Motion Physics Module 10

JEE Class Companion
Physics
For JEE Main and Advanced
Module-10
Chapter_1 Modern Physics - 1
Chapter_2 Modern Physics - 2
Chapter_3 Semi Conductor
(P–N Junction & Logic Gate)
Chapter_4 Communication System

Contents_____________________
Chapter_1 : Modern Physics-1 Atomic Model 1.15
Section A - Photoelectric Effect 1.1 Dalton's atomic model 1.15
Nature of light 1.1 Thomson's atomic model (or Plum-

Newton's Corpuscular theory 1.1 pudding model) 1.15
Hugen's wave theory 1.1 Type of line spectrum 1.16
Maxwell's electromagnetic wave theory 1.1 Ruthorford's Atomic Model 1.16
Max Planck's quantum theory of light 1.1 Determination of distance of closest approach 1.17
Debroglie Hypothesis 1.1 Section C - Bohr Model, Bohr Model nuclear
A. Photoelectric Effect 1.2 motion 1.18
Three Major Features of the Bohr's Model of an Atom 1.18
Phtoelectric effect cannot be First Postulate 1.19
explained in terms of the classical Second Postulate 1.19
of the wave theory of light. 1.2 Third Postulate 1.20
Threshold frequency and Threshold Properties of Electron in Bohr's
wavelength 1.3 Atomic Model 1.20
Einstein relation 1.3 Excitation and Ionization of an Atom 1.23
Experimental Study of Photo Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom 1.26
Electric Effect 1.5 Application of nucleus motion on
Kinetic Energies of Electrons energy of atom 1.27
Reaching Anode 1.7 Section D - Atomic Collisions 1.28
Reversed Potential Across Discharge Tube 1.7 Atomic collision 1.28
Cut of Potential or Stopping Potential 1.8 Section E - X–rays production, X–Rays
Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties 1.30

Effect of Change in Frequency of
X-Rays 1.30
Light on Stopping Potential 1.8
Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter Waves

Produced of x-rays by coolidge tube 1.30
+ Davisson Germer Experiment 1.11 Variation of Intensity of x-rays with
Force Due to Radiation (Photon) 1.11 l is plotted as shown in figure 1.30
De-Broglie Wavelength of Matter Wave 1.15 Moseley's Law 1.32
De-Broglie Wavelength For an Electron 1.15 Exercise 1.33
Answer Key 1.57

De-Broglie Wavelength of a Aas Molecule 1.15
Chapter_2 : Modern Physics-2 Chapter_3 : Semi Conductor
Section A - Rutherford's Experiment, Nuclear (PN-Junction)

Properties (Radius, Density, Isotopes etc.) 2.1
PN - Junction 3.1
Nucleus 2.2 Energy Bands in Solids 3.1
Section B - Mass Defect, Binding Energy, Types of solid material on the
Stability 2.2 Basis of for bidden energy gap 3.1
Mass Defect 2.2 Insulators 3.1
Semiconductors 3.1
Binding Energy 2.3
Comparison between conductors,
Variation of binding energy
insulators and semiconductors 3.2
per nucleon with mass number 2.3
Comment : Band structure and
Section C - Radioactiving law 2.3
optical properties 3.3
Radioactivity 2.3
Types of Semiconductors 3.3
Section D -, ,  decay, Fission & Fussion
Conduction in intrinsic semiconductors 3.3
2.4
Extrinsic semiconductors 3.5
Radioactive Decay
N-Type Semiconductor 3.5
(Displacement Law) 2.4
P-Type Semiconductor 3.6
-decay 2.4
PN Junction
– – decay 2.5
PN Junction with forward bias 3.8
+
 – decay 2.5
PN Junction with reverse bias 3.8
K Capture 2.6 PN Junction diode characteristics 3.8
Nuclear Stability 2.6 Reverse break down 3.9
Nuclear force 2.6 Rectifier 3.10
Radioactive decay : Statistical Law 2.7 Half wave rectifier 3.10
Half Life (T1/2) 2.7 Full wave rectifier 3.10
Activity 2.7 Bridge Rectifier 3.11
Average Life 2.7 Comparison Between Rectifiers 3.12
Filter circuit 3.12

Nuclear Fission 2.9
Some special diodes 3.13
Nuclear fusion (Thermo nuclear reaction 2.9
Transistor 3.14
Exercise 2.10
Answer Key 2.26

Transistor configuration and its use as an An Important Step In Communications
amplifier 3.17 Modulation and Its Need 4.4
Point to Remember 3.20 Amplitude Modulation 4.4
Frequency Modulation 4.6

Comparison of Amplitude F Modulation
Logic Gates 3.21
and Frequency Modulation 4.4
Introduction 3.21
Propagation of Electromagnetic Wave 4.8
Basic Logic Gates 3.21
Transmission Medium or Communication
Summary of Logic Gates 3.24
channel 4.8
NUMBER SYSTEMS 3..25
Ground Wave 4.8
Exercise 3.26
Behaviour of Atmosphere Towards
Answer Key 3.41
Electromagnetic Wave 4.9
Radiowaves 4.9
Space Wave Propagation 4.10
Chapter_4 : Communication System
Sky Wave 4.10
Communication System 4.1
Important Terms For Sky Wave Propagation 4.10
Antenna 4.2
Relation Between Coverage Distance
Message Signals 4.2
and Height of Transmitting Antenna 4.11
Types of Communication Systems 4.3
Exercise 4.13
Answer Key 4.16

Syllabus
* Modern Physics–1
Bohr’s theory of hydrogen-like atoms; Characteristic and continuous X-rays, Moseley’s law; de
Broglie wavelength of matter waves.
* Modern Physics-2
Atomic nucleus; Alpha, beta and gamma radiations; Law of radioactive decay; Decay constant;
Half-life and mean life; Binding energy and its calculation; Fission and Fusion processes; Energy
calculation in these processes.
* Semi Conductor (PN Junction)

As you have gone through the theory part that consists of given fundamental principles,
definitions, concepts involved and solved problems. After going through theory part it becomes
necessary to solve the unsolved problems based on the concepts given. To solve this purpose we
are providing exercise part that comprises of various exercises based on the theory. By solving
various kinds of problems you can check your grasp on the topic and can determine whether you
have been able to find optimum depth in relevant topic or not.
Students are advised to solve the questions of exercises (Levels # 1, 2, 3, 4) in the same
sequence or as directed by the faculty members, religiously and very carefully. Level # 3 is not
for foundation course students, it will be discussed in fresher or target courses.
* COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
As you have gone through the theory part that consists of given fundamental principles,
definitions, concepts involved and solved problems. After going through theory part it becomes
necessary to solve the unsolved problems based on the concepts given. To solve this purpose we
are providing exercise part that comprises of various exercises based on the theory. By solving
various kinds of problems you can check your grasp on the topic and can determine whether you
have been able to find optimum depth in relevant topic or not.
Students are advised to solve the questions of exercises (Levels # 1, 2, 3, 4) in the same
sequence or as directed by the faculty members, religiously and very carefully. Level # 3 is not
for foundation course students, it will be discussed in fresher or target courses.
Modern Physics–1 1.1
Section A - Photoelectric Effect 1.5 Debroglie Hypothesis

It supports dual nature of light (wave nature and
1. NATURE OF LIGHT particle nature). According to him the light consists
It was a matter of great interest for scientists of of particles associated with definite amount of energy
know that what exactly from the light is made up of and momemtum. These particles were later named
or how the light behaves. This is briefly described as photons.
over here The photon posses momentum and is given by
h
1.1 Newton's Corpuscular Theory : P ...(1)

Newton was the first scientist who said that light is
made 0 up tiny elastic particles called "Corpuscles" P = momentum of one photon
which travels with the velocity of light. So according  = wavelength of every point wave.
to Newtons, light is a particle. h = Planck's constant = 6.62 × 10–34 Js.
A photon is a packet of energy. It posses energy
1.2 Huygen's Wave Theory : given by
hc
Huygen was a scientist working parallel to Newton E ...(2)

who come with a drastically different idea for nature
of light & said that light is not a particle but a wave. where c = speed of light
Debroglie relates particle property (momentum) with
1.3 Maxwell's Electromagnetic Wave wave property (wavelength) i.e. he favours dual
Theory : nature of light.
During the time of Hygen, his views regarding nature Electron volt : It is the energy gained by an electron
of light were not accepted as newton was a popular when it is accelerated through a potential difference
scientist of his time. but, when maxwell asserted of one volt.
that light is a electromagnetic wave, scientists started 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 Joule.
believing that light is a wave. Now from eq. (2)
6.62  10 –34  3  108

1.4 Max Planck's Quantum Theory of Light : E in Joule.

Once again when scientists started believing that the
light is a wave Max Planck came with different
6.62 10 –34  3  108
idea & asserted that light is not a wave but a photon E eV
  1.6  10 –19
(i.e. a particle) which he proved through balck body
radiation spectrum. At this time there was a great 12400
confusion about the nature of light which was solved E ev

by de-broglie from where origin of theory of matter
where  is in Å
wave come into picture.
Plot no. 46, Corner Building, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota, 9214233303|43
1.2 Theory and Exercise Book
Properties of Photon : When light is incident on a metal surface it was

1. Photon travels with speed of light. observed that electrons are ejected from a metal
2. The rest mass of a photon is zero. surface some times even when incredicely dim light
3. There is no concept of photon conservation. such as that from starts and distance galaxies
4. All the photons of a particular frequency or incident on it and some time electrons not comes
out from the metal surface even high energetic or
wavelength posses the same energy irrespective of
high intensity light falling on the metal surface.
the intensity of the radiation.
This shows that the electron emission from a metal
5. The increase in the intensity of the radiation imply
surface is not depends on the intensity of incident
an increase in the number of photon's crossing a light but it is basically depends on the energy of the
given area per second. incident.
When light travels from one medium to another Photons no matters in number of photons are very
medium then less in a dim light, photo electric effect can be seen.
frequency = const (because it is the property of During the phenomenon of photoelectric effect one
incident photon on metal surface can eject at most
source)
only one electron.
but v,  changes
A photon is an energy packet which is fully absorbed
not partially. Thus one photon can not be absorbed
EXAMPLE 1 by more than one electron.
A beam of light having wavelength  and The minimum amount of energy of photon required
intensity 1 falls normally on an area A of a clean to eject an electron out of a metal surface is called
surface then work function It is denoted by .
find out the number of photon incident on the The work function depends on the nature of the
metal.
surface.
light
1. The electron emission from a metal is only depends

on the work function or energy of one photons.
2. But how many electrons comes out from the metal
I is depends on intensity of the falling light on energy
of the light.
3. Energy of photon incident on metal will not
A necessarily cause emission of an electron even if
Sol. Total energy incident in time t = I A t
its energy is more than work function. The electron
hc after absorption may be involved in many other
Energy of one photon E  process like collision etc in which it can lose energy

hence the ratio of no. of electrons emitted to the
Then number of photon incident in time t
no. of photons incident on metal surface is less than
Total energy incident IA t  unity.
 
energy of one photon hc
1.6 Th ree Majo r Fe atu res of t he
Photoelectric effect which cannot be
A. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
explained in terms of the classical of
Electron Emission Process :
the wave theory of light are.
light f , , I
(a) The intensity problem : Wave theory requires
that the oscillating electric field vector E of the light
wave increases in amplitude as the intensity of the
e– e– (Photoelectron) light beam is increased. Since the force applied to
the electron is eE, this suggests that the kinetic of a metal as it is the minimum frequency of the
energy of the photoelectrons should also increase light radiation required to eject a free electron from
the light beam is made more intense. However the metal surface.
observation shows that maximum kinetic energy is
independent of the light intensity. As the threshold frequency is defined, we can also
define threshold wavelength  th for a metal surface.
(b) The frequency problem : According to the wave Threshold wavelength is also called cut off
theory, the photoelectric effect should occur for any wavelength. For a given metal surface threshold
frequency of the light, provided only that the light is wavelength is the longest wavelength at which photo
intense enough to supply the energy needed to eject electric effect is possible. Thus we have
the photoelectrons. However observations shows that
hc
there exists for each surface a characterstic cutoff 
 th
frequency th , for frequency less than th , the
photoelectric effect does not occur, no matter how So for wavelength of incident light    th , the
intense is light beam. energy of incident photons will become less then
the work function of the metal and hence
(c) The time delay problem : If the energy acquired photoelectric effect will not start.
by a photoelectron is absorbed directly from the wave Thus for a given metal surface photoelectric emission
incident on the metal plate, the "effective target area" will start at    th or    th .
for an electron in the metal is limited and probably
not much more than that of a circle of diameter 1.7 EINSTEIN RELATION:
roughly equal to that of an atom. In the classical
Einstein suggested that the energy of photon (h  )
theory, the light energy is uniformly distributed over
which is more than work function of a metal when
the wavefront. Thus, if the light is feeble enough,
incident on the metal surface is used by the electron
there should be a measurable time lag, between the
after absorption in two parts.
impinging of the light on the surface and the ejection
(i) A part of energy of absorbed photon is used by
of the photoelectron. During this interval the electron
the free electron in work done in coming out from
should be absorbing energy from the beam until it
the metal surface as work function.
had accumulated enough to escape. However, no
(ii) The remaining part of the photon energy will be
detectable time lag has ever been measured.
gained by the electron in the form of kinetic energy
Now, quantum theory solves these problems in after ejection from the metal surface.
providing the correct interpretation of the  
photoelectric effect. 
e
–
e
1.7 Threshold Frequency & Threshold
Wavelength
We have discussed that to start photoelectric
emission the energy of incident photon on metal
surface must be more than the work function of the Work function = 
metal. If  is the work function of the metal then
there must be a minimum frequency of the incident If a light beam of frequency  (each photon energy
light photon which is just able to eject the electron = h) is incident on a metal surface having work
from the metal surface. This minimum frequency function  then for h   , we have
or threshold frequency vth can be given as
1
h  th   h    mv 2max ...(1)
2
Threshold frequency th is a characteristic property
In equation (1) the second terms on right hand side
From the graph we can note the following points.

1 2
of equation is mv max , which is the maximum (i) Kmax = 0 at f = f 0
2
(ii) Slope of the straight line is h, a universal constant.
kinetic energy of the ejected electron. i.e., if graph is plotted for two different metals 1
In practical cases whenever an electron absorbs a and 2, slope of both the lines is same.
photon from incident light, it comes out from the (iii) The negative intercept of the line is W, the work
metal surface if h   but in process of ejection it function, which is characteristic of a metal, i.e.,
intercepts for two different metals will be different.
may collide with the neighbouring electrons and
Further,
before ejection it may loose some energy during
W2 > W1  (f0)2 > (f 0)1
collisions with the neighbouring electrons. In this
Here f 0 = threshold frequency
case after ejection the kinetic energy of ejected
as W = h f0
electrons will be certainly less then (h – ) . If we
assume there are some electrons which do not loose EXAMPLE 2
any energy in the process of ejection, will come out The photoelectric threshold of the photo electric
from the metal surface with the maximum kinetic effect of a certain metal is 2750 Å. Find
energy given as (i) The work function of emission of an electron
from this metal,
1 2
mv max  h   (ii) Maximum kinetic energy of these electrons,
2
(iii) The maximum velocity of the electrons
Thus all the ejected electrons from the metal surface
ejected from the metal by light with a wavelength
may have different kinetic energies, distributed from
1800 Å.
1 2 Sol. (i) Given that the threshold wavelength of a metal is
0 to mv max .
2  th  2750 Å . Thus work function of metal can be
given as
Graph between Kmax and f
hc 12431
  eV  4.52 eV
2
 th 2750
1
Kmax (ii) The energy of incident photon of wavelength 1800
Å on metal in eV is
f 12431
f(0)1 f(0)2
E eV  6.9 eV
1800
W1
Thus maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons
W2
is
K E max  E   = 6.9 – 4.52 eV = 2.38 eV
(iii) If the maximum speed of ejected electrons is
Let us plot a graph between maximum kinetic energy vmax then we have
Kmax of photoelectrons and frequency f of incident 1 2
light. The equation between Kmax and f is, mv max  2.38eV
2
K max  h f – W or
comparing it with y = mx + c, the graph between
Kmax and f is a straight line with positive slope and 2  2.38  1.6 1019
v max   9.15  105 m / s
negative intercept. 9.1 10 31
EXAMPLE 3 EXAMPLE 5
Light quanta with a energy 4.9 eV eject Light of wavelength 1800 Å ejects
photoelectrons from metal with work function photoelectrons from a plate of a metal whose
4.5 eV. Find the maximum impulse transmitted work functions is 2 eV. If a uniform magnetic
to the surface of the metal when each
field of 5 105 tesla is applied parallel to plate,
electrons flies out.
Sol. According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation what would be the radius of the path followed
by electrons ejected normally from the plate
1
E  mv 2max  hv    4.9  4.5  0.4 eV with maximum energy.
2
Sol. Energy of incident photons in eV is given as
If E be the energy of each ejected photo electron
momentum of electrons is P  2mE 12431
E eV
We know that change of momentum is impulse. 1800
Here the whole momentum of electron is gained As work function of metal is 2 eV, the maximum
when it is ejected out thus impulse on surface is kinetic energy of ejected electrons is
Im pulse  2mE KE max  E  
Substituting the values, we get = 6.9 – eV = 4.9 eV
Maximum impulse  2  9.1 10 31  0.4  1.6  1019 If vmax be the speed of fasted electrons then we
 3.45  10 25
kg m / sec have
1 2
EXAMPLE 4 mv max  4.9 1.6  1019 joule
2
In an experiment tungsten cathode which has or

a threshold 2300 Å is irradiated by ultraviolet 2  4.9 1.6 1019
light of wavelength 1800 Å. Calculate v max   1.31 106 m / s
9.11031
(i) Maximum energy of emitted photoelectron
When an electron with this speed enters a uniform
and
magnetic field normally it follows a circular path
(ii) Work function for tungsten
whose radius can be given by
(Mention both the results in electron-volts)
Given Planck’s constant h  6.6  10 34 joule- mv mv 2
r [As qv B  ]
qB r
sec, 1 eV  1.6  10 19 joule and velocity of light
9.1 10 31  1.31 106
c  3  10 8 m/sec or r
1.6  10 19  5  105
Sol. The work function of tungsten cathode is
or r = 0.149 m
hc 12431
  eV = 5.4 eV
 th 2300 1.8 E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u dy o f P h o t o
The energy in eV of incident photons is Electric Effect :
hc 12431 Experiments with the photoelectric effect are
E  eV performed in a discharge tube apparatus as illustrated
 1800
in figure shown. The cathode of discharge tube is
The maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons
can be given as made up of a metal which shows photoelectric effect
on which experiment is being carried out.
KE max  E    6.9  5.4eV  1.5 eV
Incident light
p > pth If the potential difference applied across the
discharge tube is gradually increased from the
variable source, positive potential of anode starts
pulling electrons from the space charge. As potential
Cathode difference increases, space charge decrease and
Anode
e–
simultaneously the photoelectric current in circuit
e–
also increases. This we can also see in the variation
A
graph of current with potential
V
difference as shown in figure shown.
– + i
S V
A high potential is applied to a discharge tube is1

through a variable voltage source and a voltmeter
and an ammeter are connected a measure the
potential difference across the electrodes and to
V
measure photoelectric current. Light with frequency VP1
more than threshold frequency of cathode metal is
A shown in graph, we can see as potential difference
incident on it, due to which photoelectrons are
increases, current in circuit increases. But at a higher
emitted from the cathode. These electrons will
voltage VP1 space charge vanishes and at this voltage
reach the anode and constitute the photoelectric
anode is able to pull the slowest electron (zero kinetic
current which the ammeter will show. energy) ejected by the cathode. Now as all the ejected
Now we start the experiment by closing the switch electrons from cathode start reading anode. If further
S. Initially the variable battery source is set at zero potential difference is increased, it will not make
potential. Even at zero potential variable source, any difference in the number of electrons reaching
ammeter will show some current because due to the anode hence, further increases in potential
difference will not increases the current. This we
the initial kinetic energy some electrons will reach
can see in figure shown that beyond VP1 current in
the anode and cause some small current will flow.
circuit becomes constant. This current is1 is called
But as we know majority of ejected electrons have
saturation current. This potential difference VP1 at
low values of kinetic energies which are collected
which current becomes saturated is called “pinch
outside the cathode and create a could of negative off voltage”.
charge, we call space charge, as shown in figure Now if the frequency of incident light is kept constant
shown. and its intensity is further increased, then the number
Incident light of incident photons will increase which increases
the number of ejected photo electrons so current in
circuit increases and now in this case at higher
Space charge
intensity of incident light, current will not get
saturated at potential difference VP1 as now due to
Cathode e– Anode more electron emission, space charge will be more
e– and it will not vanish at VP1. To pull all the electrons
A emitted from cathode more potential difference is
required. This we can se from figure shown, that at
V
higher intensity I2 (I2 > I1) current becomes saturated
– + at higher value of potential difference VP2.
S V (small potential difference)
1.10 Reversed Potential Across Discharge

i Tube :
is2 I2 Now the experiment is repeated with charging the
Intensity I2 > I1 polarity of source across the discharge tube. Now
is1 I1 positive terminal of source is connected to the
cathode of discharge tube. When a light beam
incident on the cathode with (hv > ), ,
photoelectrons are ejected and move towards anode
V
VP1 VP2 with negative polarity.
Beyond VP2, we can see that all the electrons ejected

from cathode are reaching the anode are current
become saturated at is2 because of more electrons.
Another point we can see from figure shown that
when V = 0 then also current is more at high intensity
incident radiation as the number of electrons of high
kinetic energy are also more in the beginning which
will reach anode by penetrating the space charge.
1.9. Kin etic Ene rgie s of Ele ctro ns

Reaching Anode Now the electrons which are ejected with very low
We know that when electrons are ejected from kinetic energy are attracted back to the cathode
cathode then kinetic energies may vary from 0 to because of its positive polarity. Those electrons
1 2 which have high kinetic energies will rush toward,
mv max . If V is the potential difference applied anode and may constitute the current in circuit.
2
In this case the fastest electron ejected from
across the discharge tube then it will accelerates the
cathode will be retarded during its journey to anode.
electron while reaching the anode. the electron which
As the maximum kinetic energy just after emission
is ejected from cathode with zero kinetic energy will
be the slowest one reaching the anode if its speed is 1 2
at cathode is mv max , if potential difference across
v1 at anode then we have 2
1 the discharge tube is V then the seed vf with which

0  ev  mv12 electrons will reach anode can be given as
2
Similarly the electron ejected from cathode with 1 2 1
mv max  eV  mv 2f ....(1)
2 2
1 2
maximum kinetic energy mv max will be the fastest Thus all the electrons which are reaching anode
2
will have speed less then or equal to vf. Remaining
one when it will reach anode. If its speed is v2 at electrons which have relatively low kinetic energy
anode then we have will either be attracted to cathode just after ejection
or will return during their journey from cathode to
1 2 1 anode. Only those electrons will cause current of
mv max  eV  mv 22 flow in circuit which have high kinetic energies more
2 2
then eV which can overcome the electric work
Thus we can say that all the electrons reaching anode
against electric forces on electron due to opposite
will have their speeds distributed from v1 to v2.
polarity of source.
1.11 Cut off Potential or Stopping Potential :

1.12 Effect of Change in Frequency of Light
We have seen with reverse polarity electrons are
on Stopping Potential :
retarded in the discharge tube. If the potential
difference is increased with reverse polarity, the If we repeat the experiment by increasing the
number of electrons reaching anode will decrease frequency of incident light with number of incident
hence photo electric current in circuit also decreases, photons constant, the variation graph of current with
this we can see from figure shown which shows voltage will be plotted as shown in figure shown.
variation of current with increase in voltage across i
discharge tube in opposite direction. Here we can
see that at a particular reverse voltage V0, current Frequency (v2 > v1)
is1
in circuit becomes zero. This is the voltage at which
the faster electron from cathode will be retarded v2
and stopped just before reaching the anode. (II)
(I) v1
V
i V02 V01 VP1
I2
Intensity I2 > I1
I1 Frequency v (same for both radiation)
This graph is plotted for two incident light beams of
different frequency v1 and v2 and having same
V
V0 0 VP1 VP2 photon flux. As the number of ejected photoelectrons
Reverse voltage
are same in the two cases of incident light here we
This voltage V0, we can calculate from equation can see that the pinch off voltage V01 as well as
(1) by substituting vf = 0 hence saturation current is1 are same. But as in the two
cases the kinetic energy of fastest electron are
1 2
mv max  eV0  0 different as frequencies are different, the stopping
2
potential for the two cases will be different. In graph
1 2 II as frequency of incident light is more, the maximum
or eV0  mv max
2 kinetic energy of photoelectrons will also be high
and to stop it high value of stopping potential is
1 2 needed. These here V01 and V02 can be given as
mv max
or V0  2 ...(2)
e hv1  
V01  ...(4)
e
hv  
or V0  ...(3) hv 2  
e and V02  ...(5)
e
We can see one more thing in figure shown that the In general for a given metal with work function ,
graphs plotted for two different intensities I1 and I2, if Vo is the stopping potential for an incident light of
V0 is same. Current in both the cases in cut off at frequency v then we have
same reverse potential V0. The reason for this is eV0  hv  
equation-(2) and (3). It is clear that the value of V0
or eV0  hv  hv th ...(6)
depends only on the maximum kinetic energy of
the ejected electrons which depends only on
h hv
frequency of light and not on intensity of light. Thus or V0    v  th ...(7)
e e
in above two graphs as frequency of incident light
is same, the value of V0 is also same. This reverse Equation (7) shows that stopping potential V0 is
potential difference V 0 at which the fastest linearly proportional to the frequency v of incident
photoelectron is stopped and current in the circuit light. The variation of stopping potential with
becomes zero is called cut off potential or stopping frequency v can be shown in figure shown.
potential. Here equation .(6) can be written as
1 2 EXAMPLE 7
mv max  eV0  h (v  v th ) ...(8)
2 Electrons with maximum kinetic energy 3eV
V0 are ejected from a metal surface by ultraviolet
radiation of wavelength 1500 Å. Determine the
work function of the metal, the threshold
wavelength of metal and the stopping potential
difference required to stop the emission of
h
tan  
e
electrons.
 Sol. Energy of incident photon in eV is
v = vth V
hv th 12431
e E eV
1500
According to photo electric effect equation, we
This equation (8) is called Einstein’s Photo Electric have
Effect equation which gives a direction relationship E    KE max  or   E  KE max
between the maximum kinetic energy stopping
or = 8.29 – 3 eV or = 5.29 eV
potential frequency of incident light and the
Threshold wavelength for the metal surface
threshold frequency.
corresponding to work function 5.29 eV is given as
EXAMPLE 6 12431
 th  Å = 2349.9 Å
Find the frequency of light which ejects 5.29
electrons from a metal surface fully stopped Stopping potential for the ejected electrons can be
by a retarding potential of 3 V. The photo given as
electric effect begins in this metal at frequency
of 6  1014 sec 1 . Find the work function for this KE max 3eV
V0    3volt
metal. e e
Sol. The threshold frequency for the given metal surface EXAMPLE 8
is
Calculate the velocity of a photo-electron, if
v th  6  1014 Hz the work function of the target material is 1.24
Thus the work function for metal surface is eV and the wavelength of incident light is 4360
  h v th  6.63  10 34  6  1014  3.978  10 19 J Å. What retarding potential is necessary to
stop the emission of the electrons ?
As stopping potential for the ejected electrons is
Sol. Energy of incident photons in eV on metal surface
3V, the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons
is
will be
KE max  3eV 12431
E eV = 2.85 eV
4360
 3  1.6  1019 J  4.8 1019 J
According to photo electric effect equation we have
According to photo electric effect equation, we
have 1
E    mv 2max
2
hv  hv th  KE max 1 2
or mv max  E – 
or frequency of incident light is 2
  KEmax = 2.85 – 1.24 eV = 1.61 eV
v
h The stopping potential for these ejected electrons
can be given as
3.978  10 19  4.8 1019
  1.32 1015 Hz 1/ 2 mv2max 1.61eV
6.63 1034 V0    1.61 volts
e e
EXAMPLE 9 KE max1  eV01 = 0.6 eV

Determine the Planck’s constant h if
photoelectrons emitted from a surface of a Thus work function of metal surface is given as
certain metal by light of frequency 2.2 × 1015   E1  KE max1 = 2.51 – 0.6 eV = 1.91 eV
Hz are fully retarded by a reverse potential of
6.6 V and those ejected by light of frequency In second case the maximum kinetic energy of
4.6 × 10 15 Hz by a reverse potential of 16.5 ejected electrons will become
eV.
Sol. From photo electric effect equation, we have KE max 2  eV02 = 1.1 eV
Here hv1    eV01 ...(1) Thus the incident energy of photons can be given
and hv 2    2 eV02 ...(2) as
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2), we get
E 2    KE max 2
h (v 2  v1 )  e (v 02  v 01 ) E2 = 1.91 + 1.1 eV = 3.01 eV

or Thus the wavelength of incident photons in second
(v 02  v 01 ) (1.6 10 –19 ) case will be

h
(v 2  v1 )
12431
 Å = 4129.9 Å
or 3.01
(16.5  6.6)(1.6  10 19 ) When magnetic field is present there will be no
h
(4.6  2.2)  1015
effect on the stopping potential as magnetic force
or = 6.6 × 10–34 J-s can not change the kinetic energy of ejected
EXAMPLE 10 electrons.
When a surface is irradiated with light of EXAMPLE 11

wavelength 4950 Å, a photo current appears (a) If the wavelength of the light incident on a
which vanishes if a retarding potential greater photoelectric cell be reduced from  1 to  2 Å,
than 0.6 volt is applied across the photo tube. then what will be the change in the cut-off
When a different source of light is used, it is potential ?
(b) Light is incident on the cathode of a
found that the critical retarding potential is
photocell and the stopping voltages are
changed to 1.1 volt. Find the work function of measured from light of two difference
the emitting surface and the wavelength of wavelengths. From the data given below,
second source. If the photo electrons (after determine the work function of the metal of
emission from the surface) are subjected to a the cathode in eV and the value of the universal
constant hc/e.
magnetic field of 10 tesla, what changes will
Wavelength (Å) Stopping voltage (volt)
be observed in the above two retarding 4000 1.3
potentials. 4500 0.9
Sol. In first case the energy of incident photon in eV is Sol. (a) Let the work function of the surface be . If v
be the frequency of the light falling on the surface,
12431 then according to Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
E1  eV = 2.51 eV
4950 the maximum kinetic energy KE max of emitted
electron is given by
The maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons is
As stopping potential for ejected electrons is 1.3 V,

hc
KEmax  hv     the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons will be

KE max  eV0  1.3eV
We know that, KE max  eV0
Now from photoelectric effect equation, we have
Where V0= cut-off potential.
E    KE max
hc hc 
or eV0    or V0  
 e e or   E  KE max
Now, V0  V02  V01 or   5.47  1.3eV = 4.17 eV
Energy in eV for photons for red light of wavelength
 hc    hc  
      6328 Å is
 e 2 e   e1 e 
12431
E  eV  1.96 eV
6328
hc  1 1  hc  1   2 
      ...(1) As E   , photocell will not work if irradiated by
e   2 1  e  1 2 
this red light no matter however intense the light
(b) From equation (1), we have will be.
hc V0 (1 2 )

e 1   2 The student can now attempt section A from exercise.
(1.3  0.9)[(4000  10 10 )  (4500 1010 )]

 Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter
500  10 10
Waves + Davisson Germer Experiment
= 1.44 × 10–6 V/m
hc  2. F O R C E D UE T O R A D I A TI O N
Now, V0   (P HOTO N)
e e
Each photon has a definite energy and a definite
or linear momentum. All photons of light of a particular
 hc 1.44 106 hc
  V0   1.3  2.3V wavelength  have the same energy E  and
e e 4000  10 10 
h
or   2.3 eV the same momentum p =

When light of intensity I falls on a surface, it exerts
EXAMPLE 12 force on that surface. Assume absorption and
A low intensity ultraviolet light of wavelength reflection coefficient of surface be 'a' and 'r' and
assuming no transmission.
2271 Å irradiates a photocell made of
Assume light beam falls on surface of surface area
molybdenum metal. If the stopping potential is
'A' perpendicularly as shown in figure.
1.3 V, find the work function of the metal. Will
the photocell work if it is irradiated by a high
intensity red light of wavelength 6328 Å ?
Sol. The energy in eV of incident photons is
12431
E eV  5.47 eV
2271
For calculating the force exerted by beam on

IA
surface, we consider following cases. no. of photons incident per unit time =
hc
Case (I) :
 total change in momentum per unit time
a = 1, r=0
IA 2h 2IA
h = n. P  . 
initial momentum of the photon = hc  C

force = total change in momentum per unit time
final momentum of photon = 0
2IA
h F (upward on photons and downward on
change in momentum of photon = c

the plate)
(upward)
F 2IA 2I
h pressure P   
P  A cA c

Case : (III)
energy incident per unit time = IA When 0 < r < 1 a+r=1
IA IA change in momentum of photon when it is reflected
no. of photons incident per unit time  
h hc 2h
= (upward)
 total change in momentum per unit time = n P 
change in momentum of photon when it is absorbed
IA h IA
   (upward)
hc  c h
= (upward)
force on photons = total change in momentum per 
unit time IA
no. of photons incident per unit time =
IA hc
 (upward)
c
IA
No. of photons reflected per unit time = .r
IA hc
 force on plate due to photon(F) = 
c
IA
No. of photon absorbed per unit time = (1 – r)
(downward) hc
F IA I force due to absorbed photon (Fa)

pressure = = =
A cA c IA h IA
 (1– r). = (1 – r) (downward)
Case : (II) hc  c
when r = 1, a = 0 Force due to reflected photon (Fr)
h IA 2h 2IA
initial momentum of the photon = (downward)  .r  (downward)
 hc  c
total force = Fa + Fr
h
final momentum of photon = (upward)
 IA 2IAr IA
 (1 – r)   (1  r)
c c c
h h 2h
change in momentum   
   IA 1 I
Now pressure P  (1  r)  = (1  r )
c A c
 energy incident per unit time = I A
EXAMPLE 13 2h
 cos  (upward)
Calculate force exerted by light beam if light is 
incident on surface at an angle  as shown in
figure. Consider all cases. No. of photons incident per unit time
h
cos 
h 
cos 

h
  sin 
h  
sin 

Sol. Case - I a = 1, r = 0 energy incident per unit time


initial momentum of photon (in downward direction h
at an angle  with vertical) is h/ IA cos .
final momentum of photon = 0 
hc
change in momentum (in upward direction at an angle
 total change in momentum per unit time
h IA cos . 2h 2IA cos 2 

 with vertical) = [  ]   cos   (upward)
 hc  c
energy incident per unit time = I A cos  2IA cos 2 

Intensity = power per unit normal area  force on the plate  (downward)
c
P
I P = I A cos  2IA cos 2  2Icos 2 
A cos  Pressure  P
cA c
IAcos 
No. of photons incident per unit time = .
hc Case III 0 < r < 1, a +r=1
total change in momentum per unit time (in upward change in momentum of photon when it is reflected
direction at an angle  with vertical) 2h
= cos (downward)

IA cos  h IA cos  
change in momentum of photon when it is absorbed
 .  [ ]
hc  c
h
= (in the opposite direction of incident beam)

Force (F) = total change in momentum per unit time energy incident per unit time = I A cos )
IAcos   IA cos .

