DP --- Degree of Polymerization --- Insulation (paper)
• DGA (Online/Offline) --- Oil
• SFRA --- Integrity of Tr. Winding
• Furan --- Oil (indirect for DP) --- Paper insulation
• Hydran --- Dissolved H2 and Hydro Carbons (H2 & HxCy )
• Step Voltage Test --- Insulation
• RVM --- Recovery Voltage Measurements --- Paper insulation
• Thermography --- Hot spot in conductor joint
• Fiber Optic Sensors --- Oil and Winding Temperature
• MAP Analysis
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WHAT IS CONDITION
MONITORING?
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Increasing interest has been seen in condition
monitoring (CM) techniques for electrical equipment,
mainly including transformer, generator, and
induction motor in power plants, because CM has the
potential to reduce operating costs, enhance the
reliability of operation, and improve power supply and
service to customers. Literatures are accumulated on
developing intelligent CM systems with advanced
practicability, sensitivity, reliability and automation.
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What is condition monitoring?
❖ Using various technologies to monitor the current
performance of a piece of equipment to determine if it is
operating within specified guidelines.
❖The results obtained from the monitoring along with
previous results can give an indication to the life assess-
ment of the equipment and assist in determining the
nature of any abnormality.
❖Condition monitoring is the study of methodologies to
detect symptoms of possible failure in electrical
equipment It is the process of monitoring various
parameters of condition in machinery, such that a
significant change is indicative of a developing failure.
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Condition monitoring is the process of
monitoring a parameter of condition in
machinery, such that a significant change is
indicative of a developing failure. It is a major
component of Predictive Maintenance (PdM).
The use of conditional monitoring allows
maintenance to be scheduled, or other
actions to be taken to avoid the
consequences of failure, before the failure
occurs.
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Condition monitoring can be defined as a technique or a process of
monitoring the operating characteristics of machine in such a way
that changes and trends of the monitored characteristics can be
used to predict the need for maintenance before serious
deterioration or breakdown occurs, and/or to estimate the
machine’s “health.” It embraces the life mechanism of individual
parts of or the whole equipment, the application and development
of special purpose equipment, the means of acquiring the data and
the analysis of that data to predict the trends.
CM is the technique served for Condition-Based Maintenance
(CBM) (or named as predictive maintenance). Before this, time-
based maintenance had been the mainly used maintenance
strategy for a long time. Time-based maintenance, to examine and
repair the machines offline either according to a time schedule or
running hours, may prevent many failures.
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More than 25 years ago someone made the
statement, “The vibrations produced in a machine
are the best indication of the machine’s health.”
This statement still holds true today. Of all the
predictive maintenance (PdM) technologies,
vibration analysis remains the best measure of
machine health. This is true because vibration
monitoring can alert us to so many different
conditions that may indicate potential machine
failures. Unbalance, misalignment, bearing faults,
resonance, looseness, cavitations and electrical
problems are just a few of the many problems
that can be detected with vibration monitoring.
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Vibration monitoring
The principal sources of vibration in
electrical machines are:
❖The response of the stator core to the attractive force
developed magnetically between rotor and stator
❖The dynamic behavior of the rotor in the bearings
as the machines rotates
❖The response of the shaft bearings, supported by
the machine structure and foundations, to vibration
transmitted from the rotor
❖The response of the stator end windings to the
electromagnetic forces on the conductors.
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ROOT CAUSES AND FAILURE MODES
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Root causes:
▪Defective design or manufacture
▪Defective material or component
▪Defective installation
▪Defective maintenance or operation
▪Ambient conditions
▪Over-speed
▪Overload
▪Component failure
▪Excessive temperature
▪Winding over temperature
▪Bearing over temperature.
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Failure modes:
oElectrical:
▪Core insulation failure
▪Stator winding insulation failure
▪Rotor winding insulation failure
▪Brush gear failure
▪Slip ring failure
▪Commutator failure
▪Electrical trip
oMechanical:
▪Bearing failure
▪Rotor mechanical integrity failure
▪Stator mechanical integrity failure.
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SUMMARIZING:
•By condition monitoring we mean continuous
evaluation of the health of plant and equipment
throughout its serviceable life.
•Condition monitoring and protection are closely related
functions. The approach to the implementation of
each is, however, quite different.
•Condition monitoring can, in many cases, be extended
to provide primary protection, but its real function
must always be to attempt to recognize the
development of faults at an early stage.
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WHY CONDITION
MONITORING?
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•Maintenance with intelligence
WHY
•To avoid failure of equipment
in service
CONDITION •To enhance life of equipment
•System stability and reliability
MONITORING ? •To avoid laborious work
•To achieve Equipment Life Extn.
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WHY IT IS REQUIRED?
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Why it is required?
With recent trends in maintenance of Electrical
equipments condition monitoring is required, as
healthiness of all S/S equipment is required to
provide continuous, stable, quality power supply.
Because, if any one out of these goes weak and
creates trouble, power supply gets affected.
So, to look out that all these equipment remain in
perfect working condition and do not fail during
service, its condition is to be monitored conti-
nuously, need of condition monitoring arise....
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• THE PREVENTIVE / PREDICTIVE MAINTANENCE
EXTENDS LIFE OF EQUIPMENTS BY AVOIDING
CATASTROPHIC FAILURES AND FORCED OUTAGES
• CONDITION MONITORING IS THE FIRST STEP IN THE
PREVENTIVE/PREDICTIVE MAINTANANCE PROGRAM
• CONDITION MONITORING HELPS TO :

• FORSEE ANY DETERIORATION / DEFECTS IN THE
CONDITION OF THE EQUIPMENT
• FACILITATE CORRECTIVE ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN

ADVANCE TO PREVENT THE UNPLANNED OUTAGES OF
THE SYSTEM
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OUTCOME OF AN APPARATUS
FAILURE / UNPLANNED OUTAGE
DIRECT COST OF REPLACEMENT BY A NEW UNIT
INCLUDING TRANSPORTATION & INSTALLATION
•LOSS OF REVENUE
•ACQUISITION OF POWER FROM OTHER SUPPLIERS AT AN
EMERGENCY RATE
•DAMAGE TO ADJACENT APPARATUS
•DECONTAMINATION OF THE SITE
•RISK OF LIFE OF OPERATING PERSONNEL
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Service Life OR useful Life of Equipment is the
period up to which equipment works properly
and after that it may not work properly.
After completion of Service Life of any
equipment, it can be kept in service with the help
of Rectification and Modification and periodically
monitoring condition of equipment. The
extension period is known as a Life Extension.
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Why is Condition Monitoring important?
• Reduces maintenance cost
• Lengthening of equipment life
• Minimising severity of destruction
• Minimises downtime
• Maximises productivity
How does it work?
• Sensors measure various electrical, chemical and physical
signals .
• These signals are processed and compared with various
reference values to assess the condition of the equipment.
• A more common processing tool used is the Fourier
Transform
• This is used to observe the frequency spectrum of a signal.
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Why does it NOT always work?
• No single perfect diagnostic method
• Using the wrong tool for the application
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MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHY
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MAINTENANCE PHILOSHOPHY
❖Break down Maintenance.
❖Preventive Maintenance.
❖Condition Based Maintenance.
➢Secret of good maintenance is perfection
and attention to details.
➢Utilities should gear up to adopt new
diagnostic techniques to achieve reliable
and effective maintenance.
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MAINTENANCE – OBJECTIVE
•To retain or to restore equipment condition to perform its
required function through out life cycle.
•Maximize system availability to the desired level with a
criteria of safety and economy.
•After maintenance, condition should improve.
•One should exercise practical approach and judgment.
•Do not adopt make shift method.
•If you attend to minor defects, major breakdowns never
arise.
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Breakdown maintenance or "Run to failure"
Reactive maintenance management approach was
adopted resulting to production loss, downtime,
unscheduled interruption, and inevitable material
inventory, labour and other cost incurred in the
repair process.
Preventive maintenance approach by scheduling
maintenance practice on plants and equipment
based on statistical time data.
This is also not cost effective method.
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Breakdown Maintenance
The equipment is allowed to run until
complete failure forces shutdown.
Disadvantages:
• Untimely / unplanned failure.
• Often require extensive repair.
• More downtime of equipment.
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❖Scheduled Maintenance (Time-based maint.)
The equipment is shutdown after specified period of
operation & partially or completely dismantled for
thorough inspection / maintenance. This approach is
having advantage of reducing the frequencies of
breakdowns.
Disadvantages:
◼ Full life of equipment can not be extracted.
◼ Equipment may be degraded by frequent

