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Chapter 7: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
Learning Goals
1. The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology
2. Thinking
3. Intelligence
4. Language
❖ Chapter Overview
❖ Connections
❖ Teaching the Chapter
Lecture Outlines by Section
Lecture/Discussion Suggestions by Section
❖ Critical Thinking Questions
❖ Readings, Videos, and Web Site Suggestions
❖ Activity Handouts
Chapter Overview
The Value of a Really Good Idea
So many of the everyday things we take for granted started as someone else’s good idea.
These inventions happened because somebody noticed a problem and came up with a
solution.
Having a really good idea is the beginning of a long journey—one that can be difficult and
costly. An innovative crowdfunding (the raising of money, often via the Internet) website,
Kickstarter.com, is a place where creative people can apply to receive start-up funds to put
their really good ideas into action. Most interesting is that those who pledge funds to the
projects are not typical investors. In fact, they are not investors at all. They receive nothing
(except perhaps a t-shirt or trinket) in return for their pledge money; they are lending
financial support to the inventors based solely on their own enthusiasm for a really good idea.
This chapter explores the thinking and intelligence that underpin such endeavors.
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mind can learn new rules, relationships, concepts, and patterns that it can generalize to new
situations. Computers are limited in their ability to perform these functions.
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the science of creating machines that are capable of
performing activities that require intelligence when they are performed by people.
2. Thinking
Thinking involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving
problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner.
A. Concepts
Concepts are mental categories that can be used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
There are four reasons concepts are important. First, concepts allow us to generalize. Second,
concepts allow us to associate experiences and objects. Third, concepts aid in memory.
Fourth, they provide clues about how to react to a particular object or experience.
The prototype model is described as the way a person looks for a family resemblance when
they are evaluating whether something belongs to a particular concept. The prototype is
based on the average characteristic or group of traits of a concept.
B. Problem Solving
Problem solving is an attempt to find the appropriate way of achieving a goal when one is
not readily available.
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C. Reasoning and Decision Making
• Reasoning
Reasoning is the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.
Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from the specific to the general or from the bottom
up. It can draw conclusions about something very broad, based on only a few of the
characteristics.
Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general to the specific.
• Decision Making
Decision making involves evaluating all the alternatives and then making an informed
choice.
• Critical Thinking
Critical thinking means thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence.
People who are critical thinkers grasp the deeper meaning of things. They keep an open mind
about different approaches and perspectives and also decide for themselves what to believe
and not believe.
Critical thinkers should see past the obvious and question long-held assumptions.
Mindfulness means being alert and mentally present for everyday activities. It is important
to critical thinking. A person who is mindful continues to create new ideas, is open to new
information, and is aware of the existence of more than one perspective.
Open-mindedness means being receptive to the possibility of other ways of looking at
things. Many times people are not aware that there is another side to an issue or evidence that
goes against what they believe.
• Creative Thinking
Creativity refers to the ability to think about something in novel, unusual ways and come up
with unconventional solutions to problems.
Divergent thinking produces many answers to the same question.
Convergent thinking means there is only one answer to a question.
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Creative thinkers have the following characteristics: flexibility and playful thinking, an inner
motivation, a willingness to face risk, and the ability to evaluate work objectively.
3. Intelligence
Intelligence refers to an all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tests, solve problems, and
learn from experience.
Different cultures perceive intelligence differently.
A. Measuring Intelligence
In psychology, a person’s intelligence is generally measured by an Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
test.
The validity of a test is the extent to which the test measures what it intends to. An important
measure of validity is the degree to which it predicts an individual’s performance when
assessed by other measures.
The reliability of a test is the extent to which the test yields a consistent measure that can be
reproduced.
If a test is valid, it must also be reliable, but a reliable test need not be valid.
Standardization refers to developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a
test. The testing environment should be as uniform as possible for all individuals.
• IQ Tests
Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test. His designed the test to determine which
students would not benefit from regular classroom instruction.
Binet developed the concept of what is known as a person’s mental age (MA), meaning their
level of mental development relative to that of others.
A person’s chronological age is the actual temporal age of the individual.
Intelligence quotient (IQ) was developed by William Stern. IQ is determined by a person’s
mental age divided by their chronological age and then multiplied by 100. If a person’s
mental age is the same as their chronological age, their IQ is 100, which is average.
A normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve with the majority of the scores falling in the
middle of the distribution.
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The Flynn effect demonstrates how education can have a positive effect on intelligence tests.
People tested at the turn of the 20th century, who were then regarded as having average
intelligence, would now be seen as having below-average intelligence.
The word intelligent does not apply only to people; it can also be attached to behaviors. The
ability to master skills, actively think about life, and make life decisions thoughtfully are
intelligent behaviors.
C. Extremes of Intelligence
• Giftedness
People considered gifted have an IQ score of 130 or higher and/or a superior talent for
something.