F (direction on photon and no. of photons incident per unit time =
c hc
IAcos .r
no. of reflected photon (nr) =
hc
 on the plate)
IA cos .
no. of absorbed photon (nQ) = (1 – r)
Pressure = normal force per unit Area hc
force on plate due to absorbed photons Fa = na. Pa
Fcos  IA cos 2  I 2
Pressure = P= = cos 
A cA c
IA cos . h
Case II When r = 1, a = 0  (1– r)
hc 
 change in momentum of one photon
IA cos 
 (1 – r) (at an angle  with vertical R p
hc Q
)
 Z
O
force on plate due to reflected photons Fr = nr Pr
IA cos . 2h U = It(A cos )

  cos  (vertically downward) The momentum of this light falling on A is U/c
hc 
along QP. The light is reflected by the sphere along
IA cos 2  PR. The change in momentum is
 2r
c
U 2
now resultant force is given by p = 2 cos = t (A cos2 )
c c
FR  Fr2  Fa2  2Fa Fr cos 

(direction along OP )
IA cos  The force on A due to the light falling on it, is

 (1 – r) 2  (2r)2 cos2   4r(r – 1)cos2 
c
p 2
F cos   Fr
 A cos2 
P a t c
and, pressure
A

(direction along OP )
IA cos (1 – r) cos  IA cos 2 .2r The resultant force on the ring as well as on the
 
cA cA sphere is along ZO by symmetry. The component
of the force on A along ZO
I cos 2  I cos 2  I cos2 
 (1 – r)  2r  (1  r)
c c c p 2
cos  IA cos2 
t c
EXAMPLE 14

A perfectly reflecting solid sphere of radius r (along ZO )
is kept in the path of a parallel beam of light of
2
large aperture. If the beam carries an intensity The force acting on the ring is dF = I(2 r 2
c
I, find the force exerted by the beam on the
sphere. sin d) cos3 
Sol. Let O be the centre of the sphere and OZ be the
/ 2
line opposite to the incident beam (figure). Consider 4r 2 I
The force on the entire sphere is F =  3
c cos  d
a radius about OZ to get a making an angle  with 0
OZ. Rotate this radius about OZ to get a circle on / 2

4r 2 I
the sphere. Change  to  +d and rotate the radius F=  3
0
c cos  d(cos )
about OZ to get another circle on the sphere. The
part of the sphere between these circles is a ring of /2 /2
4 r 2 I  cos4   r 2 I
area 2r2 sin d. Consider a small part A of this =–    
0
c  4 0 c
ring at P. Energy of light falling on this part in time t
is Note that integration is done only for the hemisphere
that faces the incident beam.
3. DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF 3.2 de- Bro gl ie w a ve le n gt h of a ga s

MATTER WAVE molecule :
A photon of frequency v and wavelength  has let us consider a gas molecule at absolute
energy. temperature T. Kinetic energy of gas molecule is
given by
hc
E = hv = 3
 K.E. = kT ; k = Boltzman constant
2
By Einstein's energy mass relation, E = mc2 the
h
equivalent mass m of the photon is given by. gas molecules =
2mkT
E hv h
m=   . ..(i)
c 2 c 2 c 4. ATOMIC MODEL
h h A model is simply a set of hypothesis based on
or = or = ...(ii)
mc p logical & scientific facts.
Here p is the momentum of photon. By analogy Theory : When any model satisfies majority of
de-Broglie suggested that a particle of mass m scientific queries by experimental verification then
moving with speed v behaves in some ways like
it is termed as theory otherwise, model is simply not
waves of wavelength  (called de-Broglie
wavelength and the wave is called matter wave) accepted.
given by, In Nutshell we can say that every theory is a model
but every model is not a theory. So, after more &
h h
= = ...(iii) more clarity about the substances, various new
mv p
models like Dalton, Thomseon, Rutherford, Bohr
where p is the momentum of the particle.
etc came into the pictures.
Momentum is related to the kinetic energy by the
equation, 4.1 Dalton's atomic model :
(i) Every element is made up of tiny indivisible particles
p= 2Km called atoms.
and a charge q when accelerated by a potential (ii) Atoms of same element are identical both in physical
difference V gains a kinetic energy K = qV. & chemical properties while atoms of different
Combining all these relations Eq. (iii), can be written elements are different in their properties.
as,
(iii) All elements are made up of hydrogen atom. The
h h h h mass of heaviest atom is about 250 times the mass
 = mv  p  
2Km 2qVm of hydrogen atom while radius of heaviest atom is
(de=Broglie wavelength)....(iv) about 10 times the radius of hydrogen atom.
(iv) Atom is stable & electrically neutral.
Reason of Failure of model :
3.1 De-Broglie wavelength for an electron
After the discovery of electron by U. Thomson
If an electron (charge = e) is accelerated by a
(1897), it was established that atom can also be
potential of V volts, it acquires a kinetic energy,
divide. Hence the model was not accepted.
K = eV
Substituting the value of h, m and q in Eq. (iv), we 4.2 Thomson's Atomic Model (or Plum-
get a simple formula for calculating de-Broglie pudding model)
wavelength of an electron. (i) Atom is a positively charged solid sphere of radius
of the order of 10 –10 m in which electrons are
150
 (in Å) = embedded as seeds in a watermelon
V(in volts)
Corporate Office : Motion Education Pvt. Ltd., 394 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota
(ii) Total charge in an atom is zero & so, atom is (ii) It could not explain the Rutherford's  - particle
electrically neutral. scattering experiment
electron
4.4 Ruthorford's Atomic Model
In 1911, Earnest Ruthorford performed a critical
experiment that showed that Thomson's model could
not be correct. In this experiment a beam of positively
uniformly distributed positively
charged matter charged alpha particles (helium nuclei) was projected
into a thin gold foil. It is observed that most of the
alpha particles passed through the foil as if it were
empty space. But some surprising results are also
Achievements of model :
seen. Several alpha particles are deflected from their
Explained successfully the phenomenon of
thermionic emission, photoelectric emission & original direction by large angles. Few alpha particles
ionization are observed to be reflected back, reversing their
direction of travel as shown in figure.
4.3 Type of line spectrum
(a) Emission line spectrum :
When an atomic gas or vapour at a pressure less
than the atmospheric pressure is excited by passing
electric discharge, the emitted radiation has spectrum
which contains certain specific bright lines only.
These emission lines constitute emission spectrum.
These are obtained when electron jumps from
excited states to lower states. The wavelength of
emission lines of different elements are different.
If Thomson model is assumed true than the positive
For one element the emission spectrum is unique. It
charge is spread uniformly in the volume of an atom
is used for the determination of composition of an
and the alpha particle can never experience such a
unknwon substance.
large repulsion due to which it will be deflected by
such large angles as observed in the experiment. On
(b) Absorption line spectrum : the basis of this experiment Ruthorford presented a
When white light is passed through a gas, the gas is new atomic model.
found to absorb light of certain wavelength, the bright
In this new atomic model it was assumed that the
background on the photographic plate is then crossed
positive charge in the atom was concentrated in a
by dark lines that corresponds to those wavelengths
region that was small relative to the size of atom.
which are absorbed by the gas atoms. He called this concentration of positive charge, the
The absorption spectrum consists of dark lines on nucleus of the atom. Electrons belonging to the atom
bright background. These are obtained due to were assumed to be moving in the large volume of
absorption of certain wavelengths, resulting into atom outside the nucleus. To explain why these
transition of atom from lower energy states to higher electrons were not pulled into the nucleus,
energy states. (The emission spectrum consists of Ruthorford said that electrons revolve around the
bright lines on dark background.) "nucleus in orbits around the positively charged
Failure of the model : nucleus in the same manner as the planets orbit the
(i) It could not explain the line spectrum of H-atom
sun. The corresponding atomic model can be charged particle gradually decreases and a stage
approximately shown in figure. comes when its kinetic energy becomes zero &
from where it again starts retracting its original path.
Definition : The distance of closest approach is
the minimum distance of a stationary nucleus with
– a positively charged particle making head on collision
from a point where its kinetic energy becomes zero.
Suppose a positively charged particle A of charge
+ q1 = (=z1e) approaches from in finity towards a
stationary nucleus of charge z2e then, Suppose a
– positively charged particle A of charge q1 ( = z1 e)
approaches from in finity towards a
stationry nucleus of charge z2e then,
Reason of Failure of model : z2e

z,e
1. It could not explain the line spectrum of H-atom. +
A B
Justification : According to Maxwell's
Stationary
electromagnetic theory every accelerated moving nucleus
r0
charged particle radiates energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves & therefore during revolution Let at point B, kinetic energy of particle A becomes
of e– in circular orbit its frequency will continuously zero then by the law of conservation of energy at
vary (i.e. decrease) which will result in the conitnuous point A & B,
emission of lines & therefore spectrum of atom must TEA = TEB
be continuous but in reality, one obtains line KEA + PEA = KEB + PEB
spectrum for atoms. k(z1e)(z 2e)
E+0=0+ r0 (in joule)
2. It could not explain the stablity of atoms.
Justification : Since revolving electron will k(z1e)(z 2e)
 r0  m
continuously radiate energy & therfore radii of E
circular path will continuously decrease & in a time
EXAMPLE 15
of about 10–8 sec revolving electron must fall down
in a nucleus by adopting a spiral path An -particle with kinetic energy 10 MeV is
heading towards a stationary point-nucleus of
atomic number 50. Calculate the distance of
closest approach.
Sol.  TEA = TEB
+ K  (2e)(50e)
 10 × 106 e =
r0
A B
Path of electron spiral   particle

r0
DETERMINATION OF DISTANCE OF
CLOSEST APPROACH :
r0 = 1.44 × 10–14 m
When a positively charged particle approaches
r0 = 1.44 × 10–4 A
towards stationary nucleus then due to repulsion
between the two, the kinetic energy of positively
2
EXAMPLE 16 ke 2 v
1
From equation (1) mv2 =  m 
A beam of  - particles of velocity 2.1 × 107 m/s 2 r0 2
is scattered by a gold (z = 79) foil. Find out the
distance of closest approach of the - particle 4 4  (9  109 )(1.6  10 –19 ) 2
r0   ke2  ;
to the gold nucleus. The value of charge/mass mv 2
(1.66  10 –27 )(7.45  105 ) 2
for  - particle is 4.8 × 107 c/kg.
r0  1.0  10 –12 m
1 K(2e)(ze)
Sol. m v2 
2 r0
The student can now attempt section B from
 2e  exercise.
2K   (79 e)
r0   m 
v2 Section C - Bohr Model, Bohr Model nuclear
motion
8 7 –19
2  (9  10 )(4.8  10 )(79  1.6  10 )
 ; 5 BOHR'S MODEL OF AN ATOM
(2.1  107 )2
Between 1913 and 1915 Niels Bohr developed a
r0  2.5  10 –14 m
quantitative atomic model to the Hydrogen atom that
could account for its spectrum. The model
EXAMPLE 17 incorporated the nuclear model of the atom proposed
A proton moves with a speed of 7.45 × 105 m/s by Rutherford on the basis of his experiments. We
directing towards a free proton originally at rest. shall see that this model was successful in its ability
Find the distance of closest approach for the two to predict the gross features of the spectrum emitted
protons. by Hydrogen atom. This model was developed
Sol.  v = 7.45 × 105 m/s u = 0 specifically for Hydrogenic atoms. Hydrogenic atoms
are those which consist of a nucleus with positive
charge + Ze (Z = atomic number, e = charge of
Proton Free proton
electron) and a single electron. More complex
Originally electron-electron interactions in an atom are not
accounted in the Bohr's Model that's why it was
v1 v2 valid only for one electron system or hydrogenic
atoms.
The Bohr model is appropriate for one electron
r0 systems like H, He+, Li+2 etc. and it was successful
Proton
free proton after upto some extent in explaining the features of the
movement spectrum emitted by such hydrogenic atoms.
At the time of distance of closest approach However this model is not giving a true picture of
even these simple atoms. The true picture is fully a
By the law of cons. of energy quantum mechanical affair which is different from
Bohr model in several fundamental ways. Since
1 ke 2 1 1
mv 2  0   mv12  mv12 ...(1) Bohr model incorporates aspects of some classical
2 r0 2 2
and some modern physics, it is now called
By the cons. of momentum mv + 0 = mv1 + mv1 semiclassical model Bohr has explained his atomic
v model in three steps called postulates of Bohr's
 v1  atomic model. Lets discuss one by one.
2
5.1 First Postulate 5.2 Second Postulate

In this postulate Bohr incorporate and analyses In the study of atom, Bohr found that while revolving
features of the Rutherford nuclear model of atom. around the nucleus the orbital angular momentum
In this postulate it was taken that as the mass of
of the electron was restricted to only certain values,
nucleus is so much greater then the mass of electron,
we say that the orbital angular momentum of the
nucleus was assumed to be at rest and electron
electron is quantized. He therefore took this as a
revolves around the nucleus in an orbit. The orbit
second postulate of the model. The statement of
of electron is assumed to be circular for simplicity.
second Postulate is, "During revolution around the
Now the statement of first postulate is "During
nucleus, the orbital angular momentum of electron
revolution of electron around the nucleus in circular
orbit, the electric coulombian force on electron is L could not have just any value, it can take up only
balanced by the centrifugal force acting on it in the those values which are integral multiples of Planck's
rotating frame of Constant divided by 2 i.e. h/2"
reference." Thus the angular momentum of electron can be
written as
nh
v L= ...(1)
2
Fe Fd Where n is a positive integer, known as quantum

+ –e number. In an orbit of radius r if an electron (mass
+Ze m) revolves at speed v, then its angular momentum
can be given as
L = mvr ...(2)
Now from equation (1) and (2), we have for a
If electron revolves with speed v in the orbit of radius revolving electron
r. Then relative to rotating frame attached with
electron, the centrifugal force acting on it is nh
mvr  ...(3)
2
mv 2
Fef  ...(1)
r Equation (3) is known as equation of second
The coulombian force acting on electron due to h

charge of nucleus (+Ze) is postulate of Bohr model. Here the quantity
2
K(e)(Ze) occurs so frequently in modern physics that, for
Felectric  ...(2)
r2
convenience, it is given its own designation h,
Now according to first postulate from equation (1) pronounced as "h-bar."
& (2) we have
h
mv 2 KZe 2 mv 2 KZe 2  = ~
– 1.055 × 10–34 J-s ...(4)
 2 or  2 ...(3) 2
r r r r
Equation (3) is called equation of Bohr's first
postulate.
5.3 Third Postulate –e

n2
While revolution of an electron in an orbit its total h
energy is taken as sum of its kinetic and electric
potential energy due to the interaction with nucleus.
Potential energy of electron revolving in an orbit of
radius r can be simply given as n1
K(e)(Ze) Kze 2
U– = – ...(1)
r r Here En2 and En1 are the total energies of electron
For kinetic energy of electron, we assume that in the two orbits n2 and n1. The emitted photon
relativistic speeds are not involved so we can use
energy can be expressed as h  where  is the
the classical expression for kinetic energy. Thus
kinetic energy of electron in an orbit revolving at frequency of radiated energy photon. If A be the
speed v can be given as wavelength of photon emitted then the energy of
emitted photon can also be given as
1
K  mv 2 ...(2)
2 hc
E  h  ...(1)
Thus total energy of electron can be given as 
1 KZe 2 Similarly when energy is supplied to the atom by an
E=K+U= mv 2 –
2 r external source then the electron will make a
Here we can see that while revolving in a stable transition from lower energy level to a higher energy
orbit, the energy of electron remains constant. From level. This process is called excitation of electron
the purely classical viewpoint, during circular motion, from lower to higher energy level. In this process
as electron is accelerated, it should steadily loose the way in which energy is supplied to the electron
energy by emitting electromagnetic radiations and is very important because the behaviour of the
it spiraled down into the nucleus and collapse the
electron in the excitation depends only on the
atom.
process by which energy as supplied from an
Bohr in his third postulate stated that "While external source. This we'll discuss in detail in later
revolving around the nucleus in an orbit, it is in stable part of this chapter.
state, it does not emit any energy radiation during
First we'll study the basic properties of an electron
revolution. It emits energy radiation only when it
makes a transition from higher energy level (upper revolving around the nucleus of hydrogenic atoms.
orbit) to a lower energy level (lower orbit) and the
energy of emitted radiation is equal to the difference 5.4 Properties of Electron in Bohr's
in energies of electron in the two corresponding orbits Atomic Model
in transition. " Now we'll discuss the basic properties of an electron
If an electron makes a transition form a higher orbit revolving in stable orbits, we call Bohr energy level.
n2 to a lower orbit n1 as shown in figure. Then the We have discussed that there are some particular
electron radiates a single photon of energy orbits in which electron can revolve around the
E = E n 2 – E n1  h nucleus for which first and second postulates of
n2 Bohr model was satisfied. Thus only those orbits
are stable for which the quantum number n = 1, 2,
3, ............ Now for nth orbit if we assume its radius
is denoted by rn and electron is revolving in this
orbit with speed vn. We can represent all the physical
n1 parameters associated with the electron in nth orbit
–e
by using a subscript n with the symbol of the physical
parameters like rn, vn etc.
h
(a) Radius of nth Orbit in Bohr Model (d) Energy of Electron in nth Orbit
Radius of electron in n th Bohr's orbit can be We've discussed that in nth orbit during revolution
calculated using the first two postulates of the Bohr's the total energy of electron can be given as sum of
model, using previous equations, we get kinetic and potential energy of the electron as
nh En = Kn + Un
vn 
2mrn Kinetic energy of electron in nth orbit can be given
nh as
Substituting this value of vn in equation mvr = , 1
2 K n  mv n2
we get 2
From equation of first postulate of Bohr Model we
n 2h 2
rn  have for nth orbit
4 2 KZe 2 m
or KZe2
mv 2n 
rn
h2 n2
rn  2 2
 From equation
4 Ke m Z
1 1 KZe 2
n2 K n  mv n2 
or rn  0.529  A 2 2 rn
Z
the potential energy of electron in nth orbit is given
as
1.5.2 Velocity of Electron in nth Bohr's Orbit
By substituting the value of rn we can calculate the KZe 2
value of vn as Un  –
rn
2KZe 2 Thus total energy of e– in nth orbit can given as
vn 
nh
1 KZe2 KZe 2 1 KZe 2
2Ke2 Z En = Kn + UR  – 
or vn   2 rn rn 2 rn
h n
Z 1
or v n  2.18 106  m/s Here we can see that | E n || K n | | U n | which is
n 2
a very useful relation, always followed by a particle
(b) Time period of Electron in nth Bohr's Orbit revolving under the action of a force obeying inverse
Time period of electron of nth orbit is given by square law.
1 n3h 3 Now substituting the value of rn we get
Tn  Tn 
f n or 4 K 2 Z 2 e 4 m
2
1 4 2 KZe 2 m
En  – KZe 2 
2 n 2h 2
(c) Current in nth Bohr's Orbit
2  2 K 2 Z 2e 4 m
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in the n th or –
Bohr's Orbit then due to revolvution there is current n2h2
in the orbit and according to the definition of current, 22 K 2 Z 2 e 4 m Z 2
or En   2
the current in the nth orbit will be total coulombs h2 h
Substituting the value of constants in above equation
passing through a point in one seconds, and in an
orbit an electron passes through a point fn times in we get
one second so the current in the nth orbit will be Z2
or En  –13.6  eV
In = fn × e n2
The above equation can be used to find out energies
4  2 K 2 Z 2e 5 m of electron in different energy levels of different
or In 
n3h 3 hydrogen atoms.
(e) Energies of Different Energy Levels in EXAMPLE 18

Hydrogenic Atoms What is the angular mometum of an electron
By the use of above equation we can find out the in Bohr's Hydrogen atom whose energy is –
energies of different energy levels. Students should 3.4 eV ?
remember these energies for first six level as Sol. Energy of electron in nth Bohr orbit of hydrogen
E1 = –13.6 Z2 eV atom is given by,
E2 = –3.40 Z2 eV 13.6
E– eV
E3 = –1.51 Z2 eV n2
13.6
E4 = –0.85 Z2 eV Hence, –3.4 = –
n2
E5 = –0.54 Z2 ev or n2 = 4
E6 = –0.36 Z2 eV or n=2
The angular momentum of an electron in nth orbit is
The above equations clearly shows that as the value nh
of n increases, the difference between two given as L = . Putting n = 2, we obtain
2
consecutive energy levels decreases. It can be
shown with the the help of figure, which shows the 2h h n 3h3
L=   T 2 2 2 4
energy level diagram for a hydrogen atom. 2  4 k Z e m
E=0
n T1 n13
n=6 Thus, T  n3 or 
T2 n 23
E=–0.54eV
n=5
As T1 = 8T2, the above relation gives
E=–0.85eV
n=4 3
 n1 
E= –1.51eV   8 or n1 = 2n2
n=3
 n2 
Thus the possible values of n1 and n2 are
E= –3.4eV
n=2 n1 = 2, n2 = 1 ; n1= 4, n2 = 2; n1 = 6, n2 = 3 and so
on .........
E= –13.6eV EXAMPLE 19
n=1
Now if we multiply the numerator and denominator An electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom
of above equation by ch we get is revolving in anti-clockwise direction in the
circular orbit of radius R as shown in figure
B̂
22 K 2 e 4 m Z2
En  – 3
 ch  2 n̂ v
ch n 30°
Z2
or En = – Rch × eV
n2
2  2 K 2e 4 m
Where R  is defined as Rydbergg
ch 3
Constant and the value of it is given as R = 10967800 (i) Obtain an expression for the orbital magnetic
m–1, which can be taken approximately as 107 m–1. dipole moment of the electron.
For n = 1 and Z = 1 the energy is given as
(ii) The atom is placed in a uniform magnetic
E = –Rch joules and is called as One Rydberg Energy
1 Rydberg = 13.6 eV = 2.17 × 10–18 joules induction B such that the plane normal of the
Lets discuss some examples on Bohr's atomic model electron orbit makes an anlge 30° with the
to understand it better. magnetic induction. Find the torque experienced
by the orbiting electron.
Sol. (i) According to Bohr's second postulate

e h eh
i  
h h 2r1 2 nr1 42 mr 2
mvr  n  (As for n = 1 first only)
2  2
Magnetic dipole moment, M1 = i × A1
h or
or v1 
2mr1 eh eh
M1  2 2
 r12 
We know that the rate of flow of charge is current. 4  mr 4m
Hence current in first orbit is (ii) Torque on the orbiting electron in uniform
Now from each equation magnetic field is
  
  MB
 v  e
i  ev1  e  1    v1 or  = MB sin 30°
 2r1  2r1
eh B ehB
or   
4m 2 8m
E   0 ev
E4 = 0.85 eV
E3 = 1.51 eV
E13  12.09 ev Ex = –2.6 eV (Hypothetical level)
E2 = –3.4 eV
E12  10.2 ev E1x  11 ev
E1 = –13.6 eV
6. EXCITATION AND IONIZATION complete electromagnetic energy is converted into

OF AN ATOM the mechanical energy of particle or the particle
According to third postulate of Bohr model we've utilizes the energy of photon in the form of increment
discussed when some energy is given to an electron in its mechanical energy. When a photon is supplied
of atom from an external source it may make a to an atom and an electron absorbs this photon, then
transition to the upper energy level. This the electron gets excited to a higher energy level
phenomenon we call excitation of electron or atom only if the photon energy is equal to the difference
and the upper energy level to which the electron is in energies of the two energy levels involved in the
excited is called excited state. To excite an electron transition.
to a higher state energy can be supplied to it ijn two For example say in hydrogen atom an electron is in
ways. Here we'll discuss only the energy supply by ground state (energy E 1 = –13.6 eV). Now it
an electromagnetic photon. Other method of energy absorbs a photon and makes a transition to n = 3
supply we'll discuss later in this chapter. state (Energy E3 = –1.51 eV) then the energy of
According to Planck's quantum theory photon is incident photon must be equal to
defined as a packet of electromagnetic energy, E13  E 3 – E1 = (–1.51) – (13.6) eV = 12.09 eV
which when absorbed by a physical particle, its Now we'll see what will happen when a photon of
energy equal to 11 eV incident on this atom. From of nucleus. When energy equal in magnitude to the
the above calculation of energy differences of total energy of an electron in a particular energy
different energy levels we can say that if the level is given externally, its total energy becomes
electron in ground state absorbs this photon it will zero or we can say that electron gets excited to th
jump to a state some where between energy level energy level or the electron is removed from the
n = 2 and n = 3 as shown in figure. When electron atom and atom is said to be ionized.
in ground state absorbs a photon of 11 eV energy,
its total energy becomes We know that removal of electron from an atom is
E = E1 + 11 = –13.6 + 11eV = –2.6 eV called ionization. In other words, ionization is the
excitation of an electron to n =  level. The energy
As discussed in previous sections, in an atom required to ionize an atom is called ionization energy
electron cannot take up all energies. It can exist of atom for the particular energy level from which
only in some particular energy levels which have the electron is removed. In hydrogen atoms, the
energy given as – 13.6/n2eV. ionization energy for nth state can be given as
When a photon of energy 11 eV is absorbed by an E n   E   E n
electron in ground state. The energy of electron
or
becomes –2.6 eV of it will excite to a hypothetical
energy level X some where between n = 2 and  13.6 Z 2 
E n   0     eV
n = 3 as shown in figure, which is not permissible  n2 
for an electron. Thus when in ground state electron
can absorb only those photons which have energies 13.6 Z 2
or E n   eV
equal to the difference in energies of the stable n2
energy level with ground state. If a photon beam
When an electron absorbs a monochromatic
incident on H-atoms having photon energy not equal
radiation from an external energy source then it
to the difference of energy levels of H-atoms such
makes a transition from a lower energy level to a
as 11 eV, the beam will just be transmitted without
higher level. But this state of the electron is not a
any absorption by the H-atoms.
stable one. Electron can remain in this excited state
Thus to excite an electron from lower energy level
for a very small internal at most of the order of
to higher levels by photons, it is necessary that the
10–1 second. The time period for which this excited
photon must be of energy equal to the difference in
state of the electron exists is called the life time of
energies of the two energy levels involved in the
the excited state. After the life time of the excited
transition.
state the electron must radiate energy and it will
jump to the ground state.
As we know that for higher energy levels, energy
of electrons is less. When an electron is moved Let usassumethat theelectron isinitially in n2 state
away from the nucleus to th energy level or at and it will jump to a lower state n1 then it will emit a
n = , the energy becomes (zero) or the electron photon of energy equal to the energy difference of
becomes free from the attraction of nucleus or it is the two states n1 and n2 as
removed from the atom. In fact when an electron E  E n 2  E n1
is in an atom, its total energy is negative
When E is the energy of the emitted photon. Now
 13.6 2 
 E n   2 Z  . This negative sign shows that substituting the values of E n 2 and E n1 in above
 n 
equation, we get
electron in under the influence of attractive forces
2  2 K 2 Z 2e 4 m 2  2 K 2 Z 2e 4 m 1  1 1 
E       RZ2  2  2 
n 22 h 2 n12 h 2 or   n1 n 2 
22 K 2 Z 2 e 4 m  1 1 
or E  h2
 2 2 (As Rydberg Constant R = 13.6/hc eV)
 n1 n 2 
Here v is called wave number of the emitted
2 1 1  radiation and is defined as number of waves per

or E  13.6 Z  n 2  n 2  eV
 1 2  unit length and the above relation is used to find the
wavelength of emitted radiation when an electron
Here 13.6 Z2 can be used as ionization energy for
n = 1 state for a hydrogenic atom thus the energy makes a transition from higher level n2 to lower
of emitted photon can also be written as level n1 is called Rydberg formula. But students are
advised to use equation (a) in numerical calculations
 1 1 
E  I P  2  2  to find the wavelength of emitted radiation using
 n1 n 2 
the energy difference in electron volt. It can be
Equation can also be used to find the energy of rearranged as
emitted radiation when an electron jumos from a
higher orbit n 2 to a lower orbit n 1. If  be the
wavelength of the emitted radiation then 12431
 Å
E (in eV)
hc
E 
 No. of emission spectral lines : If the electron is
This energy can be converted to eV by dividing this excited to state with principal quantum number n
energy by the electronic charge e, as if wavelength then from the n th state, the electron may go to
is given in A, the energy in eV can be given as (n – 1)th state, ............, 2nd state or 1st state. So
there are (n – 1) possible transitions starting from
hc
E  (in eV) the nth state. The electron reaching (n – 1)th state
e
may make (n – 2) different transitions. Similarly
Substituting the values of h, c and e we get
for other lower states. The total no. of possible
transitions is (n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n – 3) + ..............2
34 8
(6.63 10 )  (3  10 )
E  eV n(n –1)
  (1.6 1019 )  1010 + 1=
2
12431
E  eV ...(a)
 No. of absorption spectral lines : Since at
Here in above equation, lambda is in Å units ordinary temperatures, almost all the atoms remain
This equation is the most important in numerical in their lowest energy level (n = 1) & so absorption
calculations, as it will be very frequency used. From transition can start only from n = 1 level (not from n
equation we have = 2, 3, 4, ..... levels). Hence, only Lyman series is
1 13.6Z  1 1  2 found in the absorption spectrum of hydrogen atom

or   hc  n 2  n 2  eV (which as in the emission spectrum, all the series
 1 2 
are found No. of absorption spectral lines = (n – 1)
7. SP ECTR AL S ER IES OF to the trnasition n2 = 2 to n1 = 1, similarly second

line of the Lyman series is the line corresponding to
HYDROGEN ATOM :
the transition n2 = 3 to n1 = 1.
The wavelength of the lines of every spectral series (2) Balmer Series : The series consists of wavelengths
can be calculated using the formula given by equation of the radiations which are emitted when electron
(a). jumps from a higher energy level to n = 2 orbit. The
Five special series are observed in the Hydrogen wavelengths consisting this series lie in the visible
Spectrum corresponding to the five energy levels region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
of the Hydrogen atom and these five series are (3) Paschen Series : The series consists of wavelengths
named as on the names of their inventors. These of the radiations which are emitted when electron
series are jumps from a higher energy level to n = 3 orbit. The
(1) Lyman Series wavelengths constituting this series lie in the Near
(2) Balmer Series Infra Red region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(3) Paschen Series (4) Brackett Series : The series consists of wavelengths
(4) Brackett Series of the radiations which are emitted when electron
(5) Pfund Series jumps from a higher energy level to n = 4 orbit. The
These spectral series are shown in figure-1.11. wavelengths constituting this series lie in the Infra
(1) Lyman Series : The series consists of wavelength Red region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
of the radiations which are emitted when electron (5) Pfund Series : The series consists of wavelengths
jumps from a higher energy level to n = 1 orbit. The of the radiations which are emitted when electron
wavelength constituting this series lie in the Ultra jumps from a higher energy level to n = 5 orbit. The
Violet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. wavelengths constituting this series lie in the Deep
For Lyman Series n1 = 1 Infra Red region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
and n2 = 2, 3, 4, ......... We can find out the wavelengths corresponding to
First line of Lyman series is the line corresponding the first line and the last line for remaining four
spectral series as mentioned in the case of Lyman
Series.
8. AP PLICATIO N O F NUCLEUS nh
According to Bohr's theory,  I
MOTION ON ENERGY OF ATOM 2
nh
Let both the nucleus of mass M, charge Ze and or r 2 
2
electron of mass m, and charge e revolve about Solving above euqations for r, we get
their centre of mass (CM) with same angular 0 n 2 h 2 n2 m
velocity () but different linear speeds. Let r1 and r and r = (0.529 A) .
e2 Z Z 
r2 be the distance of CM from nucleus and electron.
Further electrical potential energy of the system.
Their angular velocity should be same then only
their separation will remain unchanged in –Ze2 –Z2 e 4
U U and kinetic energy..
an energy level. 4 r 420 n 2 h 2
1 1 1
K  I2  r 22 and K  v 2
2 2 2
r1 r2 v-speed of electron with respect to nucleus. (v = r )
M m
CM Ze 2
here 2 
4 0r 3
Ze2 Z 2e 4 
 K =
8 0 r 820 n 2 h 2
Let r be the distance between the nucleus and the  Total energy of the system En = K + U
electron. Then e 4
Mr1 = mr2 En  –
8  20 n 2 h 2
r1 + r 2 = r
this expression can also be written as
mr Mr
 r1  and r2 
Mm Mm Z2   
En  –(13.6eV) . 
Centripetal force to the electron is provided by the n2  m 
electrostatic force. So, The expression for En without considering the motion
1 Ze 2 me 4
mr2 2  of proton is E n  – , i.e., m is replaced by
40 r 2 820 n 2 h 2
 while considering the motion of nucleus.
2
 Mr  2 1 Ze
or m   . IMPORTANT FORMULAE
Mm 40 r 2
(1) Time period (T) : distance = time x speed
2
 Mr  3 2 Ze 2r = T × v
or  r 
Mm 4  0 2r
T
v
e2 v
or r 3 2 
40
Mm
where 
Mm +
r
Moment of inertia of atom about CM,
n3
Tn 
 Mm  2 z2
I  Mr12  mr22    r  r
2
Mm n 2h 2
Tn 
4k 2 z 2 me 4
(2) Frequency of revolution EXAMPLE 1

Ex.20
vn 4k 2 z 2 me 4 z2
fn   3 3 ; fn  3 neutron H atom at rest in ground
2r0 nh n state and free to move
(3) Momentum of electron K,v
2mkz 2 1 head on collision