disassembly.
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❖Predictive maintenance
The emergence of microprocessor based instrumentations
brought about another era in maintenance management called
predictive maintenance which involves monitoring the condition
of critical equipment & the data derived is used to plan and
schedule maintenance tasks to prevent failures, reduce their life
cycle cost and further extends the useful life of these assets.
In this method problems can be detected early when defects
are minor and do not affect machine operation and we can
diagnise the nature of the problem.
Predictive maintenance means planning to work efficiently
and under controlled circumstances.
Shutdown for the machine can be scheduled at a time when
it will have minimal effect on the normal operation of the
machine.
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❖Condition based Maintenance
Maintenance carried out in response to significant
deterioration in an equipment as indicated by a change in
monitored parameters of the equipment condition.
CBM is defined as “Maintenance carried out in response to
a significant deterioration in machine as indicated by
change in monitored parameter of the machine condition”.
Predictive maintenance program is actual program of
detection, analysis and correction. This method considers
each machine individually by replacing fixed interval
overhauls by replacing fixed interval measurements and
developments in the running condition of each individual
machine can be followed closely.
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❖Condition based Maintenance
Advantages
• Schedule shutdown of equipment with
minimum effected service
• Better spares management
• Well prepared work schedule results
in to reliable repair.
• Minimizes unscheduled breakdowns
• Prolong equipment life
• Increase equipment / human safety
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In this method problems can be detected
early when defects are minor and do not
affect machine operation and we can
diagnose the nature of the problem.
Predictive maintenance means planning
to work efficiently and under controlled
circumstances.
Shutdown for the machine can be
scheduled at a time when it will have
minimal effect on the normal operation of
the machine.
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❖ A work schedule together with the
requirement of man power and replace-
ment parts required can be prepared
before the scheduled shutdown due to
which maintenance personnel can be
expected to effect more reliable repair in a
shorter time.
❖ Minimizes unscheduled B.D.s
❖ Prolongs machinery life
❖ Increases machinery safety
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BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF
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TYPE OF
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Monitoring can be broadly
classified into two categories:
On Line
❑Continuous
❑Periodic
Off Line
❑M/c Assembled (But Disconnected)
❑M/c Disassembled
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What is Non-destructive testing?
• Non-destructive testing is one in which the
test sample is not destroyed as a
consequence of test.
• These are non-invasive techniques which
do not take the equipment significantly
close to breakdown stresses.
• Depending on the equipment certain
phenomena/ behavior/ properties at rated
or lower stresses are examined.
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Non-destructive evaluation techniques:
Radiography
Dye Penetrant Test
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Ultrasonic thickness gauge
Ultrasonic leak detector
Ultrasonic flaw detector
Eddy current
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What is destructive testing?
• Destructive testing is one in which the test sample/test
object may be destroyed as a consequence of test
• Destructive tests are go no-go tests which are designed
to filter out manufacturing defects
• Destructive tests are also meant to find out ultimate
withstand capability of equipment / material
• Some examples
– High voltage dielectric tests
– Impact and tensile/compressive tests on materials
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Methods Used For Condition Monitoring
Initial days, the population of transformers and traffic
of the transmission lines were very less. So,
complexities in the electrical environments were also
within the limit of control. But recent days, the
interconnection complexity of transmission lines, and
need of key transformers to the system are growing
fast. So condition monitoring of the transformer and
diagnosis of the monitoring data are becoming the
essential need for the equipment. Some of the
recently used conditions monitoring techniques and
new emerging techniques have been explained.
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WHAT AND WHEN
TO MONITOR?
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WHAT AND WHEN TO MONITOR?
•Larger electrical drives, which support generating,
process or production plant if a high margin of
spare capacity exists, will benefit from monitoring,
although perhaps not continuous monitoring.
•We can include induced and forced-draught boiler
fan drives, boiler water feed pump drives, and
cooling water pump drives in power stations in this
category.
•It must be kept in mind, however, that successful
monitoring can allow a big reduction in the
requirement for on-site spare capacity.
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WHAT AND WHEN TO MONITOR?
•The parameters to be monitored are essentially those
that will provide the operator and maintainer with sufficient
details to make informed decisions on operation and
maintenance scheduling, but which ensure security of
plant operation.
•Traditionally quantities, such as line currents and
voltages, coolant temperatures, and bearing vibration
levels, have been measured and will continue to be used.
•Other specialist methods, involving the accurate
measurement of rotational speed, or the sensing of
leakage fluxes, are being developed in order to monitor a
variety of fault conditions.
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WHEN TO MONITOR?
•One should monitor when it is cost-effective
to do so, or when there are over-riding
safety considerations to be observed. The
assessment of cost-effectiveness can be a
relatively complex matter, but in general
terms monitoring is worthwhile when the net
annual savings are increased by its use.
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•Test method chosen should be online
monitoring or possible to performed within
minimum possible time of outage available.
•Method & accuracy, sensitivity& repeatability of
monitoring instruments has major influence on
decision.
• Rate of degradation is an important factor to:
✓ Foresee possible failure of equipment.
✓Estimate remaining life.
✓Gives advanced warning.
✓Decide about when to replace.
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OF
VARIOUS ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
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❖ GENERATOR.
❖ MOTOR.
❖ LINE – PID (Puncture Insulator Detector).
❖ THERMOVISION SCANNING OF LINES.
S/S EQUIPMENTS LIKE:
❖ BATTERY
(BATTERY IS HEART OF THE SUBSTATION).
❖ CIRCUIT BREAKER, ISOLATORS, CLAMPS
AND CONNECTORS, L.A. (LIGHTNING
ARRESTERS).
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GENERATOR
CONDITION
MONITORING
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POWER–GENERATOR CONDITION MONITORING
A. Power–Generator Faults and Monitoring Methods
•Stator-Winding Faults:
•Rotor Body Faults:
•Rotor Winding Faults: RSO - Recurrent surge
oscillograph test for inter turn short circuit, residual
magnetism check by gauss meter.
•Stator–Core Faults: Electromagatic core imperfection
detecton (Elcid) it detect the presence of short
between stampings of the stator core.
B. PD Online Condition Monitoring for Generator Stator
Windings
•Suppressing Noises:
•Interpretation of PD Patterns
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•Faults on either rotor or stator disrupt the radial and circum-
ferential patterns of flux in the machine causing changes to the
power being fed to the machine, which can be detected via its
terminal quantities voltage, current and power measured
outside the machine to give an indication of its condition.
•Generator stator winding fault detection-
The most significant technique in this area is on-line discharge
detection, which is dealt in further slides.
•Generator rotor faults detection-
Turn-to-turn faults in a generator rotor winding may lead to
local overheating and eventually to rotor earth faults. In
addition, the shorting of turns causes unequal heating of the
rotor leading to bending and an unbalanced pull, which
together cause increased vibration.
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Frequency responses of the machine elements
Stator response
•The forces acting on the stator core are the result of the
interaction between the air gap flux wave and the currents
flowing in the windings embedded in the stator slots.
•The forces acting on the end winding are due to the
interaction between the end leakage flux and the winding
currents. It is apparent, therefore, that the precise nature of
the applied force waves will be a function of the form of the
current distribution, and the geometry of the air gap and end
regions.
•The simplest method of calculating the flux wave form is to
multiply the magnetomotive force (MMF) distribution because
of winding currents, by the permeance of the air gap.
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RSO-Recurrent surge oscillograph
•Fault between winding and rotor body (earth fault):
A full or partial fault may occur between the winding and rotor
body. In such a case, the voltage step, which is injected from
the end nearest the fault increases to its peak value at the
fault and then decays rapidly. The voltage step injected at the
farthest end from the fault increases and then decays some
time later.
•Interturn fault:
In such a case the trace corresponding to the end nearest
the fault increases slightly, then decreases and finally
increases to meet up again with the trace injected from the
other slip ring end. This test is sensitive and may detect a
relatively high (few ohms) interturn fault, which may in
practice, not carry current in operational state.
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•High resistance joint in rotor:
Here the apparent characteristic impedance of the
end of the winding nearest the fault is increased
relative to the other end of the winding. High
resistance joints may be where the rotor bar connects
to the end ring but it is also quite possible that high
resistance joint could be at one slip ring due to
unequal brush contact.
•Inter-winding fault:
Such faults occur between rotor slot coils and upshaft
leads, which connect the slip rings to the ends of the
rotor winding. The traces are as shown wit the lower
trace corresponding to the slip ring nearest the
shorted coils.
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INDUCTION MOTOR
CONDITION
MONITORING
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INDUCTION MOTOR CONDITION MONITORING
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INDUCTION MOTOR CONDITION MONITORING
A. Induction Motor Faults and Monitoring Methods
•Stator Faults:
•Rotor Faults:
•Bearing Faults:
•Air-Gap Eccentricities:
B. Popular Monitoring Techniques and Recent
Research for Induction Motor CM
•Vibration Monitoring and Current Monitoring:
•Model-Based Method and Artificial Intelligence
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CABLE AND INSULATORS
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Cable and insulators CM
•PD Testing
•PD Ultrasonic Monitoring
•Tan Delta Monitoring
•VLF High Voltage Testing
• Surface Resistance Measurement of Polymer
Insulators
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Cable and insulators CM
Electric cables are one of the most important components in a
nuclear plant because they provide the power needed to operate
safety-related equipment and to transmit signals to and from the
various controllers used to perform safety operations in the
plant. In spite of their importance, cables typically receive little
attention because they are considered passive, longlived
components that have proven to be very reliable over the years.
Plants undergoing License renewal have agreed to a cable-
testing program for a limited number of cables that are within the
scope of licensee renewal; however, plants not undergoing
license renewal have not committed to any cable testing. In
addition, most plants do not have a cable diagnostic condition
monitoring program in place.
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TRANSMISSION LINE
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CONDITION MONITORING OF LINE :-
PID (Puncture Insulator Detector):
❖P.I.D. measures the AC electric field surrounding
porcelain insulators.
❖lt has two parallel, dielectrically separated plates
that, when placed in an electric field, senses a
voltage between them.
❖The probe measures that voltage when infrared
beams are broken.
❖From data we have graphics to interpret the
condition of the scanned insulators.
❖Electric field measurements and the correspon-
ding plots can be made on porcelain insulators.
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❖ Use of punctured insulator detectors has not only
proved to be a vital tool for effective preventive
maintenance, but has also reduced cost of
maintenance.
❖ Earlier due to puncture of disc, the entire insulator
string was being replaced because of difficulty in
pinpointing the defective disc in the string.
❖ Now with the advent of this equipment, it is
possible to pinpoint the defective disc, which alone
is being replaced using hot line technique.
❖ This has helped in reducing the cost of
replacement as also outages developing on
account of punctured discs.
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ISOLATOR
CONDITION
MONITORING
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CONDITION MONITORING OF ISOLATORS
CRM (Contact Resistance measurement) of
ISOLATORS:
Isolators mostly neglected part of substation. As
mostly used twice in a year. Contact resistance
measurement (CRM) is effective condition
monitoring tool for Isolators. In which contact
resistance of Isolators is measured.
As increase of contact resistance increases losses
and cause hot spots as well, its monitoring and
rectification when found high helps utility
economically.
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LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
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L.A. (LIGHTNING ARRESTERS)
There are several instances of over voltages over
power system elements.
These over voltages are due to
❖Lightning,
❖Opening of breaker
❖Grounding of conductor etc.
These over voltages may cause breakdown of
insulation and damage equipment.
❖ The lightning arrestor is a device which conducts high
voltage surges on the power system to ground and
protects equipment.
❖ lightening arrestor is a cheap fusing devise which
protects our costly equipment.
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CLAMPS AND CONNECTORS
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CLAMPS AND CONNECTORS:-
❖Hot spots on clamps and connectors are taking big part of
maintenance activity. Hence infrared thermo-vision tool is
used to detect hotspots.
❖Thermal distribution profile becomes basis of analysis.
❖Main advantage of this is to find deteriorating component
prior to catastrophic failure.
❖Measures adopted for hot spots
(1) Reference based (i.e. Min temperature rise at any point
and compared with others at same load).
(2) Temperature rise above ambient temperature.
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CIRCUIT BREAKERS
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Condition Monitoring Technique for Circuit Breaker
• Operating Timings of Main and Auxiliary Contacts.
• Contact resistance Measurement (CRM)
• Dynamic Contact resistance Measurement (DORM)
• Contact Travel measurement
• Trip/Close coil currents measurement
• Dew point measurement of SF6 gas
▪ Vibration measurement
▪ SF6 gas/Hydraulic oil /Air leakage monitoring
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BATTERY
CONDITION
MONITORING
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BATTERY IS HEART OF THE SUBSTATION
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Impedance of battery indicates the condition of the entire
electrical cond. of a battery from terminal plate to terminal
plate. Hence impedance can find weaknesses in cells easily.
Impedance test is determined by applying an AC current
signal, measuring the AC voltage drop across the cell, and
calculating the impedance by Ohms law.
When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low,

voltage across the load is almost equal to that of the
battery's internal voltage source.
As the battery runs down and its internal resistance