Lewis Terman ran extensive studies on children who were classified as gifted and found that
they were not only academically gifted but were also socially well adjusted.
Giftedness is a product of both heredity and environment.
• Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability (formerly termed mental retardation) is a condition of limited mental
ability in which a person has an IQ score below 70 and has difficulty adapting to everyday
life. He or she would have first exhibited these characteristics during the so-called
developmental period, before the age of 18.
There are different classifications of mental retardation, ranging from mild to moderate to
severe or profound. The majority of people with mental retardation fall in the mild range.
Organic retardation is caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage. Down syndrome is a
form of organic retardation.
Cultural-familial retardation is a mental deficit in which no evidence of organic brain
damage can be found. Psychologists believe that these individuals’ type of retardation is the
result of growing up in a below-average intellectual environment.
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Critics of the theory of multiple intelligences argue that a research base for both Sternberg’s
and Gardner’s multiple intelligences do not exist. These critics believe that if an individual
excels in one area he or she will most likely excel in other areas as well.
4. Language
Language is a form of communication that is based on a system of symbols. It can be
spoken, signed, or written.
• Biological Influences
The brain, nervous system, and vocal apparatus of our ancestors changed over hundreds of
thousands of years.
Our sophisticated language ability gave humans a great advantage over other animals and
increased our chances of survival.
Language Universals:
According to Noam Chomsky, humans are prewired to learn language at a certain time in life
and in a certain way. Children all over the world reach language milestones at around the
same time in life and in about the same order.
Language and the Brain:
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Research has shown that the brain has regions that are predisposed to being used for
language. Language processing, such as speech and grammar, mainly occurs in the left
hemisphere.
• Environmental Influences
According to behaviorists, language is a complex learned skill.
The behavioral view of language learning has several problems. First, it does not explain how
people create novel sentences. Second, children learn the syntax of their native language
even if they are not reinforced for doing so.
The behavioral view is no longer considered a viable explanation of how children acquire
language.
Do It!
Divergent and Convergent Thinking (p. 254)
Culture fair IQ Test (p. 259)
Intelligence Tests (p. 261)
Connections: Tools for Success—A Safety Net for Students and Instructors
Take advantage of all the other teaching tools available for this chapter.
Student Ancillaries:
Student Study Guide and Online Learning Center quizzes can be found at
www.mhhe.com/kingep2e
Psych 2.0 –This is a password-protected site. Students can purchase the access code directly
or it may be included (for a fee) with a new textbook. See your Sales Representative for
details.
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
There are seven interactivities appropriate for use with this chapter:
• Thinking and Reasoning: Centenarians. This video profiles a hundred-year-old man
with a remarkably sharp mind and presents an overview of the “use it or lose it” theory in
regard to cognition.
• Heuristics. This interactivity presents student with two lists of 30 names each,
demonstrating the availability heuristic by giving more names of famous males and females
in each list. The availability heuristic is defined and described as a way of affecting people’s
judgment about everyday decisions.
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory. This interactivity introduces the concept of
Gardner’s multiple intelligence, in contrast with other existing views of intelligence. Each of
the eight different types of intelligence is defined. The interactivity helps students determine
their relative interests and abilities for each of the intelligences.
• IQ Tests: Are They Accurate Measures of Intelligence? In two videos, Dr. Ceci
describes some of the problems associated with an overreliance on standardized tests as
measures of intelligence, provides reasons why these tests are relied on so heavily, and
suggests alternative ways that we might use to measure human intelligence.
• Group Differences in IQ. Links to an APA task-force report, commissioned following
publication of The Bell Curve, provide an excellent review of the scientific literature on
intelligence.
• Mental Retardation: Down Syndrome. This resource provides links to information
about Down syndrome from the National Down Syndrome Society.
• Language Development. Eight short video clips of infants, toddlers, and young children
display different levels of language ability.
Instructor Ancillaries:
Text:
Test Bank: The test bank for Chapter Seven includes answers and page references.
PowerPoint Presentation: The PowerPoint presentation for Chapter Seven includes 32 slides
covering information on thinking, language, and intelligence, 7 figure slides, and 3 chapter
summary slides. There are activities and demonstrations in the Notes section of slides 17 and
19.
Concept-Based Dynamic PowerPoint Presentations: Concepts covered for Chapter Seven are
Language, Cognition, Intelligence, Assessing Intelligence, and Theories of Intelligence.
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Teaching the Chapter
Learning Goal One: The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology
Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
Artificial Intelligence. Show the film Artificial Intelligence in class. After watching the
movie, discuss the concept of artificial intelligence. Break the class into groups and have
them discuss whether computers could really replace all human intelligence. In addition,
have the students compare and contrast artificial intelligence to that of human intelligence.