Pn  Pn 
nh n What will be the type of collision, if K = 14 eV,
(4) Angular velocity of electron 20.4 eV, 22 eV, 24.18 eV
(elastic/inelastic/perectly inelastic)
83 k 2 z 2 me4 z2
n  3 3 , n  3 Sol. Loss in energy (E) during the collision will be used
nh n
to excite the atom or electron from one level to
(5) Current (I)
another.
e ev z2 According to quantum Mechanics, for hydrogen
I  ev  ; I 3
T 2 r n atom.
(6) Magnetic moment of electron (M) E = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV, .........., 13.6 eV}
M= iA According to Newtonion mechanics
minimum loss = 0, (elastic collision)
ev evr for maximum loss collision will be perfectly inelastic
M  r 2 , M =
2r 2 if neutron collides perfectly inelastically then,
e(mvr) eJ M e Applying momentum conservation
M = ;  ,
2m 2m J 2m
m m vf
e  nh   eh 
M    n 
2m  2   4m 
M = nB v0
B = Bohr magneton = 9.3 × 10–24 Amp. m2. mv0 = 2mvf  vf =
2
Mn
(7) Magnetic field of Magnetic induction at the 1 v2
final K.E. =  2M  0
centre 2 4
 0i  0 ev 1
mv20
B= 
= 2 k maximum loss = K
2r 4r 2 
2 2 2
K
According to classical mechanics (E) = [0, ]
The student can now attempt section C from 2
exercise. (a) If K = 14 eV,
According to quantum mechanics
Section D - Atomic Collisions (E) = {0, 10, 2eV, 12.09 eV}
According to classical mechanics
E = [0, 7 eV]
9. ATOMIC COLLISION
loss = 0,
In such collisions assume that the loss in the kinetic hence it is elastic collision
energy of system is possible only if it can excite or (b) If K = 20.4 ev
ionise. According to classical mechanics
loss = [0, 10.2 eV]
According to quantum mechanics  mass of He+ ion = 4m

loss = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV,...........} so final kinetic energy of system
loss = 0 elastic collision.
1 1 1 v2
loss = 10.2 eV perfectly inelastic collision K.E.  mv 2f  4mv 2f = (5m) 0
2 2 2 25
(c) If K = 22 eV
Classical mechanics E = [0, 1] 1 1 2 K
Quantum mechanics E = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 = .( mv 0 ) 
5 2 5
eV,.......}
loss = 0 elastic collision K 4K
maximum loss = K – 
loss = 10.2 eV inelastic collision 5 5
(d) If K = 24.18 eV
According to classical mechanics E = [0, 12.09 eV]  4K 
so loss will be 0,
 5 
According to quantum mechanics E = {0, 10.2 eV,
12.09 eV, .............13.6 eV} For inelastic collision there should be at least one
loss = 0 elastic collision common value other than zero is set (1) and (2)
loss = 10.2 eV inelastic collision
4K
loss = 12.09 eV perfectly inelastic collision  > 40.8 eV
5
K > 51 eV
EXAMPLE 21
minimum value of K = 51 eV
A He+ ion is at rest and is in ground state. A
neutron with initial kinetic energy K collides head
on with the He+ ion. Find minimum value of K EXAMPLE 22
so that there can be an inelastic collision How many different wavelengths may be
between these two particle. observed in the spectrum from a hydrogen
Sol. Here the loss during the collision can only be used sample if the atoms are excited to states with
to excite the atoms or electrons. principal quantum number n ?
So according to quantum mechanics Sol. From the nth state, the atom may go to (n – 1)th
loss = {0, 40.8eV, 48.3eV, ........., 54.4 eV} ...(1) state, ..........2nd state or 1st state. So there are
(n – 1) possible transitions starting from the nth state.
Z2
E n  –13.6 eV The atoms reaching (n – 1)th state may make
n2
(n – 2) different transitions. Similarly for other lower
Now according to Newtonion mechanics states. The total number of possible transitions is
Minimum loss = 0 (n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n – 3) + ................ 2 + 1
maximum loss will be for perfectly inelastic collision.
n(n – 1)
 (Remember)
let v0 be the initial speed of neutron and vf be the 2
final
common speed. Calculation of recoil speed of atom on emission
of a photon
m 4m
h
n K He+ momentum of photon = mc =

fixed H-atom in first excited state
so by momentum conservation
v0 hc
mv0 = mvf + 4mvf vf  (a)  10.2 eV
5 
where m = mass of Neutron
10.1 Production of x-rays by Coolidge

free to move Tube :
The melting point, specific heat capacity and atomic
h
(b) v H-atom number of target should be high. When voltage is
'
applied across the filament then filament on being
heated emits electrons from it. Now for giving the
m - mass of atom
According to momentum conservation beam shape of electrons, collimator is used. Now
when electron strikes the target then x-rays are
h
mv  ...(i) produced. When electrons strike with the target,
'
According to energy conservation some part of energy is lost and converted into heat.
Since target should not melt or it can absorb heat
1 2 hc
mv   10.2eV so the melting point and specific heat of target should
2 '
Since mass of atom is very large than photon be high.
Here copper rod is attached so that heat produced
1 2
hence mv can be neglected can go behind and it can absorb heat and target
2
does not get heated very high.
hc h 10.2
 10.2eV  eV
'  c
10.2 10.2
mv  eV v
c cm
10.2
recoil speed of atom =
cm
Note
The student can now attempt section D from

exercise.
Section E - X–rays production, X–Rays

Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties
10.2 Variation of Intensity of X-rays with
10. X-RAYS Intensity is plotted as shown in
figure.
It was discovered by ROENTGEN. The wavelenth
of x-rays is found between 0.1 Å to 10 Å. These
rays are invisible to eye. They are electromagnetic
waves and have speed c = 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum.
Its photons have energy around 1000 times more
I V’>V,Z
than the visible light.
V,Z
Continuous x-rays
V,Z’
When fast moving electrons having energy of order 

m
of several keV strike the metallic target then x-rays
are produced.
1. The minimum wavelength corresponds to the an electron from M-shell, K line is produced and
maximum energy of the x-rays which in turn is equal so on.
to the maximum kinetic energy eV of the striking Similarly L, L,................. M , M  lines are
electrons thus
produced.
hc
eV = hvmax = 
min EXAMPLE 23
Find which is K and K
hc 12400
  min   Å
eV V(involts)
hc hc
We see that cutoff wavelength min depends only Sol. E  , =
 E
on accelerating voltage applied between target and since energy difference of K is less than K
filament. It does not depend upon material of target,
it is same for two different metals (Z and Z).
2
2. Charactristic X-rays 1
1
The sharp peaks obtained in graph are known as
characteristic x-rays because they are characteristic
of target mateial.
1,  2,  3, 4, ................. are the charecteristic
wavelength of material having atomic number Z are
I1 I2 
called characteristic x-rays and the spectrum
obtained is called characteristic spectrum. If
target of atomic number Z is used then peaks are Ek < Kk 
shifted. 1 is K and 2 is K
EXAMPLE 24
n=5 N O Find which is K and L
n=4 M M N
K Sol.  EK > EL
n=3 M
L  L L 1 is K and 2 is L
K 
n=2 L
K x-rays
1
n=1 R
2
I
Characteristic x-rays emission occurs when an

energetic electron collides with target and remove
an inner shell electron from atom, the vacancy
created in the shell is filled when an electron from
1 2 
higher level drops into it. Suppose vacancy created
in innermost K-shell is filled by an electron droping
from next higher level L-shell then K characteristic
x-ray is obtained. If vaccany in K-shell is filled by
11. MOSELEY'S LAW : for K line

n1 = 1, n2 = 2
Moseley meaured the frequencies of characteristic
x-rays for a large number of elements and plotted 3RC
the square root of frequency against position number  v (Z – b) v  a(Z – b)
4
in periodic table. He discovered that plot is very
closed to a straight line not passing through origin. 3RC
Here a , [b = 1 for K lines]
 1,  1',  1' ' ,  1' ' '
4
v I, I2
 2 , 2 ',  2 ' ' , 2 ' ' ' I1' I2 '
I1' ' I2 ' '
EXAMPLE 23
I1' '' I2 ' ' ' K
Z Wavelength of charactristic wavelengths.

I K
Moseley's observations can be mathematically

expressed as Z1
Z2
v  a(Z – b)
a and b are positive constrants for one type of x- 1 2 
rays & for all elements (indepedent of Z). Find in Z1 and Z2 which one is greater.
Moseley's Law can be derived on the basis of Bohr's
theory of atom, frequency of x-rays is given by  1 1 
Sol.  v  cR  2 – 2  . (Z – b)
 n1 n 2 
 1 1 
v  CR  2 – 2 .(Z – b) If Z is greater then v will be greater,  will be less
n
 1 n 2 
 1   2
 Z1 > Z2
1 2 1 1 
by using the formula   Rz  n 2 – n 2  with
 1 2 
Note
modification for multi electron system.
The student can now attempt section E from
b  known as screening constant or shielding exercise.
effect, and (Z – b) is effective nuclear charge.
Modern Physics-1 1.33
Exercise - 1 Objective Problems | JEE Main
Section A -Photoelectric Effect 5. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons

emitted from a surface when photons of energy
6 eV fall on it is 4eV. The stopping potential is Volts
1. If the frequency of light in a photoelectric experiment
is :
is doubled, the stopping potential will
(A) 2 (B) 4
(A) be doubled
(C) 6 (D) 10
(B) halved
(C) become more than doubled 6. Let nr and nb be respectively the number of photons
(D) become less than double emitted by a red bulb and a blue bulb of equal power
in a given time.
2. The stopping potential for the photo electrons emitted (A) nr = nb (B) nr < nb
from a metal surface of work function 1.7eV is 10.4 (C) nr > nb (D) data insufficient
V. Identify the energy levels corresponding to the
7. 10–3 W of 5000 Å light is directed on a photoelectric
transitions in hydrogen atom which will result in
cell. If the current in the cell is 0.16 mA, the
emission of wavelength equal to that of incident
percentage of incident photons which produce
radiation for the above photoelectric effect photoelectrons, is
(A) n = 3 to 1 (B) n = 3 to 2 (A) 0.4% (B) .04%
(C) n = 2 to 1 (D) n = 4 to 1 (C) 20% (D) 10%
3. When a photon of light collides with a metal surface, 8. A point source of light is used in photoelectric effect.
number of electrons, (if any) coming out is If the source is removed farther from the emitting
(A) only one (B) only two metal, the stopping potential :
(A) will increase
(C) infinite (D) depends upon factors
(B) will decrease
(C) will remain constant
4. A point source causes photoelectric effect from a (D) will either increase or decrease
small metal plate. Which of the following curves
may represent the saturation photocurrent as a 9. Cut off potentials for a metal in photoelectric effect
function of the distance between the source and for light of wavelength 1, 2 and 3 is found to be
the metal? V1, V 2 and V 3 volts if V 1, V 2 and V 3 are in
Arithmetic Progression and 1, 2 and 3 will be :
i (A) Arithmetic Progression
i
(B) Geometric Progression
(C) Harmonic Progression
(A) (B) (D) None
t t 10. Photons with energy 5eV are incident on a cathode

C, on a photoelectric cell. The maximum energy of
the emitted photoelectrons is 2eV. When photons
i of energy 6eV are incident on C, no photoelectrons
i
will reach the anode A if the stopping potential of A
relative to C is
(C) (D) (A) 3V (B) –3V
t t (C) –1V (D) 4V
Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter Waves 18. The kinetic energy of an electron is E when the
+ Davisson Germer Experiment incident wavelength is . To increase the KE of the
electron to 2E, the incident wavelength must be
11. A proton and an electron are accelerated by same (A) 2 (B) /2
potential difference have de-Broglie wavelength p
(C) (hc)/(E+hc) (D) (hc)/(E+hc)
and e.
(A) e = p (B) e < p
(C) e > p (D) none of these 19. If 0 stands for mid-wavelength in the visible region,
the de Broglie wavelength for 100 V electrons is
12. An electron with initial kinetic energy of 100eV is nearest to
acceleration through a potential difference of 50V. (A) 0/5 (B) 0/50
Now the de-Broglie wavelength of electron (C) 0/500 (D) 0/5000
becomes.
(A) 1 Å (B) 1. 5 Å 20. Light of wavelength  strikes a photoelectric surface
and electrons are ejected with kinetic energy K. If
(C) 3Å (D) 12.27 Å
K is to be increased to exactly twice its original
value, the wavelength must be changed to  such
13. If h is Planck’s constant is SI system, the momentum
that
of a photon of wavelength 0.01 Å is:
(A) 10–2 h (B) h (A) ’ < /2 (B) ’>/2
(C) 102 h (D) 1012h (C) >’>/2 (D) ’=/2
14. When a centimeter thick surface is illuminated with Section C -Bohr Model, Bohr Model nuclear
light of wavelength , the stopping potential is V. motion
When the same surface is illuminated by light of
wavelength 2  , the stopping potential is V/3. 21. The angular momentum of an electron in the
Threshold wavelenth for the metallic surface is
3h
(A) 4/3 (B) 4 hydrogen atom is . Here h is Planck’s constant.
2
(C) 6 (D) 8/3
The kinetic energy of this electron is :
15. Out of a photon and an electron, the equation (A) 4.53 eV (B) 1.51 eV
E = pc, is valid for (C) 3.4 eV (D) 6.8 eV
(A) both (B) neither
(C) photon only (D) electron only 22. Consider the following electronic energy level
diagram of H-atom : Photons associated with
16. If a photocell is illuminated with a radiation of 1240
shortest and longest wavelengths would be emitted
Å, then stopping potential is found to be 8 V. The
work function of the emitter and the threshold from the atom by the transitions labelled.
wavelength are
n=
(A) 1 eV, 5200 Å (B) 2 eV, 6200 Å A
n=4
(C) 3 eV, 7200 Å (D) 4 eV, 4200 Å D
C n=3
17. Silver has a work function of 4.7 eV. When B

n=2
ultraviolet light of wavelength 100 mm is incident
upon it, a potential of 7.7 V is required to stop the n=1
photoelectrons from reaching the collector plate.

How much potential will be required to stop the (A) D and C respectively
photoelectrons when light of wavelength 200 mm (B) C and A respectively
is incident upon silver? (C) C and D respectively
(A) 1.5 V (B) 3.85 V (D) A and C respectively
(C) 2.35 V (D) 15.4 V
23. If the electron in a hydrogen atom were in the 30. In a sample of hydrogen like atoms all of which are
energy level with n = 3, how much energy in joule in ground state, a photon beam containing photons
would be required to ionise the atom ? (Ionisation of various energies is passed. In absorption
energy of H-atom is 2.18 × 10–18 J): spectrum, five dark lines are observed. The number
(A) 6.54 × 10–19 (B) 1.43 × 10–19 of bright lines in the emission spectrum will be
–19
(C) 2.42 × 10 (D) 3.14 × 10–20 (Assume that all transitions take place)
(A) 5 (B) 10
24. In a hydrogen atom, the electron is in nth excited (C) 15 (D) none of these
state. It may come down to second excited state
by emitting ten different wavelengths. What is the Section D -Atomic Collisions
value of n:
(A) 6 (B) 7 31. A neutron collides head on with a stationary
(C) 8 (D) 5 hydrogen atom in ground state
(A) If kinetic energy of the neutron is less than
13.6 eV, collision must be elastic
25. Difference between nth and (n + 1)th Bohr’s (B) if kinetic energy of the neutron is less than 13.6
radius of ‘H’ atom is equal to it’s eV, collision may be inelastic.
(n – 1)th Bohr’s radius. The value of n is : (C) inelastic collision takes place when initial kinetic
energy of neutron is greater than 13.6 eV.
(A) 1 (B) 2 (D) perfectly inelastic collision cannot take place.
(C) 3 (D) 4
32. The electron in a hydrogen atom make a transition
26. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes transition from an excited state to the ground state. Which of
from M shell to L. The ratio of magnitudes of initial the following statement is true?
to final centripetal acceleration of the electron is (A) Its kinetic energy increases and its potential
(A) 9 : 4 (B) 81 : 16 and total energies decrease
(C) 4 : 9 (D) 16 : 81 (B) Its kinetic energy decreases, potential energy
increases and its total energy remains the same.
27. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition (C) Its kinetic and total energies decrease and its
n1  n2 whose n1 and n2 are the principal quantum potential energy increases.
numbers of the two states. Assume the Bohr model (D) Its kinetic potential and total energies decreases.
to be valid. The frequency of orbital motion of the
electron in the initial state is 1/27 of that in the final 33. An H atom in ground state is moving with initial
state. The possible values of n1 and n2 are kinetic energy K. It collides head on with a He+ ion
(A) n1 = 4, n2 = 2 (B) n1 = 3, n2 = 1 in ground state kept at rest but free to move. Find
(C) n1 = 8, n2 = 1 (D) n1 = 6, n2 = 3 minimum value of K so that both the particles can
excite to their first excited state.
28. The radius of Bohr’s first orbit is a0. The electron (A) 63.75 eV (B) 31.86 eV
in nth orbit has a radius : (C) 137.50 eV (D) 14.95 eV
(A) na0 (B) a0/n
2
(C) n a0 (D) a0/n 2 34. An electron collides with a hydrogen atom in its
ground state and excites it to n = 3. The energy
29. The ionisation potential of hydrogen atom is 13.6
given to hydrogen atom in this inelastic collision is
volt. The energy required to remove an electron
[Neglect the recoiling of hydrogen atom]
from the second orbit of hydrogen is :
(A) 10.2 eV (B) 12.1 eV
(A) 3.4 eV (B) 6.8 eV
(C) 12.5 eV (D) None of these
(C) 13.6 eV (D) 27.2 eV
35. A neutron having kinetic energy 5 eV is incident on Section E – X–rays production, X–Rays
a hydrogen atom in its ground state. The collision Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties
(A) must be elastic 41. In a characteristic X-ray spectra of some atom
(B) must be completely inelastic superimposed on continuous X-ray spectra
(C) may be partially elastic
Relativeintensity
Q
P
(D) information is insufficient
36. An electron of energy 11.2 eV undergoes an

inelastic collision with a hydrogeon atom in its ground (A) P represents K line
(B) Q represents K line
state. [Neglect recoiling of atom as mH >> me]. Then
(C) Q and P represents K and K lines respectively
in this case
(D) Relative positions of K and K depend on the
(A) The outgoing electron has energy 11.2 eV
particular atom
(B) The entire energy is absorbed by the H atom
and the electron stops
42. Which of the following wavelength falls in a X-rays
(C) 10.2 eV of the incident electron energy is region?
absorbed by the H atom and the electron would (A) 10,000 Å (B) 1000 Å
come out with 1.0 eV energy (C) 1 Å (D) 10–2 Å
(D) None of the above
43. The penetrating power of X-ray increases with the
37. The recoil speed of hydrogen atom after it (A) Increases of its velocity
emits a photon in going from n = 2 state to n =1 (B) Increase in its intensity
state is nearly [Take R  = 1.1 × 10 –1 and (C) Decrease in its velocity
h = 6.63 × 10–34 Js] (D) Increases in its frequency.
(A) 1.5 ms–1 (B) 3.3 ms–1
(C) 4.5 ms –1
(D) 6.6 ms–1 44. If the frequency of K, K and L X-rays for a
meterial K  ,  K ,  L respectively, then
38. The recoil speed of a hydrogen atom after it emits
(A)  K =  K +  L (B)  L =  K +  K
a photon in going from n = 5 state to n = 1 state is -
(A) 4.718 ms–1 (B) 7.418 ms–1 (C)  K =  K +  L (D) none of these
–1
(C) 4.178 ms (D) 7.148 ms–1
45. In X-ray tube, when the accelerating voltage V is
39. A neutron moving with a speed v makes a head-on doubled, the different between the wavelength of
collision with a hydrogen atom in ground state kept at K line and the minimum cut off of continuous
rset. The minimum kinetic energy of the neutron for X-ray spectum :
which inelastic collision will take place is (assume that (A) remains constant
mass of proton is neraly equal to the mass of neutron) (B) becomes more than half
(A) 10.2 eV (B) 20.4 eV (C) becomes half
(C) 12.1 eV (D) 16.8 eV (D) becomes less than 2 times.
40. A hydrogen atom is in 5th excited state. When the 46. The voltage applied to an X-ray tube is 18 kV. The
electron jumps to ground state, the velocity of maximum mass of photon emitted by the X-ray tube
recoiling hydrogen atom is- will be
(A) 1.1 m/s (B) 4.2 m/s (A) 2×10-13 kg (B) 3.2 ×10-36 kg
-32
(C) 3.2 ×10 kg (D) 9.1×10-31 kg
(C) 8.4 m/s (D) 11.2 m/s
47. The wavelength of Ka X-rays of two metals ‘A’ 49. The energy of a tungsten atom with a vacancy in L
and ‘B’ are 4/1875 R and 1/675 R, respectively, shell is 11.3 keV. Wavelength of K photon for
where ‘R’ is Rydberg’s constant. The number of tungsten is 21.3 pm. If a potential difference of 62
elements lying between ‘A’ and ‘B’ according to kV is applied across the X-rays tube following
their atomic numbers is characteristic x-rays will be produced.
(A) 3 (B) 6 (A) K, L series (B) only K & L series
(C)5 (D)4 (C) only L series (D) none
48. The element which has a Ka X-rays line of wave- 50. When the voltage applied to an X-ray tube increases
length 1.8 Å is
from V1 =10kV to V2 = 20 kV, the wavelength
(R = 1.1 × 107 m-1, b = 1 and 5/ 33 = 0.39)
interval between K line and cut-off wavelength of
(A) Co, Z = 27 (B) Iron, Z = 26
continuous spectrum increase by a factor of 3.
(C) Mn, Z = 25 (D) Ni, Z = 28
Atomic number of the metalic target is
(A) 28 (B) 29
(C) 65 (D) 66
Exercise - 2 (Level-I) Objective Problems | JEE Main
Section A -Photoelectric Effect 5. In a photoelectric experiment, the potential difference

V that must be maintained between the illuminated
1. In a photo-emissive cell, with exciting wavelength surface and the collector so as just to prevent any
, the maximum kinetic energy of electron is K. If electron from reaching the collector is determined
for different frequencies f of the incident illumination.
3
the exciting wavelength is changed to the The graph obtained is shown. The maximum kinetic
4
energy of the electrons emitted at frequency f1 is
kinetic energy of the fastest emitted electron will
be : V
(A) 3K/4 (B) 4K/3
V1
(C) less than 4K/3 (D) greater than 4K/3
o f
2. The frequency and the intensity of a beam of light f0 f1
falling on the surface of photoelectric material are
increased by a factor of two (Treating efficiency V1
(A) hf1 (B) (f  f )
of photoelectron generation as constant). This will: 1 0
(A) increase the maximum energy of the

photoelectrons, as will as photoelectric current by (C) h(f1 – f0) (D) eV1(f1 – f0)
a factor of two
(B) increase the maximum kinetic energy of the 6. In a photoelectric experiment, the collector plate
photo electrons and would increase the is at 2.0V with respect to the emitter plate made
photoelectric current by a factor of two of copper ( = 4.5eV). The emitter is illuminated
(C) increase the maximum kinetic energy of the
by a source of monochromatic light of wavelength
photoelectrons by a factor of greater than two and
will have no effect on the magnitude of 200 nm.
photoelectric current produced. (A) the minimum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
(D) not produce any effect on the kinetic energy reaching the collector is 0.
of the emitted electrons but will increase the (B) the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectric current by a factor of two
photoelectrons reaching the collector is 3.7eV.
3. Light coming from a discharge tube filled with (C) if the polarity of the battery is reversed then
hydrogen falls on the cathode of the photoelectric answer to part A will be 0.
cell. The work function of the surface of cathode (D) if the polarity of the battery is reversed then
is 4eV. Which one of the following values of the answer to part B will be 1.7eV.
anode voltage (in Volts) with respect to the cathode
will likely to make the photo current zero.
(A) – 4 (B) – 6
Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter Waves
(C) – 8 (D) – 10 + Davisson Germer Experiment
7. An electron and a photon possess the same de
4. Let K1 be the maximum kinetic energy of Broglie wavelength. If Ee and Eph are, respectively,
photoelectrons emitted by a light of wavelength 1 the energies of electron and photon while v and c
and K2 corresponding to 2. If 1 = 22, then : are their respective velocities, then Ee/Eph =
(A) 2K1 = K2 (B) K1 = 2K2 (A) v/c (B) v/2c
K2 (C) v/3c (D) v/4c
(C) K1  (D) K1 > 2K2
2
8. An electron is accelerated through a potential 14. A radiation of wavelength 200 nm is propagating in

difference of V volt. It has a wavelength  associated the form of a parallel surface. The intensity of the
with it. Through what potential difference an electron beam is 5 mW and its cross–sectional area is 1.0
must be accelerated so that its de Broglie wavelength mm2. Find the pressure exeted by radiation on the
is the same as that of a proton? Take mass of proton metallic surface if the radiation is completely
to be 1837 times larger than the mass of electron. reflected.
(A) V volt (B) 1837 V volt (A) 1.11 × 10–5 N m–2
(C) V/1837 volt (D) 1837 V volt (B) 2.22 × 10–5 N m–2
(C) 3.33 × 10–5 N m–2 (D) None of these
9. If wavelength of photon emitted due to transition of
an electron from third orbit to first orbit in a hydrogen 15. In which of the following situations the heavier of
atom is , then the wavelength of photon emitted the two particles has smaller de Broglie wavelength ?
due to transition of electron from fourth orbit to The two particles-
second orbit will be (A) move with the same speed
128 25 (B) move with the same linear momentum
(A)  (B)  (C) move with the same kinetic energy
27 9
(D) have fallen through the same height
36 125
(C)  (D) 
7 11 Section C -Bohr Model, Bohr Model nuclear
motion
10. Transitions between three energy levels in a particular 16. Consider the spectral line resulting from the
atom give rise to three spectral lines of wavelengths, transition n = 2  n = 1 in the atoms and ions given
in increasing magnitudes. 1 , 2 and 3. Which one below. The shortest wavelength is produced by :
of the following equations correctly relates 1, 2 (A) hydrogen atom
and 3 ? (B) deuterium atom
(A) 1 = 2 – 3 (B) 1 = 3 – 2 (C) singly ionized helium
1 1 1 1 1 1 (D) doubly ionized lithium
(C)      (D)     
1 2 3 1 3 2
17. In an atom, two electrons move around the nucleus
11. The wavelength of a neutron with energy 1 eV is in circular orbits of radii R and 4R. The ratio of the
closest to – time taken by them to complete one revolution is :
(A) 10–2 cm (B) 10–4 cm (neglect electric interaction)
(C) 10–6 cm (D) 10–8 cm (A) 1 : 4 (B) 4 : 1
(C) 1 : 8 (D) 8 : 1
12. Two electrons are moving with the same speed v.
One electron enters a region of uniform electric field 18. The electron in hydrogen atom in a sample is in nth
while the other enters a region of uniform magnetic excited state, then the number of different spectrum
field, then after sometime if the de-Broglie wave- lines obtained in its emission spectrum will
lengths of the two are 1 and 2 then : be :
(A) 1 = 2 (B) 1 > 2 (A) 1 + 2 + 3 + ....... + (n – 1)
(C) 1 < 2 (D) 1 > 2 or 1 < 2 (B) 1 + 2 + 3 + ........ + (n)
(C) 1 + 2 + 3 + ........+ (n + 1)
13. A plate of mass 10 g is in equilibrium in air due to (D) 1 × 2 × 3 × ..........× (n –1)
the force exerted by a light beam on the plate. Cal-
culate power of the beam. Assume plate is perfectly 19. An electron in hydrogen atom first jumps from
absorbing. second excited state to first excited state and then,
from first excited state to ground state. Let the ratio
of wavelength, momentum and energy of photons in
the two cases by x, y and z, then select the wrong
(A) 2 × 107 W (B) 5 × 107 W answers :
(C) 3 × 103 W (D) 3 × 107 W (A) z = 1/x (B) x = 9/4
(C) y = 5/27 (D) z = 5/27
20. An electron is in an excited state in hydrogen-like 26. A plane wave of intensity I = 0.70 W cm - 2
atom. It has a total energy of –3.4 eV. If the kinetic illuminates a sphere with ideal mirror surface. The
energy of the electron is E and its de-Broglie radius of sphere is R = 5.0 cm. From the standpoint
wavelength is , then of photon theory, find the force that light exerts on
(A) E = 6.8 eV,  = 6.6 × 10–10 m the sphere.
(B) E = 3.4 eV,  = 6.6 × 10–10 m
(C) E = 3.4 eV,  = 6.6 × 10–11 m
(D) E = 6.8 eV,  = 6.6 × 10–11 m
R
21. If radiation of allowed wavelengths from ultraviolet

to infrared is passed through hydrogen agas at room
temperature, absorption lines will be observed in (A) 0.18 N (B) 0.4 N
the : (C) 0.5 N (D) 1.2 N
(A) Lyman series
(B) Balmer series 27. A particle of mass 3m at rest decays into two
(C) Both (A) and (B) particles of masses m and 2m having non-zero
(D) neither (A) nor (B) velocities. The ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths
of the particles (1/2) is
22. In the hydrogen atom, if the reference level of (A) 1/2 (B) 1/4
potential energy is assumed to be zero at the ground (C) 2 (D) none of these
state level. Choose the incorrect statement.
(A) The total energy of the shell increases with 28. Assuming that the mass of proton is nearly equal to
increase in the value of n
mass of neutron the minimum kinetic energy in 101
(B) The total energy of the shell decrease with
eV of a neutron for inelastic head on collision with
increase in the value of n.
(C) The difference in total energy of any two shells a ground state hydrogen atom at rest is -
remains the same. (A) 4 (B) 2
(D) The total energy at the ground state becomes (C) 6 (D) 8
13.6 eV.
Section D -Atomic Collisions Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties
23. A photon of wavelength 0.1 Å is emitted by a helium 29. If 10,000 V are applied across an X-ray tube, find
atom as a consequence of the emission of photon. the ratio of wavelength of the incident electrons
The KE gained by helium atom is and the shortest wavelength of
(A) 0.05 eV (B) 1.05 eV X-ray coming out of the X-ray tube, given
(C) 2.05 eV (D) 3.05 eV e/m of electron = 1.8×1011C kg-1
(A) 1:10 (B) 10:1
24. An electron collides with a fixed hydrogen atom in (C) 5:1 (D) 1:5
its ground state. Hydrogen atom gets excited and
the colliding electron loses all its kinetic energy.
30. If the potential difference aplied across a Coolidge
Consequently the hydrogen atom may emit a photon
tube is increased, then
corresponding to the largest wavelength of the
(A) wavelength of K will increase
Balmer series. The min. K.E. of colliding electron
will be (B) min will increase
(A) 10.2 eV (B) 1.9 eV (C) difference between wavelength of K and min
(C) 12.1 eV (D) 13.6 eV increases
(D) none of these
25. A plane light wave of intensity I = 0.20 W cm-2
falls on a plane mirror surface with reflection coef- 31. The wavelength k of X-rays produced by the
ficient = 0.8. The angle of incidence is 45°. In X-ray tube is 0.76 Å. The atomic number of the
terms of corpuscular theory, find the magnitude of node material of the tube is
the normal pressure exerted on that surface. (A) 30 (B) 40
(A) 4  N/m2 (B) 8  N/m2 (C) 50 (D) 60
2
(C) 2  N/m (D) 6  N/m2
32. The shortest wavelength produced in an 34. In a Coolidge tube experiment, the minimum wave-
X-ray tube operating at 0.5 million volt is length of the continuous X-ray spectrum is equal to
(A) dependent on the target element 66.3 pm, then
(B) about 2.5×10-12 m (A) electrons accelerate through a potential
(C) double of the shortest wavelength produced at difference of 12.75 kV in the Coolidge tube
a million volt (B) electrons accelerate through a potential
(D) dependent only on the target material difference of 18.75 kV in the Coolidge tube
(C) de-Broglie wavelength of the electrons reaching
33. If the K radiation of Mo (Z = 42) has a wavelength the anticathode is of the order of 10m
of 0.71 Å find the wavelength of the corresponding (D) de-Broglie wavelength of the electrons reaching
radiation of Cu (Z=29) the anticathode is 0.01 Å.
(A) 1Å (B) 2Å
(C) 1.52Å (D) 1.25Å
Exercise - 2 (Level-II) Multiple Correct | JEE Advanced
Section A - Photoelectric Effect
1. In photoelectric effect, stopping potential depends

on
(A) frequency of the incident light
(B) intensity of the incident light by varies source
distance (A) Mirror will start to oscillate
(B) Wavelength of reflected rays will be greater
(C) emitter’s properties
than that of incident rays.
(D) frequency and intensity of the incident light
(C) Wavelength of reflected rays may be less than
that of incident rays
2. In the experiment on photoelectric effect using (D) None of these
light having frequency greater than the threshold
frequency, the photocurrent will certainly increase S e c t i o n C - Bohr Model, Bohr Model
when nuclear motion
(A) Anode voltage is incrased 6. A particular hydrogen like atom has its ground state
(B) Area of cathode surface is increased binding “energy 122.4 eV. Its is in ground state.
(C) Intensity of incident light is increased Then :
(D) Distance between anode and cathode is (A) Its atomic number is 3
increased. (B) An electron of 90eV can excite it.
(C) An electron of kinetic energy nearly 91.8 eV
3. Photoelectric effect supports the quantum nature can be brought to almost rest by this atom.
of light because (D) An electron of kinetic energy 2.6 eV may
(A) there is a minimum frequency of light below emerge from the atom when electron of kinetic
which no photoelectrons are emitted energy 125 eV collides with this atom.
(B) the maximum KE of photoelectrons depends
only on the frequency of light and not on its intensity. 7. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition
(C) even when the metal surface is faintly illuminated n1  n2, where n1 & n2 are the principal quantum
by light of wavelength less than the threshold numbers of the two states. Assume the Bohr model
wavelength, the photoelectrons leave the surface to be valid. The time period of the electron in the
immediately initial state is eight times that in the final state. The
(D) electric charge of photoelectrons is quantized. possible values of n1 & n2 are:
(A) n1 = 4, n2 = 2 (B) n1 = 8, n2 = 2
4. A point source of light is taken away from the ex- (C) n1 = 8, n2 = 1 (D) n1 = 6, n2 = 3
perimental setup of photoelectric effect. For this
situation, mark out the correct statements(s). 8. A beam of ultraviolet light of all wavelengths passes
(A) Saturation photocurrent decreases through hydrogen gas at room temperature, in the
(B) Saturation photocurrent increases x-direction. Assume that all photons emitted due to
(C) Stopping potential remains the same electron transition inside the gas emerge in the
(D) Stopping potential increases y-direction. Let A and B denote the lights emerging
from the gas in the x and y directions respectively.
Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter (A) Some of the incident wavelengths will be absent
Waves + Davisson Germer Experiment in A
5. A small mirror is suspended by a thread as shown (B) Only those wavelengths will be present in B
in figure. A short pulse of mono-chromatic light rays which are absent in A
is incident normally on the mirror and gets reflected. (C) B will contain some visible light.
Which of the following statements is/are correct - (D) B will contain some infrared light.
Section D - Atomic Collisions Section E - X–rays production, X–Rays

9. A free hydrogen atom in ground state is at rest. A Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties
neutron of kinetic energy ‘K’ collides with the 12. The potential difference applied to an
hydrogen atom. After collision hydrogen atom emits X–ray tube is increased. As a result, in the emitted
two photons in succession one of which has energy radiation :
2.55 eV. (Assume that the hydrogen atom and (A) the intensity increases
neutron has same mass) (B) the minimum wave length increases
(A) minimum value of ‘K’ is 25.5 eV. (C) the intensity decreases
(B) minimum value of ‘K’ is 12.75 eV. (D) the minimum wave length decreases
(C) the other photon has energy 10.2 eV
13. A X-ray tube operates at an accelerating potential of
(D) the upper energy level is of excitation energy
20 kV. Which of the following wavelengths will be
12.75 eV.
absent in the continuous spectrum of X-ray.
(A) 12 pm (B) 45 pm
10. A neutron collides head-on with a stationary (C) 65 pm (D) 95 pm
hydrogen atom in ground state. Which of the
following statements are correct (Assume that the 14. X-ray are produced by accelerating electrons across
hydrogen atom and neutron has same mass) a given potential difference to strike a meta target
(A) If kinetic energy of the neutron is less than of high atomic number. If the electrons have same
20.4 eV collision must be elastic speed when they strike the target, the X-ray
(B) If kinetic energy of the neutron is less than 20.4 spectrum will exhibit.
(A) a minimum wavelength
eV collision may be inelastic
(B) a continuous spectrum
(C) Inelastic collision may be take place only when
(C) some discrete comparatively prominent
initial kinetic energy of neutron is greater than 20.4 wavelenght
eV. (D) uniform density over the whole spectrum
(D) Perfectly inelastic collision cannot take place.
15. Which of the following are in the ascending order
11. When a point light source of power W emitting of wavelength?
monochromatic light of wavelength  is kept at a (A) H , H , H ....... lines in Balmer series of
distance a from a photo-sensitive surface of work hydrogen atom.
function  and area S, we will have (B) Lyman limit, Balmer limit, and paschen limit in
the hydrogen spectrum
(A) number of photons striking the surface per unit
(C) Violet, blue, yellow, and red colours in solar
time as W S/4 hca2
spectrum.
(B) the maximum energy of the emitted (D) None of the above.
photoelectrons as (1/) (hc-)
(C) the stopping potential needed to stop the most
energetic emitted photoelectrons as (e/) (hc-)
(D) Photo-emission only if  lies in the range
0    (hc / )
Exercise - 3 | Level-I Subjective | JEE Advanced
Section A - Photoelectric Effect 8. An electron microscope uses electrons accelerated