increases, the voltage drop across its internal resistance
increases, so the voltage at its terminals decreases, and the
battery's ability to deliver power to the load decreases.
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TRANSFORMER
CONDITION
MONITORING
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Present scenario in our country
▪ Transformers are many years old.
▪ Overloaded due to high demand.
▪ Short circuit current level of grid has gone up due to
substantial increase in MVA rating.
▪ Magnitude of short circuit forces as gone up substantially.
▪ Old transformers more susceptible to failure triggered
by lightning/switching over voltages/short circuit faults.
▪ In recent years many failures of transformers reported.
▪ Loss of power - several hundred millions of units per annum.
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Transformer is a high efficient static electrical device used for power
transfer from one voltage level to the other and plays the vital role in
electrical transmission and distribution system. From the day of this
equipment in service, different stresses like electrical, mechanical,
chemical, and environmental factors affect the condition of the
transformer. At the initial stage, degradation of insulation quality
occurs slowly. But this deterioration multiplies in due course of time
and leads to final failure of the transformer. So, to overcome this
situation, continuous monitoring of the condition and preventive
measures is required for correct maintenance of the transformer.
The faults like partial discharge, electrical arcs, or hot spots
generally deteriorate the condition of transformer in quick
progression. Hence early detection of these faults is very important
for saving transformer from any catastrophic failure. Basic theories
of the deterioration of insulation due to these heat-generated faults
are described below.
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Power transformer is one of the costliest and vital
equipment therefore the loss of a transformer can have
an enormous impact on continuity, reliability of supply
and results into considerable loss of revenue.
Now a days emphasis is given to need based remedial
action / maintenance that should be carried out based
on periodical condition monitoring of various
components of equipment. It enables utilities to take
appropriate, timely action and avoid premature failure.
Electrical and thermal stresses lead to de-gradation of

paper insulation and also oil in the Transformer.
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For the reasons like abnormal loading, imperfect/faulty design or environmental
conditions on the transformer, the temperature of windings, core and insulations
rises and results the faults like partial discharge, electric arc and hot spots. Now,
because of this temperature rise and presence of oxygen in the insulations (both
oil and solid insulations), the oxidation process is developed. The oxidation
process is developed. The oxidation of oil results in the formation of oxidation of
oil results in the formation of oxidation products (alcohols, aldehydes, acids,
esters). The solid matters that formed by oxidation and condensation of
polymerization of oil are called sludge. This sludge is usually deposited on the
paper insulation and closes the pores on it. Hence, the cooling of windings by oil
is affected which hampers the performance of the equipment.
Similarly the presence of oxygen and acid in the solid insulation (Cellulose) also
results the oxidation leads to the formation of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
water and the other products.
Solid insulation (heat) free glucose molecules, H2O, CO2, CO cellulose with
reduced chain, 2 fur furans.
These products being dissolved in oil, deteriorate the condition of insulation in
turn the performance of transformer. From the above discussion it concludes that
primitive and effective condition are required for transformer.
6/1/2024 89
CAUSES OF
TRANSFORMER FAILURE
6/1/2024 90
Causes of Transformer Failure
• Mechanical Stress: Between conductors, leads &
windings due to over currents or fault currents,
mainly due to system short circuits.
• Thermal stress: Due to local heating , over load
currents & leakage flux or due to malfunctioning of
cooling system.
• Dielectric stress: System over voltage, transient
impulse conditions or due to internal resonance
within a winding.
• Final stage of failure is due to dielectric failure.
6/1/2024 91
• Causes of failure:
✓Moisture ingress, absorption etc.
✓Hydrolysis due to presence of Water
✓Oxidation due to Oxygen
✓Stressed due to Temperature
✓Contamination, short circuit forces,
etc.
6/1/2024 92
FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE OF TRANSFORMER
❖Age of transformer
❖Operational Stresses:
▪Frequent energizing – de energizing.
▪Internal voids, cracks development during prolong
operation
▪Operation of transformer very close to FULL LOAD.
▪High voltage with low frequency operation. Over
fluxing.
▪Change in loading pattern.
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AGEING PROCESS AND
ACCELERATED AGEING FACTORS
6/1/2024 95
The Transformer Ageing Overview
The lifetime of a transformer depends on the life time
of the cellulose insulation.
The lifetime of the cellulose depends on the condition
of oil. When the cellulose no longer has the
mechanical strength to withstand a short circuit, the
transformer is likely to fail.
The cellulose is not easily accessible. Thus the oil is
used as the media of transportation during filtration /
regeneration of a transformer.
If the oil is kept free from OXYGEN, WATER, ACID
and PARTICLES, a longer life of the cellulose is
obtained. In turn the entire transformer is secured.
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The byproducts of insulation ageing are
❖Moisture
❖Gas
❖Carbon Monoxide/Carbon Dioxide
❖Acids
❖Furans
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In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the
condition assessment of transformer insulation. Primarily
this is due to the increasingly aged population of
transformers in utilities around the world. A large proportion
of existing power transformers within electric utilities are
approaching the end of their design life. Many, perhaps
most, seem to be operating satisfactorily. However,
insulation degradation continues to be a major concern for
these aged transformers. Insulation materials (cellulose,
densified wood and oil) degrade at higher temperatures in
the presence of oxygen and moisture. Insulating paper
properties are dielectric dissipation factor, voltage strength
and tensile strength, etc. The degradation from thermal
stress affects electrical, chemical, and mechanical
properties.
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Transformers are one of the most expensive and
strategically important components of any power
system, so that their proper and continuous function
is important to system reliability.
Oil filled Transformer technology is a matured
technology and has been used for many years to till
date. A properly maintained power transformer can
work for at least 30 – 35 years. However the
maintenance of the insulation system largely
determines the extent of transformer’s life. The life of
the transformer depends on the health of the
insulation system. The life of a transformer is limited
to the life of the solid insulation.
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One of the needs in power transformer lifetime
management is insulation condition assessment.
A variety of electrical, mechanical and chemical
techniques are currently available for insulation
testing of power transformers. Ageing of oil is
monitored by measuring properties of oil such as
permittivity, dielectric dissipation factor,
breakdown strength, acidity, water content, flash
point, interfacial tension, etc. The analysis of
gases dissolved in the oil has been used as a
diagnostic tool for many years to determine the
transformer condition.
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Ageing Process
Pyrolysis
(heat)
Hydrolysis
(reaction with water)
Oxidation
(reaction with O2)
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• AGEING
• NATURAL AGEING
– UNDER OPERATING STRESS CONDITIONS
• FASTER AGEING
– UNDER OVERSTRESS CONDITION AND DUE TO
DEFECTS AND CONTAMINATIONS
• SERVICE STRESSES
• THERMAL
• MECHANICAL
• ELECTRICAL
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Thermal stress and the concentration of water and
oxygen influence the degradation rate of insulating
materials. The most critical component of the insulation
system is the paper intimately wound around the copper
or aluminum conductors in the windings and therefore
not easily replaced. Good quality mineral insulating oil is
expected to last 30 or more years before forming
excessive amounts of acids and sludge. Although
important, is not as critical as the cellulosic insulation
because it is easily reconditioned to remove water and
particles, reclaimed to remove degradation products or
replaced. Therefore, the longevity of cellulosic materials
becomes the limiting factor in the operation of
transformers.
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Ageing of the oil / paper insulation system of
power transformers is influenced by thermal,
electromechanical and chemical stresses.
Thermal stress leads to major degradation
process for both oil and cellulose paper. Under
all these stresses, the paper ultimately becomes
brittle and the durability against mechanical
stress is strongly reduced. As a result, reduction
in expected life of transformer will occur.
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❖Thermal Stresses:
▪Over load
▪Excessive Temp & temp variation.
▪Local over heating & HOT SPOT
❖Electrical Stresses:
▪Over voltage surge.
▪Steady state & transient electromagnetic forces
▪Response to LV/HV/EHV/GRID system fault
▪Partial discharge activity.
OLTC: It is one of the most vulnerable area to develop fault.
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PERFORMANCE-ENVIRONMENT EFFECT
❖Temperature, Humidity, Pollution
❖High humid atmosphere - moisture absorption,
Insulating materials are hygroscopic in nature.
❖ Accumulation of dust, oil, moisture, steam
vapor on surface, forms conductive layer,
leakage current flows on surface, electrical
tracking.
❖Mechanical stresses due to short circuit faults.
❖Major failure can endanger safety environment
through oil spillage, explosion & fire.
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Techniques to mitigate the
Ageing process:
It is not possible (today) to
reverse the ageing of the
cellulose insulation.
One can control (slow down) the
ageing process.
6/1/2024 109
Remove the catalysts
Moisture
Oxygen
Acids
Process the oil
Remove moisture, acids, particles, gasses.
Resets the Furan levels.
Dry the transformer
Remove moisture from solid insulation.
Reduce the clamping pressure on winding.
Reduce oxygen
Maintain/Upgrade the oil preservation.
Membrane in oil conservator.
Reduce the temperature
Increase cooling.
Control load.
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The life of a transformer is dependent upon
three crucial parameters; temperature, oxygen
and moisture. Most power transformers use
paper and oil as the main form of insulation
and during manufacture stringent efforts are
made to ensure that both are as dry as
possible when new transformer leaves the
factory.
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When water enters a transformer,
❖some of it will be absorbed by the oil,
❖some may be absorbed by the cellulose
insulation,
❖some may be in form of suspended
bubbles,
❖some may be trapped on the non-
insulating structures in the transformer, and
❖the rest of the water will go to the bottom
in the transformer tank.
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WATER
❖Moisture, especially in the presence of Oxygen is extremely
hazardous to transformer insulation.
❖Moisture reduces the insulating ability of the cellulose.
Number of partial discharges increases.
❖Water acts as the transportation media for acid and ions.
❖High moisture content, higher risk of free water in oil.
❖High moisture content, larger amount of pulsating water during
daily temperature variations.
❖Aged oil can contain more water. This is due to a higher level
of polar compounds.
❖The water which is removed from oil is often acidic. This water
has a pH of 4.7.
❖As the water is drained from the cellulose, the pH is lowered
indicating the removal of acid from the cellulose into the oil.
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BOUND WATER
Solubility of oil is defined as the amount of dissolved
water oil can hold at a specific temperature. As the
temperature of oil increases, the ability of the oil to
hold water also increases. For example, solubility of
water in oil at 10° C is 36 ppm, whereas at 90° C the
solubility is 592 ppm.
Once the transformer is in service, the moisture
content begins to increase. Excessive moisture can
put the life of a transformer at risk. It is important to
understand the source of this moisture, its effect and
the preventive measures that can be taken.
6/1/2024 116
SOURCE OF MOISTURE
Once in service, a transformer is subjected to
the following sources of moisture:
External - from the atmosphere

