Theory of Computation

Lecture 10
CFG & PDA (Cont’d)

Dr. Samar Hesham

Department of Computer Science
Faculty of Computers and AI
Cairo University
Egypt

1
Syllabus and Terminologies

 Regular Languages .. Regular Sets

 REs (Regular Expressions)
 FSMs (or FSA/FA) … Finite State Machines/Automata
 DFSM/DFA vs. NDFSM/NFA … Deterministic vs. Non-deterministic FSM
 Comparison and conversion
 Examples & Closure Operations
 Context Free Languages
 CFGs … Context Free Grammars
 PDA … Push Down Automata
 Some applications
 Turing Machine

5/31/2024 FCI-CU-EG 2
The States

Input Pop Push

symbol symbol symbol

q1 a, b  c q2

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 3

 n
ab:n with Stack Check

PDA M: L( M )  {a b : n  0} n n

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 4
Basic Idea: L( M )  {a b : n  0}
n n

1. Push the a’s 2. Match the b’s on input

on the stack with a’s on stack
3. Match
found

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 5
Execution Example: Time 0

Input

a a a b b b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q b, a   q , $  $ q
1 2 3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 6
 Time 1

Input

a a a b b b
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 7
 Time 2

Input

a a a b b b a
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 8
 Time 3

Input
a
a a a b b b a
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 9
 Time 4

Input
a
a
a a a b b b a
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 10
 Time 5
a
Input
a
a a a b b b a
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 11
 Time 6

Input
a
a a a b b b a
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 12
 Time 7

Input

a a a b b b a
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 13
 Time 8

Input

a a a b b b
$
Stack

a,   a b, a  
accept

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 14
Rejection Example: Time 0

Input

a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q b, a   q , $  $ q
1 2 3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 15
Rejection Example: Time 1

Input

a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 16
Rejection Example: Time 2

Input

a
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 17
Rejection Example: Time 3

Input a
a
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 18
Rejection Example: Time 4

Input a
a
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 19
Rejection Example: Time 4

Input a
a
a a b
$
Stack

reject
current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 20
There is no accepting computation for aab

The string aab is rejected by the PDA

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 21
 Palindromes with stack checking


PDA M: L( M )  {vv : v  {a, b} } R

a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 22
 
Basic Idea: L( M )  {vv : v  {a, b} } R

R
1. Push v v
3. Match on input
2. Guess with v on stack
on stack middle
of input

a,   a a, a   4. Match
found
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 23
Execution Example: Time 0

Input

a b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 24
 Time 1

Input

a b b a
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 25
 Time 2

Input
b
a b b a
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 26
 Time 3

Input
b
a b b a
Guess the middle a
of string
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 27
 Time 4

Input
b
a b b a
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 28
 Time 5

Input

a b b a
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 29
 Time 6

Input

a b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  
accept

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 30
Rejection Example: Time 0

Input

a b b b
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 31
 Time 1

Input

a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 32
 Time 2

Input
b
a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 33
 Time 3

Input
b
a b b b
Guess the middle a
of string
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 34
 Time 4

Input
b
a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 35
 Time 5

Input There is no possible transition.

a b b b Input is not consumed

a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 36
Another computation on same string:
Input Time 0

a b b b
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 37
 Time 1

Input

a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 38
 Time 2

Input
b
a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 39
 Time 3

Input b
b
a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 40
 Time 4 b
Input b
b
a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 41
 Time 5 b
Input b
No accept state
is reached b
a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 42
 There is no computation
that accepts stringabbb

abbb  L(M )

a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 43
Another PDA example
L( M )  {w  {a, b} : na ( w)  nb ( w)}*

PDA M

a, $  0$ b, $  1$
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 44
Execution Example: Time 0

Input

a b b b a a

$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  
current
state
q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 45
 Time 1
Input

a b b b a a
0
$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 46
 Time 3
Input

a b b b a a
0
$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 47
 Time 4
Input

a b b b a a
1
$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 48
 Time 5
Input

a b b b a a 1
1
$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 49
 Time 6
Input

a b b b a a 1
1
$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 50
 Time 7
Input

a b b b a a
1
$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 51
 Time 8
Input

a b b b a a

$
a, $  0$ b, $  1$ Stack
a, 0  00 b, 1  11
a, 1   b, 0  
accept

q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 52
Formal Definition
Pushdown Automaton (PDA)

M  (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0 , z , F ) Accept
states
States

Input
Stack
alphabet
start
Transition Initial symbol
Stack function state
alphabet
Costas Busch - RPI 53
Types of PDA Transitions

 Two types of PDA transitions:

δ(q, a, z) = {(p1,γ1), (p2,γ2),…, (pm,γm)}

 Current state is q a/z/ γ1 p1

 Current input symbol is a
 Symbol currently on top of the stack z q a/z/ γ2 p2
 Move to state pi from q a/z/ γm
 Replace z with γi on the stack (leftmost symbol on top)
 Move the input head to the next input symbol
pm