Computers: Notice that in many movies, Computers are portrayed as scary (HAL in 2001: A
Space Odyssey and WALL-E). Ask students why they think that computers are portrayed as
scary? Ask for other examples of films where this occurs.
Apply it! (p. 245) Have students complete the Apply it! Next, have them justify their answer.
This can be homework (as they read the chapter), a quiz in class, class discussion, or an
essay.
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• Two Systems of Reasoning and Decision Making
Biases and Heuristics
Confirmation Bias
Hindsight Bias
Availability Heuristic
Base Rate Fallacy
Representative Heuristic
D. Thinking Critically and Creatively
• Critical Thinking
Mindfulness
Open-mindedness
• Creative Thinking
Divergent Thinking
Convergent Thinking
Characteristics of Creative Thinkers:
Flexibility
Inner Motivation
Willingness to Face Risk
Objective Evaluation of work
Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
Problem Solving. Use “Activity Handout 7.1: Solve This Problem” as a way for students to
understand and experience the steps involved in problem solving. Students will choose from
a list of problems and then use the steps discussed in this chapter to find a solution to the
problem.
Decision Making. Discuss decision making, especially the areas of decision making without
awareness, plus confirmation bias and hindsight bias. Have the students come up with an
example from their own lives where these three concepts have played a part. Have them write
down and explain the example. Next, break the class into groups and have them discuss and
share their examples with the other students in the group. The students will gain a better
understanding of decision making when they come up with their own examples and will
increase their knowledge from the other students in their group by hearing their examples.
Do It! Have students take ten minutes to jot down all the uses for a cardboard box. Include
every possibility that the student can think of – even if it seems unreasonable. Explain that
this list is divergent thinking. Next, have students look the list over and have them determine
which of the possible uses are most unusual or most likely to be worthwhile. Explain that this
is convergent thinking.
Creative Thinking. Use “Activity Handout 7.2: How Do You Think This Invention Came
About?” This activity has students think of an invention and then explain how it might have
come about, by using the steps for creative thinking discussed in this chapter.
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Challenge Your Thinking. Have students brainstorm what present day inconveniences
could new inventions solve. Discuss their ideas in class. Next, ask students to determine what
thought processes let to the invention of Nike shoes and the Walkman. Discuss their ideas in
class. Now, ask students to share their worst idea they had lately. What made it seem like a
good idea? What made it a bad idea? Discuss these in-class. Lastly, ask students to share
what it was like to think about the two questions. These can also be used as a small group
activity, share-pair dyad or a homework essay.
Apply it! (p. 255) Have students complete the Apply it! Next, have them justify their answer.
This can be homework (as they read the chapter), a quiz in class, class discussion, or an
essay.
Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
Cultural Bias in IQ Testing: Have students do a search on the Internet for cultural bias in
intelligence testing and then write a short paper on the information they find. The students
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should discuss the pros (if any) and cons of cultural bias in intelligence testing. The next day,
break the class into groups and have them develop a 10-question quiz using what they think
would be culturally biased questions.
Nature vs. Nurture: Discuss with the class the differences between nature and nurture and
highlight how these ideas are very controversial in the area of intelligence. Break the students
into groups and have them randomly draw pieces of paper with the words nature or nurture
on them. Each group must then develop a debate strategy for arguing either for a nature
influence or a nurture influence on intelligence. The following week, have the groups debate
both sides as a presentation.
Theories of Intelligence: Use “Activity Handout 7.3: Which Type of Intelligence Is It?” In
this activity, the students will read through examples of various types of intelligences and
properly categorize them. They will gain an understanding of the various types of
intelligence an individual may have.
Education: This activity should make for a lively debate in class. Have students bring two
good sources of research to support their views on the following: Should resources be spent
mostly to bring everyone up to a level of proficiency or should public schools focus on
enhancing the education of those who are gifted? How much money would you be willing to
pay in taxes every year to accomplish both?
Intelligence: In an essay, have students compare and contrast the difference between “book
smart” and “people smart” and include what kinds of intelligence each shows. Discuss their
ideas in class.
Are You Smarter: Video tape a segment or two of the television program, “Are You
Smarter than A 5th Grader?” Show it to the class. Facilitate a class discussion comparing and
contrasting the intelligence and ability to answer the questions correctly of the adult and
child.
Apply it! (p. 266) Have students complete the Apply it! Next, have them justify their answer.
This can be homework (as they read the chapter), a quiz in class, class discussion, or an
essay.
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• Infinite Generativity
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
B. Language and Cognition
• The Role of Language in Cognition
• The Role of Cognition in Language
C. Biological and Environmental Influences on Language
• Biological Influences
Language Universals
Language and the Brain
• Environmental Influences
• Language Development over the Life Span
Babbling
Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
Structure of Language. Use “Activity Handout 7.4: The Structure of Language” as a way
for the students to come up with their own examples of the various structures of language
discussed in this chapter. The students will gain more knowledge of the various structures
that make up a language.