Internal - from manufacture
Internal - from cellulose (paper) ageing
6/1/2024 117
EFFECT OF MOISTURE
Moisture in transformer insulation can affect
transformer performance in several ways:
❖Trigger partial discharge
❖Generate bubbles
❖Lower the dielectric strength
❖Age the insulation prematurely
6/1/2024 118
The first three effects can leads to premature
failure of good transformer; the last one could
shorten transformer normal life expectancy.
Aged transformers have higher moisture content
than new transformer, hence are more prone to
the above effects.
Moisture reduces the dielectric strength of paper

and oil which in turn increases the risk of
electrical failure. It also reduces the mechanical
strength of the paper.
6/1/2024 119
Since hot oil is able to support more moisture than cold
oil, percentage saturation is temperature dependent. If
hot oil is cooled the relative saturation will increase and
an emulsion of water and oil may form. Free water may
also be produced which will have a serious effect on
dielectric strength and can lead to the formation of rust
where it collects, typically in the bottom of main tank
and conservators.
Furthermore, when wet paper gets very hot, for
example during a period of sustained over-loading, the
possibility of bubble formation arises. When this occurs
moisture in the paper is boiled off as water vapour
introducing a risk of partial discharge and electrical
breakdown.
6/1/2024 120
For large transformers, we are talking about tonnes of paper,
thousands of litres of oil and hundreds of litres of water.
The dielectric breakdown strength of the paper is a function
of its water content
1. Equilibration between oil and paper based on
temperature.
2. Water moves from paper to oil as the temperature
increases.
3. As the temperature increases, the water solubility in the
oil also increases.
Never change oil because it is wet. The new oil will very
quickly degrade to the same condition as the old as moisture
leaves the paper to re-establish a condition of equilibrium.
6/1/2024 121
Water in oil sample is very small ppm compared to insulation.
Comparison of water distribution in oil and paper

Sr. Temperature Water Water in paper
No. Deg C in oil
1 20 1 3000 times what is in the
oil
oil
oil
It is important that hot oil sample should be taken.
(transformer working temperature should be taken.)
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ACID
❖Acids cause an increase in the rate of decay, which forms
more acid, sludge and moisture at a faster rate. This is a
vicious cycle of increasing speed forming more acid and
causing more decay.
❖To prevent the oil from being oxidized, anti-oxidants are
added. Anti-oxidants react with radicals.
❖If the acid number TAN starts to increase dramatically, it is
indicating that the reserves of anti-oxidants are used up.
❖Important: If TAN once has increased to an unacceptable
level, the cellulose may be damaged.
❖Acceptable value of TAN 0.1 to 0.2 mg KOH per gram of oil.
If it increases 0.3 mg KOH per gram of oil, the oil starts to
form sludge which deposits on the windings.
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Oxygen causes oxidation
(Chemical deterioration)
❑Effects of oxidation:
➢ Results in acids and sludge.
Acid attack solid insulation
and metal. Sludge causes
poor thermal conduction
and mechanical hindrance
to proper oil circulation.
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TYPICAL CONDITION
MONITORING PROGRAM
6/1/2024 129
TYPICAL CM PROGRAM
Historical Data
Visual Inspection & examination
Electrical tests
Data Analysis
Trend Analysis
Interpretation
Recommendations
6/1/2024 130
TRANSFORMER
DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES
6/1/2024 131
Transformer Diagnostic Techniques
6/1/2024 132
Diagnostic Tests
Objective of Diagnostic Tests
❖ To predict state and condition of the transformers.
❖ To suggest appropriate remedial measures to avoid forced
outages.
❖ To improve effectiveness & efficiency of Transformer
maintenance.
❖ Facilitate corrective action in planned way during low demand
period.
❖ Prevent partial / complete forced outage.
❖ To detect extent & type of deterioration .
❖ Detect first sign of incipient fault.
❖ To determine suitability of transformers for service
6/1/2024 133
Diagnostic Tests
Advantages of Diagnostic Tests
 More efficient planning of the investment
 Scheduled maintenance with opportunity to establish priorities
 Reduction of financial risks
 Avoidance of failure and unnecessary expenses
 Realization of saving potentials
6/1/2024 134
Diagnostic Tests (TRANSFORMER OIL)
Factors Causing Degradation
Oxygen
Moisture
Temperature
Catalyst
Products of Degradation
 Dissolved Gases
 Water
 Polar Substances
 Solid particles / Sludge
 Acidity
6/1/2024 135
Diagnostic Tests
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
MOISTURE
◼ The amount of moisture which
can be dissolved in oil increases
rapidly as the oil temperature
increases.
◼ Insulating oil purified at too high
a temperature may loose a large
percentage of its dielectric strength
on cooling because the dissolved
moisture is then changed to an
emulsion.
6/1/2024 136
Diagnostic Tests
Dielectric strength Vs Moisture content
◼ The effect of moisture on the
insulating properties of oil
depends upon the form in which
the moisture exists.
◼ A very small amount of

emulsified water has a marked
influence in reducing dielectric
strength of oil whereas dissolved
water has little or no effect on
the dielectric strength.
6/1/2024 137
Diagnostic Tests (EFFECT OF MOISTURE IN OIL)
◼ Water can be present in oil
(a) in a dissolved form,
(b) as tiny droplets mixed with the oil (emulsion), or
(c) in a free state at the bottom of the container holding the oil.
◼ Emulsification occurs when the tiny droplets unite to form larger
drops which sink to the bottom and form a pool of free water.
◼ Emulsified water or water in the free state may be readily
removed by filtering or centrifugal treatment.
◼ The filtration process can partially remove dissolved water if the
filter papers are thoroughly dried before filtration and are
replaced frequently.
6/1/2024 138
Diagnostic Tests (EFFECT OF OXYGEN ON OIL)
◼ A less rapid but more serious characteristic deterioration is caused by
oxidation.
◼ The exclusion of oxygen is of prime importance.
◼ In open-breather transformers, oxidative deterioration is consequently
faster than in sealed transformers.
◼ Atmospheric oxygen is not the only source of oxygen available for the
oxidation of insulating oils; water also serves as a source of oxygen and,
therefore, leaky gaskets constitute a very real hazard due to both oxidation
and moisture contamination.
◼ The rate of oxidation depends on the temperature of the oil; the higher the
temperature, the faster the oxidative breakdown during overload.
◼ Oxidation results in (a) the formation of acids in the insulating oil, and (b)
the formation of sludge
6/1/2024 139
Diagnostic Tests (SLUDGE FORMATION)
◼ If IFT falls below 25, sludge formation starts.
◼ Sludge has been found to begin when the acid number

reaches 0.4. At 0.2 acid no., oil be reclaimed.
◼ In transformers, sludge sticks to the surfaces through which

heat should be dissipated. The sludge forms a blanket
barrier to the flow of heat from the oil to the coolant and
from the core and coils to the cool oil.
◼ If allowed to continue long enough, the sludge may even

block off the flow of oil through the cooling ducts.
6/1/2024 140
Diagnostic Tests (SLUDGE FORMATION)
◼ As a result, the transformer insulation gets too hot and is

damaged, particularly between turns of the windings.
◼ Deterioration of the turn insulation may eventually lead to

short circuits between turns and the breakdown of the
transformer.
◼ When oxidation progresses to sludge it should be removed