1. A parallel beam of uniform, monochromatic light of by a voltage of 50 kV. Determine the de Broglie
wavelength 2640 A has an intensity of 200 W/m2. wavelength associated with the electrons. If other
The number of photons in 1 mm3 of this radiation factors (such as numerical aperture, etc.) are taken
are ............... to be roughly the same, how does the resolving
power of an electron microscope compare with that
2. When photons of energy 4.25 eV strike the surface of an optical microscope which uses yellow light?
of a metal A, the ejected photoelectrons have
maximum kinetic energy Ta eV and de Broglie 9. An electron of mass “m” and charge “e” initially at
wavelength a. The maximum kinetic energy of rest gets accelerated by a constant electric field E.
photoelectrons liberated from another metal B by The rate of change of DeBroglie wavelength of
photons of energy 4.7 eV is Tb = (Ta – 1.5) eV. If this electron at time t is .....
the De Broglie wavelength of these photoelectrons
is b = 2 a, then find 10. Assume that a particle cannot be confined to a
(a) The work function of a spherical volume of diameter less then DeBroglie
(b) The work function of b is wavelength of the particle. Estimate the minimum
(c) Ta and Tb kinetic energy a proton confined to a nucleus f
diameter 10–14 m may have.
3. When a monochromatic point source of light is at a
distance of 0.2 m from a photoelectric cell, the cut Section C - Bohr Model, Bohr Model nuclear
off voltage and the saturation current are motion
respectively 0.6 volt and 18.0 mA. If the same 11. A hydrogen atom in a state having a binding energy
source is placed 0.6 m away from the photoelectric 0.85 eV makes a transition to a state of excitation
cell, then find energy 10.2 eV. The wave length of emitted photon
(a) the stopping potential is ................ nm.
(b) the saturation current
12. A hydrogen atom is in 5in excited state. When the
4. An isolated metal body is illuminated with mono- electron jumps to ground state the velocity of
chromatic light and is observed to become charged recoiling hydrogen atom is ................... m/s and
to a steady positive potential 1.0 V with respect to the energy of the photon is .......... eV.
the surrounding. The work function of the metal is
3.0 eV. The frequency of the incident light is 13. The ratio of series limit wavelength of Balmer se-
___________________. ries to wavelength of first line of paschen series is
.............
5. 663 mW of light from a 540 nm source is incident
on the surface of a metal. If only 1 of each 5×109 14. Imagine an atom made up of a proton and a
incident photons in absorbed and causes an electron hypothetical particle of double the mass of an
to be ejected from the surface, the total photocurrent electron but having the same charge as the electron.
in the circuit is ____________. Apply the Bohr atom model and consider a possible
transitions of this hypothetical particle to the first
Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter Waves + excited level. Find the longest wavelength photon
Davisson Germer Experiment that will be emitted  (in terms of the Rydberg
6. What voltage must be applied to an electron micro- constant R.)
scope to produce electrons of wavelenght 0.4 Å?
15. In a hydrogen atom, the electron moves in an orbit
7. An electron and a photon have the same de Broglie of radius 0.5 Å making 1016 revolution per second.
wavelength. Which one of these has higher kinetic The magnetic moment associated with the orbital
energy? motion of the electron is _____________.
Section D - Atomic Collisions Section E - X–rays production, X–Rays

16. Explain why nearly all H atoms are in the ground Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties
state at room temperature and ehnce emit no light. 21. Obtain a relation between the frequencies of K,
K and L lines for a target material.
17. Consider a hydrogen–like atom whose energy in
nth excited state is given by 22. Figures shows K & K X-rays along with
continuous X-ray. Find the energy of L X-ray. (Use
13.6Z 2
En  hc = 12420 evÅ).
n2
When this excited atom makes a transition from
excited state to ground state, most energetic photons
have energy Emax = 52.224 eV and least energetic
photons have energy Emin = 1.224 eV.
1Å 2Å
Find the atomic number to atom and the initial state
of excitation. 23. Photoelectrons are emitted when 400 nm radiation
is incident on a surface of work function 1.9 eV.
18. A gas of identical hydrogen–like a atoms has some These photoelectrons pass through a region
atoms in the lowest (ground) energy level A and containing a-particles. A maximum energy electron
some atoms in a particular upper (excited) energy combines with an -particle to form a He+ ion,
emitting a single photon in this process. He+ ions
level B and there are no atoms in any ohter energy
thus formed are in their fourth excited state. Find
levvel. The atoms of the gas make transition to the energies in eV atomi structure of the photons,
higher energy level by absorbing monochromatic lying in the 2 to 4 eV range, that are likely to be
light of photon energy 2.55 eV. emitted during and after the combination. [Take, h
Subsequently, the atoms emit radiations of only six = 4.14 × 10–15 eV–s]
different photon energies. Some of the emitted
photons have energy 2.55 ev, some have energy 24. A 20 KeV energy electron is brought to rest in an
more, and some have less than 2.55 eV. X-ray tube, by undergoing two successive
bremsstrahling events, thus emitting two photons.
(a) Find the principal quantum number of the initially
The wavelength of the second photon is 130 × 10–12 m
excited level B. greater than the wavelength of the first emitted
(b) Find the ionization energy for the gas atoms. photon. Calculate the wavelengths of the two
(c) Find the maximum and the minimum energies photons.
of the emitted photons.
25. The wavelength of K x-ray of tungsten is 21.3
19. A photon collides with a stationary hydrogen atom pm. It takes 11.3 KeV to knock out an electron
in ground state inelastically. Energy of the colliding from the L shell of a tungsten atom. What should
be the minimum accelerating voltage across ab
photon is 10.2 eV. Almost instantaneously, another
x-ray tube having tungsten target which allows
photon collides with same hydrogen atom poduction of K x-ray.
inelastically with an energy of 15 eV. What will be
observed by the detector?
20. A H-atom in ground state is moving with initial

kinetic energy K. It collides head on with a He+ ion
in ground state kept at rest but free to move. Find
minimum value of K so that both the particles can
excite to their first excited state.
Exercise - 3 | Level-II Subjective | JEE Advanced
Section A -Photoelectric Effect Section C - Bohr Model, Bohr Model nuclear

1. In a photo electric effect set-up, a point source of motion
light of power 3.2 × 10–3 W emits mono energetic 5. A stationary He+ ion emitted a photon corresponding
photons of energy 5.0 eV. The source is located at to the first line its Lyman series. That photon
a distance of 0.8 m from the centre of a stationary liberated a photoelectron from a stationary hydrogen
metallic sphere of work function 3.0 eV & of radius atom in the ground state. Find the velocity of the
8.0 × 10–3 m. The efficiency of photo electrons photoelectron.
emission is one for every 106 incident photons.
Assume that the sphere is isolated and initially 6. An energy of 68.0 eV is required to excite a
hydrogen like atom from its second Bohr orbit to
neutral, and that photo electrons are instantly swept
the third. The nuclear charge Ze. Find the value of
away after emission.
Z, the kinetic energy of the electron in the first Bohr
(a) Calculate the number of photo electrons emitted orbit and the wavelength of the electro magnetic
per second. radiation required to eject the electron from the first
(b) Find the ratio of the wavelength of incident light Bohr orbit to infinity.
to the De-Broglie wave length of the fastest photo
electrons emitted. Section D - Atomic Collisions
(c) It is observed that the photo electron emission 7. A neutron of kinetic energy 65 eV collides
stops at a certain time t after the light source is inelastically with a single ionized helium atom at rest.
switched on. Why ? It is scattered at an angle of 90° with respect of its
(d) Evaluate the time t. original direction.
(i) Find the allowed values of the energy of the
2. A small 10 W source of ultraviolet light of wave- neutron & that of the atom after collision.
length 99 nm is held at a distance 0.1 m from a (ii) If the atom gets de-excited subsequently by
metal surface. The radius of an atom of the metal emitting radiation, find the frequencies of the emitted
is approximaterly 0.05 nm. Find : radiation.
(i) the number of photons striking an atom per (Given : Mass of he atom = 4 × (mass of neutron),
second. ionization energy of H atom = 13.6 eV)
(ii) the number of photoelectrons emitted per second 8. The radius of hydrogen atom in its ground state is
it the efficiency of liberation of photoelectrons is 5.3 × 10–11 m. After collision with an electron it is
1% found to have a radius of 21.2 × 10–11 m. What is
the principal quantum number n of the final state of
Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter Waves + the atom ?
Davisson Germer Experiment
3. Light of wavelength  from a small 0.5 mW He-Ne
Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties
laser, source is used in the school laboratory, shines
from a spacecraft of mass 1000 kg. Explain why 9. An electron, in a hydrogen like atom, is in an excited
this causes the space-craft to accelerate. Estimate state. It has a total energy of –3.4 eV. Calculate:
the time needed for the spacecraft to reach a ve- (i) The kinetic energy &
locity of 1.0 km s–1 from rest. The momentum p of (ii) The De-Broglie wave length of the electron.
a photon of wavelength  is given by p = h/, where
h is Planck’s constant. 10. A potential difference of 20 KV is applied across
an x-ray tube. The minimum wave length of X-rays
4. An -particle and a proton are fired through the generated is _________
same magnetic fields which is perpendicular to their
velocity vectors. The -particle and the proton move
such that radius of curvature of their path is same.
Find the ratio of their de Broglie wavelengths.
Exercise - 4 | Level-I Previous Year | JEE Main

1. If the kinetic energy of a free electron doubles, its
de-Broglie wavelength changes by the factor
(AIEEE 2005)
I
1
(A) (B) 2 (A) (B)
2
O 
1
(C) (D) 2
2
I
2. A photocell is illuminated by a small bright source
(C) (D)
placed 1 m away. When the same source of light is
O 
1
placed m away, the number of electrons emitted
2 5. The time taken by a photoelectron to come out after
by photocathode would (AIEEE 2005) the photon strikes is approximately
(A) decrease by a factor of 4
(AIEEE 2006)
(B) increase by a factor of 4
(A) 10–4 s (B) 10–10 s
(C) decrease by a factor of 2
(D) increase by a factor of 2 (C) 10–16 s (D) 10–1 s
3. The diagram shows the energy levels for an electron 6. The threshold frequncy for a metallic surface
in a certain atom. Which transition shown represents corresponds to an energy of 6.2 eV and the stopping
the emission of a photon with the most energy? potential for a radiation incident on this surface is 5
(AIEEE 2005)
V. The incident radiation lies in (AIEEE 2006)
(A) ultra-violet region
n=4
(B) infra-red region
n=3 (C) visible region
(D) X-ray region
n=2
1 2
7. An alpha nucleus of energy mv bombards a
2
n=1
I IV heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. Then, the
II III
distance of closest approach for the alpha nucleus
(A) III (B) IV will be proportional to
(C) I (D) II [JEE Main 2006]
4. The anode voltage of a photocell is kept fixed. The 1

(A) v2 (B)
wavelength  of the light falling on the cathode is m
gradually changed. The plate current I of the
1 1
photocell varies as follows (C) (D)
v4 Ze
(AIEEE 2006)
8. Photon of frequency v has a momentum associated 11. If a strong diffraction peak is observed when electrons
with it. If c is the velocity of light, the momentum is are incident at an angle i from the normal to the crystal
(AIEEE 2007) planes with distance d between them (see figure),
v de-Broglie wavelength  dB of electrons can be

(A) (B) hvc
c calculated by the relationship (n is an integer)
(AIEEE 2008)
hv hv
(C) (D) (A) d sin i  n dB (B) 2d cos i  n dB
c2 c
(C) 2 d sin i  n dB (D) d cos i  n dB
9. Which of the following transitions in hydrogen atoms
emit photons of highest frequency?
12. In an experiment electrons are made to pass through
(AIEEE 2007)
a narrow slit of width d comparable to their de-
(A) n = 2 to n = 6 (C) n = 6 to n = 2
Broglie wavelength. They are detected on a screen
(C) n = 2 to n = 1 (D) n = 1 to n = 2
at a distance D from the slit (see figure).
Directions : Questins No. 10, 11, and 12 are based on

the following paragraph.
Wave property of electrons implies that they will

y=0
show diffraction effects Davisson and Germer d
demonstrated this by diffracting electrons from

crystals. The law governing the differaction from a
crystal is obtained by requiring that electron waves D
reflected from the planes of atoms in a crystal

interfere constructively (see figure).
Which of the following graphs can be expected to
(AIEEE 2008)
represent the numberof electrons N detected as a
function of the detector position y (y = 0 corresponds
Incoming Outgoing
Electrons Electrons to the middle of the slit) ? (AIEEE 2008)
i
90°– i
      
90° d
       (A) (B)
      
Crystal Plane
90° + 90°
10. Electrons accelerated by potential V are diffracted

 (C) (D) .
from a crystal. If d  1A and i = 30° V should be
about (h = 6.6 × 10 –34 J-s, me =9.1× 10 –31 kg,
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
(AIEEE 2008)
(A) 2000 V (B) 50 V
(C) 500 V (D) 1000 V
13. Suppose an electron is attracted towards the origin (A) Statement I is true, Statement II is true;
Statement II is not a correct explanation for
k Statement I.
by a force , where k is a constant and r is the (B) Statement I is true, Statement II is false.
r
(C) Statement I is false, Statement II is true.
distance of the electron from the origin. By applying (D) Statement I is true, Statement II is true;
Bohr model to this systems, the radius of the nth Statement II is a correct explanation for
orbital of the electron is found to be rn and the kinetic Statement I.
energy of the electron to be Tn. Then which of the
18. This question has Statement I and Statement II of
following is true ? (AIEEE 2008)
the four choices given after the statements, choose
1 the one that best describes the two statements.
(A) Tn  , rn  n 2
n2 Statement I A metallic surface is irradiated by a
(B) Tn is independent of n, rn  n monochromatic light of frequency v > v0 (the thresh-
old frequency). The maximum kinetic energy and
1
(C) Tn  , rn  n the stopping potential are Kmax and V0 respectively.
n
If the frequency incident on the surface is doubled,
1 2 both the Kmax and V0 are also doubled.
(D) Tn  , rn  n
n Statement II The maximum kinetic energy and
the stopping potential of photoelectrons emitted from
14. The surface a metal is illuminated with the light of a surface are linearly dependent on the frequency
400 nm. The kinetic energy of the ejected of incident light. (AIEEE 2011)
photoelectrons was found to be 1.68 eV. The work
(A) Statement I is the true, Statement II is ture,
function of the metal is (hc = 1240 eV-nm)
Statement II is the correct explanation of
(AIEEE 2009)
(A) 3.09 eV (B) 1.42 eV Statement I
(D) 151 eV (D) 1.68 eV (B) Statement I is true, Statement II is true,
Statement II is not the correct explanation of
15. The transition from the state n = 4 to a n = 3 in a Statement I
hydrogen like atom results in ultraviolet radiation. (C) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
Infrared radition will be obtained in the transition (D) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
from (AIEEE 2009)
(A) 2  1 (B) 3  2 19. Energy required for the electron excitation in Li2+
(C) 4  2 (D) 5  4 from the first to the third Bohr orbit is
(AIEEE 2011)
(A) 36.3 eV (B) 108.8 eV
16. If a source of power 4 kW produces 1020 photons/ (C) 122.4 eV (D) 12.1 eV
second, the radiation belong to a part of the spec-
trum called (AIEEE 2010) 20. After absorbing a slowly moving neutron of mass
(A) X-rays (B) ultraviolet rays mN (momentum  0) a nucleus of mass M breaks
(C) microwaves (D)   rays into two nunlei of masses m1 and 5m1 (6m1 = M +
mN), respectively. If the de-Broglie wavelength of
17. Statement I : When ultraviolet light is incident on the nucleus with mass m1 is  , then de-Broglie
a photocell, its stopping potential is V0 and the wavelength of the other nucleus will be
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is (AIEEE 2011)
Kmax. When the ultraviolet light is replaced by (A) 25  (B) 5
X–rays, both V0 and Kmax increase.
Statement II : Photoelectrons are emitted with 
(C) (D) 
speeds ranging from zero to a maximum value 5
because of the range of frequencies present inthe
incident light.
[JEE Main 2010]
21. This question has statement 1 and statement 2 Of 25. In a hydrogen like atom electron make transition
the four choices given the statements, choose the from an energy level with quantum number n to
one that describes the two statements.
another with quantum number (n – 1). If n >> 1,
(AIEEE 2012)
the frequency of radiation emitted it proportional to
Statement_1 Davission- Germer experiment
established the wave nature of electrons. [JEE MAIN-2013]
Statement_2 If electrons have wave nature, they can
1 1 1 1
interfere and show diffraction. (A) (B) (C) (D)
n 3/ 2 n3 n n2
(A) Statement 1 is false, Statement 2 is true.
(B) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is false.
(C) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is true, 26. Hydrogen (1H1), Deuterium (1H2), singly ionised
Statement 2 is the correct explanation for Helium (2He4)+ and doubly ionised lithium (3Li6)++
Statement 1
all have one electron around the nucleus. Consider
(D) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is true, State-
an electron transition from n = 2 to n = 1. If the
ment 2 is not the correct explanation of Statement 1
wave lengths of emitted radiation are 1, 2, 3 and
22. Hydrogen atom is excited from ground state to 4 respectively then approximately which one of
another state with principle quantum number equal the following is correct? [JEE MAIN-2014]
to 4. Then, the number of spectral lines in the (A) 1 = 2 = 43 = 94
emission spectra will be (AIEEE 2012) (B) 1 = 22 = 33 = 44
(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 41 = 22 = 23 = 4
(C) 5 (D) 6
(D) 1 = 22 = 23 = 4
23. A diatomic molecule is made of two masses m1
and m2 which are separated by a distance r. If we 27. The radiation corresponding to 3  2 transition of
calculate its rotational energy by applying Bohr's hydrogen atom falls on a metal surface to produce
rule of angular momentum quantization, its energy photoelectrons. These electrons are made to enter
will be given by (n is an integer) (AIEEE 2012)
a magnetic field of 3 × 10–4 T. If the radius of the
(m1  m 2 ) 2 n 2 h 2 largest circular path followed by these electrons
n 2h 2
(A) (B) 2(m + m ) r 2 is 10.0 mm, the work function of the metal is close
2m12 m 22 r 2 1 2
to : [JEE MAIN-2014]
(A) 0.8 eV (B) 1.6 eV
2 n 2h 2 (m 1 + m 2 ) n 2 h 2
(C) (m + m ) r 2 (D) (C) 1.8 eV (D) 1.1 eV
1 2 2 m1m 2r 2
28. An an electron makes a transition from a excited

24. The anode voltage of a photocell is kept fixed. The state to the ground state of a hydrogen–like
wavelength  of the light falling on the cathode is stom/ion :
gradually changed. The plate current I of the (A) Kinetic energy decreases, potential energy
photocell varies as follows : [JEE MAIN-2013] increases but total energy remains same
I I
(B) Kinetic energy and total energy decrease but
potential energy increase
(A) (B)
(C) Its kinetic energy increases but potential energy
O O
and total energy decrease.
(D) Kinetic energy potential energy and total energy
I I
decrease
(C) (D) [JEE Main 2015]
O O
29. Radiation of wavelength , is incident on a photocell. 31. A particle A of mass m and initial velocity  collides
with a particle B of mass m/2 which is at rest. The
The fastest emitted electron has speed , If the
collision is head on and elastic. The ratio of
3 de-Broglie wavelengths A and B after the collision
wavelength is changed to , the speed of the
4 is - [JEE Main 2017]
fastest emitted electron will be :
A 1 A 1
[JEE Main 2016] (A)  = (C)  =
1 1
B 2 B 3
 4 2  4 2 A A
(A)     (B)     2
3 3 (B)  = 2 (D)  =
B B 3
1 1
 3 2  4 2
(C)     (D)     32. An electron from various excited states of hydrogen
4 3
atom emit radiation to come to the ground state.
Let n , g be the de Broglie wavelength of the
30. An electron beam is accelerated by a potential electron in the nth state and the ground state
difference V to hit a metallic target to produce respectively. Let n be the wavelength of the emitted
X-rays. it produces continuous as well as photon in the transition from the nth state to the
characterstic X-rays. If min is the smallest possible ground state. For large n, (A, B are constants)
wavelength of X-ray in the spectrum, the variation [JEE Main 2018]
of log min with log V is correctly represented in : B
[JEE Main 2017] (A)  2n   (B)  n  A 
 2n
(C)  n  A  B n (D)  2n  A  B 2n
(A) 33. The mass of a hydrogen molecule is 3.32×10–27 kg.

If 1023 hydrogen molecules strike, per second, a
fixed wall of area 2 cm2 at an angle of 45° to the
normal, and rebound elastically with a speed of 103
m/s, then the pressure on the wall is nearly :
[JEE Main 2018]
(A) 4.70 × 102 N/m2
(B) (B) 2.35 × 103 N/m2
(C) 4.70 × 103 N/m2
(D) 2.35 × 102 N/m
34. If the series limit frequency of the Lyman series is

vL, then the series limit frequency of the pfund
(C) series is - [JEE Main 2018]
(A) vL/25 (B) 25 vL
(C) 16 vL (D) vL/16
35. A silver atom in a solid oscillates in simple harmonic

motion in some direction with a frequency of
(D) 1012/sec. What is the force constant of the bonds
connecting one atom with the other ?
(Mole wt. of silver = 108 and Avagadro number =
6.02 × 1023 gm mole–1) [JEE Main 2018]
(A) 5.5 N/m (B) 6.4 N/m
(C) 7.1 N/m (D) 2.2 N/m
Exercise - 4 | Level-II Previous Year | JEE Advanced
1. The wavelength of K X – ray of an element having

metal 1 metal 2 metal 3
atomic number z = 11 is . The wavelength of K V
X-ray of another element of atomic number z is 4l.
Then z is [JEE’2005 (Scr)]

(A) 11 (B) 44
0.001 0.002 0.004 1/ nm–1
(C) 6 (D) 4
(A) Ratio of work functions 1 : 2 : 3 = 1 : 2 : 4
2. A photon of 10.2 eV energy collides with a hydrogen (B) Ratio of work functions 1 : 2 : 3= 4 : 2 : 1
atom in ground state inelastically. After few (C) tan  is directly proportional to hc/e, where h is
Planck’s constant and c is the speed of light
microseconds one more photon of energy 15 eV
(D) The violet colour light can eject photoelectrons
collides with the same hydrogen atom. Then what from metals 2 and 3.
can be detected by a suitable detector. [JEE 2006]
(A) one photon of 10.2 eV and an electron of
energy 1.4 eV 6. In hydrogen-like atom (z = 11), nth line of Lyman
(B) 2 photons of energy 10.2 eV series has wavelength  equal to the de-Broglie’s
wavelength of electron in the level from which it
(C) 2 photons of energy 3.4 eV
originated. What is the value of n?
(D) 1 photon of 3.4 eV and one electron of 1.4 eV [Take : Bohr radius (r0) = 0.53 Å and Rydberg
[JEE’ 2005 (Scr)] constant (R) = 1.1 × 107 m–1]
[JEE 2006]
3. The potential energy of a particle of mass m is given
by 7. STATEMENT-1
If the accelerating potential in an X-ray tube is
E 0 0  x  1 increased, the wavelengths of the characteristic
V(x) =  0 x 1 
 X-rays do not change. [JEE 2007]

because
1 and 2 are the de-Broglie wavelengths of the STATEMENT-2
particle, when 0  x  1 and x > 1 respectively. If When an electron beam strikes the target in an
the total energy of particle is 2E0, find 1/2 X-ray tube, part of the kinetic energy is converted
[JEE 2005] into X-ray energy.
(A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
Statement-2 is a correct explanation for
4. Highly energetic electrons are bombarded on a
Statement-1
target of an element containing 30 neutrons. The (B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True;
ratio of radii of nucleus to that of helium nucleus is Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for
(14)1/3. Find Statement-1
(a) atomic number of the nucleus (C) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
(b) the frequency of K line of the X-ray produced. (D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True
(R = 1.1 × 107 m–1 and c = 3 × 108 m/s)
8. Electrons with de-Broglie wavelength  fall on the
[JEE 2005] target in an X-ray tube. The cut-off wavelength of
the emitted X-rays is
5. The graph between 1/ and stopping potential (V) [JEE 2007]
of three metals having work functions 1, 2 and 3 2mc 2 2h
in an experiment of photoelectric effect is plotted (A)  0  (B)  0 
h mc
as shown in the figure. Which of the following
2m 2 c2  3
statement(s) is/are correct? [Here  is the (C)  0  (D) 0 = 
h2
wavelength of incident ray].
9. The largest wavelength in the ultraviolet region of Paragraph for Questions 14 to 16

the hydrogen spectrum is 122 nm. The smallest When a particle is restricted to move along x-axis
between x = 0 and x = a, where a is of nanometer
wavelength in the infrared region of the hydrogen
dimension, its energy can take only certain specific
spectrum (to the nearest integer) is : values. The allowed energies of the particle moving
in such a restricted region, correspond to the
[JEE 2007] formation of standing waves with nodes at its ends
(A) 802 nm (B) 823 nm x = 0 and x = a. The wavelength of this standing
wave is related to the linear momentum p of the
(C) 1882 nm (D) 1648 nm
particle according to the de Broglie relation. The
energy of the particle of mass m is related to its
10. Which one of the following statements is WRONG
p2
in the context of X-rays generated from a X-ray linear momentum as E = . Thus, the energy of
2m
tube?
the particle can be denoted by a quantum number
(A) Wavelength of characteristic X-rays decreases ‘n’ taking values 1, 2, 3 … (n = 1, called the ground
when the atomic number of the target increases. state) corresponding to the number of loops in the
(B) Cut-off wavelength of the continuous X-rays standing wave. Use the model described above to
depends on the atomic number of the target. answer the following three questions for a particle
moving in the line x = 0 to x=a.Take h=6.6×10–34 Js
(C) Intensity of the characteristic X-rays depends
and e= 1.6 × 10–19 C. [JEE 2009]
on the electrical power given to the X-ray tube
(D) Cut-off wavelength of the continuous X-rays 14. The allowed energy for the particle for a particular
depends on the energy of the electrons in the value of n is proportional to
X-rays tube [JEE 2008] (A) a–2 (B) a–3/2
–1
(C) a (D) a2
Paragraph for Question No. 11 to 13 15. If the mass of the particle is m = 1.0 × 10–30 kg and
In mixture of H–He+ gas (He+ is singly ionized He a = 6.6 nm, the energy of the particle in its ground
atom), H atoms and He+ ions are excited to their state is closest to
respective first excited states. Subsequently, H (A) 0.8 meV (B) 8 meV
(C) 80 meV (D) 800 meV
atoms transfer their total excitation energy to He–
ions (by collision). Assume that the Bohr model of 16. The speed of the particle, that can take discrete
atom is exactly valid. [JEE 2008] values, is proportional to
(A) n –3/2 (B) n –1
1/2
11. The quantum number n of the state finally (C) n (D) n
poulated in He+ ions is 17. Photoelectric effect experiments are performed
(A) 2 (B) 3 using three different metal plates p, q and r having
(C) 4 (D) 5 work functions p = 2.0 eV, q = 2.5 eV and r = 3.0
eV, respectively. A light beam containing
12. The wavelength of light emitted in the visible region wavelengths of 550 nm, 450 nm and 350 nm with
equal intensities illuminates each of the plates. The
by He+ ions after collisions with H atoms is correct I–V graph for the experiment is
(A) 6.5 × 10–7 m (B) 5.6 × 10–7m [JEE 2009]
(C) 4.8 × 10–7m (D) 4.0 × 10–7m I
I
p
13. The ratio of the kinetic energy of the q
(A) (B) r
n = 2 electron for the H atom to that of He+ ion is
V V
1 1
(A) (B) I
4 2 r I
q
(C) 1 (D) 2 (C) p (D) r
p
q
V
18. An  - particle and a proton are accelerated from 23. A silver sphere of radius 1 cm and work function
rest by a potential difference of 100 V. After this, 4.7 eV is suspended from an insulating thread in
their de Broglie wavelengths are  a and  p free-space. It is under continuous illumination of
p
respectively. The ratio  , to the nearst integer, is 200 nm wavelength light. As photoelectrons are

[JEE 2010] emitted, the sphere gets charged and acquires a
potential. The maximum number of photoelectrons
Paragraph for questions 19 to 21 emitted from the sphere is A × 10z ( where 1 < A <
The key feature of Bohr's theory of spectrum of 10). The value of 'Z' is
hydrogen atoms is the quantization of angular [JEE-2011]
momentum when an electron is revolving around a
proton. We will extend this to a general rotational
24. A proton is fired from very far away towards a
motion to find quantized rotational energy of a
diatomic molecule assuming it to be rigid. The rule nucleus with charge Q = 120 e, where e is the
to be applied is Bohr's quantization condition. electronic charge. It makes a closest approach of
[JEE 2010] 10 fm to the nucleus. The de Broglie wavelength
(in units of fm) of the proton at its start is: (take the
-27 -15
19. A diatomic molecule has moment of inertia I. By proton mass, mp = (5/3) x 10 kg; h/e = 4.2 x 10
Bohr's quantization condition its rotational energy
1 9 -15
in the nth level (n = 0 is not allowed ) is J.s/C; = 9 X 10 m/F;1 fm = 10 m)
4 o
1  h2  1  h2 
(A)   (B)   [JEE-2012]
n 2  82 I  n  82 I 
 h2  2 25. A pulse of light of duration 100 ns is absorbed

2 h 
(C) n  2  (D) n  2  completely by a small object initially at rest. Power of
 8 I   8  I 
the pulse is 30 mW and the speed of light is 3 × 108
ms-1. The final momentum of the object is
20. It is found that the excitation frequency from ground
[JEE-2013]
to the first excited state of rotation for the CO
(A) 0.3 ×10-17 kg ms-1
4 (B) 1.0 ×10-17 kg ms-1
molecule is close to  1011 Hz. Then the moment
 (C) 3.0 ×10-17 kg ms-1
of inertia of CO molecule about its center of mass (D) 9.0 ×10-17 kg ms-1
is close to (Take h = 2 × 10–34 Js)
(A) 2.76 × 10–46 kg m2
26. The work functions of Silver and Sodium are 4.6
(B) 1.87 × 10–46 kg m2
and 2.3 eV, respectively. The ratio of the slope of
(C) 4.67 × 10–47 kg m2
(D) 1.17 × 10–47 kg m2 the stopping potential versus frequency plot for
Silver to that of Sodium is
21. In a CO molecule, the distance between C (mass = [JEE-2013]
12 a.m.u.) and O (mass = 16 a.m.u.) where 1 a.m.u.
27. The radius of the orbit of an electron in a Hydro-
5 –27
=  10 kg, is close to gen-like atom is 4.5 a0, where a0 is the Bohr radius.
3
(A) 2.4 × 10–10 m (B) 1.9 × 10–10 m 3h
Its orbital angular momentum is . It is given that
(C) 1.3 × 10–10 m (D) 4.4 × 10–11 m 2
h is Planck constant and R is Rydberg constant.
22. The wavelength of the first spectral line in the The possible wavelength(s), when the atom de-ex-
o
Balmer series of hydrogen atom is 6561 A . The cites, is (are) [JEE-2013]
wavelength of the second spectral line in the Balmer
9 9
series of singly-ionized helium atom is (A) (B)
32R 16R
[JEE-2011]
(A) 1215 Å (B) 1640 Å 9 4
(C) 2430 Å (D) 4687 Å (C) (D)
5R 3R
28. A metal surface is illuminated by light of two 32. A hydrogen atom in its ground state is irradiated by
different wavelengths 248 nm and 310 nm. The light of wavelength 970Å. Taking hc/e = 1.237 ×
maximum speeds of the photoelectrons 10–6 eV m and the ground state energy of hydrogen
corresponding to these wavelengths are u1 and u2, atom as – 13.6 eV, the number number of lines
respectively. If the ratio u1 : u2 = 2 : 1 and and hc = present in the emission spectrum is.
1240 eV nm, the work function of the metal is nearly [JEE Advanced 2016]
[JEE Advanced 2014] 33. Light of wavelength ph falls on a cathode plate
(A) 3.7 eV (B) 3.2 eV inside a vacuum tube as shown in the figure. The
(C) 2.8 eV (D) 2.5 eV work function of the cathode surface is  and the
29. If Cu is the wavelength of K X-ray line of copper anode is a wire mesh of conducting material kept
at a distance d from the cathode. A potential
(atomic number 29) and M0 is the wavelength iof
difference V is maintained between the electrode.
the K X-ray line of molybdenum (atomic number
If the minimum de Broglie wavelength of the
42), then the ratio Cu/Mo is close to electrons passing through the anode is e, which of
[JEE Advanced 2014] the following statement(s) is (are) true?
(A) 1.99 (B) 2.14 [JEE Advanced 2016]
(C) 0.50 (D) 0.48
Light
30. In a historical experiment to determine Planck’s

constant, a metal surface was irradiated with light
of different wavelengths. The emitted photoelectron
Electrons
energies were measured by applying a stopping
potential. The relevant data for the wavelenght ()
of incident light and the corresponding stopping
potential (V0) are given below : V
– +
[JEE Advanced 2016]
(A) e decreases with increase in  and ph
(B) e is approximately halved, if d is doubled
(C) For large potential difference (V >> /e), e
approximately halved if V is made four times
(D)  e increases at the same rate as  ph for
ph < hc/
Given that c = 3 × 108 ms-1 and e= 1.6×10-19 C,
Planck’s constant (in units of J s) found from such 34. An electron in a hydrogen atom undergoes a
an experiment is transition from an orbit with quantum number ni
(A) 6.0×10-34 (B) 6.4×10-34 to another with quantum number nf. Vi and Vf are
(C) 6.6×10 -34
(D) 6.8×10-34 respectively the initial and final potential energies
i V
31. Highly excited states for hydrogen-like atoms (also of the electron. If V  6.25, then the smallest
f
called Rydberg states) with nucles charge Ze are possible nf is [JEE Advanced 2017]
defined by their principal quantum number n, where
n>>1. Which of the following statement(s) is(are) 35. A photoelectric material having work-function 0 is
true?
 hc 
[JEE Advanced 2016] illuminated with light of wavelength     .
 0 
(A) Relative change in the radii of two consecutive
The fastest photoelectron has a de Broglie
orbitals does not depend on Z.
wavelength d . A change in wavelength of the
(B) Relative change in the radii of two consecutive
incident light by  results in a change d in d.
orbitals varies as 1/n.
(C) Relative change in the energy of two consecu- Then the ratio d/ is proportional to
tive orbitals varies as 1/n3. [JEE Advanced 2017]
(D) Relative change in the angular momenta of two (A) 3d /  (B) 3d / 2
consecutive orbitals varies as 1/n. (C) 2d / 2 (D) d / 
36. In a photoelectric experiment a parallel beam of 37. Consider a hydrogen-like ionized atom with atomic
monochromatic light with power of 200 W is incident number Z with a single electron. In the emission
on a perfectly absorbing cathode of work function spectrum of this atom, the photon emitted in the
6.25 eV. The frequency of light is just above the n = 2 to n = 1 transition has energy 74.8 eV higher
threshold frequency so that the photoelectrons are than the photon emitted in the n = 3 to n = 2 transition.
emitted with negligible kinetic energy. Assume that The ionization energy of the hydrogen atom is
the photoelectron emission efficinecy is 100% A 13.6 eV. The value of Z is.............. .
potential difference of 500 V is applied between [JEE Advanced 2018]
the cathode and the anode. All the emitted electrons
are incident normally on the anode and are absorbed.
The anode experiences a force F = n × 10–4 N due
to the impact of the electrons. The value of n is........
Mass of the electron me = 9 × 10–31 kg and 1.0 eV
= 1.6 × 10–19 J.?
[JEE Advanced 2018]