Biological and Environmental Influences on Language. Discuss with the class the
differences between nature and nurture and how these ideas are very controversial in the area
of the development of language. Break the students into groups and have them randomly
draw the “words” on pieces of paper. Each group must then develop a debate strategy for
arguing either for a biological influence or an environmental influence on the development of
language. The following week, have the groups debate both sides as a presentation.
Language and Education. Have the students do a literature search on the Internet on both
the whole-language approach and the phonics approach. Have them write a two- to four-page
paper on the differences between the approaches.
Apply it! (p. 275) Have students complete the Apply it! Next, have them justify their answer.
This can be homework (as they read the chapter), a quiz in class, class discussion, or an
essay.
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
• Discuss how culture plays a role in language development.
• Discuss and give examples of how a cultural bias can influence intelligence testing.
• Compare and contrast the coping strategies of problem-focused coping, emotion-focused
coping, approach coping, and avoidant coping.
• Give some examples of how intelligence is defined in various cultures.
• Do males and females use language differently and why?
• Why are gender differences so fascinating to people?
• Explain why some people talk a lot and others are quieter.
Videos
Discovering Psychology, Part 6: Language Development. Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990.
(30 minutes)
The development and use of language as a means of social communication
Discovering Psychology, Part 10: Cognitive Processes. Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990.
(30 minutes)
The higher mental processes, such as problem solving, reasoning, and planning
Discovering Psychology, Part 11: Judgment and Decision Making. (Annenberg/CPB
Collection, 1990. (30 minutes)
The processes by which individuals make judgments and decisions through an examination
of risk taking and negotiation
The Mind: Language. Insight Media1998. (58 minutes)
A look at various theories of the evolution of language. Also demonstrates the innate,
universal drive to communicate through studies with babies, and investigates historical
records for clues to the development of modern speech.
The Mind. 2nd ed. Teaching module #4, “Cognition and the immune system: mind body
interaction.” Video File, 1999. Video posted to
http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html
How thinking affects mind–body connections and the immune system
The Mind. 2nd ed. Teaching module #8, “Language processing in the brain.” Video File,
1999. Video posted to http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html
Infant speech development
The Mind. 2nd ed. Teaching module #23, “Infant speech sound discrimination.” Video File,
1999. Video posted to http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html
Infant speech development
The Mind. 2nd ed. Teaching module #24, “Language predisposition.” Video File, 1999.
Video posted to http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html
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manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Human sound recognition abilities
The Mind. 2nd ed. Teaching module #25, “Human language: Signed and spoken.” Video
File, 1999. Video posted to http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html
Language acquisition, formation, and the nature of language
The Mind. 2nd ed. Teaching module #27, “Animal language.” Video File, 1999. Video
posted to http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html
Communication and linguistic abilities in animals
The Mind. 2nd ed. Teaching module #28, “Language and culture.” Video File, 1999. Video
posted to http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html
How language and culture interact
Vannato, Frank, J.; Bennett, Thomas, L.; and Butler, Michelle. The Brain. Teaching module
#4, “Intelligence and culture.” Video File, 1997. Video posted to
http://www.learner.org/resources/series142.html
Cultural bias testing
Vannato, Frank, J., et al. The Brain. Teaching module #6, “Language and speech: Broca’s
and Wernicke’s areas.” Video File, 1997. Video posted to
http://www.learner.org/resources/series142.html
Language and brain processes
Vannato, Frank, J., et al. The Brain. Teaching module #19, “Alzheimer’s Disease.” Video
File, 1997. Video posted to http://www.learner.org/resources/series142.html
Alzheimer’s disease and the brain
Thinking and Language. (2006). Insight Media, 30 minutes.
Principles of Language and a case study of a young person who did not acquire language.
The Day We Learned to Think: The Evolution of Language and Cognition. (2003) Insight
Media, 50 minutes.
The origin of language
The Search for Intelligence: Intelligence: (2006) Insight Media, 30 minutes.
Theories of intelligence and its relationship to nature and nurture
Intelligence and Creativity. (2001) Insight Media, 30 minutes.
Multiple intelligences, the history of intelligence testing
Introduction to Critical Thinking (2008) Insight Media, 25 minutes.
Learning to think critically
Critical Thinking: Analyzing Problems and Decision Making (2008) Insight Media, 29
minutes.
Exploring the problem solving process
Web Sites
http://www.learningstrategies.com/forum/postlist.php?Cat=0&Board=UBB1
This Web site, under the Learning Strategies homepage, is a discussion forum looking at the
genius code.
http://www.sjdm.org/
The homepage for the Society for Judgment and Decision Making.
http://wilderdom.com/personality/L2-2SternbergTriarchicTheory.html
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Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence.