from the transformer by a high-pressure stream of oil.
Complete treatment of the oil is normally less costly
than replacing it with new oil.
6/1/2024 141
Diagnostic Tests
Paper Insulation
Causes of Degradation
• Heat
• Oxygen
• Moisture
• Electrical stress
• Mechanical stress
6/1/2024 142
TRANSFORMER DIAGNOSTICS
Windings
• DC Resistance
• Turns Ratio Percent
Impedance/Leakage Reactance
• Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
(SFRA)
• Doble Tests (for windings and oil)
Capacitance
Excitation Current and Watts Loss
Power Factor/Dissipation Factor
6/1/2024 143
Bushings and Arresters
• Capacitance (Doble Tests)
• Dielectric Loss (watts) Power Factor
• Temperature (infrared camera)
• Oil Level (bushings only)
• Visual Inspection for Porcelain Cracks and Chips
6/1/2024 144
Insulating Oil
• Dielectric Strength
• Metal Particle Count (if x’mer pump problems)
• Moisture
• Power Factor/Dissipation Factor (Doble)
• Interfacial Tension
• Acid Number
• Furans
• Oxygen Inhibitor
6/1/2024 145
Core
•Insulation Resistance
•Ground Test
Conservator
• Visual (oil leaks and leaks in diaphragm)
• Inert Air System (desiccant colour)
• Lever Gauge Calibration
6/1/2024 146
Tanks and Auxiliaries
• Fault Pressure Relay (functional test)
• Pressure Relief Device (visual)
• Buchholz Relay (visual check for gas)
• Top Oil Temperature Indicator
• Winding Temperature Indicator
• Infrared Temperature Scan
• Fault Analyzer (ultrasonic)
• Sound Analysis (sonic)
• Vibration Analyzer
6/1/2024 147
Environmental Conditions
These conditions are described with following factors.
•System voltage, frequency,
•Short circuit forces,
•Over fluxing,
•% Impedance,
•Harmonics,
•Inrush current,
•Abnormal operational condition,
•Losses.
6/1/2024 148
WHAT TO MONITOR IN
TRANSFORMER AND
TOOLS FOR MONITORING
6/1/2024 149
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Tools for Monitoring
Insulation System Winding System
• Dissolved Gas Analysis • Reactance Meas.
• Partial Discharge Meas. • Low Voltage
• Hot Spot Temp. Meas. Impulse (LVI) test
• Furan Analysis • Frequency
• IR Measurement Response Analysis
• Dissipation Factor Meas. • Transfer Function
Method
• Recovery Voltage Meas.
6/1/2024 152
ELECTRICAL DIAGNOSTIC
TOOLS
IR Insulation ( DC )
DGA Oil
TAN DELTA Insulation ( AC )
SFRA Integrity of Tr. winding
DP Insulation ( paper)
PD Insulation ( void )
FURAN
6/1/2024 Oil (indirect for DP) 153
Diagnostic Tests for Power Transformer
Transformers in service operate under complex environmental
conditions and variable thermal and electrical stresses.
Hence, its Condition monitoring is complex and consists many tools.
• Moisture of oil
• IR/AI/PI --- Insulation (DC)
• Dielectric Discharge (Tan delta/Capacitance) --- Insulation (AC)
• PD (Partial Discharge - inception voltage) --- Insulation (void)
• DP --- Degree of Polymerization --- Insulation (paper)
• DGA (Online/Offline) --- Oil
• SFRA --- Integrity of Tr. Winding
• Furan --- Oil (indirect for DP) --- Paper insulation
• Hydran --- Dissolved H2 and Hydro Carbons (H2 & HxCy )
• Step Voltage Test --- Insulation
• RVM --- Recovery Voltage Measurements --- Paper insulation
• Thermography --- Hot spot in conductor joint
• Fiber Optic Sensors --- Oil and Winding Temperature
• MAP Analysis
6/1/2024 154
IR, AI AND PI
MEASUREMENTS
INSULATION (DC)
6/1/2024 155
6/1/2024 156
INSULATION RESISTANCE AND POLARISATION INDEX TESTS
•IR, AI & PI measurements are useful indicators of the
presence of contamination and moisture on insulation
surfaces of the winding.
•They are performed to verify the overall cleanliness, dryness,
localized defects and general condition of insulation systems.
•In practice, the IR values may vary over a wide range from a
few Mega Ohms to several Giga Ohms.
•The minimum acceptable lower limit for IR values is given in
standard.
•When the dc voltage is applied across the insulation, the
current flows is the resultant of three currents
• Capacitive charging current
• Absorption current
• Leakage current
6/1/2024 157
INSULATION RESISTANCE AND
POLARISATION INDEX TESTS
◼ Capacitance leakage current:
The current lasts for a few seconds as DC voltage is
applied and drops out after the insulation is charged
to its full voltage. The time depends on the size and
capacitance of the test object. Larger time for larger
capacitance objects.
6/1/2024 158
◼ Absorption leakage current:
➢ It is caused by polarization of molecules within
dielectric material.
➢ In low capacitance equipments the current is high for
first few seconds and decrease slowly to nearly zero.
➢ In high capacitance equipment or wet and contami-
nated insulation, there will be no decrease of
absorption current for long time.
6/1/2024 159
▪Conduction or leakage current:
➢ This is the current that normally flows through the
insulation ,between conductors or conductors to
ground.
➢ It increases quickly and becomes stable.
➢ This current increases as insulation deteriorates
and becomes predominant after absorption current
vanishes.
➢ It is steady and time independent. Hence the
important current for measuring insulation
resistance.
6/1/2024 160
IR MEASUREMENTS
• THE TEST VOLTAGES FOR IR MEASUREMENT OF
TRANSFORMER ARE AS UNDER.
RATING TEST VOLTAGE
415/440 V 500 V
3.3 kV 1000 V
6.6 kV 2500 V
11 kV & ABOVE 5000 V
THE LOWER LIMITS MAY DIFFER DEPENDING ON
EXPERIENCES COLLECTED FOR A PARTICULAR SITE
CONDITION.
THE MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE LOWER LIMIT FOR IR VALUES
IS GIVEN IN STANDARDS AS (V L-L / 1000) + 1 M
6/1/2024 161
HEALTH OF INSULATION – (I.R.VALUE)
Basic property of good insulating material is to
separate all electrical circuit at different potential
from earth.
•IR values to be measured with help of megger are
(1) PH. to E (2) PH. To PH. (3) complete winding to E
(4) HV to LV windings.
• It varies with duration and magnitude of test voltage & temp.
RISE IN 10 deg C, IR BECOMES HALF.
•Minimum IR value required =[(un/1000)+ 1] M. Ohm.
IR value is usually indicates overall cleanliness and dryness
of insulation. It does not confirm that insulation is free from
mechanical damage or physical weakness.
6/1/2024 162
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The purpose of an insulation resistance (IR) reading is to
evaluate the condition of the insulation between conductors
and ground. This is done by applying a direct voltage
between the conductors (windings) and the casing of the
transformer and measuring current leakage across the
insulation system. The readings are applied to Ohm's law
(R=V÷I), which provides a resistance. In the case of insulation
system, current may be measured in milli or micro-ohms. The
lower the current reading, the higher the insulation resistance
reading. These IR readings change over time because of
dielectric absorption. Basically, the insulation system consists
of polarized atoms that line up (polarize) with the applied DC
voltage. As they polarize, the insulation resistance will
increase.
6/1/2024 164
IR MEASUREMENTS
Capacitance charging current is Absorption current is also
initially high and drops as the insulation initially high but drops at a much
becomes charged up to the applied slower rate than the charging
voltage. The actual length of time current. It depends on the nature
depend upon the size and capacitance of the insulation material
of the test object: larger time for large The conduction or leakage
capacitance objects. current builds up quickly to a
steady value and then remains
constant for a particular applied
voltage under stable conditions. It
is this current that is affected by
moisture, dirt etc. and the degree
to which it flows bears a direct
relation to the quality of
insulation. An increase in the
leakage current is a pointer to
possible future problems.
6/1/2024 165
ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE BY INSULATING MATERIALS
◼ Solid insulation in transformers is very porous and absorbs much water.
◼ Some of the water that is dissolved in the oil is absorbed from the oil by
the insulation.
◼ As more water is dissolve in the oil, more water is absorbed by the
insulation.
◼ The most effective method for drying out the insulation in transformers
is with heat and vacuum.
◼ The transformer insulation must be dried by circulation of hot, dry oil.
This oil should then be cooled and dried.
◼ Since the dielectric strength of insulation is reduced by moisture, it is
important that the insulation not be allowed to absorb the moisture the
first place.
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With the release of IEEE Std. 43-2000, new limitations on the
use and evaluation of PI were issued. This test is no longer as
easy and straightforward as it once was because most new
insulation systems start with test results in the Giga-ohm and
Terra-ohm (billions and trillions of ohms) range. As a result,
leakage current between the windings below the micro-ohm
range require the instrument and test methods used, including
how to position the conductors, to be extremely accurate. The
readings must also be taken at the transformer itself.
Additional concerns with PI testing are outlined within IEEE Std.
43-2000, including temperature limitations, dew-point limitations,
trending tests, surface conditions, types of windings to be tested,
and more. For instance, the tests must be performed above the
dew point and corrected for temperature to 40°C. This is a
change from the 1974 version of the standard, where it was
assumed that PI wasn't a temperature-dependent test.
6/1/2024 167
The main change has to do with the polarization of new
insulation systems based upon temperature because unlike
conductors where the resistance increases with temperature,
insulation resistance is inversely proportional to temperature
so insulation resistance decreases with temperature.
Therefore, a PI performed on a hot insulation system may be
dramatically different than a PI performed on a cold one (i.e.,
in storage). The only true way to trend the PI is to perform
each test with the winding at about the same temperature,
over the dew point.
6/1/2024 168
•If the leakage current component is very much larger than the other
two components, then the total current (& hence the IR value) will not
change significantly with time.
•Hence in order to help determine how dry and clean the winding is,
the polarization index is calculated.
•Polarization index = ratio of 600 second IR value to 60 second IR
value.
•The value of PI approaches 1 for bad insulation while PI in the range
of 2 to 4 can be considered as an indication of good insulation in
case of rotating machines (in case of transformer, range is 1.2 to 1.5
can be considered as an indication of good insulation).
•A very high value of PI is also not advisable, since it shows the
brittleness of insulation.
•Since, PI is the ratio, it is independent of temperature.
•It gives quantitative information about the insulation W.R.T. Moisture,
dust & other contamination.
6/1/2024 169
Polarization index: Prior to 1974, the industry relied on non-
standardized systems to evaluate the polarization of the
insulation system. This led the IEEE to form a standards
committee to address this situation. It was discovered that many
insulation systems would polarize in anywhere from 10 minutes
to several hours, so it was possible to produce a ratio using the
insulation readings at the one-minute and 10-minute marks. This
ratio could be trended or compared to a simple table that would
provide an indication of the condition of the winding.
It was then possible to analyze PI by either providing the direct
ratio or plotting the readings in steady increments over time. In
the past, a PI ratio of less than 2.0:1.0 would indicate a problem
with the insulation system; usually the insulation would be
carbonized (burned) or would have absorbed contamination. A
poor reading would indicate that additional testing was
necessary.
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HEALTH OF INSULATION – (P.I. VALUE)
Polarization index:
•It is a ratio of IR values. PI = IR at (10 min./1 min.)
•I.R. = Vdc/(Ic + Ia + Ilc + Ils) where Ic = cap. Current,
Ia = dielectric Current. Ic & Ia reduces after 10 min
•Ilc& Ils = leakage current thro’ insulation & surface.
•Since PI is the ratio, it is independent of temperature.
•It gives quantitative information about the insulation W.R.T.
Moisture, dust & other contamination.
•High value of PI indicates good condition of insulation. For
clean and dry windings PI > 1.3 to 1.5.
•A very high value of PI is also not advisable, since it shows
the brittleness of insulation.
6/1/2024 171
Interpretation of results
IR measurements
◼ If IR value shows a decreasing trend it shows gradual
deterioration of insulation quality due to humidity, dust
accumulation etc..
◼ A very sharp drop in IR value indicates insulation failure.
Polarization index measurements
◼ Polarization Index=600sec IR value/60 sec IR value
◼ PI<1 , for bad insulation and PI in the range of 1.2 to 2
can be considered as an indication of good insulation.
◼ A very high value of PI is also not advisable since it shows
the brittleness of insulation.
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CAPACITANCE
&
TAN δ
6/1/2024 173
TANDELTA (DISSIPATION FACTOR) :-
DEFINITION :-
❖Tan delta also known as loss factor or dissipation factor (% df)
❖It is ratio of resistive current to capacitive current = Ir / lc
❖Dielectric loss is the energy transferred in heat in a dielectric.
6/1/2024 174
TANDELTA AND CAPACITANCE TEST:-
oPerfect dielectric is a dielectric in which all of the energy required to
established an electric field in the dielectric is recoverable when the
voltage is removed.
oIn a perfect capacitor, the voltage and current are phase shifted 90
degrees
oImperfect dielectric is a dielectric in which a part of the energy is not
returned when voltage removed. The energy which is not returned is
converted in to heat loss.
oIf there are impurities in the insulation, The current and voltage will no
longer be shifted 90 degrees.
oIf the insulation is free from defects, like water trees, electrical trees,
moisture and air pockets, etc. insulation approaches the properties of a
perfect capacitor.
The presence of any undesirable conditions can be identified such as
• Moisture content
• Conductive contaminants
• Internal partial discharges
6/1/2024 175
❖ THE ABSOLUTE VALUES OF CAPACITANCE & TAN DELTA WILL
VARY DEPENDING ON TYPE OF INSULATION AND CONSTRUCTION
OF EQUIPMENT.
❖ MEASURED TAN DELTA AT LOW VOLTAGE GIVES AN INDICATION

OF THE WINDING CONTAMINATION, WHILE THE TAN DELTA TIP UP
GIVES AN INDICATION OF THE VOID CONTENT.
❖ A HIGHER TAN DELTA TIP UP AT A CERTAIN APPLIED VOLTAGE

INDICATES PRESENCE OF VOIDS/IMPURITIES IN THE INSULATION
AND THE INCEPTION OF PDS AT THIS VOLTAGE.
❖ THE INCREASE IN TAN DELTA WITH INCREASE IN VOLTAGE AND