54
Types of PDA Transitions

 Two types of PDA transitions:

δ(q, ε, z) = {(p1,γ1), (p2,γ2),…, (pm,γm)}

 Current state is q ε/z/ γ1 p1

 Current input symbol is not considered
q ε/z/ γ2 p2
 Symbol currently on top of the stack z
 Move to state pi from q ε/z/ γm

 Replace z with γi on the stack (leftmost symbol on top)

 No input symbol is read
pm

55
 a , w1  w2
q1 q2

Transition function:

 (q1 , a ,w1 )  {(q2 ,w 2 )}

Costas Busch - RPI 56

 a , w1  w2 q2

q1

a , w1  w3 q3

Transition function:

 (q1 , a ,w 1 )  {(q2 ,w 2 ), (q3,w 3 )}

Costas Busch - RPI 57

 Example: 0n1n, n>=0
M = ({q1, q2}, {0, 1}, {L, #}, δ, q1, #, Ø)
δ:
(1) δ(q1, 0, #) = {(q1, L#)} // stack order: L on top, then # below
(2) δ(q1, 1, #) = Ø // illegal, string rejected, When will it happen?
(3) δ(q1, 0, L) = {(q1, LL)}
(4) δ(q1, 1, L) = {(q2, ε)}
(5) δ(q2, 1, L) = {(q2, ε)}
(6) δ(q2, ε, #) = {(q2, ε)} // if ε read & stack hits bottom, accept
(7) δ(q2, ε, L) = Ø // illegal, string rejected
(8) δ(q1, ε, #) = {(q2, ε)} // n=0, accept

 Goal: (acceptance)
 Read the entire input string
 Terminate with an empty stack

 Informally, a string is accepted if there exists a computation that uses up all the input
and leaves the stack empty.
58
0011
• (q1, 0 011, #) |-
(q1, 0 11, L#) |-
(q1, 1 1, LL#) |-
(q2, 1, L#) |-
(q2, e, #) |-
(q2, e, e): accept
• 011
• (q1, 0 11, #) |-
(q1, 1 1, L#) |-
(q2, 1, #) |-
Ø : reject

59
 Example: balanced parentheses,
 e.g. in-language: ((())()), or (())(), but not-in-language: ((())

M = ({q1}, {“(“, “)”}, {L, #}, δ, q1, #, Ø)

δ:
(1) δ(q1, (, #) = {(q1, L#)} // stack order: L-on top-then- # lower
(2) δ(q1, ), #) = Ø // illegal, string rejected
(3) δ(q1, (, L) = {(q1, LL)}
(4) δ(q1, ), L) = {(q1, ε)}
(5) δ(q1, ε, #) = {(q1, ε)} // if ε read & stack hits bottom, accept
(6) δ(q1, ε, L) = Ø // illegal, string rejected
// What does it mean? When will it happen?

 Goal: (acceptance)
 Read the entire input string
 Terminate with an empty stack

60
 Example PDA #2: For the language {x | x = wwr and w in {0,1}*}
 Note: length |x| is even
M = ({q1, q2}, {0, 1}, {#, B, G}, δ, q1, #, Ø)

δ:
(1) δ(q1, 0, #) = {(q1, B#)}
(2) δ(q1, 1, #) = {(q1, G#)}
(3) δ(q1, 0, B) = {(q1, BB), (q2, ε)} (6) δ(q1, 1, G) = {(q1, GG), (q2, ε)}
(4) δ(q1, 0, G) = {(q1, BG)} (7) δ(q2, 0, B) = {(q2, ε)}
(5) δ(q1, 1, B) = {(q1, GB)} (8) δ(q2, 1, G) = {(q2, ε)}
(9) δ(q1, ε, #) = {(q2, #)}
(10) δ(q2, ε, #) = {(q2, ε)}

 Notes:
 Rules #3 and #6 are non-deterministic: two options each
 Rules #9 and #10 are used to pop the final stack symbol off at the end of a computation.

61
 Example Computation:

(1) δ(q1, 0, #) = {(q1, B#)} (6) δ(q1, 1, G) = {(q1, GG), (q2, ε)}
(2) δ(q1, 1, #) = {(q1, G#)} (7) δ(q2, 0, B) = {(q2, ε)}
(3) δ(q1, 0, B) = {(q1, BB), (q2, ε)} (8) δ(q2, 1, G) = {(q2, ε)}
(4) δ(q1, 0, G) = {(q1, BG)} (9) δ(q1, ε, #) = {(q2, ε)}
(5) δ(q1, 1, B) = {(q1, GB)} (10) δ(q2, ε, #) = {(q2, ε)}

State Input Stack Rule Applied Rules Applicable

q1 000000 # (1), (9)
q1 00000 B# (1) (3), both options
q1 0000 BB# (3) option #1 (3), both options
q1 000 BBB# (3) option #1 (3), both options
q2 00 BB# (3)option #2 (7)
q2 0 B# (7) (7)
q2 ε # (7) (10)
q2 ε ε (10)

62
Instantaneous Description

( q, u , s )