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtml
The various stages that individuals go through in language development. Also a variety of
links to other Web sites discussing language development in children.
http://www.spannj.org/BasicRights/appendix_b.htm
Includes a printable multiple intelligence test, scoring mechanism, and explanations.
http://cmap.ihmc.us/conceptmap.html
A free download of software that makes concept maps; a great way to organize
information—and easy to use.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/
The home page of the Foundation and Center for Critical Thinking.
http://www.mentalfloss.com
“Daily flossings” or thinking opportunities
http://www.merlot.org/merlot/index.htm
A host of activities for learning.
Activity Handouts
Activity Handout 7.1
Choose any two from the list of problem scenarios below. Using the steps involved in
problem solving that were discussed in this chapter, describe how you would go about
solving this problem.
1. Mrs. Smith’s daycare provider is closing in four weeks. Both Mr. and Mrs. Smith work
full-time during the day and need daycare for their child. They have only a short period of
time however, to find a new, safe, and reliable daycare provider.
2. Tim is planning a summer vacation for his family of five to Disney World in Florida. He
lives in Pennsylvania and is trying to figure out whether it could be more cost effective to
drive to Florida or to fly there.
3. Sarah has a 20-page paper due in six weeks and has not yet started to work on it. She is
feeling overwhelmed, because she works a full-time job during the day and has to look after
three children at home in the evening. She knows she should started working soon on the
paper but is not sure where to begin.
4. Mr. Jones’s parents are growing older and are finding that they can no longer live in their
big three-bedroom house. They want to sell their home and move to either a smaller house, a
retirement community, or an assisted-living facility. Mr. and Mrs. Jones said they would help
his parents find an appropriate place to live but are not sure where to begin.
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5. Sally found out through a friend that her current boyfriend has been cheating on her with
another woman. She is very distraught and is not sure what to do about the situation.
Think of an invention such as television, the electric razor, the toaster, or the blender, and
describe how you think this invention came about. Discuss the various steps involved in
creative thinking that were outlined in this chapter.
Read through the scenarios below and identify what type of intelligence—analytical,
creative, practical, verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, or naturalist—you think the individual has.
1. John spent years trying to come up with a solution for how to water a Christmas tree
without having to do it himself every day.
Type of Intelligence:
2. Susan has always been interested in building things. At a young age, she built model
airplanes with great enthusiasm. She went to college and graduate school and earned a degree
in architecture. She is now the CEO of her own architectural firm.
Type of Intelligence:
3. Jim started taking ballroom dancing classes as a child. He became the Younger U.S.
Champion at age 12, has continued dancing, and is now competing for the World Champion
title.
Type of Intelligence:
4. Lee Ann Rimes earned her first Academy of Country Music Award at the young age of 12.
She has sold millions of albums and continues to hit the charts with top-selling records.
Type of Intelligence:
5. Cecil wrote his first novel at the age of 16 and, just recently, his third novel made the New
York Times best-seller list.
Type of Intelligence:
6. Jane has always loved working through math problems and excelled in her math
classes. She can work through Sudoku puzzles in little time and finds math very
challenging. She is the senior accountant at her accounting firm.
Type of Intelligence:
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7. Jeremy has always had a green thumb. He grew up on a tree farm and learned about plants
and flowers at a young age. He went on to earn a graduate degree in the agricultural sciences
and recently found a way to cross-pollinate watermelons with cantaloupes to make a
delicious new fruit.
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Ich habe den Beschreibungen J e n t i n k s (l. c. 201) wenig
hinzuzufügen. Der Stand und die Zahl der Haarwirbel variiren
ausserordentlich, nicht e i n Exemplar von den 6 des Museums
stimmt darin mit den Leidener überein, und keines gleicht dem
andern; es sind welche mit nur e i n e m Wirbel vorhanden. Der helle
Fleck unter dem Auge fehlt den Dresdner Weibchen nicht — es sind
auch manchmal 2 Flecke vorhanden —, ebensowenig wie die hellen
Binden an der Kehle und der Wamme. Der abgebildete Stier (grosse
stehende Figur Taf. VII) ist heller gefärbt als die Kühe. Dr.
S c h a d e n b e r g schrieb mir, dass die Tamaraos dieselbe Farbe
hätten wie die Carabaos. Das Exemplar des Berliner Museums ist
nach Dr. H e l l e r s Beobachtung länger (bis 4 cm lang) behaart. Das
abgebildete weibliche Kalb mit Hörneransatz (Taf. VII und Taf. VIII
Schädel) besitzt bereits die helle Zeichnung bis auf die Flecken unter
dem Auge.
2422 f e m . 2457 f e m .