PASSING OF TIME SHOWS THE DETERIORATION OF INSULATION.
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TAN  MEASUREMENT
• ROTATING MACHINES
– PHASE TO PHASE MEASUREMENTS
– PHASE TO EARTH MEASUREMENTS
• TRANSFORMERS
– PHASE TO PHASE MEASUREMENTS
– PHASE TO EARTH MEASUREMENTS
• CONDENSER BUSHINGS
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Concept of Tan 
• Theoretically an ideal capacitive current Ic leads the voltage in
phase by 90°.
• If there are impurities in insulation, the resistance of insulation
decrease resulting in increase of resistive current.
• However, in practice it draws both charging current and a small
dissipative or loss current component current. Thus the total
current I = Ic + Ir which leads the voltage by a phase angle < 90°.
and lags the Ic by an angle .
• The tangent of this angle directly indicates the heat dissipation
that takes place inside the dielectric material.
• The values obtained on new insulation forms the reference value
for periodic measurements.
• By measuring the latest values of C & tan of the insulation of any
equipment with those monitored earlier.
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Tan  - Analysis
• A high tan will result in thermal breakdown of the insulation at a
lower voltage.
• A lower tan is generally desirable, but a high dielectric loss does
not necessarily mean that the insulation is inferior.
• If the dielectric loss increases with the increase in voltage, it
indicates voids & pd phenomena in the insulation.
• If the Tan values increase with respect to time it indicates the
deterioration of insulation.
• Detailed Tan analysis depends on the following :
• Magnitude of Tan at various voltages & max increase in tan with
respect to increase in voltage.
• Steeper slope in the tan values wrt voltage shows defective
insulation.
• Tan rise wrt time indicates insulation deterioration.
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6/1/2024 181
Dissipation Factor / Power Factor
Dissipation factor:
This test provides a measure of the total soluble
contaminants and ageing products.
6/1/2024 182
Dissipation Factor / Power Factor
•With the application of voltage, voids / impurity present in
insulation may discharge partially.
•Increase in capacitance w.r.t. applied voltage indicates
deterioration of insulation.
•Variation of Tanδ w.r.t applied volt. is know as Tanδ TIP-
UP.
•Increase in Tanδ tip-up indicates deterioration in insulation.
•If two successive result indicates rise< 10% it is considered
stable but > 10%, measuring frequency can be increased.
•Steeper slop of TANδ w.r.t. Voltage indicates defective
insulation.
6/1/2024 183
C -TAN DELTA
•Frequency can be once in a year, preferably in same
period to avoid ambient effect.
•All readings should be converted to 20 deg. C and
compared.
•Reading should never be taken if humidity is > 50%.
•Transformer oil may contain moisture, small floating
metallic or dust particles, which can change result
much. Reading should be taken after filtering.
•Test equipment should be isolated, discharged, kept
at room temp. for long time so that all components
attains room temp. It should be perfectly cleaned.
6/1/2024 184
HEALTH OF INSULATION: (C – TAN DELTA)
•Capacitance is charge it can stored at a given voltage.
•Capacitance value depends on the type & characteristic of the
dielectric material.
•Real dielectric is associated with some loss, like conduction
loss due to partial discharge.
•It is measure of quality of insulation
•δ depends upon the impurities present in the insulating
material.
LOSS PF = COS θ
IC ic
DISSIPATION FACTOR = TAN δ
IC LEAD V BY 90°
δ
θ ic LEAD V BY (90 – δ)°
V
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6/1/2024 186
TAN  MEASUREMENT
• C - TAN MEASUREMENT IS ONE OF THE MOST USEFUL, RELIABLE,
EFFECTIVE, NON-DESTRUCTIVE DIAGNOSTIC TOOL.
• THE CAPACITANCE VALUE IS DEPENDENT ON:

❖THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL.
❖THE PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION OF THE ELECTRODES.
• HENCE C WILL INCREASE WITH INCREASE IN VOLTAGE, WHICH INDICATES

PRESENCE OF PD AND THE DETERIORATION OF INSULATION.
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6/1/2024 188
TAN MEASUREMENTS
END WINDING CONTAMINATION &
VOIDS IN SLOT PORTION
INTERNAL DEGRADATION,
VOIDS IN SLOT PORTION
TAN (%)
INSULATION NOT DEGRADED,

LOW VOID CONTENT
% OF LINE VOLTAGE
6/1/2024 189
TAN  MEASUREMENT
• A SINGLE C/TAN  MEASUREMENT ON A COMPLETE WINDING BY
ITSELF IS OF LIMITED USE.
• PERIODIC MEASUREMENTS SHALL BE CONDUCTED FOR TREND

ANALYSIS.
• INITIAL TEST RESULTS CAN BE CONSIDERED AS BENCHMARK

FOR FURTHER CONDITION MONITORING
• FOR EVALUATION PURPOSE FOLLOWING DATA ARE ANALYSED:
oMEASURED ABSOLUTE VALUES AT STEPS OF VOLTAGE

oTIP UP VALUES
oCOMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS TEST DATA & MANUFACTURERS’
RESULTS, IF ANY
oCOMPARISON WITH DATA OF SIMILAR EQUIPMENT WORKING UNDER
SIMILAR ENVIRONMENTS.
6/1/2024 190
TANDELTA (DISSIPATION FACTOR) :-
o WHAT ARE PERMISSIBLE LIMITS ?

o Ideally, Tan —Delta of insulation should be zero
o But in actual it has small loss (Ir) component.
o It is trend test and value of Tan-Delta is to be
compared with previous value.
Transformer winding :-
o NEW : 1 % is Max. permissible value
o IN SERVICE : 2 % is Max. permissible value
6/1/2024 191
Interpretation of results:
• High value of tan-delta at low voltage gives an
indication of contamination and presence of
moisture content.
• Tan-delta tip up gives an indication of void content
(variation of tan delta with applied voltage).
Generally tan delta values shall not increase as
applied voltage increase.
• A higher tan delta tip up at a applied voltage
indicates presence of voids/moistures and the
inception of partial discharges at this voltage.
• Increase in tan delta above passing of time also
indicates deterioration of insulation.
6/1/2024 192
SWEEP FREQUENCY
RESPONSE ANALYSIS
[SFRA]
6/1/2024 193
SFRA history (1)
▪1960: Low Voltage Impulse Method. First proposed by W.
Lech & L. Tyminski in Poland for detecting transformer
winding deformation.
▪1966: Results Published; “Detecting Transformer Winding
Damage - The Low Voltage Impulse Method”, Lech &
Tyminsk, The Electric Review, ERA, UK
▪1976: “Frequency Domain Analysis of Responses From
L.V.I. Testing of Power Transformers”, A.G.
Richenbacher, 43rd Doble Conference
▪1978: “Transformer Diagnostic Testing by Frequency
Response Analysis”, E.P. Dick & C.C. Erven, Ontario
Hydro, IEEE Transactions of Power Delivery.
6/1/2024 194
SFRA history (2)
▪1978: FRA test developed at Ontario Hydro, Canada
▪1980’s: Further research carried out by Central Electricity
Generating Board in UK
▪1988 - 1990’s : Proving trials by European utilities, the
technology cascades internationally via CIGRE, Euro
Doble and many other conferences and technical
meetings
▪2004: First SFRA standard, ”Frequency Response Analysis
on Winding Deformation of Power Transformers”, DL/T
911-2004, is published by The Electric Power Industry
Standard of People’s Republic of China
▪2008: CIGRE report 342, ”Mechanical - Condition
Assessment of Transformer Windings Using Frequency
Response Analysis (FRA)” is published
6/1/2024 195
SFRA
SFRA Capable of Detecting
When compared with signature results any
deviation is an indicator of
❖Coil deformation (axial or radial)
❖Core Movements
❖Faulty core ground
❖Partial winding collapse,
❖Winding Deformations,
❖Displacement
❖Hoop buckling
❖Broken or loosen clamps
❖Shorted turns & open windings.
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Detecting Faults with SFRA
• Core movements
• Faulty core grounds
• Winding deformations
• Winding displacements
• Partial winding collapse
• Hoop buckling
• Broken clamping structures
• Shorted turns and open
windings, etc.
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Impulse FRA vs. Sweep FRA
▪ Impulse FRA Impulse FRA
▪ Injects a pulse signal and
measure response
▪ Convert Time Domain to
Frequency Domain using Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm
▪ Low resolution in lower frequencies
▪ SFRA
▪ Injects a single frequency signal
▪ Measures response at the same
frequency
▪ No conversion
▪ High resoultion at all frequencies
6/1/2024 198
SFRA (Sweep Frequency Response Analysis)
Reliable tool for mechanical condition assessment of the
windings.
Transformers subjected to mechanical stresses during
■ Transportation
■ Short circuit faults near the transformer
■ Transient over voltages such as switching, lightning etc.
Mechanical Stresses cause

■ Winding displacement or deformation
■ Winding collapse in extreme cases
■ Such mechanical defects eventually lead dielectric faults
in the winding
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FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS (FRA)
o The winding of every transformer has an unique RLC
network depending on its geometry, used materials and
manufacturing.
o The frequency response analysis for transformer is a very
sensitive technique for detecting winding movement caused
by loss of clamping pressure or by short circuit forces, in
service.
o A change of RLC network appears, it means a change of
frequency response characteristics that can be identified by
a comparative analysis with signature.
o FRA consists of measuring the impedance of transformer
windings over a wide range of frequencies and comparing
the results of these measurements with a reference set.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SFRA
We all know three main Element in Electrical network:
oResistance R Not vary with frequency