Current Current
state Remaining stack
input contents

At any time ti

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 63

Example: Instantaneous Description

(q1, bbb, aaa$)

a
Time 4: Input
a
a a a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 64
Example: Instantaneous Description

(q2 , bb, aa$)

a
Time 5: Input
a
a a a b b b a
$
Stack
a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 65
We write:

(q1, bbb, aaa$)  (q2 , bb, aa$)

Time 4 Time 5

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 66

A computation:
(q0 , aaabbb,$)  (q1, aaabbb,$) 
(q1, aabbb, a$)  (q1, abbb, aa$)  (q1, bbb, aaa$) 
(q2 , bb, aa$)  (q2 , b, a$)  (q2 ,  ,$)  (q3 ,  ,$)

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 67
(q0 , aaabbb,$)  (q1, aaabbb,$) 
(q1, aabbb, a$)  (q1, abbb, aa$)  (q1, bbb, aaa$) 
(q2 , bb, aa$)  (q2 , b, a$)  (q2 ,  ,$)  (q3 ,  ,$)

For convenience we write:


(q0 , aaabbb,$)  (q3 ,  ,$)

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 68

Language of PDA

Language L(M ) accepted by PDA M :


L( M )  {w : (q0 , w, z )  (q f ,  , z )}

Initial state Accept state

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 69

Example: 
(q0 , aaabbb,$)  (q3 ,  ,$)

aaabbb  L(M )
PDA M:

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 70
 
(q0 , a b ,$)  (q3 ,  ,$)
n n

a b  L(M )
n n

PDA M:

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 71
 Therefore:
L( M )  {a b : n  0} n n

PDA M :

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 72
PDA versus CFLs

A language L is context-free if and only if there is a pushdown

automata M that recognizes L.

Two step proof:

1) Given a CFG G, construct a PDA MG

2) Given a PDA M, make a CFG GM

Theorem:

Context-Free
Languages
(Grammars)
 Languages
Accepted by
PDAs

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 74

Proof - Step 1:

Context-Free
Languages
(Grammars)
 Languages
Accepted by
PDAs

Convert any context-free grammar G

to a PDA M
with:

L(G )  L( M )

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 75

Proof - Step 2:

Context-Free
Languages
(Grammars)
 Languages
Accepted by
PDAs

Convert any PDA M to a context-free

grammar G
with:

L(G )  L( M )

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 76

 Proof - step 1

Convert

Context-Free Grammars
to
PDAs

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 77

Take an arbitrary context-free grammar G

We will convert G to a PDA M such that:

L(G )  L( M )

Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 78

 Conversion Procedure:
For each For each
production in G terminal in G
Aw a
Add transitions

, A  w a, a  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 79
Grammar
Example
S  aSTb
S b  , S  aSTb
T  Ta , S  b PDA
T   , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 80
Sample Run:
Input a b a b

 , S  aSTb $
Time 0
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

,   S , $  $
q0
Fall 2006
q1
Costas Busch - RPI
q2 81
Derivation: S
Input a b a b
S
 , S  aSTb $
Time 1
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 82
Derivation: S  aSTb a
Input S
a b a b T
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 2
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 83
Derivation: S  aSTb a
Input S
a b a b T
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 3
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 84
Derivation: S  aSTb  abTb
Input
b
a b a b T
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 4
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 85
Derivation: S  aSTb  abTb
Input
b
a b a b T
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 5
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 86
Derivation: S  aSTb  abTb  abTab
Input T
a b a b a
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 6
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 87
Derivation: S  aSTb  abTb  abTab  abab
Input T
a b a b a
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 7
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 88
Derivation: S  aSTb  abTb  abTab  abab
Input a b a b a
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 8
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 89
Derivation: S  aSTb  abTb  abTab  abab
Input a b a b
b
 , S  aSTb $
Time 9
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 90
Derivation: S  aSTb  abTb  abTab  abab
Input a b a b

 , S  aSTb $
Time 10
, S  b Stack

 , T  Ta a, a  
, T   b, b  
accept

q0 ,   S q1 , $  $ q2
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 91
 PDA simulates leftmost derivations
Grammar PDA Computation
Leftmost Derivation
(q0 ,  1  k k 1  n ,$)
S  (q1 ,  1  k k 1  n , S $)
 
  1  k X 1  X m  (q1 ,  k 1  n , X 1  X m $)
 
  1  k k 1  n  (q2 ,  ,$)

Scanned Stack
Fall 2006
symbols contents
Costas Busch - RPI 92
Grammar PDA Computation
Leftmost Derivation
(q0 , abab,$)
S  (q1 , abab, S $)
 aSTb  (q1 , bab, STb$)
 (q1 , bab, bTb$)
 abTb
 (q1 , ab, Tb$)
 abTab  (q1 , ab, Tab$)
 abab  (q1 , ab, ab$)
 (q1 , b, b$)
 (q1 ,  ,$)
 (q2 ,  ,$)
Fall 2006 Costas Busch - RPI 93