Entfernung vom Vertex zum Anus 1.670 m 1.710 m
Kopflänge 0.395 0.420
Schulterhöhe 1.000 1.110
Hornlänge, in der Curve gemessen 0.320–350 0.320–345
Hornlänge, gerade gemessen 0.300–315 0.290–300
Abstand der Spitzen 0.175 0.110
Ohrlänge 0.160 0.170
Auf Tafel VII ist in c. 1⁄12 n. Gr. ein adulter, aber noch nicht alter Stier
(B 3198 stehend), eine alte Kuh (2422, liegend) und ein weibliches
Kalb (B 3089) dargestellt. Man vergleiche mit der Abbildung des
Stieres die der Anoa bei S c h l e g e l (Handleiding Dierk. 1857 Atlas
Pl. V Fig. 5 in 1⁄20 n. Gr.), um die Ähnlichkeit dieser beiden
Zwergbüffel zu erkennen; auch die weisse Zeichnung stimmt
überein, nur dass dem Tamarao der helle Längsstreif an den Beinen
fehlt. Auf Tafel VIII Figur 1 findet man das Skelet einer alten Kuh
(2457), als grösstes und ältestes von den vorhandenen 4 adulten, in
c. ⅛ n. Gr., genau so gross wie das Skelet des A n o a -Stieres, das
H e l l e r (Abh. Mus. Dresden 1890/1 Nr. 2 Taf. III) in 5⁄32n. Gr.
abbildete, also direct damit vergleichbar. Es ist ferner auf Tafel VIII
Figur 2 der Schädel des weiblichen Kalbes (B 3089) in ⅓ n. Gr.
dargestellt. Das Museum besitzt, ausser diesem und den 4 der
Skelette, noch 4 Schädel, davon 2 defect; im Ganzen 6 Häute, 4
Skelette und 5 Schädel (davon [15]einen durch S e m p e r ), aber Dr.
S c h a d e n b e r g beschaffte auch direct oder indirect das Material
für einige andere Museen (z. B. Leiden und Stuttgart).
Tafel IX
[Inhalt]
So viel ich weiss, ist der Babirusa, was C e l e b e s anlangt, nur aus
der Minahassa und dem Gorontaloschen nachgewiesen.
R o s e n b e r g (Mal. Arch. 1878, 269) sagt zwar: „Auf Selébes
kommt der Babi-russa allein auf der Nordhälfte der Insel vor, lebt
aber ausserdem noch auf den Sulla-Inseln und auf Buru“, was z. B.
B r e h m (Thierl. III, 529 1891) übernahm, allein da man unter
„Nordhälfte“ von Celebes zum Mindesten das ganze Gebiet des
Tominigolfes verstehen muss, so ist das zu viel gesagt. Wenn auch
nicht in Abrede gestellt werden soll, dass die Verbreitung des
Babirusa so weit gehen kann, so fehlt doch bis jetzt der Anhalt dafür.
Es ist auch nicht ganz wahrscheinlich, dass er hier überall [16]haust,
da man sonst wohl schon Schädel oder Zähne daher erhalten hätte,
denn die Eingeborenen bewahren diese, wie sich auch denken lässt,
mit Vorliebe, oder verwenden sie als Schmuck. Derartiges ist aber
von den Ufern des Tominigolfes jenseit des Gorontaloschen nicht
bekannt geworden. Immerhin lässt sich noch kein Urtheil fällen, da
diese Länder zu wenig durchforscht sind. Auf dem Südwestarme soll
er nach Erkundigungen der Herren S a r a s i n , wie sie die Güte
hatten mir mitzutheilen, n i c h t vorkommen.
Von der der Minahassa nahen Insel Lembeh kamen dem Museum 3
Exemplare unter der inländischen Bezeichnung pisokan 3 zu; die
Strasse zwischen Celebes und Lembeh ist schmal, und der Babirusa
wird daher unschwer vom Festland übersetzen können. H i c k s o n
(Nat. N. Cel. 1889, 82) erwähnt das Vorkommen an den Bergen
Klabat, Dua sudara, Kelekonde und Soputan.
Es beruhen alle diese Angaben auf dem Irrthume, dass es sich bei
den in Frage kommenden Stücken um den Babirusa handle.
Schädel in Museen mit solchen Bezeichnungen mag es geben, aber
diese sind eben verkehrt, von verlässlichen Reisenden stammen sie
nicht. Der Schädel im Museum Godeffroy hatte gewiss Nichts mit
dem Babirusa zu thun, sondern rührte von einem Schweine mit
abnorm gewachsenen u n t e r e n Hauern her, während der Babirusa
nur die oberen Hauer halbkreisförmig gebogen hat 10; die Ähnlichkeit
mit diesen kann daher auch nur eine sehr entfernte gewesen sein.
Da die Zahnformel von Babirusa 11 und Sus bekanntlich differirt (i 2/3
c 1/1 m 5/5 gegen i 3/3 c 1/1 m 7/7 bei Sus), so liesse sich leicht
darüber Gewissheit erlangen; der Schädel ist aber bis jetzt weder in
Hamburg noch in Leipzig, wo Theile des Godeffroy Museums sind,
auffindbar gewesen. Die „polirten Zähne des Hirschebers“ von Viti
sind abgeschliffene [18]Potwalzähne, wie jetzt allgemein bekannt ist.