oInductance L=2πfl Directly vary with frequency
oCapacitance C=1/2πfc Inversely vary with frequency
6/1/2024 201
▪ Sweep frequency response analysis as a diagnostic
tool to detect the transformer mechanical integrity.
▪ Transformers are made up of complex RLC networks.
▪ Any physical damage results in changes to these RLC
networks.
▪ The RLC network offers different impedance path at
different frequencies.
▪ The transfer function of each frequency is the
measure of the effective impedance of the RLC
network.
▪ Any geometrical deformation, changes the RLC
network, which in turn changes the transfer function at
different frequencies.
6/1/2024 202
■ Each winding turn is linked to the other inductively or capacitive.
■ Each winding exhibits a characteristic frequency response. which
acts as the finger print.
■ These changes gives an indication of the damage within
transformer.
■ Any winding movement results in substantial changes in the
values of L & C at the local level.
■ Any winding movement causes changes in the characteristic
frequency response.
■ These changes in the RLC networks is what we are looking for.
6/1/2024 203
❖ How does it work?
❖ A low voltage signal with varying frequencies are applied to the
transformer.
❖ The input and output signal is measured.
❖ The ratio of the two signal gives the frequency response of the
transformer.
❖ This ratio is called the transfer function from which the magnitude
and phase can be obtained.
❖ Each winding turn is linked to the other inductively or capacitive.
❖ Each winding exhibits a characteristic frequency response which
acts as the finger print.
❖ Any winding movement results in substantial changes in the
values of L & C at the local Level.
❖ Any winding movement causes changes in the characteristic
frequency response.
6/1/2024 204
Principle of FRA
Transformer is a complicated network of distributed
inductance, capacitance & resistance (LCR network)
6/1/2024 205
Principle of FRA
Transformer is a complicated network of distributed
inductance, capacitance & resistance (LCR network)
By the use of standard spectrum analyzer, sweep
frequency sinusoidal source of approx. 2V RMS is
applied across the winding terminals. For different
range of frequency, the impedance is measured.
The curve (Impedances versus frequency)
becomes indicative to know the status of the
winding. The other curves for voltage ratio versus
frequency are also used.
6/1/2024 206
HOOP BUCKLING: -
Produced within a winding due to
excessive compressive forces during
a fault. Winding loses shape and
gains a 'bump' when seen end on.
Results in a bent, (but not broken)
winding. Gassing may result.
Transformer likely to be able to carry
on in service.
Transformer integrity is compromised.
SHORT TURN: -
❖Produced within transformer by a turn-to-turn fault
❖Adjacent turns lose paper and braze / weld together
❖Results in a solid loop around the core.
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Many organizations use SFRA technique: -
❖ In SFRA a steady sinusoidal input applied to a test object and measured output,
Sweeping through the frequency range
❖The ratio of Vout / Vinput indicate frequency response
❖ For Analysis, this Ratio converted in to graph DB v/s frequency by using
formula DB = 20 logl 0(V out/ V input )
❖ Each 20 dB drop means we are looking at a tenth of the previous Vout / Vin
dB Response: as impedance increases, Vout falls
6/1/2024 208
ANALYSIS OF SWEEP FREQUENCY RESPONSES
Measured responses are analyzed for any one of the
following key indicators:
❖ Starting db values ( -30 to -50 db for HV winding and -5 to -15 db for
LV winding) the expected shape of a star and delta configuration
❖ comparison of responses to fingerprint
❖ comparison of responses to the different phase of the same
transformer
❖ comparison of responses to sister transformer
❖ creation of new resonant frequencies and the elimination of existing
resonant frequencies
o Interpretation strategies
6/1/2024 209
ANALYSIS OF SWEEP FREQUENCY RESPONSES
In comparing the set of measurements, the key
indicators of damage are:
o Change to the overall shape of graph.
o Creation of new resonance frequencies
o Elimination of existing resonance frequencies.
o Large shifts in the existing resonance frequencies.
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Different frequency bands of the SFRA trace relate to different
elements within a transformer as under:
Band Likely Causes of Variation
<2kHz Core Deformation, Open Circuits, Shorted Turns & Residual Magnetism
Bulk Winding Movement Relative to Each Other, Clamping structure

2to20 kHz
20to400kHz Deformation Within the main and tap windings
400kHzto
Movement of main and tap winding Leads ; axial shift
2MHz
❖ The bands overlap and are not well defined, the band limits are not strictly set and
vary both with manufacturer and transformer MVA and voltage.
❖ Hard and fast rules are difficult to generate as there are so many designs and
manufacturers.
❖ If DC testing was performed the core must be demagnetized before SFRA
measurements.
❖ Measurements must be made at the tap position such that full winding take under test.
6/1/2024 211
Frequency spectrum analysis
• Effective diagnostic tool use to measure deterioration due
to mechanical stresses.
• Short circuit due to line faults can distort, displace
winding.
• If windings are merely displaced, Transformer can fail due
to insulation abrasion, during next Short Circuit.
• Low voltage signal is applied to different phases, and
current passing through neutral analyze for frequency
spectrum.
• All three spectrums are compared to determine any major
changes. Above technique in single or multiple is used to
identify, confirm the fault location.
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There are two method of injecting the wide range
of necessary frequencies
Impulse response method:- Inject an impulse into the
winding.
Advantage of this method is the shorter measurement time.
Swept frequency method:- Make a frequency sweep using
a sinusoidal signal.
Advantage of this method are:
o Better signal to noise ratio.
o Equal, or near equal, accuracy and precision across the
whole measurement range.
o Less measuring equipment is required.
o Wider range of frequencies are injected.
6/1/2024 213
Test method:
■ Consists of application of a sinusoidal signal to one
end of the winding.

■ Output voltage is measured at the other end of the
winding, other windings are left open.
Transfer function (Vo/Vi) is measured for three
frequency ranges:
■ Low frequency range 50 Hz to 2 kHz
■ Medium frequency range 50Hz to 20 kHz
■ High frequency range 5 kHz to 2 MHz

6/1/2024 214
Interpretation
■ Condition assessment is based on comparison
of the present signature with the earlier
patterns obtained on the same winding under
healthy condition.
■ Comparison of responses of different phases
of the same winding at the same tap position.
■ Comparison of responses of different transfor-
mers of the same design.
6/1/2024 215
6/1/2024 216
A GUIDELINE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SRFA
HAS BEEN IN EXISTENCE FOR MANY YEARS
▪ 2 khz scan is sensitive to core deformation, open
circuit, shorted turns and residual magnetism.
▪ 20 khz scan is sensitive to mainly bulk winding
movement and clamping structure.
▪ 200 khz scan is sensitive to deformation within the
main and tap winding.
▪ 2 Mhz scan is sensitive to movement of main and tap
winding leads.
DIFFERENT FREQUENCY BANDS HAVE DIFFERENT SENSITI-
VITIES TO DIFFERENT MECHANICAL FAILURE MODES.
6/1/2024 217
MEASURED RESPONSES ARE ANALYZED FOR ANY
ONE OF THE FOLLOWING KEY INDICATORS
▪ Starting db values .
▪ The expected shape of a star and delta
configuration.
▪ Comparison of responses to fingerprint.
▪ Comparison of responses to the different phase of
the same transformer.
▪ Comparison of responses to sister transformer.
▪ Creation of new resonant frequencies and the
elimination of existing resonant frequencies.
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✓ SFRA MEASUREMENTS ARE PERFORMED UNDER
THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS:
▪ On all new transformers for fingerprinting purposes.
▪ After relocation.
▪ After long duration short circuits.
▪ After any type of maintenance.
✓ SFRA MEASUREMENTS ARE PERFORMED ON THE
LOWEST TAP POSITION.
✓ AN ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENT IS MADE ON THE
FAULTY TAP POSITION.
6/1/2024 219
TYPICAL RESPONSES
TYPICAL RESPONSE OF A HEALTHY TRANSFORMER
▪ Starting db value is what we would expect.
▪ The shape is consistent with a star configuration.
▪ All phase lineup with each other.
TYPICAL RESPONSE OF A TRANSFORMER WITH

HUGE PROBLEMS
▪ Starting DB value of the white phase is unexpected.
▪ The shape is not consistent with a star configuration.
▪ Phase do not lineup with each other.
▪ Clear frequency shift with the formation of new
resonant point.
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6/1/2024 221
Summary - conclusions
▪ SFRA is an established methodology for
detecting electromechanical changes in
power transformers
▪ Collecting reference curves on all mission
critical transformers is an investment!
▪ Ensure repeatability by selecting good
instruments and using standardized
measurement practices
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PARTIAL DISCHARGE (PD)
6/1/2024 223
PARTIAL DISCHARGE
• Electrical small sparks/ tracking occurs within solid
insulation under certain high voltage due to Partial
Breakdown. P.Ds can be due to following
✓Voids, delaminated insulation
✓Insulation damage bet. windings, core & winding.
✓Electromagnetic forces during faults.
✓Loose HV connections, OLTC
✓Arcing ground contacts
✓Failure of transformer involves break down of some
electrical part.
✓Inside bushing & Inter facial discharges.
•It damages solid insulation, organic debonding, erosion
6/1/2024 224
PARTIAL DISCHARGE
• P.D. is measured in terms of p.C.
• Progressive development of P.D. activity is major
symptoms of deteriorating insulation.
• It generates fast electrical pulse & propagates
through winding. P.D. sensors detect at terminals.
• It is measured up to rated voltage.
• Voltage at which P.D. begins, while increasing
voltage gradually is called inception voltage.
• Voltage at which P.D. disappear, while decreasing
voltage gradually is called extinction voltage.
6/1/2024 225
PARTIAL DISCHARGE
• P.D. can be monitored off line or on line.
• P.D. test at factory is well established but at site the
results can be erroneous.
• Acoustic Partial discharge detection:
• Acoustic sensors are placed at different locations.
• It sense sound vibrations produced due to
occurrence of discharges in transformer oil.
• At site it can pick up Electrical noise from corona
discharge in SW. Yard, core noise, any other
magnetic interference are to be eliminated providing
filters in both the cases.
• On line monitoring of P.D. & Tan delta
6/1/2024 226
6/1/2024 227
PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS
Electrical detection method – By the application of Power
frequency voltage, called PDIV (Partial Discharge Inception
Voltage), certain charge is allowed to develop, across the
insulations. Then the developed charge is discharged by
decreasing the voltage called PDEV (Partial Discharge
Extinction Voltage). According to the pattern of PDIV and
PDEV; the status of insulation is determined.
▪The measurements of partial discharges effectively