1. C 2. A 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. C 7. B
8. C 9. C 10. B 11. C 12. A 13. D 14. B
15. C 16. B 17. A 18. C 19. D 20. C 21. B
22. C 23. C 24. A 25. D 26. D 27. B 28. C
29. A 30. C 31. A 32. A 33. A 34. B 35. A
36. C 37. B 38. C 39. B 40. B 41. C 42. C
43. D 44. C 45. B 46. C 47. D 48. A 49. C
50. B
1. D 2. C 3. D 4. C 5. C 6. B 7. B
8. C 9. A 10. C 11. D 12. D 13. D 14. C
15. A 16. D 17. C 18. B 19. B 20. B 21. A
22. B 23. C 24. C 25. D 26. A 27. D 28. B
29. A 30. C 31. B 32. C 33. B 34. B
1. A,C 2. B,C 3. A,B,C 4. A,C 5. A,B

6. A,C,D 7. A,D 8. A,C,D 9. A,C,D 10. A,C
11. A,B,D 12. A,D 13. A,B 14. A,B,C 15. B,C
1. 885 2. (a) 2.25 eV (b) 4.2 eV (c) 2.0 eV, 0.5 eV 3. 0.6 Volt, 2.0 mA
4. when the potential is steady, photo electric emission just stop when hv = (3 + 1) eV = 4.0 eV
5. i  5.76 1011 A 6. 940.96 V 7. Photon
8. Power of electron microscope is 105 times as large as that of the optical microscrope.
9. –h/e Et2 10. 8.6 MeV 11. 487.06 nm 12. 4.26 m/s, 13.2 eV
13. 7 : 36 14. 18/5R 15. 1.257 × 10–23 Am2 16. By theory
17. Z=2&n=5
18. a. nb  2 ; b. 14.4 eV ; c. Emax = 13.5 eV & Emin = 0.7 eV
19. One electron having kinetic energy nearly 11.6 eV
20. 63.75 eV 21. fb = fa –2 f 22. 6210 eV
23. during combination = 3.365 eV; after combination = 3.88 eV (5  3) & 2.63 eV (4  3)
24. 62.5 × 10–12, 192.5 × 10–12 25. 69.5 Kev
1. (a) 105 s–1 ; (b) 286.18 ; (d) 111 s

2. (i) 5/16 photon/sec, (ii) 5/1600 electrons/sec
 1
3. 6 × 1017 sec. 4. p = 2 5. 3.1 × 106 m/s 6. 489.6 eV, 25.28 Å
7. (i) Allowed values of energy of neutron = 6.36 eV and 0.312 eV; Allowed values of energy of He
atom = 17.84 eV and 16.328 eV, (ii) 18.23 × 1014 Hz, 9.846 × 1015 Hz, 11.6 × 1015 Hz
8. n=2 9. (i) KE = 3.4 eV, (ii)  = 6.66 Å 10. 0.61 Å
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. A 7. B
8. D 9. C 10. B 11. B 12. D 13. B 14. B
15. D 16. A 17. D 18. C 19. B 20. D 21. C
22. D 23. D 24. B 25. B 26. A 27. D 28. C
29. D 30. B 31. C 32. B 33. B 34. A 35. C
1. C 2. A 3. 2 4. v = 1.546 × 1018 Hz
5. A,C 6. n = 24 7. B 8. A 9. B
10. B 11. C 12. C 13. A 14. A
15. B 16. D 17. A 18. 3 19. D
20. B 21. C 22. A 23. 7 24. 7
25. B 26. 1 27. A,C 28. A 29. B
30. B 31. A,B,D 32. 6 33. C 34. 5
35. B 36. 24 37. 3
Section A - RUTHERFORD'S EXPERIMENT, deflected by such large angles as observed in the

NUCLEAR PROPERTIES (RADIUS, DENSITY, experiment. On the basis of this experiment
ISOTOPES ETC.) Ruthorford presented a new atomic model.
In this new atomic model it was assumed that the
It is the branch of physics which deals with the
positive charge in the atom was concentrated in a
study of nucleus.
In 1911, Earnest Ruthorford performed a critical region that was small relative to the size of atom.
He called this concentration of positive charge, the
experiment that showed that Thomson's model
nucleus of the atom. Electrons belonging to the atom
could not be correct. In this experiment a beam of
were assumed to be moving in the large volume of
positively charged alpha particles (helium nuclei)
atom outside the nucleus. To explain why these
was projected into a thin gold foil. It is observed
electrons were not pulled into the nucleus,
that most of the alpha particles passed through the
Ruthorford said that electrons revolve around the
foil as if it were empty space. But some surprising
results are also seen. Several alpha particles are "nucleus in orbits around the positively charged
nucleus in the same manner as the planets orbit the
deflected from their original direction by large
sun. The corresponding atomic model can be
angles. Few alpha particles are observed to be
approximately shown in figure.
reflected back, reversing their direction of travel as
shown in figure-l.2.
–
Reason of Failure of model :

1. It could not explain the line spectrum of H-atom.
Justification : According to Maxwell's
electromagnetic theory every accelerated moving
charged particle radiates energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves & therefore duringh
If Thomson model is assumed true that the positive revolution of e– in circular orbit its frequency will
charge is spreaded uniformly in the volume of an contanously vary (i.e. decrease) which will result
atom then the alpha particle can never experience in the conitnuous emission of lines & therefore
such a large repulsion due to which it will be spectrum of atom must be continuous but in reality,
one obtains line spectrum for atoms.
2. It could not explain the stablity of atoms. Some definitions :

Justification : Since revolving electron will (1) Isotopes :
continuously radiates energy & therfore radii of The nuclei having the same number of protons but
circular path will continuously decrease & in a time different number of neutrons are called isotopes.
of about 10–8 sec revolving electron must fall down (2) Isotones :
in a nucleus by adopting a spiral path Nuclei with the same neutron number N but
different atomic number Z are called
isotones.
(3) Isobars :
The nuclei with the same mass number but different
+ atomic number are called isobars
(d) Size of nucleus : Order of 10–15 m (fermi)
Radius of nucleus ; R = R0A1/3
where R0 = 1.1 × 10–15 m (which is an empirical
constant)
Path of electron spiral
A = Atomic mass number of atom.
(e) Density :
1. NUCLEUS :
(a) Discoverer : Rutherford mass Am p
density  
(b) Constituents : neutrons (n) and protons (p) volume 4 R 3
[collectively known as nucleons] 3
1. Neutron : It is a neutral particle. It was discovered
Am p 3m p
by J. Chadwick.  
4 3
Mass of neutron, (R 0 A1/ 3 )3 4 R 0
3
mn = 1.6749286 × 10–27 kg
2. Proton : It has a charge equal to +e. It was 3  1.67  10 –27
discovered by Goldstein. 
4  3.14  (1.1  10 –15 )3
Mass of proton, mp = 1.6726231 × 10–27 kg
 3  1017 kg / m3
(mp ~ mn)
Nuclei of almost all atoms have almost same density
(c) Representation :
as nuclear density is independent of the mass
A
Z
XA or Z X number (A) and atomic number (Z).
where X  symbol of the atom
Note
Z  Atomic number = number of protons
A  Atomic mass number = total number of
nucleons.
= no. of protons + no. of neutrons. Section B - MASS DEFECT, BINDING ENERGY,
Atomic mass number : STABILITY
It is the nearest integer value of mass represented 2. MASS DEFECT
in a.m.u (atomic mass unit) It has observed that there is a differene between
1 expected mass and actual mass of a nucleus.
1 a.m.u = [mass of one atom of 6C12 atom at Mexpected = z mp + (A – Z) mn
12
Mobserved = Matom – Zme
rest and in ground state] It is found that
1.6603 × 10–27 kg ; 931.478 MeV/c2 Mobserved < Merxpected
mass of proton (mo) = mass of neutron (mn) = 1 Hence, mass defect is defined as
a.m.u. Mass defect = Mexpected – Mobserved
m = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn – [Matom – Zme]
3. BINDING ENERGY • The Lighter nuclei being unstable have tendency to

It is the minimum energy required to break the fuse into a medium nucleus. This process is called
nucleus into its constituent particles. Fusion.
or
Amount of energy released during the formation of Note
nucleus by its constituent particles and bringing them
from infinite separation.
Binding Energy (B.E.) = mc2 Section C - RADIOACTIVING LAW
BE = m (in amu) × 931.5 MeV/amu
= m × 931.5 MeV 4. RADIOACTIVITY :
= m × 931 MeV It was discovered by Henry Becquerel.
(Also Called Mass energy equivalance) Spontaneous emission of radiations (, , ) from
unstable nucleus is called radioactivity. Substances
Note
which shows radioactivity are known as
radioactive substance.
Radioactivity was studied in detail by Rutherford.
For Example In radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits 
 B.E1   B.E 2  particle or  particle. After emission of  or  the
If    remaining nucleus may emit - particle, and converts
 A1   A 2 
into more stable nucleus.
then nucleus 1 would be more stable. - particle :
It is a doubly charged helium nucleus. It contains
3.1 Variation of binding energy per
two protons and two neutrons.
nucleon with mass number :
Mass of  - particle = Mass of 2He4 atom – 2me = 4
The binding energy per nucleon first increases on
mp
an averge and reaches a maximum of about 8.7
Charge of  - particle = + 2e
MeV for A. 50  80. For still heavier nuclei, the
-particle :
binding energy per nucleon
(a)  – (electron) :
slowly decreases as A increases.
Mass = me ; Charge = – e
+
(b)  (positron)
Mass = me ; Charge = + e
positron is an antiparticle of electron.
Antiparticle :
A particle is called antiparticle of other if on collision
both can annihilate (destroy completely) and
converts into energy. For example : (i) electron (–
e, me) and positron (+e, me) are anti particles, (ii)
neutrino () and antineutrino (  ) are anti particles.
56
Binding energy per nucleon is maximum for 26Fe , -particle : They are energetic photons of energy
which is equal to 8.8 MeV. Binding energy per of the order of Mev and having rest mass zero.
nucleon is more for medium nuclei than for heavy
nuclei. Hence, medium nuclei are highly stable. Note
• The heavier nuclei being unstable have tendency to
split into medium nuclei. This process is called
Fission.
Section D -, ,  DECAY, FISSION & FUSSION Q = Ty + T mT = mYTy
5. RADIOACTIVE DECAY T 
mY
Q TY 
m
Q
(DISPLACEMENT LAW) : m  mY ; m  m Y
5.1 -Decay :
A–4 4
XA  Y A–4  2 He4  Q T  Q ; TY  Q
Z Z– 2 A A
Q value : It is definied as energy released during From the above calculation, one can see that all the
the decay process. -particles emitted should have same kinetic energy.
Q value = rest mass energy of reactans – rest mass Hence, if they are passed through a region of
energy of products. uniform magnetic field having direction
This energy is available in the form of increase in perpendicular to velocity, they should move in a circle
K.E. of the products of same radius.
mv mv 2Km
r  
qB 2eB 2eB
A Y + 2He4 + Q
zX

Z-electrons r v B
Z-electrons
 particle
(it has charge + 2e)
Let, Mx = mass of atom zXA

My = mass of atom z – 2YA – 4 Experimental Observation :
MHe = mass of atom 2He4 Experimentally it has been observed that all the -
Q value = [(Mx – Zme) – {(My – (Z – 2)me) + (MHe particles do not move in the circle of same radius,
– 2me)}] c2 = [Mx – My – MHe] c2 but they move in 'circles having different radii.
Considering actual number of electrons in  - decay
Q value = [Mx – (My + 2me) – (MHe – 2me)] c2
= [Mx – My – MHe]c2
Calculation of Kinetic energy of final products :

As atom X was initially at rest and no external forces This shows that they have different kinetic energies.
are acting, so final momentum also has to be zero. But it is also observed that they follow circular paths
Hence both Y and  - particle will have same of some fixed values of radius i.e. yet the energy of
momentum in magnitude but in opposite direction. emitted -particles is not same but it is quantized.
p p
The reason behind this is that all the daughter nuclei
produced are not in their ground state but some of
the daughter nuclei may be produced in their excited
Y  states and they emits photon to aquire their ground
state.
p2  p Y 2 2mT = 2 mY TY X Y* (excited state)    Q

(Here we are representing T for kinetic energy)
Y + photon ( particle)
The only difference between Y and Y* is that Y* is Propeties of antineutrino (  ) & neutrino (n) :
in excited state and Y is in ground state. (1) They are like photons having rest mass = 0
Let, the energy of emited - particles be E speed = c
 Q = T + TY + E Energy, E = mc2
where Q = [Mx – MY – MHe] c2 (2) They are chargeless (neutral)
T + TY = Q – E 1
(3) They have spin quantum number, s = ±
mY 2
T  (Q – E) ; Considering the emission of antineutrino, the equation
m  m Y
of – - decay can be written as
m X A 
 z 1 Y A  1 e0  Q  
TY  (Q – E) Z
m  mY Production of antinuetrino along with the electron
helps to explain the continueous spectrum because
5.2  – – Decay : the energy is distributed randomly between electron
X A 
 Z1 Y A  –1 e0  Q and  and it also helps to explain the spin quantum
z
number balnace (p, n and ± e each has spin quantium
–1 e 0 can also be written as –1 0 number ± 12)
Here also one can see that by momentum and During – - decay, inside the nucleus a neutron is
energy conversion, we will get converted to a proton with emission of an electron
mY me and antineutrino.
Te  Q TY  Q
me  m Y , me  m Y n  p  –1 e0  
Let, Mx = mass of atom zXA
as me << mY, we can consider that all the energy is
MY = mass of atom z + 1YA
taken away by the electron. From the above results,
me = mass of electron
we will find that all the -particles emitted will have
Q value = [(Mx – Zme) – {(MY – (z + 1)me) + me}]
same energy and hence they have same radius if
c2 = [Mx – MY] c2
passed through a region of perpendicular magnetic Considering actual number of electrons.
field. But, experimental observations were Q value = [M x – {(M Y – m e) + m e }] c 2 =
completely different. On passing through a region [Mx – My]c2
of uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the
velocity, it was observed that -particles take 5.3  + – Decay :
circular paths of different radius having a continuous X A  Z–1 Y A  1 e 0    Q
Z
spectrum.
In + decay,inside a nucleus a proton is converted
into a neutron, positron and neutrino.
–
p  n  1 e0  
As mass increases during conversion of proton to a
neutron, hence it requires energy for + decay to
take place,
 + decay is rare process. It can take place in the
nucleus where a proton can take energy from the
nucleus itself.
To explain this, Paulling has introduced the extra
Q value = [(MX – Zme) – {(MY – (Z – 1) me) +
particles called neutrino and antineutrino (antiparticle
me}] c2 = [MX – MY – 2me] c2
of neutrino).
Considering actual number of electrons.
  antineutrino,  neutrino
Q value = [MX – {(MY + me) + me}] c2 = [MX – MY
– 2me] c2
5.4 K capture :
It is rare process which is found only in few nucleus. N
 1. 6 N
In this process the nuclues captures one of the no. of Z 1
proton (N) N N
Z
 
atomic electrons from the K shell. A proton in the Z  Z  stable
(shows  – decay )
nucleus combines with this electron and converts N  N
Stability Curve
 
Z  Z'  stable
itself into a neutron. A neutrino is also emitted in
( shows  + decay )
the process and is emitted from the nucleus.
p  –1 e 0  n  
no. of proton (Z)
The points (Z, N) for stable nuclides fall in a rather

well-defined narrow region. There are nuclides to
the left of the stability belt as well as to the right of
it. The nuclides to the left of the stability region
N
have excess neutrons, whereas, those to the right
of the stability belt have excess protons. these
K shell nuclides are unstble and decay with time according
to the laws of radioactive disintegration. Nuclides
with excess neutrons (lying above stability belt) show
If X and Y are atoms then reactions is written as : – decay while nuclides with excess protons (lying
below stability belt) show + decay and K - capture.
z X A z –1 Y A    Q + characteristic x-rays of Y..
If X and Y are taken as nucleus, then reactions is 7. NUCLEAR FORCE :
written as : (i) Nuclear forces are basically attractive and are
A 0 A
X  –1 e z –1 Y   responsible for keeping the nucleons bound in a
z
nucleus in spite of repulsion between the positively
charge protons.
(ii) It is the strongest force with in nuclear
dimensions (Fn – 100 Fe)
(iii) It is a short range force (acts only inside the
nucleus)
(iv) It acts only between neutron-neutron, neutron-
proton and proton-proton i.e. between nucleons.
(v) It does not depend on the nature of nucleons.
(vi) An important property of nuclear force is that it
is not a central force. The force between a pair of
6. NUCLEAR STABILITY : nucleons is not solely determined by the distance
Figure shows a plot of neutron number N versus between the necleons. For example, the nuclear
proton number Z for the nuclides found in nature. force depends on the directions of the spins of the
The solid line in the figure represents the stable nucelons. The force is stronger if the spins of the
nucleons are parallel (i.e., both nucleons have ms =
nuclides. For light stable nuclides, the neutron
+1/2 or –1/2) and is weaker if the spins are
number is equal to the proton number so that ratio
antiparallel (i.e., one nucleon has ms = +1/2 and the
N/Z is equal to 1. The ratio N/Z increases for the
other has ms = – 1/2). Here ms is spin quantum
heavier nuclides and becomes about 1.6 for the
number.
heaviest stable nuclides.
8. RADIOACTIVE DECAY : N0 ln 2 0.693

(STATISTICAL LAWS) :  N 0 e – t t =   t1/ 2
2  
These were given by Rutherford and Soddy.
Rate of radioactive decay  N ln 2 0.693
t 1/ 2   (to be remembered)
where N = number of active nuclei =  N  
where  = decay constant of the radioactive Number of nuclei present after n half lives i.e. after
substance. a time t = n t1/2
Decay constant is different for different radioactive – n
ln 2
substances, but it does not depend on amount of N  N 0 e – t  N 0e –  nt1/ 2  N 0e 
substances and time.

(– n ) –n N0
SI unit of  is s–1  N 0 eln 2  N 0 (2)  N 0 (1/ 2) n 
2n
If 1 > 2 then first substance is more radioactive
(less stable) than the second one. t
For the case, if A decays to B with decay constant  {n = t . It may be a fraction, need not to be an
1/2

A  B integer}
t = 0 N0 0 where N 0 = number of or
active nuclei of A at t = 0 2 3
t=t N N' where N = number of after 1st N0 2 1 3 1
N 0     N 0     N0  
active nuclei of A at t = t
half life
2 2
  2
dN n
Rate of radioactive decay of A = –  N n 1
dt ..................   N0  
2
N t
dN 8.2 Activity :
– 
N0

 dt
N 0 Activity is defined as rate of radioactive decay of
nuclei
 N = N0 e–t (it is exponential decay) It is denoted by A or R A =  N
If a radioactive substance changes only due to decay
N'  N0 – N
N then
N0
dN
N0 A–
dt
As in that case, N = N0 e–t
t
t A  N  N 0e – t  A  A 0e – t
SI unit of activity : becquerel (Bq) which is same
Number of nuclei decayed (i.e., the number of nuclei as 1 dps (disintegration per second)
of B formed) The popular unit of activity is curis which is defined as
N '  N 0 – N  N 0 – N 0e – t 1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 dps (which is activity of 1 gm
Radium)
N '  N 0 (1 – e – t ) specific activity : The activity per unit mass is
called specific activity.
8.1 Half Life (T1/2) :
It is the time in which number of active nuclei 8.3 Average Life :
becomes half. 
– t
N  N 0 e – t
sum of ages of all the nuclei  N e
0
0 dt.t
1
Tavg   
N N0 N0 
After one half life, N 0
2
A radioactive nucleus can decay be two different A radioactive substance "A" having N0 active nuclie
processes. The half-life for the first process is t1 at t = 0, decays to another radioactive substance
and that for the second process is t2. Show that the "B" with decay constant 1. B further decays to a
effective half-life t of the nucleus is given by stable substance 'C' with decay constant 2. (a)
1 1 1 Find the number of nuclei of A, B and C after time
 
t t1 t 2 t, (b) What would be answer of part (a) if 1  2
ln 2 and 1  2
Sol. The decay constant for the first process is 1 
t1 Sol. The decay scheme is as shown
1 2
A   B   C (stable)
ln 2
and for the second process it is  2  . The t = 0 N0 0 0
t1
t N1 N2 N3
probability that an active nucleus decays by the first
Here N1, N2 and N3 represent the nuclei of A, B
process in a time interval it is 1 dt. Similarly, the
and C at any time t.
probability that it decays by the second process is
2 dt. The probability that it either decays by the For A, we can write
first process or by the second process is 1 dt + 2 N1  N 0e – 1t ...(1)
dt. If the effective decay constant is , this probability
For B, we can write
is also equal to  dt. Thus
dt = 1dt + 2 dt dN 2
 1 N 1 –  2 N 2 ...(2)
or,  = 1 + 2 dt
1 1 1 dN 2
or,   (To be remembered) or,   2 N 2 – 1 N1
t t1 t 2 dt
This is a linear differential equation with integrating
factor
A factory produces a radioactive substance A at a I.F.  e 2 t
constant rate R which decays with a decay constant
 to form a stable substance. Find (i) the no. of dN 2
e 2 t  e 2 t  2 N 2  1 N1e 2 t
nuclei of A and (ii) Number of nuclei of B, at any dt
time t assuming the production of A starts t = 0.
2t
(iii) Also find out the maximum number of nuclei of  d(N e 2 )  1N1e 2 t dt

'A' present at any time during its formation.
R  N 2 e 2 t  1 N 0 e – 1t e 2 t dt
 ...using (1)
Sol. Factory  A  B
cons tan t decay
Let N be the number of nuclei of A at any time t e(  2 – 1 )t

N 2 e 2 t  1 N 0 C ...(3)
N
dN
t  2 – 1
dN

dt
 R – N 
0

 dt
R – N 0
1 N 0
On solving we will get At t = 0, N2 = 0 0 C
 2 – 1
N = R/ (1 – e–t)
(ii) Number of nuceli of B at any time t, NB = R t – 1 N 0
NA = Rt – R/ (1 – e–t) = R/ (t – 1 + e–t) Hence C   – 
1 2
(iii) Maximum number of nuclei of 'A' present at
Using C in eqn. (3), we get
R
any time during its formation =
 1 N 0
N2  (e – 1t – e –  2t )
 2 – 1
and N1 + N2 + N3 = N0 10. NUCLEAR FUSIO N (THER MO

 N3 = N0 – (N1 + N2) NUCLEAR REACTION) :
(b) For 1 >> 2 (a) Some unstable light nuclei of A below 20, fuse
1 N 0 together, the B.E. per nucleon increases and hence
N2  (–e – 2 t ) = N e –  2 t the excess energy is released. The easiert
– 1 0
thermonuclear reaction that can be handled on earth

For 1 << 2
is the fusion of two deuterons (D – D reaction) or
1 N 0 – 1t fusion of a deuteron with a triton (D – T reaction).
N2  (e ) = 0
2 H 2 1 H 2 2 He3  0 n1  3.3MeV(D  D)
1
2
Q value = [2((M D – m e ) – {(M He3 – 2m e )  m n }]c
9. NUCLEAR FISSION :
In nuclear fission heavy nuclei of A, above 200,  [2M D – (M He3  m n )]c 2
break up into two or more fragments of comparable
masses. The most attractive bid, from a practical 1 H 2 1 H 2 1 H 3 1 H1  4.0 MeV (D – D)
point of view, to achieve energy from nuclear fission Q value
is to use 92U236 as the fission material. the technique
= [2(M D – m e ) – {(M T – m e )  (M H – me )}]c 2
is to hit a uranium sample by sample by slow moving
= [2MD – (MT + MH)]c2
neutrons (kinetic energy  0.04 eV, also called
thermal neutrons.) A92 U 235 nucleus has large 1 H 2 1 H 3  2 He4  n  17.6 MeV (D – T)
probability of absorbing a slow neutron and forming Q value
92
U236 nucleus. This nucleus then fissions into two 2
= [{(MD – me )  (MT – me )}–{(MHe4 – 2me )  mn}]c
parts. A variety of combinations of the middle-weight
nuclei may be formed due to the fission. For example,  [(M D  M T ) – (M He4  m n )]c 2
one may have
92 U 235  0 n1 92 U 236  X  Y  2 0 n1 ,

or
235
92 U  0 n1  92 U 236  X ' Y ' 2 0 n1
and a number of other combinations.
• On an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted in each
fission event.
• Mass lost per reaction 0.2 a.m.u.
• In nuclear fission the total B.E. increases and excess
energy is released.
• In each fission event, about 200 MeV of energy is Note
released a large part of which appears in the form of
kinetic energies of the two ragements. Neutrons take
away about 5 MeV.
235
Ex. 92 U  0 n1 92
236
U 141 92 1
56 Ba  36 Kr  30 n  energy
Q value = [(MU – 92 me + mn) – {(MBa – 56 me) +

(MKr – 36 me) + 3mn}] c2 = [(MU + mn) – (MBa +
MKr + 3mn)] c2
• A very important and interesting feature of neutron-
induced fission is the chain reaction. For working of
nuclear reactor refer your text book.
Section A - RUTHERFORD'S EXPERIMENT, 5. Order of magnitude of density of uranium nucleus

NUCLEAR PROPERTIES (RADIUS, DENSITY, is [mP=1.67×10-27kg]
ISOTOPES ETC.)
(A) 1020kg m-3 (B) 1017 kg m-3
(C) 1014 kg m-3 (D) 1011 kg m-3
1. Why is a 42 He nucleus more stable than a 4
3 Li
nucleus?
6. Let u be denote one atomic mass unit. One atom of
(A) The strong nuclear force is larger when the
neutron to proton ratio is higher. an element of mass number A has mass exactly
equal to Au.
(B) The laws of nuclear physics forbid a nucleus
from containing more protons than neutrons. (A) for any value of A
(C) Forces other than the strong nuclear force make (B) only for A = 1
the lithium nucleus less stable. (C) only for A = 12
(D) None of the above. (D) for any value of A provided the atom is stable
2. An element A decays into an element C by a two- Section B - MASS DEFECT, BINDING ENERGY,
step process : STABILITY
A B + He 42 and B  C + 2e01 7. The binding energies of nuclei X and Y are E1 and

Then E2 respectively. Two atoms of X fuse to give one
atom of Y and an energy Q is released. Then
(A) A and C are isotopes
(A) Q = 2E1 – E2 (B) Q = E2 – 2E1
(B) A and C are isobars
(C) Q = 2E1 + E2 (D) Q = 2E2 + E1
(C) B and C are isotopes
(D) A and B are isobars
8. The binding energies of the atom of elements A &
B are E a & E b respectively. Three atom of the
3. Which of the following statements is
element B fuse to give one atom of element A. This
incorrect for nuclear forces ?
fusion process is accompained by release of energy
(A) These are strongest in magnitude.
e. Then Ea, Eb are related to each other as
(B) They are charge dependent.
(A) Ea + e = 3Eb (B) Ea = 3Eb
(C) They are effective only for short ranges.
(C) Ea – e = 3Eb (D) Ea+3Eb+e=0
(D) They result from interaction of every nucleon
with the nearest limited number of nucleons.
9. Consider the nuclear reaction
4. Fast neutrons can easily be slowed down by X200  A110 + B90
(A) the use of lead shielding If the binding energy per nucleon for X, A and B is
7.4 MeV, 8.2 MeV and 8.2 MeV respectively, what
(B) passing them through heavy water
is the energy released?
(C) elastic collision with heavy nuclei
(A) 200 MeV (B) 160 MeV
(D) applying a strong electric field
(C) 110 MeV (D) 90 MeV
10. A heavy nucleus having mass number 200 gets 16. In a RA element the fraction of initiated amount
disintegrated into two small fragments of mass remaining after its mean life time is :
number 80 and 120. If binding energy per nucleon
1 1
for parent atom is 6.5 M eV and far daughter nuclei (A) 1 – (B)
e e2
is 7 MeV and 8 MeV respectively, then the energy
released in the decay will be – 1 1
(A) 200 MeV (B) –220 MeV (C) (D) 1 –
e e2
(C) 220 MeV (D) 180 MeV
17. Two radioactive material A1 and A2 have decay

11. Consider the nuclear reaction X200  A 110 + B80. constants of 10 0 and 0. If initially they have same
If the binding energy per nucleon for X, A and B number of nuclei, the ratio of number of their
are 7.4 MeV, 8.2 MeV and 8.1 MeV respectively, undecayed nuclei will be (1/e) after a time
then the energy released in the reaction -
(A) 70 MeV (B) 200 MeV 1 1
(A)  (B) 9
0 0
(C) 190 MeV (D) 10 MeV
1
12. Binding energy per nucleon of 1H2 and 2He4 are (C) 10 (D) 1
0
1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV respectively. Energy
released in the process 1H2 + 1H2 = 2He4 is -
(A) 20.8 MeV (B) 16.6 MeV 18. The half-life of 131I is 8 days. Given a sample of
131
I at time t = 0, we can assert that :
(C) 25.2 MeV (D) 23.6 MeV
(A) no nucleus will decays before t = 4 days
(B) no nucleus will decays before t = 8 days
Section C -RADIOACTIVING LAW
(C) all nuclei will decays before t = 16 days
13. The radioactivity of a sample is R1 at time T1 and (D) a given nucleus may decay at any time after t = 0.
R2 at time T2. If the half life of the specimen is T.
Number of atoms that have disintegrated in time Section D -, ,  DECAY, FISSION & FUSSION
(T2 – T1) is proportional to
(A) (R1T1 – R2T2) (B) (R1 – R2) T
19. The following nuclear reaction is an example of
(C) (R1 – R2)/T (D) (R1–R2) (T1 – T2)
12
6 C + 42 H  16
8 O
+ energy
14. The decay constant of the end product of a (A) fission (B) fusion
radioactive series is (C) alpha decay (D) beta decay
(A) zero (B) infinite
(C) finite (non zero) 20. The rest mass of the deuteron, 12 H , is equivalent to
(D) depends on the end product. an energy of 1876 MeV, the rest mass of a proton
is equivalent to 939 MeV and that of a neutron to
15. The radioactive sources A and B of half lives of 940 MeV. A deuteron may disintegrate to a proton
2 hr and 8 hr respectively, initially contain the same and a neutron if it :
number of radioactive atoms. At the end of 2 hours, (A) emits a  - ray photon of energy 2 MeV
their rates of disintegration are in the ratio : (B) captures a -ray photon of energy 2 MeV
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 2 : 1 (C) emits a  - ray photon of energy 3 Me V
(C) 2 :1 (D) 1 : 1 (D) captures a -ray photon of energy 3 MeV
226
21. In an -decay the Kinetic energy of  particle is 23. If a nucleus such as Ra that is initially at rest
48 MeV and Q-value of the reaction is 50 MeV. undergoes alpha decay, then which of the following
The mass number of the mother nucleus is : statements is true?
(Assume that daughter nucleus is in ground state) (A) The alpha particle has more kinetic
(A) 96 (B) 100 energy than the daughter nucleus.
(C) 104 (D) none of these (B) The alpha particle has less kinetic
energy than the daughter nucleus.
(C) The alpha particle and daughter nucleus both
22. The number of  and  – –emitted during the have same kinetic energy.
radioactive decay chain starting from 226

Ra and (D) We cannot say anything about kinetic energy
88
of alpha particle and daughter nucleus.
206
ending at 82 Pb us
24. In a large sample of 235U (which is alpha active)
(A) 3 & 6– (B) 4 & 5–
(A) the probability of a nucleus disintegrating during
(C) 5 & 4– (D) 6 & 6– one second is lower in first half life and greater in
2nd half life.
(B) the probability of a nucleus to decay during one
sec remains constant for all time.
(C) an appreciable quantity of 235 U remain
undecayed even after average life.
(D) None of these
Section A -Rutherford'sExperiment, Nuclear 6. What is the power output of 92 U235 reactor if it takes
Properties (Radius, Density, Isotopes
etc.) 30 days to use up 2 kg of fuel and if each fission
gives 185 MeV of usable energy? Avogadro’s
40
1. Statement-1: It is easy to remove a proton from Ca 20
number = 6.02×1026 per kilomole.
nucleus as compared to a neutron. (A) 45 megawatt (B) 58.46 megawatt
Statement-2: Inside nucleus neutrons are acted on (C) 72 megawatt (D) 92 megawatt
only attractive forces but protons are also acted on
by repulsive forces. Section C -Radioactiving law
(A) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and 7. There are two radio nuclie A and B. A is an alpha
statement-2 is correct explanation for statement-1. emitter and B is a beta emitter. Their distintegration
(B) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is true and constants are in the ratio of 1 : 2. What should be
statement-2 is NOT the correct explanation for the ratio of number of atoms of two at time t = 0 so
statement-1. that probabilities of getting  and  particles are
(C) Statement-1 is true, statement-2 is false. same at time t = 0.
(D) Statement-1 is false, statement-2 is true. (A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2
(C) e (D) e–1
2. The surface area of a nucleus varies with mass
number A as 8. A radioactive nuclide can decay simultaneously by
(A) A2/3 (B) A1/3 two different processes which have decay constants
(C) A (D) None 1 and 2. The effective decay constant of the
nuclide is , then :
3. Let mP be the mass of a proton, mn the mass of a (A)  = 1 + 2 (B)  = 1/2(1 + 1)
20
neutron, M1 the mass of a 10 Ne nucleus and M2 1 1 1
(C)   (D)   1 2
40  1  2
the mass of a Ca nucleus. Then 20
(A) M2 = 2M1 (B) M2 > 2M1

(C) M2 < 2M1 (D) M1 < 10 (mn) 9. The radioactive nucleus of an element X decays to
a stable nucleus of element Y. a graph of the rate
S ect ion B - Mass Defect, Binding of formation of Y against time would look like
Energy, Stability
4. The binding energy per nucleon for C12 is 7.68 MeV
and that for C13 is 7.5 MeV. The energy required to (A) (B)
remove a neutron from C13 is t/s t/s
(A) 5.34 MeV (B) 5.5 MeV
(C) 9.5 MeV (D) 9.34 MeV
5. Binding energy per nucleon vs. mass number curve (C) (D)
for nuclei is shown in the figure. W, X, Y and Z are t/s t/s
four nuclei indicated on the curve. The process that
would release energy s
Y 10. At time t = 0, N1 nuclei of decay constant 1 & N2
8.5 X
nuclei of decay constant 2 are mixed. The decay
Binding Energy/nucleon
8.0
W
7.5 rate of the mixture is :
(A) N1 N 2 e –( 1  2 ) t
in MeV
5.0 Z
 N1  –( 1 – 2 ) t
(B)   N  e
 2
30 60 90 120
Mass Number of Nuclei (C) (N11e – 1t  N 2 2e –  2 t )
(A) Y  2Z (B) W  X + Z
(C) W  2Y (D) X  Y + Z (D)  N11 N 2 2e –( 1 2 ) t
S ect ion D -  ,  ,  DECAY, FISSION 13. A radioactive nucleus undergoes a series of decays
& FUSSION according to the scheme
   
11. A star initially has 1040 deutrons. It produces energy A  A1  A2  A3  A4
via, the processes 1H2 + 1H2  1H3 + p & 1H2 + If the mass number and atomic number of A are
1
H3  2He4 +n. If the average power radiated 180 and 72, respectively, then what are these
by the star is 1016 W, the deuteron supply of the star number for A4?
is exhausted in a time of the order of : (A) 172 and 69 (B) 174 and 70
(A) 106 sec (B) 108 sec (C) 176 and 69 (D) 176 and 70
12
(C) 10 sec (D) 1016 sec
12. In the uranium radioactive series the initial nucleus

is 92U238, and the final nucleus is 82Pb206. When the
uranium nucleus decays to lead, the number of
-particles emitted is.. and the number of
- particles emitted.
(A) 6, 8 (B) 8, 6
(C) 16, 6 (D) 32, 12
Section A - Rutherford's Experiment, Section B - Mass Defect, Binding

Nuclear Properties (Radius, Density, Isotopes Energy, Stability
etc.)
4. Mark out the correct statements(s).
1. If A, Z, and N denote the mass number, the atomic (A) Higher binding energy per nucleon means the
number, and the neutron number for a given nucleus, nucleus is more stable.
we can say that the incorrect statement is
(B) If the binding energy of nucleus were zero, then
(A) N = Z + A
it would spontaneously break apart.
(B) isobard have the same A but different Z and N
(C) Binding energy of a nucleus can be negative
(C) isotopes have the same Z but different A and N
(D) Binding energy of a nucleus is always positive.
(D) isotopes have the same N but different A
and Z
5. Choose the correct statements from the
following :
2. Choose correct statement(s) from following-
(A) The binding energy per nucleon decreases as (A) Like other light nuclei, the 2He4 nuclei also have
atomic number increases a low value of the binding energy per nucleon.
(B) Density of all nuclei is almost same (B) The binding energy per nucleon decreases for
(C) Potential difference applied to an X-ray tube is nuclei with small as well as large atomic number.
of the order of hundred thousand volt (C) The energy required to remove one neutron
(D) The ratio of square of velocity and radius from 3Li7 to transform it into the isotope 3Li6 is 5.6
MeV, which is the same as the binding energy per
 v2 
  of an orbiting electron in hydrogen atom is
 r 
nucleon of 3Li6.
 