Es bleibt somit nur noch J e n t i n k s Angabe, der ich indessen auch
nicht beipflichten kann, denn ein solcher Export von Celebes und
Buru nach Neu Guinea und weiter fand und findet nicht statt, es
liegen keine stichhaltigen Gründe dafür vor, und die betreffenden
gebogenen Zähne sind nur abnorm gewachsene untere
Schweinehauer.
Die Entstehung dieser Irrthümer ist sehr wohl erklärlich, wenn man in
Betracht zieht, dass es in gewissen Theilen Neu Guineas und der
östlichen Inselwelt Brauch ist, jungen zahmen Schweinen die oberen
Eckzähne auszuschlagen, damit die unteren sich unabgewetzt und
unbeschränkt entwickeln können. Lässt man das Thier nur lang
genug leben, so entsteht ein mehr oder weniger geschlossener Ring,
der dann als sehr geschätzter, werthvoller Schmuck benutzt wird.
Das Ethnographische Museum besitzt eine Reihe solcher Stücke.
Um Babirusa-Zähne handelt es sich aber dabei nicht. Da der
Querschnitt des o b e r e n Babirusa-Eckzahnes ein anderer ist, wie
der des u n t e r e n Schweine-Eckzahnes, so lassen sie sich leicht
unterscheiden; beim Babirusa ist er elliptisch, auch hat er eine
ebene und schmelzlose Oberfläche. Ebenso lassen sich die unteren
Eckzähne bei näherem Vergleiche sehr wohl unterscheiden. Beim
Schwein ist der Querschnitt mehr dreieckig, beim Babirusa eher
fünfeckig, und der Zahn selbst subpentaëdrisch; O w e n (Odontogr.
1840–1845, 548) nennt ihn „subtrihedral with rounded angles, except
the inner one towards the point“. Der untere Babirusa-Hauer hat
jedoch Email, wie der des Schweines, die Angabe von F l o w e r &
L y d e k k e r (Intr. Mamm. 1891, 287), dass auch er „entirely without
enamel covering“ sei, beruht auf einem Irrthume. Zwei neben und an
einander befestigte, abnorme, ganz kreisrunde untere Schweine-
Eckzähne, als Brustschmuck von Cap Arcona in Deutsch Neu
Guinea, einem im Kampfe getödteten Papúa abgenommen, sind
Tafel IX Fig. 1 dargestellt (Nr. 9175 der Ethnogr. Abth.). Es ist ein
linker (oben) und ein rechter (unten), und man erkennt, von wo an
sie in ihrer natürlichen Entwicklung gestört wurden; sie sind von da
an erheblich dünner und auch unregelmässig geformt, was durch
Abfeilen am Lebenden erzielt wird (s. unten).
„Im Leben des Papúa spielt das Schwein eine grosse Rolle und man
hütet die geliebten Borstenthiere wie den grössten Schatz. Fast Alles
dreht sich um Schweine und schon das eben geworfene wird für
Etwas bestimmt, meist für einen Festschmaus oder zum Erbstück,
aber der Eigenthümer kann nicht frei darüber verfügen, es ist
Dorfeigenthum. Manchmal wird das Schwein, das zu irgend einem
Festschmause bestimmt ist, verkauft oder vertauscht, und für den
Erlös ein anderes gekauft zum Schlachten. Wer das Schwein
aufgezogen hat, isst aus Mitleid nicht davon; die es tödten, müssen
sich viel Schimpfreden gefallen lassen, besonders von den Weibern,
welche nicht selten die dicksten Thränen dabei vergiessen. Einem
Weissen wird es in diesen Gegenden nie gelingen, ein Schwein zu
erstehen, wenn er auch noch so viele begehrenswerthe
Tauschwaaren vorlegt. Aber in den meisten Fällen erhält er von dem
geschlachteten ein Stück Fleisch. Stirbt eine Ehefrau, so fertigt sich
der Mann einen hohen Trauerhut von Baumbast, den er erst ablegen
darf, wenn das für den Trauerschmaus bestimmte Schwein
erwachsen ist; passirt dem Schwein ein Unglück, so dass der
Wittwer kein anständiges Mahl geben kann, so muss er den
Trauerhut so lange tragen, bis das nächste Schwein erwachsen ist.
