UNIT NO2

MECHANISM OF INFECTION & INFLAMMATION

INFECTIOUS DISEASE:
An infectious disease is a disease caused by a pathogen, such as a
bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite. Pathogens can enter the body through a
variety of ways, such as through contact with an infected person, animal, or
object, or through contaminated food or water. Once inside the body, pathogens
can multiply and cause damage to tissues and organs.
TYPES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
There are many different types of infectious diseases, but they can be broadly
classified into four main categories: bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic.

 Bacterial infections are caused by bacteria, which are tiny, single-celled

organisms that can be found in the environment. Some common bacterial
infections include pneumonia, and urinary tract infections.
 Viral infections are caused by viruses, which are even smaller than bacteria and
can only reproduce inside living cells. E.g common cold, the flu, and COVID-19.
 Fungal infections are caused by fungi, which are microscopic organisms that can
be found in the environment, on plants, and on animals. Some common fungal
infections include ringworm, athlete's foot, and yeast infections.
 Parasitic infections are caused by parasites, which are organisms that live and
feed off of other organisms. Some common parasitic infections include malaria,
and head lice.

Infectious diseases can also be classified by how they are spread.

 Contagious: meaning that they can be spread from one person to another.
infection can be spread through a variety of ways, including:
o Direct contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood, saliva, or mucus.
o Indirect contact with contaminated objects, such as doorknobs, toys, or surfaces.
o Airborne transmission, such as through coughing or sneezing.
o Vector-borne transmission, such as through a mosquito bite.
 Non-contagious: infections are typically caused by pathogens that are present in
the environment. For example botulism, and histoplasmosis.

STAGES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES:

After a pathogen enters the body, an infectious disease can typically progress
through five stages:

1. Incubation stage: This is the period from exposure to the pathogen until
symptoms start. The pathogen is growing and multiplying in the body, but
the infected person is usually unaware of the infection. The duration of the
incubation stage varies depending on the type of pathogen. For example,
the incubation period for measles is typically 10-12 days, while the
incubation period for HIV can be several weeks to months.
2. Prodromal stage: This is the stage when mild, nonspecific symptoms
begin to appear. These symptoms may be similar to those of many different
illnesses, such as fatigue, headache, and muscle aches. The prodromal
stage may last for several days or weeks.
3. Illness stage: This is the stage when the person develops the characteristic
symptoms of the infection. The symptoms will vary depending on the type
of pathogen and the location of the infection. For example, a person with
the flu may experience fever, cough, sore throat, and muscle aches. A
person with pneumonia may experience fever, cough, shortness of breath,
and chest pain.
4. Decline stage: This is the stage when the number of infectious microbes
in the body begins to decline and symptoms start to resolve. The person
may still feel tired and weak, but they should start to feel better overall.
5. Convalescence stage: This is the stage when the body recovers from the
infection and symptoms completely disappear. The convalescence stage
can last for several days to weeks, depending on the severity of the
infection.

CHAIN OF INFECTION:

The chain of infection is a model that describes how infectious diseases are
transmitted.
1. Infectious agent: The pathogen that causes the disease. This can be a bacterium,
virus, fungus, or parasite.
2. Reservoir: The place where the infectious agent lives and multiplies. This can be
a person, animal, plant, or the environment.
3. Portal of exit: The way the infectious agent leaves the reservoir. This can be
through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary tract, or skin.
4. Mode of transmission: The way the infectious agent travels from the reservoir
to a new host. This can be through direct contact, indirect contact, airborne
transmission, or vector-borne transmission.
5. Portal of entry: The way the infectious agent enters a new host. This can be
through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary tract, or skin.
6. Susceptible host: A person or animal who is able to become infected with the
pathogen.