(D) When two deuterium nuclei fuse together, they
independent of principal quantum number (n) give rise to a tritium nucleus accompanied by a
release of energy.
3. It has been found that nuclides with 2, 8, 20, 50, 82,
and 126 protons or neutrons are exceptionally stable.
6. The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron and
These numbers are referred to as the magic
helium atom is 1.1 MeV and 7 MeV respectively.
numbers and their existence has led us to
If two deuteron atoms react to from a single helium
(A) the idea of periodicity in nuclear properties similar
then the energy released is (Which option is not
to the periodicity of chemical elements in periodic table.
correct) :
(B) the so-called ‘liquid drop model of the nucleus’
(A) 13.9 MeV
(C) the so-called ‘shell model of the nucleus’
(B) 26.9 MeV
(D) have a convenient explanation of ‘nuclear fission’
(C) 23.6 MeV
(D) 19.2 MeV
Section C - Radioactiving law 10. The instability of the nucleus can be due to various
causes. An unstable nucleus emits radiations if
7. When a nucleus with atomic number Z and mass possible of transform into less unstable state. Then
number A undergoes a radioactive decay process : the cause and the result can be
(A) both Z and A will decrease, if the process is  (A) a nucleus of excess nucleons is active
decay (B) an excited nucleus of excess protons is – active
(B) Z will decrease but A will not change, if the (C) an excited nucleus of excess protons is + active
process is + decay
(D) an nucleus of excess neutrons is
(C) Z will decrease but A will not change, if the – active
process is – decay
(D) Z and A will remain unchanged, if the process
11. In -decay, the Q-value of the process is E. Then
is  decay.
(A) K.E. of a -particle cannot exceed E.
(B) K.E. of anti neutrino emitted lies between Zero
8. A radioactive sample has initial concentration No.
and E.
of nuclei –
(C) N/Z ratio of the nucleus is altered.
(A) the number of undecayed nuclei present in the
sample decays exponentially with time. (D) Mass number (A) of the nucleus is altered.
(B) the activity (R) of the sample at any instant is

directly proportional to the number of undecayed 12. In an endoergic nuclear reaction an incoming
nuclei present in that sample at that time. particle collides with stationary nucleus -
(A) kinetic energy of incoming particle is greater
(C) the no. of decayed nuclei grows exponentially than Q-value of reaction in ground frame
with time. (B) kinetic energy of incoming particle is equal to
(D) the no. of decayed nuclei grow linearly with time. the Q-value of reaction in center of mass frame
(C) linear momentum of particle-nucleus system is
conserved
Section D - , ,  DECAY, FISSION (D) energy is released in the process
& FUSSION
9. A nitrogen nucleus 7N14 absorbs a neutron and can

transform into lithium nucleus 3Li7 under suitable
conditions, after emitting :
(A) 4 protons and 3 neutrons
(B) 5 protons and 1 negative beta particle
(C) 1 alpha particles and 2 beta positive particles
(D) 4 protons and 4 neutrons

Section A -Rutherford's Experiment, Nuclear 10. The number of 238U atoms in an ancient rock equals
Properties (Radius, Density, Isotopes etc.) the number of 206Pb atoms. The half-life of decay
12
of 238U is 4.5 × 109 y. Estimate the age of the rock
1. Find the density of 6C nucleus in 1017 kg/m3. assuming that all the 206Pb atoms are formed from
the decay of 238U.
16
2. The nuclear radius of 8 O is 3 × 10–15 m. What is
40
11. An isotopes of Potassium 19 K has a half life of 1.4
205
the nuclear radius of 82 Pb ?
9 40
× 10 year and decays to Argon 18 Ar which is
3.  positron is a fundamental particle with the same stable.
mass as that of the electron and with a charge equal (i) Write down the nuclear reaction representing
to that of an electron but of opposite sign. When a this decay.
positron and an electron collide, they may annihilate (ii) A sample of rock taken from the moon contains
each other. The energy corresponding to their mass both potassium and argon in the ratio 1/7. Find age
appears in two photons of equal energy. Find the of rock
wavelength of the radiation emitted.
12. At t = 0, a sample is placed in a reactor. An unstable
[Take: mass of electron = (0.5/C2)MeV and hC =
nuclide is produced at a constant rate R in the sample
1.2 × 10–12 MeV.m where h is the Plank’s constant
by neutron absorption. This nuclide  - decays with
and C is the velocity of light in air]
half life . Find the time required to produce 80%
4. When two deutrons (1H2) fuse to from a helium of the equilibrium quantity of this unstable nuclide.
nucleus 2He4, 23.6 MeV energy is released. Find
the binding energy of helium if it is 1.1 MeV for
S ect ion D -  ,  ,  DECAY, FISSION
& FUSSION
each nucleon of deutrim.
32
13. P beta-decays to 32S. Find the sum of the energy
S ect ion B - Mass Defect, Binding of the antineutrino and the kinetic energy of the
Energy, Stability -particle. Neglect the recoil of the daughter
5. Calculate the mass of an -particle. Its binding nucleus. Atomic mass of 32P = 31.974 u and that of
32
energy is 28.2 MeV. S = 31.972 u.
14. Potassium- 40 can decay in three modes. It can
6. Find the binding of 5260Fe. Atomic mass of 56Fe is decay by  – -emission,  +-emission or electron
55.9349 u and that of 1H is 1.00783 u. Mass of capture. (A) Write the equations showing the end
neutron = 1.00867 u. products. (B) Find the Q-values in each of the three
40 40
cases. Atomic masses of 18 Ar, 19 K and 40
20C
are
7. Calculate the Q-value in the following decays :
(A) 19O  19F + e + v 39.9624 u, 39.9640 u and 39.9626 u respectively.
(B) 25Al  25Mg + e+ + v 228
15. Th emits an alpha particle to reduce to 224Ra.
The atomic masses needed are as follows:
19 19 Calculate the kinetic energy of the alpha particle
O F
emitted in the following decay.
19.003576 u 18.998403 u 228
25 25 Th  224Ra* + 
Al Mg 224
Ra*  224Ra + (217 keV).
24.990432 u 24.985839 u
Atomic mass of 228Th is 228.028726 u, that of 224Ra
is 224.020196 u and that of 42He is 4.00260 u.
8. The binding energies per nucleon for deuteron (1H2)
and helium ( 2He4) are 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV
16. Find the kinetic energy of the -particle emitted in
respectively. The energy released when two
the decay 238Pu  234U + . The atomic masses
deuterons fuse to form a helium nucleus (2He4) is
needed are as follows:
____________. 238 234
Pu U
4
H
Section C -Radioactiving law
238.04955 u 234.04095 u
9. The activity of a radioactive sample falls from 600 4.002603 u
s–1 to 500 s–1 in 40 minutes. Calculate its half-life. Neglect any recoil of the residual nucleus.
Section A - Rutherford's Experiment, Nuclear Section C - Radioactiving law

Properties (Radius, Density, Isotopes etc.)
5. A small bottle contains powdered beryllium Be &
1. Show that in a nuclear reaction where the outgoing gaseous radon which is used as a source of -
particle is scattered at an angle of 90° with the particles. Neutrons are produced when  - particles
direction of the bombarding particle, the Q-value is of the radon react with beryllium. The yield of this
expressed as reaction is (1/4000) i.e. only one - particle out of
4000 induces the reaction. Find the amount of radon
 mP   m1 
Q = KP 1  M  – K1 1  M  (Rn222) originally introduced into the source, if it
 O   O 
produces 1.2 × 106 neutrons per second after 7.6
Where, I = incoming particle, P = product nucleus, days. [T1/2 of Rn = 3.8 days]
T = target nucleus, O = outgoing particle.
6. A radionuclide with disintegration constant  is
2. A body of mass m0 is placed on a smooth horizontal produced in a reactor at a constant rate  nuclei
surface. The mass of the body is decreasing per sec. During each decay energy E0 is released.
exponentially with disintegration constant . 20% of this energy is utilised in increasing the
Assuming that the mass is ejected backward with temperature of water. Find the increase in
a relative velocity u. Initially the body was at rest. temperature of m mass of water in time t. Specific
Find the velocity of body after time t. heat of water is S. Assume that there is no loss of
energy through water surface.
Section B - Mass Defect, Binding Energy,
Stability Section D -   , ,  DECAY, FISSION
& FUSSION
3. The kinetic energy of an  - particle which flies out
of the nucleus of a Ra226 atom in radioactive 7. U238 and U235 occur in nature in an atomic ratio
disintegration is 4.78 MeV. Find the total energy 140 : 1. Assuming that at the time of earth’s
evolved during the escape of the -particle. formation the two isotopes were present in equal
amounts. Calculate the age of the earth.
4. When thermal neutrons (negligible kinetic energy) (Half life of u238 = 4.5 × 109 yrs & that of U235 =
are used to induce the reaction ; 7.13 × 108 yrs)
10 1 7 4
5 B  H  Li  He .  – particles are emitted
0 3 2
8. An experiment is done to determine the half-life of
with an energy of 1.83 MeV.
radioactive substance that emits one - particle for
Given the masses of boron neutron & He 4 as
each decay process. Measurement show that an
10.01167, 1.00894 & 4.00386 u respectively. What
average of 8.4  are emitted each second by 2.5
is the mass of 73 Li ? Assume that particles are free mg of the substance. The atomic weight of the
to move after the collision. substance is 230. Find the half life of the substance.
1. A nuclear transformation is denoted

by X(n, ) 73 Li. Which of the following is the
N (E)
N (E)
nucleus of element X ? (C) (D)
(AIEEE 2005)
E E
E0 E0
12 10
(A) 6 C (B) 5 B
11
(C) 95 B (D) Be
4
6. If the binding energy per nucleon in 37 Li and 42 He
nuclei are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV respectively,
27
2. If radius of the 13 Al nucleus is estimated to be 3.6 then in the reaction p  37 Li  2 42 He , energy of
fermi, then the radius of

125
Te nucleus be nearly proton must be (AIEEE 2006)
52
(A) 28.24 Mev (B) 17.28 MeV
(AIEEE 2005)
(C) 1.46 MeV (D) 39.2 MeV
(A) 6 fermi (B) 8 fermi
(C) 4 fermi (D) 5 fermi
1 2
7. An alpha nucleus of energy mv bombards a
2
3. Starting with a sample of pure 66Cu, 7/8 of it
heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. Then the distance
decays into Zn in 15 min. The corresponding
of closed approach for the alpha nucleus will be
half-life is (AIEEE 2005)
proportional to (AIEEE 2006)
(A) 10 min (B) 15 min
1
1 (A) v 2 (B)
(C) 5 min (D) 7 min m
2
1 1
(C) (D)
v4 Ze
4. When 37 Li nuclei are bombarded by protons, and
the resultant nuclei are 84 Be, the emitted particles

8. Which of the following transitions in hydrogen atoms
will be (AIEEE 2006) emit photons of highest frequency?
(A) alpha particles (B) beta particles [JEE Mains 2007]
(C) gamma photons (D) neutrons (A) n = 2 to n = 6 (B) n = 6 to n = 2
(C) n = 2 to n = 1 (D) n = 1 to n = 2
5. The energy spectrum of -particles [number
N(E) as a function of -energy E] emitted from a 9. In gamma ray emission from a nucleus
radioactive source is (AIEEE 2006)
(AIEEE 2007)
(A) both the neutron number and the proton number
change
(B) there is no change in the proton number and
N (E)
N (E)
(A) (B) the neutron number

(C) only the neutron number changes
E E
E0 E0
(D) only the proton number changes
10. If M0 is the mass of an oxygen isotope 8O17, Mp (A) (i) and (iv) (B) (i) and (iii)
and Mn are the masses of a proton and a neutron,
(C) (ii) and (iv) (D) (ii) and (iii)
respectively, the nuclear binding energy of the
isotope is (AIEEE 2007)
(A) ( M 0  8M p )c
2 14. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass numer A and
atomic number Z) emits 3-particles and 2
2
(B) ( M 0  8M p  9 M n )c positrons. The ratio of number of neutrons to that
of protons in the final nucleus will be
(C) M 0c 2
(AIEEE 2010)
(D) ( M 0  17 M n )c 2
A  Z8 AZ4
(A) (B)
Z4 Z 8
11. The half-life period of a radioactive element X is
same as the mean life time of another radioactive
element Y. Initially they have the same number of A  Z  12 AZ4
(C) (D)
atoms. Then (AIEEE 2007) Z4 Z2
(A) X will decay faster than Y
(B) Y will decay faster than X
Directions Question No. 15-16 are based on the following
(C) Y and X have same decay rate initially
paragraph.
(D) X and Y decay at same rate always
A nucleus of mass M  m is at rest and decays
12. Statement I Energy is released when heavy nuclei into two daughter nuclei of equal mass M/2 each.
undergo fission of light nuclei undergo fusion. Speed of light is C.
Statement II For heavy nuclei, binding energy per
nucleon increases with increasing Z while for light
nuclei it decrease with increasing Z. 15. The binding energy per nucleon for the parent
(AIEEE 2008) nucleus is E1 and that for the daughter nuclei is E2.
(A) Statement I is true, Statement II is true; Then
Statement II is not a correct explanation for (AIEEE 2010)
Statement I.
(B) Statement I is true, Statement II is false. (A) E2  2 E1 (B) E1  E2
(C) Statement I is false, Statement II is true.
(D) Statement I is true, Statement II is true; Statement (C) E2  E1 (D) E1  2E2
II is a correct explanation for Statement I.
16. The speed of daughter nuclei is (AIEEE 2010)

13. The above is plot of binding energy per nucleon Eb,
against the nuclear mass M; A, B, C, D, E, F corre-
m m
spond to different nuclei. Consider four reactions : (A) c (B) c
(AIEEE 2009) M  m M
(i) A  B  C   (ii) C  A  B  
m m
(iii) D  E  F   (iv) F  D  E   (C) c (D) c
M M  m
 
Eb  C 17. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 20 min.
B D 
A E F
The approximate time interval (t2 – t1) between the
 time t2 when 2/3 of it had decayed and time t1 when
1/3 of it had decayed is (AIEEE 2011)
M
(A) 14 min (B) 20 min
where  is the energy released? In which reactions
(C) 28 min (D) 7 min
is  positive ?
18. Statement I A nucleus having energy E1 decays be 23. Some energy levels of a molecule are shown in the figure.
 emission to daughter nucleus having energy E2, The ratio of the wavelengths r = 1/2 is given by -
but the  rays are emitted with a continuous energy (JEE Main 2017)
spectrum having end point energy E1 – E2.
Statement II To conserve energy and momentum in
–E
-decay at least three particles must take part in
the transformation. 4
(AIEEE 2011)  E
3
(A) Statement I is false, Statement II is true
(B) Statement I is true, Statement II is false
(C) Statement I is true, Statement II is true; State- –2E
ment II is the correct explanation of Statement I
–3E
(D) Statement I is true, Statement II is true; State-
ment II is not the correct explanation of Statement I
1 4
19. Assume that a neutron breaks into a proton and an (A) r = (B) r =
3 3
electron. The energy released during this process
is (mass of neutron = 1.6725 × 10–27 kg, mass of 2 3
(C) r = (D) r =
proton = 1.6725 × 10–27 kg, mass of electron = 3 4
9 × 10–31 kg) [JEE Main 2012]
(A) 0.73 MeV (B) 7.10 MeV 24. It is found that if a neutron suffers an elastic collinear
(C) 6.30 MeV (D) 5.4 MeV
collision with deuterium at rest, fractional loss of its
20. If a simple pendulum has significant amplitude (upto energy is Pd; While for its similar collision with
a factor of 1/e of original) only in the period between
carbon nucleus at rest, fractional loss of energy is
t = 0 s to t= s, then  may be called the average
life of the pendulum. When the spherical bob of Pc. The values of Pd and Pc are respectively :
the pendulum suffers a retardation (due to viscous (JEE Main 2018)
drag) proportional to its velocity with b as the (A) (0,1) (B) (0.89, 0.28)
constant of proportionality, the average life time of
(C) (0.28, 0.89) (D) (0,0)
the pendulum is (assuming damping is small) in
seconds (AIEEE 2012)
0.693
(A) (B) b
b
1 2
(C) (D)
b b
21. Half-lives of two radioactive elements A and B are

20 minutes and 40 minutes respectively. Initially, the
samples have equal number of nuclei. After 80
minutes, the ratio of decayed numbers of A and B
nuclei will be : (JEE Main 2016)
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 1 : 4
(C) 5 : 4 (D) 1 : 16
22. A radioactive nucleus A with a half life T, decays into a

nucleus B. At t = 0, there is no nucleus B. At sometime t,
the ratio of the number of B to that of A is 0.3. Then, t is
given by : (JEE Main 2017)
T T log 2
(A) t  (B) t 
log(1.3) 2 log1.3
log1.3
(C) t  T (D) t = T log (1.3)
log 2

1. Helium nuclie combines to form an oxygen nucleus. 6. Half–life of a radioactive substance A is 4 days.
The binding energy per nucleon of oxygen nucleus The probability that a nucleus will decay in two half–
is if m0 = 15.834 amu and mHe = 4.0026 amu lives is
(A) 10.24 MeV (B) 0 Me V [JEE Advanced 2006]
(C) 5.24 MeV (D) 4 Me V
1 3
[JEE 2005] (A) (B)
4 4
2. In Young’s double slit experiment an electron beam 1

is used to form a fringe pattern instead of light. If (C) (D) 1
2
speed of the electrons is increased then the fringe
width will : [JEE’ 2005 (Scr)] 7. The largest wavelength in the ultraviolet region of
(A) increase (B) decrease the hydrogen spectrum is 122 nm. The smallest
(C) remains same wavelength in the infrared region of the hydrogen
(D) no fringe pattern will be formed spectrum (to the nearest integer) is
[JEE 2007]
3. Given a sample of Radium - 226 having half-life of (A) 802 nm (B) 823 nm
4 days. Find the probability, a nucleus disintegrates (C) 1882 nm (D) 1648 nm
within 2 half lives. [JEE 2006]
(A) 1 (B) 1/2 8. Some laws/processes are given in Column I.
(C) 3/4 (D) 1/4 Match these with the physical phenomena given in
Column II and indicate your answer by darkening
4. Match the following Columns appropriate bubbles in the 4×4 matrix given in the
[JEE 2006] ORS.
Column I Column II Column I Column II
(A) Nuclear fusion (P) Converts some (A) Transition between (P) Characteristic
matter into energy two atomic energy levels X-rays
(B) Nuclear fission (Q) Generally occurs (B) Electron emission from (Q) Photoelectric
for nuclei with low a material effect
atomic number (C) Mosley’s law (R) Hydrogen
(C)  - decay (R) Generally occurs spectrum
for nuclei with higher (D) Change of photon energy (S)  - decay
atomic number into kinetic energy of electrons
(D) Exothermic (S)Essentially proceeds
nuclear reaction by weak nuclear forces 9. Assume that the nuclear binding energy per nucleon
(B/A) versus mass number (A) is as shown in the
5. In the options given below, let E denote the rest figure. Use [JEE 2008]
mass energy of a nucleus and n a neutron. The
B/A
correct option is [JEE 2007] 6
6
(A) E  92
236
U   E  137
53 I   E  39 Y   2E(n)
97
4
2
(B) E  236
92 U   E  53 I   E  39 Y   2E(n)
137 97 0
100 200 A
this plot to choose the correct choice(s) given
(C) E  236
92 U   E  56 Ba   E  36 Kr   2E(n)
140 94
below.
Figure
(D) E  236
92 U   E  56 Ba   E  36 Kr   2E(n)
140 94
(A) Fusion of two nuclei with mass numbers lying 11. In the core of nuclear fusion reactor, the gas
in the range 1 < A < 50 will release energy becomes plasma because of
(B) Fusion of two nuclei with mass numbers lying (A) strong nuclear force acting between the
in the range of 51 < A < 100 will release energy deuterons
(C) Fission of a nucleus lying in the mass range of (B) Coulomb force acting between the deuterons
100 < A < 200 will release energy when broken into (C) Coulomb force acting between deuteronelectron
two equal fragments pairs
(D) the high temperature maintained inside the
(D) Fission of a nucleus lying in the mass range of
reactor core
200 < A < 260 will release energy when broken into
two equal fragments.
12. Assume that two deuteron nuclei in the core of fusion
reactor at temperature T are moving towards each
10. A radioactive sample S1 having an activity 5Ci other, each with kinetic energy 1.5 kT, when the
twice the number of nuclei as another sample S2 separation between them is large enough to neglect
which as an activity of 10 C. The half lives of S1 Coulomb potential energy. Also neglect any
and S2 can be [JEE 2008] interaction from other particles in the core. The
(A) 20 years and 5 years, respectively minimum temperature T required for them to reach
(B) 20 years and 10 years, respectively. a separation of 4 × 10–15 m is in the range
(C) 10 years each (A) 1.0 × 109 K < T < 2.0 × 109 K
(D) 5 years each (B) 2.0 × 109 K < T < 3.0 × 109 K
(C) 3.0 × 109 K < T < 4.0 × 109 K
Paragraph for Questions 11 to 13 (D) 4.0 × 109 K < T < 5.0 × 109 K
Scientists are working hard to develop nuclear fusion
13. Results of calculations for four different designs of
reactor. Nuclei of heavy hydrogen, 12 H , known as
a fusion reactor using D – D reaction are given
deuteron and denoted by D, can be thought of as a below. Which of these is most promising based on
candidate for fusion reactor. The D – D reaction is Lawson criterion?
2 2
H  32 He + n energy. In the core of fusion
(A) deuteron density = 2.0 × 1012 cm–3 ,
1 H 1
confinement time = 5.0 × 10–3 s
reactor, a gas of heavy hydrogen is fully ionized (B) deuteron density = 8.0 × 1014 cm–3 ,
into deuteron nuclei and electrons. This collection confinement time = 9.0 × 10–1 s
of 12 H nuclei and electrons is known as plasma. The (C) deuteron density = 4.0 × 1023 cm–3 ,
nuclei move randomly in the reactor core and
(D) deuteron density = 1.0 × 1024 cm–3 ,
occasionally come close enough for nuclear fusion
to take place. Usually, the temperatures in the
reactor core are too high and no material wall can
be used to confine the plasma. Special techniques
14. 6
are used which confine the plasma for a time t0
5
before the particles fly away from the core. If n is
the density (number/volume) of deuterons, the 4
dN(t )
dt
product nt0 is called Lawson number. In one of the 3

n
criteria, a reactor is termed successful if Lawson 2

number is greater than 5 × 1014 s/cm –3 .
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
It may be helpful to use the following: Boltzmann
Years
e2
constant k = 8.6 × 10–5 eV/K ; 4 = 1.44 ×
0 To determine the half life of a radioactive element,
10–9 eVm [JEE 2009] a student plots a graph of
dN( t )
18. A freshly prepared sample of a radioisotope of half-
dN( t )
n versus t Here is the rate of life 1386 s has activity 103 distintegrations per
dt dt
second. Given that ln 2 = 0.693, the fraction of the
radioactive decay at time t. If the number of
radioactive nuclei of this element decreases by a initial number of nuclei (expressed in nearest integer
factor of p after 4.16 years, the value of p is : percentage) that will decay in the first 80 s after
[JEE 2010] preparation of the sample is
[JEE 2013]
15. The activity of a freshly prepared radioactive sample
is1010 disintegrations per second, whose mean life Paragraph for Question 19 and 20
is 109 s. The mass of an atom of this radioisotope is
10–25 kg. The mass (in mg) of the radioactive sample The mass of nucleus ZA X is less than the sum of the
is [JEE 2011] masses of (A–Z) number of neutrons and Z number
of protons in the nucleus. The energy equivalent to
Paragraph for Question 16 and 18
the corresponding mass differerce is known as the
The  -decay process, discovered around 1900, is
basically the decay of a neutron (n). In the binding energy of the nucleus. A heavy nucleus of
laboratory, a proton (p) and an electron (e-) are mass M can break into two light nuclei of masses
observed as the decay products of the neutron. m1 and m2 only if (m1+m2) < M. Also two light nuclei
Therefore, considering the decay of a neutron as a of masses m3 and m4 can undergo complete fusion
two-body decay process, it was predicted and form a heavy nucleus of mass M’ only if
theoretically that the kinetic energy of the electron
(m3+m4) > M’. The masses of some neutral atoms
should be a constant. But experimentally, it was
are given in the table below :
observed that the electron kinetic energy has a
continuous spectrum. Considering a three-body
3
1
H 1.007825 u 2
H 2.014102 u 1 H 3.016050 u 4
He 4.002603 u
decay process, i.e. n  p  e   ve , around 1930, 1 1 2
70
6
Li 6.015123 u 7
Li 7.016004 u 30 Zn 69.925325 u 82
34 Se 81.916709 u
Pauli explained the observed electron energy 3 3
Gd 151.919803u
206
Pb 205.974455u
209
Bi 208.980388u 210
Po 209.982876u
spectrum. Assuming the anti-neutrino ve  to be
152
82 83 84
64
massless and possessing negligible energy, and the

neutron to be at rest, momentum and energy
conservation principles are applied. From this 19. The correct statement is :
calculation, the maximum kinetic energy of the
electron is 0.8 x 106 eV. The kinetic energy carried (A) The nucleus 63 Li can emit an alpha particle.
by the proton is only the recoil energy. 210
(B) The nucleus 84 Po can emit a proton.
16. W hat i s t he maxi mum en er gy of th e (C) Deuteron and alpha particle can undergo
anti-neutrino? complete fusion.
(A) Zero 70 82
(D) The nuclei Zn and Se can undergo
(B) Much less than 0.8 x 106 eV. 30 34
(C) Nearly 0.8 x 106 eV. complete fusion.

(D) Much larger than 0.8 x 106 eV. [JEE 2013]
17. If the anti-neutrino had a mass of 3 eV/c2 (where c

20. The kinetic energy (in keV) of the alpha particle,
is the speed of light) instead of zero mass, what
210
should be the range of the kinetic energy, K, of the when the nucleus 84 Po at rest undergoes alpha
electron?
decay, is :
(A) 0  K  0.8 x 106 eV
[JEE 2013]
(B) 3.0 eV  K  0.8 x 106 eV
(A) 5319 (B) 5422
(C) 3.0 eV  K  0.8 x 106 eV
(C) 5707 (D) 5818
(D) 0  K  0.8 x 106 eV
21. Match List I of the nuclear processes with List II 23. An accident in a nuclear laboratory resulted in
containing parent nucleus and one of the end prod- depostion of a certain amount of radioactive
ucts of each process and then select the correct material of half - life 18 days inside the laboratory.
answer using the codes given below the lists : Tests revealed that the radiation was 64 times more
[JEE 2013] than the permissible level required for safe operation
List I List II of the laboratory. What is the minimum number of
(P) Alpha decay 1. 15
O 15
days after which the laboratory can be considered
8 7 N  .....
safe for use?
238
(Q)  +decay 2. 92 U 234
90 Th  ..... [JEE–Advanced 2016]
185
(A) 64 (B) 90
(R) Fission 3. 83 Bi 184
82 Pb  .....
(C) 108 (D) 120
239
(S) Proton 4. 94 Pu 140
57 La  .....
emission 24. The isotope 12

5 B
having a mass 12.014u undergoues
Codes :  - decay to 6 C,12
12
6 C
has an excited state of the
P Q R S nucleus (12
6 C*) at 4.041 MeV above its ground
(A) 4 2 1 3 state. If 12
B decays to 12
C* , the maximum kinetic
5 6
(B) 1 3 2 4
energy of the  - particle in units of MeV is
(C) 2 1 4 3
(1u = 931.5 MeV/c2, where c is the speed of light
(D) 4 3 2 1
in vacuum). [JEE–Advanced 2016]
22. The electrostatic energy of Z protons uniformly 131

25. I is an isotope of Iodine that  decays to an isotope
distributed throughout a spherical nucleus of radius
of Xenon with a half-life of 8 days. A small amount
3 Z(Z – 1)e2
R is given by E  5 of a serum labelled with 131I is injected into the blood
4 0R
of a person. The activity of the amount of 131I
The measured masses of the neutron, 11H, , 15
7 N and injected was 2.4×105 Becquerel (Bq). It is known
15 that the injected serum will get distributed uniformly
8 O are 1.008665 u, 1.007825 u, 15.000109 u and
in the blood stream in less than half an hour. After
15.003065 u, respectively. Given that the radii of 11.5 hours, 2.5 ml of blood is drawn from the
15 15
both the 7 N and 8 o nuclei are same, 1 u = 931.5 person's body, and gives an activity of 115 Bq. The
MeV/c (c is the speed of light) and e2/(40) =
2 total volume of blood in the person's body, in liters is
1.44 MeV fm. Assuming that the difference approximately (you may use ex  1 + x for |x| << 1 and In
15 15
2  0.7). [JEE–Advanced 2017]
between the binding energies of 7 N and 8 O is
purely due to the electrostatic energy, the radius of 232
26. In a radioactive decay chain, 90 Th nucleus decays
either of the nuclei is (1 fm = 10–15m)
[JEE–Advanced 2016] to 212
82 Pb nucleus. Let N and N be the number of
(A) 2.85 fm (B) 3.03 fm
 and  - particles, respectively, emitted in this decay
(C) 3.42 fm (D) 3.80 fm
process. Which of the following statements is (are)
true ? [JEE–Advanced 2018]
(A) N = 5 (B) N = 6
(C) N = 2 (D) N = 4

1. A 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. B
8. C 9. B 10. C 11. A 12. D 13. B 14. A
15. C 16. C 17. B 18. D 19. B 20. D 21. B
22. C 23. A 24. C

1. A 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. C 6. B 7. A
8. A 9. D 10. C 11. C 12. B 13. A

1. B,C,D 2. B,C 3. A,C 4. A,B,D 5. B,C
6. A,B,D 7. A,B,D 8. A,B,C 9. C,D 10. A,C,D
11. A,B,C 12. ABC
1. 2 2. 7.02 fermi 3. 2.48 × 10–12 m 4. 28 MeV

5. 4.0016 u 6. 492 MeV 7. (A) 4.816 MeV (B) 3.254 MeV
8. 23.6 MeV 9. 152 min. 10. 4.5 × 1010 y old
 l n5 
11. (i) 40 40
Ar  1 e0  v , (ii) 4.2 × 109 years 12. t   13. 1.86 MeV
19 K 18
 ln 2 
40 40
14. (A) K 20
19 Ca  e –   , 19
40
K 1840 Ar  e   , 40
19 K  e – 18
40
Ar  
(B) 1.3034 MeV, 0.4676 MeV, 1.490 MeV
15. 5.304 MeV 16. 5.58 MeV

2. v = ult 3.
4.87 Mev 4. 7.01366 amu 5. 3.3 × 10–6 g
  
0.2E 0 t – (1  e – t ) 
6.    7. 6.04 × 109 yrs 8. 1.7 × 1010 years
T 
mS
1. B 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. C 6. B 7. B
8. C 9. B 10. B 11. B 12. B 13. A 14. B
15. C 16. B 17. B 18. C 19. A 20. D 21. C
22. C 23. A 24. B