Die jungen Schweinchen werden sehr häufig, ebenso wie junge
Hunde, von den Weibern gesäugt und, wie die Kinder, aufs Feld zur
Arbeit mitgenommen. Jedes erhält seinen Namen und ist seinen
Pflegern so anhänglich wie ein Hund. Kommt ein Schwein des
Nachts nicht ins Dorf zurück, so geht ein allgemeines Suchen los: in
den zärtlichsten Tönen wird fortwährend der Name des Lieblings
gerufen; hilft das Nichts, so geht Alt und Jung, mit Bambusfackeln
versehen, und sucht nach dem Verlorenen. Junge Wildschweine
werden manchmal eingefangen und gewöhnen sich ebenso an das
Dorf wie die zahmen 12. Selten verwildert ein zahmes Schwein so,
dass es nicht mehr [19]zurückkehrt, es wird dann von den Männern
aufgesucht und mit Speeren erlegt. U m r e c h t s c h ö n e r u n d e
Schweinezähne zu erhalten, werden dem jungen
Eber die beiden oberen Hauer ausgeschlagen,
damit die beiden unteren im Wachsen nicht
g e h i n d e r t s i n d . Die oft kreisrund gebogenen sind der
werthvollste Tauschartikel. Man kauft für solchen eine Frau oder ein
Segelboot, oder es ist ein Mordschilling“.
Hieraus geht hervor, und es lässt sich auch sonst erschliessen, dass
es dem Eingeborenen sehr schwer fällt, ein Schwein so viele Jahre
in Gefangenschaft zu halten bis der Hauer kreisrund gewachsen ist;
es treten an den Besitzer zu viele Anfechtungen und Nöthigungen
heran, die ihn zur Hergabe oder zur Tödtung des Thieres
veranlassen oder zwingen, so dass nur Reiche oder Charakterstarke
in seltenen Fällen das Schwein so lange aufsparen können, bis der
werthvolle Zahn fertig ist. Man trifft daher auch nur äusserst selten
Lebende mit diesen Zähnen an, während die fertigen Ringe von
Geschlecht zu Geschlecht vererbt werden und sich infolgedessen im
Laufe der Zeiten mehr anhäufen.
Wenn dieser abnorme Zahn nicht lateral ausladen würde, wie die
unteren Babirusa-Hauer es stets thun, sondern steiler stünde, so
würde man denken können, dass das Thier nicht im Stande
gewesen wäre, Gegenstände zwischen Zahn und Rüssel zum
Abwetzen zu bringen, weil der Zwischenraum zu gering war; allein
dies ist nicht der Fall, der Zahn steht gerade so schräg wie die
normalen Hauer, und hätte daher auch abgewetzt werden können,
wenn das Thier nicht anderweitig gehindert gewesen wäre.
Allerdings liegt die rechte Eckzahn-Alveole weiter zurück als die
linke, normale, und steigt auch steiler an, aber beides [21]ist die
Folge, und nicht die Ursache der Anomalie, indem der kreisrund
nach hinten wachsende Zahn die Alveole mit nach hinten zog. Durch
das Zurückweichen der Alveole steht sie nicht so weit vor derjenigen
des oberen Caninus, wie im normalen Fall, und es könnte daher
scheinen, dass es hierdurch dem Thier unmöglich gemacht worden
sei, Gegenstände zwischen Zahn und Rüssel zum Wetzen zu
bringen; allein ich habe auch andere Babirusa Schädel vor mir, bei
denen der Zwischenraum zwischen oberem und unterem Eckzahne
nicht grösser ist als hier, und wo doch die distal-mediale Abwetzung
erfolgte. Da der linke untere und die beiden oberen Hauer abhanden
gekommen sind, so lässt sich nicht beurtheilen, ob sie normal waren
oder nicht. Der linke untere war keinenfalls geschlossen kreisförmig
gewachsen, wie der rechte, denn der Kieferknochen ist ganz normal;
auch die Alveole dürfte es sein, und somit spricht die
Wahrscheinlichkeit nicht gerade dafür, dass der Hauer abnorm war.
Ebensowenig zeigen die Alveolen der oberen Hauer oder die
Knochen des Schädels die geringsten Zeichen einer Abweichung;
allein wenn der rechte so weit nach rechts ausgeladen hätte, dass er
das Thier verhinderte, die Spitze des unteren Hauers abzuwetzen,
so wäre damit die Anomalie des letzteren erklärt. Die einfachste
Erklärung wäre aber die, dass das Thier in der Gefangenschaft
gelebt habe, unter Umständen, die ein Abwetzen des Zahnes
unmöglich machten.
Hiernach könnte man obige Stelle, dem Sinne nach übersetzt, etwa
so wiedergeben: In Indien sind die Hauer gebogen und einen
Cubitus lang. Die beiden unteren gehen vom Rüssel aus, die beiden
oberen von der Stirn, wie die Hörner beim Kalbe. Auch F l o w e r &
L y d e k k e r (Intr. Mamm. 1891, 287) sagen, dass die oberen
Eckzähne „resemble horns rather than teeth“, und andere neue
Autoren drücken sich ähnlich aus, man kann daher kaum zweifeln,
dass P l i n i u s Kunde vom Babirusa gehabt habe. [22]
[Inhalt]
Zahnformel.