represents any local degradation of insulation.
▪The presence of pds & its locality can be sensed
during the capacitance/tan delta measurements itself.
6/1/2024 228
6/1/2024 229
Partial discharge (summarizing):
•It is an electrical discharge that occurs
across a portion of the insulation
between two conducting electrodes
without completely bridging the gap.
•This results in localized, nearly
instantaneous release of energy.
•The most convention unit for
quantifying the PD quantity is Pico
coulomb.
6/1/2024 230
DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS
(DGA)
6/1/2024 231
D.G.A. (DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS)
What is D.G.A. ?
❖It is study of gases formed in the transformer oil.
❖Decomposition of gases inside oil due to heating.
❖It is a diagnostic tool helping to detect faults, by detecting
abnormal changes in oil, before Buchholz Relay responds.
❖A quantitative analysis of all dissolved gases in the
transformer oil.
❖The transformer undergoes electrical, chemical & thermal
stresses during its service life which may result in slow
evolving incipient faults inside the transformer.
6/1/2024 232
D.G.A. (DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS)
❖The gases generated under abnormal electrical or thermal
stress which get dissolved in oil.
❖Collectively these gases are known as fault gases, which
are routinely detected and quantified at extremely low
level, typically in ppm in DGA.
❖Most commonly used method to determine the content of
these gases in oil using vacuum gas extraction apparatus
and gas chromatograph.
❖Effective fault gas interpretation should basically tell us
whether there is any incipient fault present in the
transformer.
6/1/2024 233
DGA is one of the most valuable diagnostic tools available. It
is a procedure used to assess the condition of an oil-filled
transformer from an analysis of the gases dissolved in the
cooling / insulating medium. It is a well established technique
that is cost effective, providing essential information from a
relatively simple, non-destructive test based upon oil
sampling. Whilst the analysis is normally done in a laboratory,
on-line devices are also available. The results reveal much
about the health of the plant including its present condition,
any changes that are taking place, the degradation effects of
overload, ageing, the inception of minor faults and the most
likely cause of major failures.
DGA is a powerful diagnostic tool for predicting internal
condition of transformer.
6/1/2024 234
Reasons for evolution of gases in oil
❖De-polymerization
❖Carbonization
❖ Pyrolysis [Ageing factors of transformer:- Pyrolysis (Heat),
Hydrolysis (Reaction with water), Oxidation (Reaction with O2)]
❖Corona
❖Arcing due to clearance to the tank and to adjoining winding.
❖Overheating of the joints in OLTC and brazed points.
❖Power flow through with continuous arcing .
❖Inter turn windings failure .
❖Shield ring failure.
❖Core bolt fault.
❖ Overheating due to inadequate cooling or sustained over
loading.
❖Low energy sparking or partial discharges.
6/1/2024 235
•The dissolved gases may be due to:
✓Exposure of oil with atmosphere.
✓Decomposition of oil due to thermal & elect. stresses.
✓Cellulose material on account of incipient fault.
✓Every type of fault generate different mixture of gas.
✓Gases generated either by breakdown of cellulose
insulation (paper) or oil.
Buchholz alarm or trip operates if the flow of gasses
collected is sudden and heavy.
6/1/2024 236
DGA is probably the most powerful tool for detecting faults in
electrical equipments in service.
Over one million DGA analyses are performed each year by more
than 400 laboratories worldwide.
Gases in oil always result from the decomposition of electrical
insulating materials (oil or paper), as a result of faults or chemical
reaction in the equipment.
In addition to these gases, the decomposition of paper produces
CO2, CO and H2O, because of the presence of oxygen atoms in
the molecule of cellulose.
Some of these gases will be formed in large or smaller quantities
depending upon energy content of the fault.
For example, low energy faults such as corona partial discharge in
gas bubbles, or low temperature hot spots, will form mainly H2 and
CH4.
Gases are highly soluble in oil and will remain dissolved initially.
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The most effective method, and one that is recognized by all
transformer owners world wide, is the ANALYSIS of
DISSOLVED FAULT GASES in transformer oil. Transformer
oil is a chain of hydrocarbons, which breaks down in to lower
molecular hydrocarbons, i. e. the fault gases upon
application of heat energy, generated by all types of faults in
the transformer. Different types of faults such as Partial
Discharge, Over Heating and Arcing generate different
levels of energy. When the oil is subjected to this energy,
certain types of gases are produced, depending on the level
of energy being imparted to the oil.
6/1/2024 238
There are three fault types that can be found in transformers.
They are Partial Discharge, Over Heating and Arcing. The
gases generated by these faults are hydrogen, methane,
ethane, ethylene, acetylene, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. There is one gas that is common to all fault types
and that is hydrogen. If a fault develops in a transformer,
hydrogen will be produced at a greater or lesser extent.
Therefore if a monitor is designed around the measurement
of this one gas and the level of this gas increases over time,
a fault would be predicted.
6/1/2024 239
Faults of higher temperatures are responsible to form large
quantities of C2H4.
Finally it takes faults with a very high energy content, such as in
electrical arcs, to form large amount of C2H2.
By looking at the relative proportion of gases in the DGA results,
it is possible to identify the type of fault occurring in a
transformer in service.
Several diagnosis methods have been proposed to identify
these faults in service.
The first one was the Dorenburg method in Switzerland in the
late 1960s, then the Rogers method in UK in the mid 1970s.
Variations on these methods have later been proposed by the
IEC (60599) and IEEE.
Periodic analysis of gases present in oil can identify nature of
faults & indicate health of transformer.
6/1/2024 240
Following gases are generally
found dissolved in transformer oil:
OXYGEN - O2
NITROGEN - N2
HYDROGEN - H2
CARBON MONOXID - CO
CARBON DIOXID - CO2
METHANE - CH4
ETHANE - C2H6
ETHYLENE - C2H4
ACETYLENE - C2H2
PROPANE - C3H8
PROPYLENE - C3H6
6/1/2024 241
Insulating materials within transformers and related equipment
break down to liberate gases within the unit. The distribution of
these gases can be related to the type of electrical fault and the rate
of gas generation can indicate the severity of the fault. The causes
of fault gases can be divided into three categories;
❖Corona or partial discharge,
❖Pyrolysis or thermal heating, and
❖Arcing.
These three categories differ mainly in the intensity of energy that is
dissipated per unit time per unit volume by the fault. The most
severe intensity of energy dissipation occurs with arcing, less with
heating, and least with corona.
Gases are formed inside an oil-filled transformer, in that various
gases begin forming at specific temperatures. From the Gas
Generation Chart shown in next slide, we can see relative amounts
of gas as well as approximate temperatures.
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Hydrogen and methane begin to form in small amounts
around 1500 C. Notice from the chart that beyond maximum
points, methane (CH4), ethane and ethylene production goes
down as temperature increases. At about 2500 C, production
of ethane (C2H6) starts. At about 350 C, production of
ethylene (C2H4) begins. Acetylene (C2H2) starts between
5000 C and 7000 C. In the past, the presence of only trace
amounts of acetylene (C2H2) was considered to indicate a
temperature of at least 7000 C had occurred; however, recent
discoveries have led to the conclusion that a thermal fault
(hot spot) of 5000 C can produce trace amounts (a few ppm).
Larger amounts of acetylene can only be produced above
7000 C by internal arcing.
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6/1/2024 245
DGA is indicator that there is a problem
Carbon dioxide (CO2) ---→ Indicates a leak in a sealed tank
Carbon monoxide (CO) -→ Indicates insulation overheating
Hydrogen (H2) ------------→ Indicates developing faults
Methane (CH4) -----------→ Indicates developing faults
Ethylene (C2H4) ----------→ Indicates developing faults
Ethane (C2H6) ------------→ Indicates developing faults
Acetylene (C2H2) --------→ Indicates developing faults
6/1/2024 246
Why Hydrogen and not other gases?
The oil in a transformer is continuously circulating within the
main tank. When a fault develops in the unit, symptoms will
show up in the oil. These symptoms come in the form of
dissolved gases. These gases can be measured periodically
by performing a dissolved gas analysis (DGA) or monitors
can be installed that would continuously measure one or
more gases found in the oil.
6/1/2024 247
It is very well established that Hydrogen is evolved at the onset of
all types of faults in the transformer. Hence measuring and
monitoring the Hydrogen level is a quick and easy method of
detecting the developing faults at an early stage. Instruments are
available which measure Hydrogen especially without any
interference from other gases.
It does not require a trained operator. Analysis can be done either
on site, next to the transformer, or in a laboratory, within a couple
of minutes. Available instrument is a good screening tool, used for
trending Hydrogen levels, thus quickly identifying those
transformers that are having faults. Having identified the suspected
transformers, a further detailed investigation programme, through
DGA can be undertaken.
6/1/2024 248
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These gases remain dissolved in the oil. Rising levels of
concentrations of these gases indicate a developing fault in
the transformer. The actual type of the fault can be identified
by measuring the concentrations of each gas, and calculating
the ratios of these gases with respect to each other.
Diagnosis of the ratios is as per any of the established
standards such as
➢Rogers Ratio method,
➢Nomograph method,
➢IEEE method,
➢Dorenbugr method,
➢Westinghouse method, etc.
6/1/2024 250
Extraction of the dissolved gases from the oil is achieved
through a most innovative method, using a specially
designed and calibrated glass syringe. This method of gas
extraction is called the shake test method. The analyzed
results will serve as guidelines for future reference and for
trending. Instrument also accepts inputs of the oil quality
analysis such as Acidity, Dielectric Strength, Power Factor,
Water Content, Interfacial Tension, Viscosity, etc. and
analysis these results to notify the user about the quality of
the oil and thereby assisting maintenance engineers to
detect developing faults at an early stage, and enabling them
to prevent a major failure of the transformers.
6/1/2024 251
Analyzing Results: No immediate action is required if values of the
gases are with in the values given table below, except for new
transformers and for transformers with earlier test data are available.
Max. permissible values in ppm
6/1/2024 252
METHODS OF INTERPRETATION OF DGA RESULTS
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GAS CONTENT IN OIL DUE TO FAULT
6/1/2024 258
PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATIONS OF DISSOLVED
GASES IN THE OIL OF A HEALTHY TRANSFORMER
6/1/2024 259
6/1/2024 260
Diagnostic Tests
Interpretation
Key Gas Ratios
• H2 / CH4 [HYDROGEN / METHANE]
• C2H6/ CH4 [ETHANE / METHANE]
• C2H4 / C2H6 [ETHYLENE / ETHANE]
• C2H2 / C2H4 [ACETYLENE / ETHYLENE]
• CO2 / CO [CARBON DIOXID / CARBON MONOXID]
6/1/2024 261
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CONDITION MONITORING

• CONDITION MONITORING HELPS TO :

• FACILITATE CORRECTIVE ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN

◼ Equipment may be degraded by frequent

When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low,

As the battery runs down and its internal resistance

Electrical and thermal stresses lead to de-gradation of

External - from the atmosphere

Moisture reduces the dielectric strength of paper

Comparison of water distribution in oil and paper

Visual Inspection & examination

◼ A very small amount of

◼ If IFT falls below 25, sludge formation starts.

◼ Sludge has been found to begin when the acid number

◼ In transformers, sludge sticks to the surfaces through which

◼ If allowed to continue long enough, the sludge may even

◼ As a result, the transformer insulation gets too hot and is

◼ Deterioration of the turn insulation may eventually lead to

◼ When oxidation progresses to sludge it should be removed

❖It is ratio of resistive current to capacitive current = Ir / lc

❖Dielectric loss is the energy transferred in heat in a dielectric.

❖ MEASURED TAN DELTA AT LOW VOLTAGE GIVES AN INDICATION

❖ A HIGHER TAN DELTA TIP UP AT A CERTAIN APPLIED VOLTAGE

❖ THE INCREASE IN TAN DELTA WITH INCREASE IN VOLTAGE AND

• THE CAPACITANCE VALUE IS DEPENDENT ON:

• HENCE C WILL INCREASE WITH INCREASE IN VOLTAGE, WHICH INDICATES

INSULATION NOT DEGRADED,

• PERIODIC MEASUREMENTS SHALL BE CONDUCTED FOR TREND

• INITIAL TEST RESULTS CAN BE CONSIDERED AS BENCHMARK

• FOR EVALUATION PURPOSE FOLLOWING DATA ARE ANALYSED:

oMEASURED ABSOLUTE VALUES AT STEPS OF VOLTAGE

o WHAT ARE PERMISSIBLE LIMITS ?

■ Short circuit faults near the transformer

■ Transient over voltages such as switching, lightning etc.

Mechanical Stresses cause

oResistance R Not vary with frequency

Bulk Winding Movement Relative to Each Other, Clamping structure

end of the winding.

■ High frequency range 5 kHz to 2 MHz

TYPICAL RESPONSE OF A TRANSFORMER WITH

▪The measurements of partial discharges effectively

Carbon monoxide (CO) -→ Indicates insulation overheating

Hydrogen (H2) ------------→ Indicates developing faults

Methane (CH4) -----------→ Indicates developing faults

Ethylene (C2H4) ----------→ Indicates developing faults

Ethane (C2H6) ------------→ Indicates developing faults

Acetylene (C2H2) --------→ Indicates developing faults

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