1. A 2. B 3. C 4. (A) P,Q ; (B) P,R ; (C) S,P ; (D) P,Q,R
5. A 6. B 7. B 8. (A) R, P ; (B) Q, S ; (C) P ; (D) Q
9. B,D 10. A 11. D 12. A 13. B 14. 8 15. 1
16. C 17. D 18. 4 19. C 20. A 21. C 22. C
23. C 24. 9 25. 5 26. AC
SEMICONDUCTORS - 3.1
PN JUNCTION The energy band in diamond is shown is Fig. There

occurs a forbidden band of width 6 eV between
1. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS conduction and valence band. No electron can have
(i) Overlapped energy levels are termed as energy energy corresponding to the forbidden band. Thus
bands an electron needs at least 6eV to reach the empty
(ii) The energy band formed by teh overlapping of valency conduction band. Such an energy
electrons is known as volency energy band. can not be supplied by heat or electric fields that
(iii) The energy band formed by the overlapping of are generally used in laboratories. Therefore
conduction electrons is known as conduction energy diamond is an insulator.
band.
(iv) Electrical conduction in solid can take place only
2.3 Semiconductors
when electron remains present in its conduction
These are solids in which the forbidden energy gap
energy band.
(v) The minimum energy required for excitting an between the valence band an dthe conduction band
electrond from valency energy band to conduction is small, of the order of 1eV . At 0 kelvin
energy band is known as forbidden energy gap temperature, the valence band is completely filled
(Eg) and the conduction band is completely empty. At OK,
 Eg = CEBmin – VEBmax it behaves lie an insulator (electron can not absorb
infinitesimal energy because
2. TYPES OF SOLID MATERIALS ON THE there is a forbidden gap just above the top of the
BASIS OF FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP valence band).
2.1 Conductors
CEBmax
Conduction
band
VEBma x
–1eV {-----------------}
CEB min Forbidden
band
VEBmin Valence
OK band TK
Those solid substances in which forbidden energy
gap is zero are known as conductors At a finitude temperature, (room temperature), some
2.2 Insulators electrons
These are solids in which the gain energy due to thermal motion and jump from
energy band formation occurs in Empty the tope of the valence band to the conduction band.
such a manner, that valence band These electrons contribute to the conductions to
is completely filled while the the conduction of electricity in a semiconductor.
conduction band is completely The forbidden gap in semiconductor is small ~ 1eV.
empty. Furthermore the valence At finite temperature, some balance electron goes
band and the conduction band are to conduction band. Then the formlessly is in the
separated by a large forbidden middle of the gap
energy gap Eg  6eV.
3.2 - Theory and Exercise Book
The energy gap is some semiconductors is as Eg (Indium antimonide ) 0.17 eV

follows : Eg (Gallium arsenide) = 1.43 eV
Eg (Silicon) = 1.12 eV Eg ( Tellurium ) = 0.33 eV
Eg ( Germanium ) = 0.7 eV The energy gap decreases slightly with increases
in temperature.
3. COMPARISON BETWEEN CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
S.No. Conductors Insulators Semicon ductors

1. Valence band is partially filled or Completely empty conduction At OK, the conductive band
valence band andconduction band band separated from completely is empty while valence
overlap filled valence band is full Separated by
small energy gap
2. There is no forbidden energy gap The forbidden gap is large Separated by small energy
Eg (diamond) ~ 6 eV gap Eg (si)
Eg (diamond) ~ 6 eV
3. At room temperature , all At roo m temperatue, electrons At room temperature, may
electrons remains in the partially do not get sufficient thermal electrons have sufficient
, filled valence band or over energy to cross over the energy to go to conduction
lapped band forbidden energy band remains band. ( see Fig 46 )
empty
4. Conducts electric current. Very Does not conduct electric May conduct electric current
small resistivity ( ohm. meter ) current (negligible conduction ) but conducton is small.
 (Cu) = 1.7 × 10–8 m Very large resistively ( ohm Medium resistivity and
–8
meter) medium cond uctivity
 (Ag) = 1.6 × 10 m
 ( glass) ~ 1011 – 1012 m  (Si) = 2100 m
The conductively is high  107 to
10 8 ohm/m (or siemen /m)  ( diamond) ~ 1014 m  (Ge) = 0.47 m
Very low conductivity  (Ge) ~ 2.13
 ~ 10–10 to 10–14 m  (Si) ~ 4.7 × 10–4
Verylow conductivity (ohm/m).
 ~ 10–10 to 10–15
ohm /m ( or siemen/m)
5. Only electrons are the current No current carriers ( the electric Both electrons and holes
carriers Number of free electrons conduction is almost zero for contribute to current
( in Cu) ~ 1028 per m all practical purposes, see  conduction. Numner of free
mentioned before) electrons
(at room temperature ) is
in Ge ~ 1019 per m3
in Si ~ 1016 per m3
6. Conductivity decreases with Conductivity negligibly small Conductivily increases with
temperature. however increases slightly at temperature (the resistivity/
very high temperatures resistance decreases with
temperature).
conductivity
p(resistivity)
Temperature Temperature
The temperature coefficient
of resistance of a
semiconductor is negative
4. COMMENT : BAND STRUCTURE AND At room temperature ( ~ 300K ), some of the

OPTICAL PROPERTIES electrons may gain sufficient thermal energy and
The optical properties of a solid are closely related move away from the influence of the nucleus, i.e.,
with their energy band structure. The photons of the covalent bond may be broken. The electron, so
visible light have energies between about 1eV and obtained is free to move in the crystal and conduct
3 eV , as sin the case of insulators like mica, electricity ( see Fig). The vacancy created in the
diamond, then visible light from valence band can covalent bond is called a hole.
not go to conduction band. The such solids are Free electrons
transparent to visible light. In case of
semiconductors, since band gap is ~ 1 eV , the
visible light is readily absorbed and these are
usually opaque, to visible light,. Infrared photons
have energies less than 1eV and therefore infrared
light is not absorbed by Si or Ge. The metals are
usually opaque, because electrons in the partially
filled band can readily absorbs visible light photon
without leaving the valence band. The ultraviolet
photons energies are large and if they are more than
the Eg of insulators, then those insulators will holes
absorb UV radiation. Thus some special glasses are
although transparent for visible light are opaque conduction
conduction
for UV light.
band
5. Types of Semiconductors gap Eg

The semiconductor are of two type
(1) A semiconductor in a pure form is called Valence band
intrinsic semiconductor. The imputity must be less with holes
than 0.01 ppm (parts per million), i.e., less than 1
in 108 parts of semiconductor. At low temperature, When a covalent band is broken, the electron hole
the electrons are present in valence bonds of the pair is created.Thus in intrinsic semiconductor
semiconductor.As the tem perature is increased a Number of holes = number of free electrons
few electrons are raised to conduction bond . nh = ne
 In intrinsic semiconductors:-
ne(0) = nn(0) = ni = AT 3/2 e – Eg /2KT 6. CONDUCTION IN INT RINS IC
Where ne(0) is electron density in conduction SEMICONDUCTORS
band, ne(0) is hole density in valance band and ni is
In intrinsic semiconductor , the number of free
the density of intrinsic carriers.
electrons and holes are equal. Both electrons and
conduction holes contribute in current conduction. For the purpose
Empty of flow of current , a hole , behaves like a positively
charged particle having some
Eg(gap)
Filled
electron flow
hole flow
At absolute zero all the valence electrons are tightly
bound and no free electron is available for electrical Intrinsic semi
condition. In the band picture, at absolute zero conductor
temperature. The conduction band is completely
empty while, the the valence band a perfect + –
insulator at absolute zero.
effective mass. Therefore while the electron moves if R is the resistance offered by the simiconductor
from negative electrode a of the battery to the to the flow of current, then
positive electrode though the semiconductor, the hole V V
= or = eA ( ne ve + nh vh) .....(v)
R R
moves in opposite side. The holes exist only inside
The electric field set up across the semiconductor
a semiconductor. There are no holes in a metal. is given by
There , electric conduction through holes takes place V
E= or V = E
inside the semiconductor only. Outside, in the metal 
wires, the electric current flow is due to electrons Therefore, equation (v) becomes
only. ( In cell current flow is due to the motion of E
= eA (ne ve + nh vh )
positive and negative ions). R
In an instrinsic semiconductor the current flow E

or – A = e ( ne ve + nh vh)
occurs due to the motion of both, the electrons and R

the holes,. Let e = magnitude of charge on the
A
electrons, n h= number density of holes, µ e = But R =  = resistivity of the material of

mobility of electrons an µb = mobility of semiconductor
E
Therefore,  = e (ne ne + nh vh) .....(vi)
V
Mobnility of electrons or holes is defined as the
Area 'A' frigt velocity acquired per unit electric field.
Therefore, mobility of electrons and holes is given
by
ve vh
µe = and µh =
E E
From equation (vi) ,we have
1  ve vh 
I = e n e . E  n h . E 
  
or  = e (ne µe + nh µh) .........(vii)

holes, then the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor 1
is  = e ( n eµ e + n h µ h) onsider a block of where  = is called conductivity of the material

semiconductor of length , area of cross section A of semiconductor and µe and µh are electron and
and having density of electron and holes as ne and hole mobilities respectively.
nh respecitively when a potential difference say V
is applied across it, current  flows through it as Comment
shown in fig. The current  is made of electron (i) In pure semiconductors, at any temperature t, the
carrier concentration ne = nh = n and the conductivity
current  e and hople current  h.
 is determined by the value of Eg (width of the
Thus,  =  e +  h .....(i)
forbidden band) (see relations given above).
If ve is drift velocity of electrons,
(ii) In metal , however , the value of n is almost the
then  e = ene Ave .....(ii)
same at different temperatures. The resistance arises
Similarly , the hole current is given by
due to interaction of free (conduction) electrons with
 h = ene Avh .....(iii)
the lattice vibrations (see, chapter 3, 3-5 also).
Using equations (ii) and (iii), the equation (i)
(iii) At absolute zero, n = 0,  = 0 i.e., the pure
becomes
semiconductor behaves like a perfect insulator.
 = eA ( ne ve + nh vh) .....(iv)
However, as temperature increases both n and s

increses.In germanium at T 300 K, ne = nh = 2.5 x Conduction
1019 per m3.The higher is the temperature , higher is Band
the conductivity and lower is the resistivity. majoruty
electrons
(iv) The temperature coefficient of the resistance
of a semiconductor is negative .
(v) Pure semiconductors are of little use ( may be doner
used as heat or light sensitive resistance). level
0.01 (Ge)
0.05(Si)
(eV)
7. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor in which impurities have been Valence band
added in a controlled manner is called extrinsic

semiconductor . The process of deliberately adding In the energy band pricture we say that impurity
impurities to a semiconductor is called doping. The atoms, produce donor energy levels just below the
impurity atoms are either from V group ( such as conduction band . Ther electrons from these levels
arsinic (as), antimony (Sb), phosphorus (P) etc. or jump to the conduction band easily by gaining
from  group ( such as Aluminium (A ) , gallium thermal energies ( at room temperature). There may
(Ga) , indium (In) etc. There are two types of also break some covalent bonds producing electron
extrinsic semiconductors, hole paire, but their number is small. So in this
(i) N-type (extrinsic) semiconductor and type of extrinisc semiconductor, there are a large
(ii) P-type (extrinsic) semiconductor. number of free electrons (donated by impurity
The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is atoms ) and a negligible number of holes from
cavalent cond breaking.
controlled by the amont of doping,  part of a donor
impurityper 109 parts of germanium increases its
conductivity by a factor of neraly103. Free electrons
The compounds of trivalent and penta valent n-type
+ + +
elements also behave like semiconductors, semi
conductor
(indium antimonide), In P, GaP. + + +
Immobile positive
7.1 N-Type Semiconductor ions ( imurity)
N- Type ( n- type ) semiconductor is obtained by
adding a small amount of pentavent (V group)
The impurity atom on donating electrons becomes
impurity to a sample of intrinsic semiconductor.
positive ions. However the over all charge on the
The pentavalent impurities are P ( phophorus Z +
semiconductor is zero. The negative charge of the
15), As ( Z = 3), Sb ( Z = 51), Bi (Z = 83 ).
immobile positive charge of the immobile positive ions.
The majority charge carriers are electrons (negative
Si Si Si charge) . Therefore, this type of extrinsic
semiconductor is called n - type. The Fermi level
Fifth electron
does not lie in the middle of band gap, but it shifts
Si P Si towards the conduction band. The few hole s
Impurity atom formed by covalent bond breaking are called
minority charrge carriers. The conductivity of th
Si Si Si
n-type semiconductors is controoled by the amoutn
of impurity atoms added in it. Since
7.2 P-Type Semiconductor The overall charge on p-type semiconductor is zero.

It is represented as shown in Fig. The positive charge
of free
Acceptor
atom
hole
Free holes
- - -
hole - - -
migrates
p-type semi conductor
Immobile negative
Acceptor
ion ions ( imurity)
P-type (pype) semiconductor is obtained by adding

holes is balanced by the negative charge of
a small amount of trivalent (III groupe ) impurity
immobile impurity ions.
to intrinsic semiconductor. The impurities may be
Boron ( Z = 5), AI (Z = 13, Ga ( Z – 31) In (Z = 49),
COMMENT
TI (Z = 81 ). For each acceptor ion there exist a hole
When temprature is increased, covalent bonds
in this type of semiconductor, there are a large
break. This increases minority charge carriers. At
number of holes present. The majority charge
very high temperature, it may happen that electron-
carriers are holes. Therefore it is called a p-type
hole numbers obtained from bond breaking, far
semicondutor.
Conducton excceds the cahrge carrirers from impurities . Then
Band the semiconductor behaves like intrinsic
semiconductor. The critical temperature at which
minority
electrons this happens is 85°C for germanium and 200°C for
silicon.
Acceptor level 8. PN JUNCTION

When a piece of p-type material and piece of n-
Majority type matrial are joined in such a manner that cyrstal
holes structure remains continuous at the boundary, then
Valence Band
a pn junction is formed. It
In the band picture, we say that acceptor energy
levels lie just above the valence band. These levels Barrier
Electric
accepts electrons from the valence band and creates P-type Field N-type
holes. The breaking of covalent bonds may create - +

- - +
- +
electron-hole pairs but their number is very little.
- - - + + +
The majority carriers are holes. The minority - +
carriers are electron. The conduction takes place - - - + + +
mainly through the motion of holes
hole Depletion donor
nh >> ne acceptor region free ion
ion electron
p  eµh nh
is also called a pn junction (PN junction) diode. A

PN junction can not be made by simply pushing p
P-type N-type
the two pieces together as it would not lead to a +
single crystal structure .There are special fabricaton
depletion
techniques to form a PN junction. Immediately after (A) - region
a PN junction is formed, the following process are

Charge density
initiated :
(i) The negative ions on P-sides and positive ions on

P-type V N-type
N-sides are immobile.The majority holes from P
region diffuse into N region, and the majority
electrons from N region diffuse into P region. Electrostatic potential
(B) energy barrier for holes
(potential barrier for holes)
(ii) Due to the above, the electrons and holes at the

juction region recombine and disappear (i.e.,
cavalent bonds are completed ). P-type V N-type
(iii) As a result, a layer of negative ions on P-side and a (C) Potential barrier for
layer of positive ions on N-side is formed at the electrons
junction. In this region, due to recombination of

electrons and holes, depletion of free charge carriers (vi) For holes the potential on the N-sides is higher .
occurs. So this region is called depletion region. Holes can not cross the deplection region because
The charge density on the two sides of the junction of this barrier potential . Fig 60 (B). For electrons
(due to ion layers) is shown in Fig. the potential barrier is shown in Fig. 60(C)
(iv) The uncompensated ion layers in the depletion (vii) On the average the potential barrier height in PN
region generates an electric field in this region. The junction is ~ 0.5 V and the width of the depletion
electric field points from N side to P side. This region ~1 µm or 10–6 m. The barrier electric field
electric field prevents further tdiffusion of holes is thus
from P-sides. It also prevents further diffusion of V 0 .5
electrons from the N side to P side . The electric E= = 6
d 10
field is called barrier electric field. = 5 × 105 volt /m
(v) The barrier electric field gives rise to a difference

of potentail from one side to the other side. This is
called barrier potential (or potential barrier ). For
silicon PN junction the barrier potential is about
0.7 V while for germanium PN junction, it is about
0.3V.
9. PN JUNCTION WITH FORWARD BIAS 10. PN JUNCTION WITH REVERSE BIAS

(i) When the positive terminal of a battery is connected
(i) When the positive terminal of a battery is connected
to the N-side and the negative termanl is connected
to the P-side and the negative terminal to the
to the P-side of thePN junction , then it is said to be
N-side of a PN-junction, then it is said to be forward
reverse biased.
biased (Fig).
(ii) The holes in the P-region are attracted towards the
E negative terminal and the electrons in the
P-side EB N-side
N-region are attracted twowards the positive
+ +
termanl . Thus the majority carriers move away
+
+ + from the juction. The depletion region increases
+ +
for a reverse biased PN- junction,
+
+ E
P-side EB N-side
+ +
+ +
+
depletion region + +
- + +
(ii) The holes are repelled from the positive terminal
and compelled to move towards the junction. The depletion region
electrons are also repelled from the negative
terminal and move towards the junction . This – +
(iii) The barrier potential increases, This makes it more
reduces the depletion region for a forward biased
difficult for the majority carriers to diffuse across
PN-junction
the junction .
(iii) The potential barrier is reduced . More charge
(iv) A very little current called reverse saturation current
carries diffuse across the junction.
flows due to minority carrier flow.It is of the order
(iv) In the P-type material, near the positive terminal ,
of nanoamperes (10 –9 A)for silicon and
an electron breaks the covalent bond and goes to microamperes (10–6 A) for germanium PN -diodes.
battery. As a result a hole is created in P-sides . At (v) In reverse bias situation , the junction behaves like
the same time an electron enters the a highresistivity material sanwiched in between two
N-sides from the negative terminal. The currrent regions.
in the P - region airses due to flow of the holes (vi) The effective capacitance of PN junction in the
while the currrent in the N-regioon is due to reverse bias condition is of the order of few pico
electrons. farads.
(v) The electric field at the barrier, due to the battery
11. PN JUNCTION DIODE
is from P side to N side (forward bias). This is in
CHARACTERISTICS
opposition to the barrier electric field.
Forward bias characteristics
(vi) If battery potential is increased, the potential barrier
The circuit diagram for studying the V-I
is further reduced. More majority carriers diffuse
characteristics of a PN junction diode in forward bias
across the junction. The current increases
is shown in Fig. In forward bias the depletion region
decreases, the barrier potentail decreases, and
current folws due to diffusion of charge carriers the junction . The reverse current is only few µ A
across the junction. Majority holes from P side cross for germanium diodes and only a few nA for silicon
diodes. It remains small and almost constant for all
over to N side, and majority electrons from N side
reverse bias voltages less than the break down
cross over to P side, The current voltage voltage VZ. At breakdown, the current increses
chracteristics is shown in Fig. rapidly for small increase in voltage
Vz V
O
V
+ - I
+ - I
+ P N - (µA)
reverse
breakdown
R
The full charactaristics, forward and reverse bias

are shown in Fig. The PN junction diode thus is a
unidirectional device. Large current (mA) flows in
The diode current is negligibly small for first few
one direction, but neglible current flows in the
tenths of a volt. The reason is that the diode does
reverse direction. The symbol used for PN junction
not conduct will till the external voltageV, diode is shown in Fig.
overcomes the barrier potential . The voltage at
(mA)
which the current starts to increse repidly is called
cut-in or Knee voltage (Vo) of the diode. For a Vz
I
silicon diode Vo ~7volt and for germanium V o V

junction diode in reverse bias is shown in Fig.
(µA)
I
(mA)
The equation for diode current is
P N
(Volt) P N
O
V Easy direction for
conventional current
In reverse bias state, the depletion region increases

 =  o ( eeV /kT –1)
and potential barrier also increases. The majority
Where  o is called saturation current, V is positive
holes in P region and majority electrons in N region
for forward and negative for reverse bias, k is
, now do not cross the junction . They donot give
Boltzmann constant, T is temperature and e = 1.6
rise to any current.
×10–19 C.
V
+ - I 12. REVERSE BREAK DOWN
+ -
+ P N - µA If the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the
+ current through the PN junction increases rapidly
-
R
at VZ(seefig). The voltage at which this happens is
called breakdown voltage or Zener voltage.
There two mechnism which causes this breakdown.
In reverse bias a very smal current flows. This arises One is called avalanche breakdown Zener
due to the flow of minority charge carriers across breakdown and the other is called avalanche
breakdown Zener breakdown. When reverse bias During the first half (positive) of the input signal.
is increased the electric field at then junction also Let S1 is at positive and S2 is at negative potential.
increases. At some stage the electric field becomes So, the PN junction diode D is forward biased. The
so high that it breaks the covalent bonds creating current flows through the load resistance RL and
electron,hole pairs. thus a large number of carriers output voltage is obtained. During the second half
are generated . This causes a large current to flow. (negative) of the input signal, S1 and S2 would be
This machanism is know as Zener breakdown. negative and positive respectively. The PN junction
Avalanche breakdown. At high reverse voltage, due diode will be reversed biased. In this case,
to high electric field, the miniority charge carriers, practically no current would flow through the load
resistance. So, there will be no output voltage. Thus,
while crossing the junction acquires very high
corresponding to an alternating input signal, we get
velocities . These by collision breaks down the
a unidirectional pulsating output.
covalent bonds , generating more carriers. A chain
reaction is established , giving rise to high current. 13.2 Full wave rectifier
This mechanism is called avalanche
When the diode rectifies the whole of the AC wave,
breakdown. it is called full wave rectifier. Figure shows the
experiemental arrangement for using diode as full
Avalanche break down:- The covalent bonds wave rectifier. The alternating signal is fed to the
where the junction break down liberating a large primary a transformer. The output signal appears
number of electron hole pairs.Then the reverse across the load resistance RL.
current increases abruptly to high value .This is
called avalanche break down and may damage the
junction.This phenomenon is used to Zener diode
and used in voltage regulator.
13. RECTIFIER
For positive half cycle For negative half cycle
It is device which is used for converting alternating
current into direct current.
13.1 Half wave rectifier
D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2 D1
For positive half cycle

For positiv e half cycle For negative
Forhalf cycle half cycle
negative
During the positive half of the input signal :

Let S1 positive and S2 negative.
In this case diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is
reverse biased. So only D1 conducts and hence the
cycle For negative half cycle flow of current in the load resistance RL is from A
to B.
During the negative half of the input signal :
Now S1 is negative and S2 is positive. So D1 is Ripple and ripple factor

reverse-biased and D2 is forward biased. So only In the output of rectifier A.C. & D.C. components
D2 conducts and hence the current flows through are present. They are called ripple & there ratio is
the load resistance RL from A to B. called ripple factor. For good rectifier ripple factor
It is clear that whether the input signal is positive must be very low.
or negative, the current always flows through the Total output current
load resistance in the same direction and full wave
rectification is obtained. Irms = I2 ac + I2 dc
13.3 Bridge Rectifier Iac = rms value of AC component
Iac I2rms
Ripple factor r= I r r= 1
dc I2dc
= F2  1
1. For half wave rectifier
I0 I0
Irms = , Idc = r = 1.21
2 
2. For full wave or bridge wave rectifier
I0 2I0
Irms = , Idc = r = 0.48
2 
D1,D4 D2,D3 D1,D4 D2,D3 D1,D4

Rectifier efficiency
Pdc I2 R
% = = 2 dc L  100
Pac Irm s (R F + R L )
Half wave rectifier
 RL  R
 = 40.6  % if f << 1
During positive half cycle  R L  R f  RL
D1 and D4 are foward biased  on switch  = 40.6%
D2 and D3 are reverse biased  off switch Special Note If Rf = RL
During negative half cycle 20.3%
D2 and D3 are foward biased  on switch Full wave rectifier or bridge wave rectifier
D1 and D4 are reverse biased  off switch RL Rf
  81.2  If R << 1
RL  Rf % L
Form Factor
81.2%
Irms Erms
F= Idc or E dc If Rf = RL
40.6%

for full wave rectifier F =
2 2

for half wave rectifier F=
2
Ripple Frequency : Output frequency of rectifier

Im Im Im
known as ripple frequency fout = fripple RMS Current, Irms
2 2 2
(i) For half wave rectifier
Im 2 Im 2 Im
DC current, Idc
  
Ripple factor, r 1.21 0.482 0.482

input output
Rectification efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
input frequency = 50Hz ripple frequency = 50Hz (max)
Lowest ripple frequency,fr f 2f 2f
(ii) for full wave rectifier 13.4 FILTER CIRCUIT

To reduce A.C. Components
input output Capacitor Filter
input frequency = 50Hz ripple frequency = 100Hz

DC + less AC
AC + DC
Pulse
more AC C
output of rectifier output
(i) For half wave rectifier
output
input L - C Filter
number of pulse = 2 number of pulse = 1
DC + low AC DC + V. less AC
AC + DC
(ii) For full wave rectifier more AC C
output of rectifier output
input output
number of pulse = 2 number of pulse = 2

 - Filter (Best Filter)
Comparison Between Rectifiers

DC + low AC
DC + V.V. less AC
Half-wave Centre-tap Bridge AC + DC

Number of Diodes 1 2 4 more more
C1 C2
AC AC output
output of rectifier
Transformer necessary No Yes No approx pure D.C
Peak secondary voltage Vm Vm Vm
Vin Vin Vin

Peak load Current, Im rd  R L rd  R L 2rd  R L
13.5 SOME SPECIAL DIODES (iii) Light emitting diode (L.E.D)

When a junction diode is “forward biased” energy
is released at junction in the form of light due to
(i) ZENER DIODE
recombination of electrons and holes. In case of Si
A properly doped crystal diode which has sharp or Ge diodes, the energy released is in infra-red
break down voltage is known as Zener diode. region.
In the junction diode made of GaAs, InP etc energy
Symbol of is released in visible region such a junction diode
Zener diode is called "light emitting diode" (LED) Its symbol
It is always connected in reverse biased condition

manner. Used as a voltage regulation
+
RS
+ Fluctuating regulated
RL
 input output
In forward biased it works as a simple diode.
Zener
voltage V Reverse bias
Z
Reverse current
(iv) Solar cell

Solar cell is a device for converting solar energy
into electrical. A junction diode in which one of
the P or N sections is made very thin (So that the
light energy falling on diode is not greatly asorbed
(ii) Photodiode before reaching the junction) can be used to convert
A junction diode made from “light or photo light energy into electric energy such diode called
sensitive semiconductor” is called a “photo diode”
as solar cell. Its symbol
its symbol . When light of energy "h'' (i) It is operated into photo voltaic mode i.e.,
falls on the photodiode (Here h > energy gap) more generation of voltage due to the bombardment of
electrons move from valence band, to conduction optical photon.
band, due to this current in circuit of photodiode in (ii) No external bias is applied.
"Reverse bias", increases. As light intensity is (iii) Active junction area is kept large, because
increased, the current goes on increases so photo we are intrested in more power. Materials most
diode is used, "to detect light intensity" for commonly used for solar cell is Si, As, Cds, CdTe,
example it is used in "Vedio camera". CdSe, etc.
Emitter Base Collector
p n p
E C
B
+ - + -
E C
p-n-p
B
14.2 n-p-n Transistor :

It consists of a very thin slice of p-type semiconductor
(fig). In this transistor the meter is given a negative
potential while the collector is given a positive
potential with respect to the base. Again, the emitter
-base (n-p) junction on the left is under forward-
bias, while the base collector (p-n) junction on the
14. TRANSISTOR right is denser reverse- bias. *The symbol for the
A transistor is an electronic device formed by p n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. (b) in which the
and n type of semiconductor which is used in place direction of the arrow indicates the direction of
current (opposite of the direction of flow of
of a triode valve. It was discovered in 1948 by
electrons).
American scientists Bardeen, shockley and
Barattain. Transistors are of two types: p-n-p Emitter Base Collector
transistor and n-p-n transistor.
n p n
14.1 p-n-p Transistor : E C
It consists of a very thin slice of n-type (a) B
semiconductor sandwiched between two small - + - +
crystals of p-type semiconductor (fig). The central
slice is called the ‘base’ while the left and right
crystals are called the ‘emitter’ and the ‘collector’ E C
respectively. The emitter is given a positive
potential negative potential with respect to the base.
Thus , the emitter -base (p-n) junction on the left is (b)
n -p -n
B
under forward-bias (high resistance ). The symbol
for this transistor is shown in Fig. 12(b) in which
the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of A transistor can be connected in a circuit in three
current (direction of flow of holes). difference ways. They are :
(i) common-base configuration, (ii) common-
emitter configuration and (iii) common-collector
configuration. The work ‘common’ is related with
that electrode which is common in input and output
circuits. This common electrode is generally 14.4 Working of n-p-n Transistor

grounded. Hence the above three configurations of A circuit known as ‘common-base’ circuit of n-p-n
connection are also called respectively as grounded transistor is shown in Fig. The two n-regions contain
-base configuration, grounded-emitter the mobile electrons while the central thin p-region
configuration of connection are also called contains the mobile (positive) holes. The emitter-
configuration . Each configuration has its own
base by means of a battery VEB, while the base-
characteristics.
collector (p-n)junction on the right has been given a
14.3 Working of p-n-p Transistor large reverse-bias by means of battery VCB.
A ‘common-base ‘ circuit of a p-n-p transistor is

shown in Fig. 14. The emitter- base (p-n) junction EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
n p n
on the left is given a small forward bias ( fraction
of a volt ) while the base-collector (n-p) junction is E C
given a large reverse-bias (a few volts).

B
iE FORWARD iB RESERSE iC
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR BIASED BIASED
p n p
- + - +
E C VE B VCB
• HOLE (+)
o ELECTRON (-)
B
iE FORWARD iB RESERSE iC
BIASED BIASED
+ - + - The electrons are the charge-carriers with in the n-
VE B VCB p-n transistor as will as in the external circuit
o HOLE (+)
• ELECTRON (-) (whereas hole sate the charge-carriers with in p-n-
p transistor). The small current entering the
base terminal B is the base current iB, while the
Holes are the charge-carriers with in the p-n-p
larger current entering that collector terminal C is
transistor, while electrons are the charge-carriers
the collector-current iC. Both currents combine to
in the external circuit. The small current which
leave the emitter terminal E and constitute the
leaves the base terminal B is called the ‘iB ‘base-
current’ the larger current which leaves the collector emitter current iE. Thus
terminal is called the ‘collector -current ‘ iC.Both iE = iB + iC

these currents combine to enter the emitter terminal
14.5 TRANSISTOR ACTION
E and constitute the emitter-current iE. Clearly,
There are four possible ways of biasing the two
iE = IB + iC PN junctions (emitter junction and collectro
The base being very thin, the number of hole- junction ) of a transistor .These are tabulated below.
electron combinations in it is very small, and almost Emitter Collector Transistor
all the holes entering the base from the emitter reach junction bias junction bias operation
the collector. Hence the collector-current iC is only Forward Reverse Active
very slightly less than the emitter current iE. Forward Forward Saturation
Reverse Reverse Cut off
Reverse Forward inverted
N P N
•
IE • • IC
•
•
E • C
•
IB
IE B IB IC
- + - +
E = C + B
 B <<  C, and
 B <<  E
Thus  C is always less than  E, but the difference is
small. Since the emitter junction is forward biased input characteristic curves
its resistance is small, while the collectro jucntion 100
E 0V
5V
is reverse biased, therefore its resistance is large.
VC =
75
VC =
Thus , a transistor is a device which transfers  E
E
IB( A)
current from low resistance circuit to a high 50
resistance circuit ( C ~  E). Thus it is, transfer + 25
resistor = transistor
0
( The name transistor originated from the above 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.8
action of the transistor). VBE (volt)
14.6 CHARACTERISTIC OF TRANSISTOR

(i) Keep the collector-emitter voltage (V CE )
To study about the characterstics of transistor we
constant (say VCE = 1V)
have to make a circuit [i.e. JEB Forward bias and
(ii) Now change emitter base voltage by R1 and
JCB  Reverse bias] we need four terminals. But
note the corresponding value of base current (IB).
the transistor have three terminals. By keeping one
(iii) Plot the graph between VEB and IB.
of the terminal of transistor is common in input
(iv) A set of such curves can be plotted at different
and output both. So the transistor is connected in
VCE (say VCE = 2V)
three ways in circuit.
(i) Common base connector
(ii) Output characterstics
(ii) Common emitter The variation of collector current IC (output) with
(iii) Common collector collector-emitter voltage (VCE ) at constant base
In these three common emitter is widely used and current (IB) is called output characterstic.
0A
IB= 10
common collector is rarely used. 10
IB= 75A
8
Common emitter characterstics of a transistor IB = 50A
IC(mA)
6
4 IB = 25 A
(i) Input characterstics
2 IB =0
The variation of base current (IB) (input) with base
1 2 3 4 5
emitter voltage (VEB) at constant-emitter voltage VCE(volt)
(VCE) is called input characterstic.
(i) Keep the base current (IB) constant (say

IB = 10A)
(ii) Now change the collector-emitter voltage (VCE)
using variable resistance R 2 and note the
corresponding values of collector current (IC).
(iii) Plot the graph between (VCE versus IC) 15.1 Transistor as Common-Base Amplifier
(iv) A set of such curves can be plotted at different
n -p -n
fixed values of base current (say 0, 20 A, 30 A etc.) iE E C iC
• • •
15. TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION AND RL
ITS USE AS AN AMPLIFIER B VCB
+
iC
iB
A junction diode cannot amplify a signal. A transistor INPUT VC C
a -c - OUTPUT
consisting of two p-n junctions, one forward-biased - + i • • a-c
SIGNAL iC
and the other reverse-biased ,can , however , be used VEB E SIGNAL
for amplifying a weak signal The forward-biased
junction has a low-resistance path whereas the
reverse-biased junction has a high-resistances path.
The weak input signal is applied across the forward- Common-Base Amplifier using an n-p-n
biased (low resistance) junction and the output
currents are signal is taken appears with a much Transistor :
higher voltage. The transistor thus acts as an Fig. shows the common-base amplifier circuit using
amplifier an n-p-n transistor. The base is made common to
p-n-p
• • • the input and the output circuits. The emitter-base
E C
input circuit is forward-biased by a low-voltage
INPUT ~ B OUTPUT battery VEB so that the resistance of the input circuit
is small . The collector -base output circuit is
• •
+ - + -
reverse-biased by means of a high-voltage battery
(a) COMMON-BASE
VCC so the at the resistance of the output circuit is
p-n-p
• quite large. RL is a load resistance connected in the
C
collector-base circuit. The weak input a-c voltage
B E
OUTPUT signal is applied across the emitter-base circuit and
INPUT ~
the amplified output signal is obtained across the
+ – + • collector-base circuit. Let iE , iB and iC be the
–
(b) COMMON-EMITTER emitter -current and collector-current irrespectively

when no a-c voltage signal is applied to the input
p-n-p
• circuit. (The arrows represent the direction of hole
E
B C
current, that is conventional current which is
OUTPUT
INPUT ~ opposite to the direction of electron current). By
Kirchhoff’s first law, we have
+ – + – •
iE = iB + iC .....(1)
(b) COMMON-COLLECTOR Due to the collector- current iC, the voltage drop
When a transistor is to be operated as amplifier, across RL is iC RL. Therefore, the collector-to- base
three different basic circuit connection are possible, voltage (potential difference between collector and
as illustrated inFig. These are (a) common-base (b)
common emitter and (c) common-collector circuits. base )VCB would be given by
VCB = VCC – iC RL .....(2)
When the input a-c voltage signal is applied across
the emitter-base circuit, it changes the emitter-base
voltage and hence the emitter-current iE which, in
turn , changes the collector current i C .
Consequently , the collector to base voltage VCB (iii) a-c Power Gain: it is defined as the ratio of the change
varies in accordance with equation (2) . This in the output power to the change in the input power.
variation in VCB , when the input signal is applied, Since power = current x voltage, we have
appears as an amplified output. a-c power gain = a-c current gain × a-c voltage-
Phase Relationship between Input and Output gain
voltage Signals in CB circuit : = 2 × resistance gain
The output voltage signal is in phase with the 15.3 Transistor as Common-Emitter Amplifier :
input voltage signal in the common -base
Common-Emitter Amplifier using an n-p-n
amplifier.
Transistor: Fig.shows the common-emitter
15.2 Gains in Common-Base Amplifier : amplifier circuit using an n-p-n transistor. The
The various gains in a common-base amplifier are emitter is made common to the input and the output
as follow:
circuits.
(i) a-c Current Gain : It is defined as the ratio of the
The input (base-emitter) circuit is forward-biased
change i the colllector-current to the change in the
emitter-current at a constant collector-to-base by a low-voltage battery VBE so theat the resistance
voltage, and is denoted by . Thus of the input circuit is small. The output (collector-
 i C  emitter) circuit is reverse-biased by means of a high