LIST THE SYSTEMATIC MANIFESTATION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE

The systematic manifestations of infectious diseases are the signs and symptoms
that can affect multiple organ systems in the body. These manifestations can be
caused by a variety of factors, including:
 The direct effects of the pathogen on the body's cells and tissues
 The release of toxins by the pathogen
 The immune system's response to the infection
Some of the most common systematic manifestations of infectious diseases
include:
 Fever
 Chills
 Fatigue
 Malaise
 Muscle aches
 Headache
 Loss of appetite
 Nausea and vomiting
 Diarrhea
 Rash
 Lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes)
 Shortness of breath
 Chest pain
 Confusion
 Delirium
 Seizures
 Shock
INFLAMMATION:

Inflammation is a complex biological response of body tissues to harmful

stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. The inflammatory
response is a protective response that involves immune cells, blood vessels, and
molecular mediators. The function of inflammation is to eliminate the initial
cause of cell injury, clear out necrotic cells and tissues damaged from the original
insult and the inflammatory process, and initiate tissue repair.

TYPES OF INFLAMMATION:

Inflammation can be classified as either acute or chronic.

Acute inflammation: is the initial response of the body to harmful stimuli and is
usually short-lived.

Chronic inflammation: Chronic inflammation is a long-term inflammatory

response that can occur even when the initial cause of the inflammation is no
longer present. Is associated with a number of diseases, including heart disease,
cancer, and autoimmune diseases. Chronic inflammation can damage tissues and
organs and lead to serious health problems.
 There are a number of things that can trigger inflammation, including:

 Infection
 Injury
 Irritants, such as chemicals, allergens, and smoke
 Autoimmune diseases
 Cancer
 Obesity
 Stress

PURPOSE OF INFLAMMATION:

The purposes of inflammation are to:

 Eliminate the initial cause of cell injury: Inflammation does this by attracting
immune cells to the site of injury, where they can destroy or remove the pathogen
or irritant that caused the damage.
 Clear out necrotic cells and tissues damaged from the original insult and the
inflammatory process: Inflammation does this by releasing enzymes that break
down dead and damaged cells.
 Initiate tissue repair: Inflammation does this by releasing chemicals that
promote the growth of new cells and blood vessels.

FIVE CARDINAL SIGNS OF INFLAMMATION

The five cardinal signs of inflammation are:

 Redness
 Heat
 Swelling
 Pain
 Loss of function
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE PRODUCTION
OF EACH CARDINAL SIGN OF INFLAMMATION:
 Redness
 The dilation of small blood vessels in the area of inflammation is caused
by the release of vasodilators. Vasodilators are chemicals that cause blood
vessels to relax and widen. Some examples of vasodilators that are released
during inflammation include histamine, prostaglandins, and nitric oxide.
 Heat
The increased blood flow to the area of inflammation causes the area to
feel warm to the touch. This is because the blood carries heat with it. In
addition, white blood cells release heat-producing chemicals called
pyrogens during inflammation. Pyrogens cause the body's temperature to
rise, which can also lead to the area of inflammation feeling warm to the
touch.
 Swelling
The accumulation of fluid and cells at the site of inflammation is caused
by the increased blood flow to the area and by the release of chemicals that
cause blood vessels to leak fluid and cells. The fluid that accumulates at
the site of inflammation is called edema. Edema is a mixture of water,
proteins, and other substances. The cells that accumulate at the site of
inflammation are mostly white blood cells, which are fighting the infection
or injury.
 Pain
Pain is caused by the release of chemicals that irritate nerve endings. These
chemicals are called algesics. Some examples of algesics that are released
during inflammation include histamine, prostaglandins, and bradykinin.
 Loss of function
Loss of function is caused by the damage to tissue and the swelling that
can restrict movement. The damage to tissue is caused by the infection or
injury, as well as by the inflammatory response itself. The swelling can
restrict movement by putting pressure on nerves and blood vessels.
PHASES OF INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
The inflammatory response can be divided into four phases:
1. Initiation OR hemodynamic: This phase begins when the body is exposed to a
harmful stimulus, such as an infection or injury. The stimulus triggers the release
of inflammatory mediators, such as histamine and prostaglandins. These
mediators cause vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) and increased vascular
permeability (leaking of fluid and cells out of blood vessels).
2. Vascular phase: This phase is characterized by increased blood flow to the area
of inflammation. This brings immune cells and other important molecules to the
site.
3. Cellular phase: This phase is characterized by the recruitment and activation of
immune cells to the site of inflammation. The main types of immune cells
involved in the cellular phase are neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes.
4. Resolution phase: This phase begins when the harmful stimulus has been
eliminated and the tissue has begun to heal. The inflammatory response is turned
down and the immune cells leave the site of inflammation

DIFFERENTIATE THE HEMODYNAMIC AND CELLULAR PHASES OF

INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE:
The hemodynamic and cellular phases of the inflammatory response are
two distinct but overlapping stages of inflammation.
Hemodynamic phase
The hemodynamic phase is the early stage of inflammation and is
characterized by changes in blood flow to the affected area. These changes
include:
 Vasodilation: The blood vessels in the area of inflammation widen, resulting in
increased blood flow. This is caused by the release of vasodilators, such as
histamine and prostaglandins.
 Increased vascular permeability: The blood vessels in the area of inflammation
become more permeable, allowing fluid and cells to leak out into the surrounding
tissues. This is caused by the release of inflammatory mediators, such as
histamine and bradykinin.
The hemodynamic phase is important for delivering immune cells and other
important molecules to the site of inflammation. It also helps to remove waste
products and debris.
Cellular phase
The cellular phase of inflammation begins as soon as the hemodynamic
phase is initiated. It is characterized by the recruitment and activation of immune
cells to the site of inflammation. The main types of immune cells involved in the
cellular phase are:
 Neutrophils: Neutrophils are the first type of immune cell to arrive at the site of
inflammation. They are phagocytic cells, meaning they are able to engulf and
destroy bacteria and other foreign particles.
 Macrophages: Macrophages are also phagocytic cells, but they are more long-
lived and versatile than neutrophils. Macrophages can also produce a variety of
inflammatory mediators, which can help to amplify the inflammatory response.
 Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are responsible for the adaptive immune response.
They can produce antibodies that can specifically target and neutralize pathogens.
The cellular phase of inflammation is responsible for eliminating the pathogen or
irritant that caused the inflammation and for repairing the damaged tissue.
Differences between the hemodynamic and cellular phases of inflammation
The hemodynamic and cellular phases of inflammation differ in several
key ways:
 Timing: The hemodynamic phase is the earlier stage of inflammation, while the
cellular phase begins as soon as the hemodynamic phase is initiated.
 Cellular changes: The hemodynamic phase is characterized by changes in blood
flow, while the cellular phase is characterized by the recruitment and activation
of immune cells.
 Purpose: The purpose of the hemodynamic phase is to deliver immune cells and
other important molecules to the site of inflammation. The purpose of the cellular
phase is to eliminate the pathogen or irritant that caused the inflammation and to
repair the damaged tissue.
Hemodynamic and cellular phases of inflammation are not mutually exclusive.
They often overlap and work together to protect the body from infection and
injury.
DIFFRENTIATE BETWEEN CHRONIC AND ACUTE INFLAMMATION
Acute and chronic inflammation are two distinct but interrelated types of
inflammation.
Acute inflammation is a short-term response to injury or infection. It is
characterized by a rapid influx of immune cells to the site of injury or infection.
These immune cells work to eliminate the harmful stimulus and repair the
damaged tissue. Acute inflammation typically lasts for a few days to a few weeks.
Chronic inflammation is a long-term inflammatory response that can last for
months or even years. It is often characterized by a persistent presence of immune
cells at the site of inflammation. Chronic inflammation can be caused by a variety
of factors, including autoimmune diseases, infections, and exposure to toxins.
Differences between acute and chronic inflammation:
Characteristic Acute inflammation Chronic inflammation

Duration Short-term (days to weeks) Long-term (months to years)

Autoimmune diseases,
Cause Injury, infection
infections, exposure to toxins

Immune
Neutrophils, macrophages,
cells Macrophages, lymphocytes
lymphocytes
involved

Tissue
Reversible Irreversible
damage

Redness, heat, swelling, Fatigue, pain, swelling,

Symptoms
pain, loss of function stiffness
 Examples of acute inflammation:
 Sprained ankle
 Cut finger
 Sore throat from a cold
 Pneumonia
Examples of chronic inflammation:
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 Crohn's disease
 Ulcerative colitis
 Asthma