 
 (a – c)  i
 E  VCB voltage battery VCC so that the resistanc eof the
The value of  is slightly less than 1 (actually, there outputcircuit is high. R L is a load resistanc
is a little current loss). econnected in the collector-emitter output circuit.
The weak input a-c signal is applied across the base-

(ii) a - c Voltage Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the
emitter circuit and the camplified output signal is
changes in the output voltage to thechange in the
input voltage , and is denoted by AV . obtained across the collector -emitter circuit.
Suppose, on applying an a-c input voltage signal,

C
the emitter current changes by  i C and
• •
iB
correspondingly the collector-current changes by B n-p-n RL
iC . If Rin and Rout be the resistances of the input • E
VC E iC
and the output circuits respectively, then +
iE
INPUT - OUTPUT
i C  R out i C R out a-c • a-c
A V = i  R = i × R SIGNAL + - iB iC SIGNAL
E in E in V BE
Now , iC /iE is the a-c current-gain and Rout / Rin

Let iE, iB and iC be the emitter-current, base-current
is called the ‘resistance gain’.
and collector- current respecitively when no
 AV =  × resistance gain
a-c voltage signal is applied to the input curcuit.
Since the resistance gain is quite high, AV is also
(The arrows represent the direction of the hole
quite high although  is slightly less than 1.
current, that is conventional current which is
opposite to the direction of electron current.) By

Kirchhoff’s first law, we have (ii) a-c Current Gain: It is defined as the ratio of
iE = iB + iC = the change in the collector -current to the change
Due to the collector current i C (Which is only in the in the base -current at a constant collector to
slightly smaller that iE ), the voltage drop across emitter voltage , and is denoted by  (a-c) . Thus
RL is iC RL. Therefore , the collector -to -emitter  i C 
 
voltage (potential between collector and emitter)  (a -c) =  i 
 B  VCE
VCE would be given by
VCE = VCC – iCRL
(iii) Voltage gain : Suppose , on applying an a-c
When the input a-c voltage signal is applied across
input voltage signal, the input base-current changes
the base-emitter circuit, it changes the base-emitter
by iB and correspondingly the output collector-
voltage and hence the emitter -current iE which, in
current changes by iC. If Rin and Rout be the
turn , changes the collector current iC.
resistance of the input an dthe output circuits
Consequently, the collector-to-emitter voltage VCE
respectively , then
varies in accordance with equation. (ii). This
variation in VCE , when the input signal is applied i C  R out i C R out
AV = i  R = i × R
, appears as an amplidied output. B in B in
Now, iC/iB is the a-c current gain (a-c) and Rout

15.4 Phase Relationship between Input an Output / Rin is the resistance gain
Voltage Signals :  AV=  (a-c) × resistance gain.
In a common-emitter amplifier the input voltage Since  (a-c) >>  (a-c), the a-c voltage gain in
signal and the output voltage signal obtained across common-emitter amplifier is larger compared to
the collector and the emitter are out of phase with that is common -base amplifier., although the
each other. resistance gain is smaller .
The output voltage signal is 180° out of phase From equation (i) and (ii), it follows that
with the input voltage signal in the common- AV = gm × Rout
emitter amplifier.
(iv) a-c Power Gain : It is defined as the ratio of
15.5 GAINS IN COMMON-EMITTERAMPLIFIER the change in the output power to the change in the
The various gains in a common-emitter amplifier input power.
are as follows: Since power = current × voltage , we have
a-c power gain = a-c current gain × a-c voltage gain
(i) d-c Current Gains: it is defined as the ratio of =  (a-c) × AV
the collector current to the base current, and is =  (a -c) × {  (a-c) x resistance gain}
denoted by  (d-c) . Thus =  2 (a-c) × resistance gain.
iC Since  (a-c) >>  ( a-c) , the a-c power gain in
 (d-c) = i
B common-emitter amplifier is extremely large
In a typical transistor , a small base- current (10µA) compared to that in common-base amplifier.
produces a large collector -current
(500µA). Thus
500
 (d-c) = = 50
10
15.6 RELATION BETWEEN  AND  16. POINT TO REMEMBER

CB current gain () (1) The electrical conductivity in materials is on
CB current gain () is the ratio of output current to
the input current in common base configuration of account of these free electrons.
a transistor. (2) In semiconductors the number of free electrons is
C less than that in conductors but more than that in
dc = 
E insulators.
 C (3) Diode can be used as rectifier, modulator, detector.
ac = 
E (4) Voltage gain = AV = AR.Ai
CE current gain ( ) (5) Energy gap for Ge and Si are respectively 0.7 eV
CE current gain ( ) is the ratio of the output current
and 1.1 eV.
to the input current in emitter cofiguration of the
transistor. (6) Holes contribute to current flow.
C (7) In Junction diode P-part behaves like a plate and
 dc = 
B N-part behaves like a cathode.
 C (8) On account of current in diode being unidirectional
 ac = 
B , it is also known as a valve.
The CB current gain  and CE current gain  are (9) Fermi energy depends on the nature of the material.
related by the rollowing relations. (10) The number of electrons emitted by an emitter
1 1 depends more on work-function than on
=1+ 

temperature.

= (11) The work function of cathode decreases by mixing
 1
impurity in it.

= (12) Common-base configuration
1 
(i) Current amplification factor c
The above relations are applicable for both dc and
= Rate of  = 0.95 – 0.99
ac current gains.
(ii) Voltage amplification factor = 
Comment. The value or  is always less than 1. 
RL = load resistance, Ri = Input resistance
~ 0.9 to 0.99 or more. The value of  is always
(iii) Power amplification factor = current
much greater than 1. ~ 95 to 999 or so.
amplification x voltage amp. factor = 2
(13) Common - emitter configuration
(i) Current amplification factor = ,
Range of  = 50 to 200
(ii) Voltage amplification =  RL
(iii) Power application =  2RL
Logic Gates - 3.21
Logic Gates
INTRODUCTION Truth table of a two-input OR gate
 A logic gate is a digital circuit which is based on

certain logical relationship between the input and A B Y
0 0 0
the output voltages of the circuit. 0 1 1
 The logic gates are built using the semiconductor 1 0 1
1 1 1
P-N junction diodes and transistors.
 Each logic gate is represented by its characteristic
symbol. The AND gate :- The output of an AND gate attains the
state 1 if and only if all the inputs are in state 1.
 The operation of a logic gate is indicated in a table,
Logic symbol of AND gate
known as truth table. This table contains all possible
combinations of inputs and the corresponding A
Input Y" Y
outputs. Output
B
 A logic gate is also represented by a Boolean
algebraic expression. Boolean algebra is a method
The Boolean expression of AND gate is Y = A.B
of writing logical equations showing how an output
It is read as Y equals ANDing B
depends upon the combination of inputs. Boolean
Truth table of a two-input AND gate
algebra was invented by George Boole.
A B Y
Basic Logic Gates 0 0 0
There are three basic logic gates. They are (1) 0 1 0
1 0 0
OR gate (2) AND gate, and (3) NOT gate
1 1 1
 The OR gate :- The output of an OR gate attains the
state 1 if one or more inputs attain the state 1.  The NOT gate : The output of a NOT gate attains
Logic symbol of OR gate the state 1 if and only if the input does not attain the
A state 1.
Y=A+B
Logic symbol of NOT gate
B
A Y
The Boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A+B,
read as Y equals A ORing B.
The Boolean expression is Y = A , read as Y
equals NOT A. block of all digital circuits. Repeated use of NAND

Truth table of NOT gate gates (or NOR gates) gives other gates. Therefore,
any digital system can be achieved entirely from
A Y NAND or NOR gates. We shall show how the
0 1 repeated use of NAND (and NOR) gates will gives
1 0 us different gates.
'NOT gate have only one input'

 The NOT gate from a NAND gate :- When all
the inputs of a NAND gate are connected together,
Combination of Gates :
as shown in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate
The three basis gates (OR, AND and NOT) when
connected in various combinations give us logic Truth table of a single
gates such as NAND, NOR gates, which are the input NAND gate
universal building blocks of digital circuits.  A B= (A) Y
A
A Y" 0 0 1
 The NAND gate :
1 1 0
Logic symbol of NAND gate
A
Input Y" Y
Output  The AND gate from a NAND gates :- If a
B
NAND gate is followed by a NOT gate (i.e., a
single input NAND gate), the resulting circuit is an
The Boolean expression of NAND gate is AND gate as shown in figure and truth table given
Y = A.B show how an AND gate has been obtained from
Truth table of a NAND gate NAND gates.
A B Y A
0 0 1 Y
0 1 1 B
1 0 1
1 1 0
 The NOR gate :
Truth table
Logic symbol of NOR gate
A B Y' Y
A 0 0 1 0
Y
0 1 1 0
B 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
The Boolean expression of NOR gate is  The OR gate from NAND gates :- If we invert
Y AB the inputs A and B and then apply them to the
Truth table of a NOR gate NAND gate, the resulting circuit is an OR gate.
A B Y
0 0 1 A
A
0 1 0 Y
1 0 0 B
1 1 0 B
Universal gates :
The NAND or NOR gate is the universal building
Logic Gates - 3.23
The Boolean expression of XOR gate

Truth table is Y  A.B  A.B or Y = A B
A B A B Y
Truth table of a XOR gate
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 A B Y
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1
 The NOT gate from NOR gates :- When all the 1 0 1
1 1 0
inputs of a NOR gate are connected together as
shown in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate
A Y  Exclusive - NOR gate (XNOR gate):- The

output is in state 1 when its both inputs are the same
that is, both 0 or both 1.
Logic symbol of XNOR gate
 The AND gate from NOR gates :- If we invert
A
the inputs A and B and then apply them to the NOR Y
gate, the resulting circuit is an AND gate. B
A
A The Boolean expression of XNOR gate is
Y
B Y  A.B  A.B or Y  A  B or A  B
B
Truth table of a XNOR gate
A B Y
 The OR gate from NOR gate :- If a NOR gate 0 0 1
is followed by a single input NOR gate (NOT gate), 0 1 0
the resulting circuit is an OR gate. 1 0 0
1 1 1
A
Y
B Laws of Boolean Algebra
Basic OR, AND, and NOT operations are given
below :
OR AND NOT
XOR and XNOR gates :
A+0 =A A. 0 = 0 A+ A =1
 The Exclusive - OR gate (XOR gate):- The
output of a two-input XOR gate attains the state 1 A+1=1 A. 1 = A A. A =0
if one and only one input attains the state 1.
A+A=A A.A=A A .A=A
Logic symbol of XOR gate
A
Y Boolean algebra obeys commutative, associative
B and distributive laws as given below :
 Commutative laws :
A+B =B +A;
SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES

N am e s S ym bo l Bo ole an Truth table Ele ctri cal Circuit diagram
Expression analogue (Practical Realisation)
OR A Y = A + B A B Y
Y
0 0 0
B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND A Y = A. B
Y
A B Y 1
Y" 0 0 0
B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NOT Y = A
or A Y A Y
Inverter 0 1
1 0
NOR A Y AB A B Y
Y
(OR +NOT)
0 0 1
B
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
NAND A
Y A B Y
(AND+NOT) Y" Y  A. B 0 0 1
B
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
XOR A
Y Y  AB A B Y
(Exclusive
B
or 0 0 0
OR) Y  A. B  AB 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
XNOR A Y = A  B
Y A B Y
(Exclusive
B
or 0 0 1
NOR) Y  A. B  A. B 0 1 0
or 1 0 0
Y  AB 1 1 1
Logic Gates - 3.25
A.B = B.A EXAMPLE 2

 Associative laws : Convert binary number 1000101.101 into
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C decimal number.
A. (B . C) = (A. B) . C
1000101.101  1× 26+0× 25+0× 24+0× 23+1× 22+0
 Distributive laws :
A. (B + C) = A.B + A.C × 21+1× 20+1× 2–1+0× 2–2+1× 2–3
 Some other useful identities : 1 1
= 64 + 4 + 1 + + = 69 + 0.5 + 0.125 = 69.625
(i) A + AB = A 2 8
(ii) A . (A + B) = A EXAMPLE 3
(iii) A + ( A B) = A + B Convert the following binary numbers into decimal
(iv) A. ( A + B) = A.B numbers –
(v) A +(B.C) = (A + B). (A + C) (a) 101 (b) 110.001
(c) 11111 (d) 1011.11
(vi) ( A + B).(A + C) = A .C + B.A +B.C
Ans. : (a) 5 (b) 6.125 (c) 31 (d) 11.75
 De Morgan's theorem :
First theorem : A  B  A.B DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
Second theorem : You should remember this table for decimal to binary
A.B  A  B
conversion
NUMBER SYSTEMS 2–3 2–2 2–1 20 21 22
Decimal Number system 23 24 25 26 27 28
The base of this system is 10 and in this system 10 29 210 0.125 0.25 0.5 1
numbers [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9] are used. 2 4 8 16 32 64
Ex. 1396, 210.75 are decimal numbers. 128 256 512 1024
Binary Number System
The base of this system is 2 and in this system 2 EXAMPLE 4
numbers (0 and 1) are used. Convert the decimal number 25 into its binary
Ex. 1001, 1101.011 are Binary numbers. equivalent
Binary to decimal conversion Sol. 25=16+8+1  24+ 23 + 20 = 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22
We can write any decimal number in following form + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20  (25)10 =(11001)2
2365.75 = 2000 + 300 + 60 + 5 + 0.7 + 0.05 EXAMPLE 5
= 2 × 1000 + 3 × 100 + 6 × 10 + 5 × 1 + 7 Convert 69 into its binary equivalent
1 1 Sol. 69 =64 + 4 + 1 = 1 × 26 + 1× 22 + 1 × 20
× + 5 ×  (69)10 = (1000101)2
10 100
= 2 × 10 3 + 3 × 10 2 + 6 × 10 1 + 5× 10 0 +7
× 10–1+ 5 × 10–2 EXAMPLE 6
Similarly we can write any binary number in Convert 13.5 into its binary equivalent
following form 13.5 = 8 + 4 + 1 + 0.5 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21
+ 1 × 20 + 1 × 21  (13.5)10 = (1101.1)2
10101.11 = 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 +
1 × 20 + 1× 2–1 + 1 × 2–2
= 1 × 16 + 0 × 8 + 1 × 4 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 1 EXAMPLE 7
Convert the following decimal numbers into binary
1 1
+ 1 × + 1 × numbers
2 4
(a) 6 (b) 65 (c) 106 (d) 268 (e) 8.125
1 1 Ans. (a) 110 (b) 1000001 (c) 1101010 (d) 100001100
= 16 + 4 + 1 + + = 21.75
2 4
EXAMPLE 1
(e) 1000.001
Convert binary number 1011.01 into decimal
number.
1011.01= 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 0
× 2–1 + 1 × 2–2
1
=8+2+1+ = 11.25
4

1. In conductors - 7. Wires P and Q have the same resistance at ordinary
(A) conduction band is completely empty but (room) temperature. When heated, resistance of
forbidden energy gap is small P increases and that of Q decreases. We conclude
(B) conduction and valence bands are overlapped that -
(C) valence band is completely filled but the (A) P and Q are conductors of different materials
conduction band is completely empty (B) P is N-type semiconductor and Q is
(D) no energy band is present P-type semiconductor
(C) P is semiconductor and Q is conductor
2. The forbidden energy gap of a germanium
(D) P is conductor and Q is semiconductor
semiconductor is 0.75 eV. The minimum thermal
energy of electrons reaching the conduction band
8. In a good conductor the energy gap between the
from the valence band should be -
(A) 0.5 eV (B) 0.75 eV conduction band and the valence band is -
(C) 0.25 eV (D) 1.5eV (A) Infinite (B) Wide
(C) Narrow (D) Zero
3. The energy of a photon of sodium light
( = 5890Å) equals the band gap of a semiconductor. 9. In a semiconducting material the mobilities of
The minimum energy required to create an electron- electrons and holes are e and h respectively. Which
hole pair is - of the following is true ?
(A) 0.026 eV (B) 0.31 eV (A) e > h (B) e < h
(C) 2.1eV (D) 6.4 eV (C) e = h (D) e < 0; h > 0
4. The forbidden energy band gap in conductors, 10. Those materials in which number of holes in valence
semiconductors and insulators are EG1, EG2 and
band is equal to number of electrons in conduction
EG3 respectively. The relation among them is -
band are called
(A) EG1 = EG2 = EG3 (A) conductors
(B) EG1 < EG2 < EG3 (B) Intrinsic semiconductors
(C) p-type semiconductors
(C) EG1 > EG2 > EG3
(D) n-type semiconductors
(D) EG1 < EG2 > EG3
11. In p-type semiconductor holes move in
5. On increasing temperature the specific resistance of (A) forbidden region (B) conduction band
a semiconductor - (C) valence band (D) all the above regions
(A) decreases
(B) increases
12. Which of the following statement is wrong ?
(C) remains constant
(D) becomes zero (A) Resistance of extrinsic semiconductors can be
changed as required
6. Which of the following statements is not correct ? (B) In n-type semiconductor the number of electrons
(A) Resistance of semiconductor decreases with increases in valence band
increase in temperature (C) In p-type semiconductors the number of holes
(B) In an electric field, displacement of holes is increases in valence band
opposite to the displacement of electrons (D) In pure semiconductor fermi band is situated in
(C) Resistance of a conductor decreases with the
between the valence band and conduction band
increase in temperature
(D) n-type semiconductors are neutral
13. P-type semiconductor is formed when - 19. A potential difference of 2V is applied between the
A. As impurity is mixed in Si opposite faces of a Ge crystal plate of area 1 cm2 and
B. A impurity is mixed in Si thickness 0.5 mm. If the concentration of electrons in
C. B impurity is mixed in Ge Ge is 2×1019/m3 and mobilities of electrons and holes
D. P impurity is mixed in Ge m2 m2
(A) A and C (B) A and D are 0.36 and 0.14 respectively,,
volt  sec volt  sec
(C) B and C (D) B and D then the current flowing through the plate will be -
(A) 0.25 A (B) 0.45 A
14. In extrinsic semiconductors - (C) 0.56 A (D) 0.64 A
(A) The conduction band and valence band overlap
(B) The gap between conduction band and valence
20. A potential barrier of 0.50 V exists across a
band is more than 16 eV
P-N junction. If the depletion region is
(C) The gap between conduction band and valence
5.0 × 10–7 m wide, the intensity of the electric field
band is near about 1 eV
(D) The gap between conduction band and valence in this region is -
band will be 100 eV and more (A) 1.0 × 106 V/m (B) 1.0 × 105\ V/m
5
(C) 2.0 × 10 V/m (D) 2.0 × 106 V/m
15. Fermi level of energy of an intrinsic semiconductor
lies - 21. If no external voltage is applied across P-N junction,
(A) In the middle of forbidden gap there would be -
(B) Below the middle of forbidden gap (A) No electric field across the junction
(C) Above the middle of forbidden gap (B) An electric field pointing from N-type to
(D) Outside the forbidden gap
P-type side across the junction
(C) An electric field pointing from P-type to
16. If ne and vd be the number of electrons and drift
N-type side across the junction
velocity in a semiconductor. When the temperature is
increased - (D) A temporary electric field during formation of
(A) ne increases and vd decreases P-N junction that would subsequently disappear
(B) ne decreases and vd increases
(C) Both ne and vd increases 22. No bias is applied to a P-N junction, then the
(D) Both ne and vd decreases current -
(A) Is zero because the number of charge carriers
17. The electron mobility in N-type germanium flowing on both sides is same
is 3900 cm 2 /v.s and its conductivity is (B) Is zero because the charge carriers do not move
6.24 mho/cm, then impurity concentration will be if
(C) Is non-zero
the effect of cotters is negligible -
(D) None of these
(A) 1015 cm3 (B) 1013/cm3
(C) 1012/cm3 (D) 1016/cm3
23. Just before the reverse breakdown in a
semiconductor diode -
18. In semiconductor the concentrations of electrons
and holes are 8 × 10 18 /m3 and 5 × 10 18 /m3 (A) The forward current is much larger then the
respectively. If the mobilities of electrons and hole reverse current
are 2.3 m2 /volt-sec and 0.01 m 2 /volt-sec (B) The forward current is much less then
respectively, then semiconductor is - the reverse current
(A) N-type and its resistivity is 0.34 ohm-metre (C) The forward current is equal to the reverse
(B) P-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre current
(C) N-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre (D) The reverse current is much large than
(D) P-type and its resistivity is 3.40 ohm-metre the forward current
24. The main cause of avalanche breakdown is - 31. A semiconductor X is made by doping a germanium
(A) collision ionisation crystal with arsenic (Z = 33). A second
(B) high dopring semiconductor Y is made by doping germanium with
(C) recombination of electron and holes indium (Z = 49). The two are joined end to end and
(D) none of these connected to a battery as shown. Which of the
following statements is correct ?
25. The main cause of Zener breakdown is -
X Y
(A) the base semiconductor being germanium
(B) production of electron-hole pair due to electric
field
(C) low doping
(D) high doping
(A) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is
26. Which of the following statements is correct ? forward biased
(A) The deplection region of P-N junction (B) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is
diode increases with forward biasing forward biased
(B) The depletion region of P-N junction diode (C) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is
decreases with reverse biasing reverse biased
(C) The depletion region of P-N junction diode does (D) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is
not change with biasing revese biased
(D) The deplection region of P-N junction
diode decreases with forward biasing 32. In the given figure, which of the diodes are forward
biased ?
27. When reverse bias in a junction diode is increased,
+5
the width of depletion layer - V +10V
(A) increase (B) decreases R
(C) does not change (D) fluctuate 1. 2. +5V
28. A semiconductor device is connected in a series circuit

with a battery and resistance. A current is found to pass
through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is 3. 4.
reversed, the current drops almost to zero. The device –10V –12V
may be - R
(A) A P-type semiconductor 5.
–5V
(B) An N-type semiconductor R
(C) A PN-junction
–10V
(D) An intrinsic semiconductor
(A) 1, 2, 3 (B) 2, 4, 5
29. The approximate ratio of resistances in the forward (C) 1, 3, 4 (D) 2, 3, 4
and reverse bias of the PN-junction diode is -
(A) 102 : 1 (B) 10–2 : 1 33. For the given circuit of PN-junction diode, which of
(C) 1 : 10 –4 (D) 1 : 104 the following statements is correct -
30. The dominant mechanisms for motion of charge

carriers in forward and reverse biased silicon P-N
junctions are -
V
(A) Drift in forward bias, diffusion in reverse bias
(B) Diffusion in forward bias, drift in reverse bias (A) In forward biasing the voltage across R is V
(C) Diffusion in both forward and reverse bias (B) In forward biasing the voltage across R is 2V
(C) In reverse biasing the voltage across R is V
(D) Drift in both forward and reverse bias
(D) In reverse biasing the voltage across R is 2V
34. Current in the circuit will be - 38. What is the value of output voltage V0 in the circuit
20 shown in the figure ?
30
i
20 5V +
V0
20V
5 5 6V
(A) A (B) A –
40 50
5 5
(C) A (D) A
10 20
(A) 6 V (B) 14 V
35. The diode used in the circuit shown in the figure (C) 20 V (D) 26 V
has a constant voltage drop of 0.5 V at all currents
and a maximum power rating of 100 milli watts.
Passage based questions : (39-40)
What should be the value of the resistor R, connected
The circuit shown in diagram contains two diodes
in series with the diode for obtaining maximum
each with a forward resistance of 50 ohm and with
current -
infinite reverse resistance. If the battery voltage is
R
6V then –
0.5V
D1 150
1.5V
(A) 1.5  (B) 5  D2 50

(C) 6.67  (D) 200 
36. In the following circuits PN-junction diodes

6V 100
D1, D2 and D3 are ideal for the following potential of
A and B, the correct increasing order of resistance
between A and B will be -
D1 39. Current through 100  resistance is -
R
(A) 0 (B) 0.02 amp
D2 R (C) 0.03 amp (D) none of these
R D3 R R 40. Current through 50  resistance is -

4 4
(A) 0
A B
(B) 0.02 amp
(i) – 10 V, – 5 V (ii) – 5V, – 10 V (C) 0.03 amp
(iii) – 4V, – 12 V (D) none of these is moderate
(A) (i) < (ii) < (iii) (B) (iii) < (ii) < (i)
(C) (ii) = (iii) < (i) (D) (i) = (iii) < (ii) 41. Which is the correct diagram of a half-wave
rectifier?
37. Mobility of electrons in Germanium of N types &
+ +
their conductivity are 3900 cm 2 /volt-sec &
5 mho/cm respectively. If effect of holes are (A) (B)
negligible then concentration of impurity will be- – –
(A) 8 × 1015 per cm3

(B) 9.25 × 1014 per cm3 + +
(C) 6 × 1013 per cm3 (C) (D)

(D) 9 × 1013 per cm3 – –
42. In the diagram, the input is across the terminals A

and C and the output is across the terminals B and
D, then the output is - (A) (B)
B
A C
(C) (D)
D
(A) zero (B) same as input 47. A full wave rectifier circuit along with the input and
(C) full wave rectifier (D) half wave rectifier output voltage is shown in the figure.
43. If a full wave rectifier circuit is operating from 50 1 Output

Hz mains, the fundamental frequency in the ripple 2 voltage
will be -
(A) 50 Hz (B) 70.7 Hz Input
voltage
(C) 100 Hz (D) 25 Hz
44. In a full wave rectifiers input ac current has a Output

frequency . The output frequency of current is voltage A B C D
(A) /2 (B) 

(C) 2 (D) None of these The contribution to output voltage from
diode – 2 to -
45. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 200 volt is (A) A, C (B) B, D
connected to a diode and resistor R in the circuit (C) B, C (D) A, D
shown so that half wave rectification occurs. If the
forward resistance of the diode is negligible
48. The output current versus time curve of a rectifier
compared to R then rms voltage (in volt) across R
is shown in the figure. The average value of the
is approximately -
output current in this case is -
C u r r e n
E0 = 200 volt ~ R
t
is
(A) 200 (B) 100
Time 
200
(C) (D) 280
2 (A) 0 (B) i0/
(C) 2i0/ (D) i0
46. In the half-wave rectifier circuit shown. Which one
of the following wave forms is true for VCD, the
output across C and D? 49. n-p-n transistors are preferred to p-n-p transistors
because -
(A) they have low cost
A C
(B) they have low dissipation energy
P Q V CD RL (C) they are capable of handling large power
(D) electrons have high mobility than holes and hence
B D high mobility of energy
50. For a common base transistor if the values of If and 55. What is the voltage gain in a common-emitter
Ic are 103 A and 0.96 mA respectively then the amplifier, where input resistance is 3 and load
resistance 24 ? Take = 0.6 -
value of IE will be -
(A) 8.4 (B) 4.8
(A) 0.04 mA (B) 4 mA
(C) 2.4 (D) 1.2
(C) 0.4 mA (D) 0.004 mA
56. Compared to CB amplifier, the CE amplifier
51. The dc current gain of a transistor in CB has -
configuration is 0.99 . Find its dc current gain in (A) lower input resistance
CE configuration. (B) higher output resistance
(A) 99 (B) 400 (C) lower current amplification
(C) 300 (D) 50 (D) higher current amplification
52. In a common emitter transistor circuit, the base 57. In the given transistor circuit, the base current is 35
current is 40 A, then VBE is - A. The value of Rb is -
VCC=100V E C
B
Rb RL
C 7V
(A) 100 k (B) 200 k

B
(C) 300 k (D) 400 k
E
58. I. In a P-N-P type common base amplifier the input
and output are in same phase.
(A) 2 V (B) 0.2 V II. In a P-N-P common base amplifier input and
(C) 0.8 V (D) Zero output are out of phase.
III. In a N-P-N- common base amplifier the input
53. A transsitor is operated in CE configuration at and output are in same phase.
VCC = 2 V such that a change in base current from IV. In a N-P-N common base amplifier input and
100 A to 200 A produces a change in the collector output are out of phase.
current from 9mA to 16.5 mA. The value of current State if -
gain,  is - (A) I and III are correct (B) II and III are correct
(C) I and IV are correct (D) II and IV are correct
(A) 45 (B) 50
(C) 60 (D) 75
59. In a transistor the base is made very thin and is lightly
54. An n-p-n transistor circuit is arranged as shown in doped with an impurity because-
fig. It is - (A) to enable the collector to collect 95% of
the holes or electrons coming from the emitter side
(B) to enable the emitter to emit small number of
n RL holes or electrons
p Vout (C) to save the transistor from higher current effects
n
V in (D) none of the above
60. In an NPN transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter

(A) a common-base amplifier circuit in 10–6s. 2% of the electrons are lost in the base.
(B) a common-emitter amplifier circuit The current transfer ratio will be-
(A) 0.95 (B) 0.96
(C) a common-collector amplifier circuit
(C) 0.97 (D) 0.98
(D) none of the above
61. In an NPN transistor the values of base current and 66. For the given combination of gates, if the logic states
collector current are 100A and 9 mA respectively, of inputs A, B, C are as follows A = B = C = 0 and A
the emitter current will be- = B = 1, C = 0 then the logic states of output D are -
(A) 9.1 mA (B) 18.2 mA
(C) 9.1A (D) 18.2 A A
B G1 G2
C D
62. For a common base amplifier, the values of resistance
gain and voltage gain are 3000 and 2800 respectively. (A) 0, 0 (B) 0, 1
The current gain will be - (C) 1, 0 (D) 1, 1
(A) 0.93 (B) 0.83
67. Which of the following gates will have an output of 1 ?
(C) 0.73 (D) 0.63
1
(A) 0 (B) 01
63. Given below are four logic gate symbol (figure).
Those for OR, NOR and NAND are respectively - (C) 01 (D) 01
y y 68. This symbol represents -

A A
B B A
(2) y
(1) B
y y (A) NOT gate (B) OR gate
A A
B B (C) AND gate (D) NOR gate
(3) (4)
69. The output of a NAND gate is 0 -
(A) 1, 4, 3 (B) 4, 1, 2 (A) If both inputs are 0
(C) 1, 3, 4 (D) 4, 2, 1 (B) If one input is 0 and the other input is 1
(C) If both inputs are 1
64. The following truth table corresponds to the logic (D) Either if both inputs are 1 or if one of the inputs
gate - is 1 and the other 0
A 0 0 1 1 70. Which logic gate is represented by the following
B 0 1 0 1 combination of logic gates -
X 0 1 1 1
A
(A) NAND (B) OR
Y
(C) AND (D) XOR
B
65. The combination of ‘NAND’ gates shown here under (A) OR (B) NAND
(figure) are equivalent to – (C) AND (D) NOR
71. The output of OR gate is 1 -
A (A) If both inputs are zero
C (B) If either or both inputs are 1
B (C) Only if both input are 1
(D) If either input is zero
A 72. An oscillator is nothing but an amplifier with
B C
(A) Positive feedback (B) Negative feedback
(A) An OR gate and an AND gate respectively (C) Voltage gain (D) No feedback
(B) An AND gate and a NOT gate respectively 73. In which of the configurations of a transistor, the
(C) An AND gate and an OR gate respectively power gain is highest ?
(D) An OR gate and a NOT gate respectively (A) Common base (B) Common emitter
(C) Common collector (D) Same in all the three

1. Which of the following statement is true ? 7. If the two ends of a p-n junction are joined by a
(A) In insulators the conduction band is completely conducting wire, then -
empty (A) there will be no current in the circuit
(B) In conductor the conduction band is completely (B) there will be steady current from n-side to
empty p-side
(C) In semiconductor the conduction band is partially (C) there will be steady current from p-side to
empty at low temperature n-side
(D) In insulators the conduction band is completely (D) there will be a steady current in the circuit
filled with electrons
8. In a p-type semiconductor, the acceptor level
2. The materials resistance of which decreases with is 57 meV, above the valence band. The maximum
increases in temperature (i.e. the temperature wavelength of light required to produce a hole will
coefficient of resistance is negative) are called - be (Planck’s constant h = 6.6 × 10–34 Joule × sec) -
(A) conductors (B) insulators (A) 57Å (B) 57 × 10–3Å
(C) semiconductors (D) all of the above (C) 217100 Å (D) 11.61 × 10–23 Å
3. The diffusion current in a p-n junction is from - 9. A doped semiconductor has impurity levels
(A) p-side to n-side 32 meV below the conduction band. The
(B) n-side to p-side semiconductor is -
(C) p-side to n-side if the junction is forward biased (A) N-type (B) P-type
and in the opposite direction if it is reverse biased (C) N-P junction (D) none of the above
(D) n-side to p-side if the junction is forward biased
10. The mean free path of a conduction electron in a
and in the opposite direction if it is reverse based
metal is 5 × 10-8 m. The electric field, required to be
applied across the conductor so as to impart 1eV
4. In n-type semiconductors the Fermi energy level is
energy to the conduction electron, will be -
displaced -
(A) 1 × 10–7 V/m (B) 2 × 107 V/m
(A) towards the valence band
(C) 3 × 107 V/m (D) 4 × 107 V/m
(B) towards the conduction band
(C) not displaced 11. Which of the following statements is correct ?
(D) and it does not depend on quantity of impurity (A) when forward bias is applied on a p-n junction
then current does not flow in the circuit
5. If n-type semiconductor is heated then - (B) rectification of alternating current can not be
(A) the number of electrons increases and the number achieved by p-n junction
of holes decreases (C) when reverse bias is applied on a p-n junction
(B) the number of holes increases and the number then it acts as a conductor
of electrons decreases (D) some potential gap developed across the p-n
(C) at the number of electrons and holes both remains junction when it is formed
equal
(D) the number of both electrons and holes increases 12. In semiconductor the concentrations of electrons
and holes are 8 × 10 18 /m3 and 5 × 10 18 /m3
6. Forbidden energy gap of a silicon semiconductor is respectively. If the mobilities of electrons and
1.12 eV. In order to generate electron-hole pairs in holes are 2.3 m2/V-s and 0.01 m2/V-s respectively,
it, the maximum wavelength of the incident photons then semiconductor is -
will be - (A) N-type and its resistivity is 0.34 ohm-metre
(A) 11080Å (B) 11250Å (B) P-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
(C) 12370Å (D) 14400Å (C) N-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
(D) P-type and its resistivity is 3.40 ohm-metre
13. The current through an ideal PN junction shown in 17. If the following input signal is sent through a P-N
the following circuit diagram will be -
junction diode, then the output signal across RL will
P N 700
be -
5V 2V
10V
P N
RL
(A) 5 mA (B) 10 mA –10V
Input signal Circuit
(C) 70 mA (D) 100 mA
20V
14. Two identical p-n junction may be connected in series
with a battery in three ways (fig). The potential drops (A) –10V (B)
across the p-n junctions are equal in -
P N NP
(C) 10V (D)
(A) circuit 1 and 2 circuit 1 –20V
18. The value of current in the following diagram will

P N P N be –
(B) circuit 2 and 3 circuit 2
–4V –1V
PN 300
NP NP
(A) 0.10 Ac (B) 10–2 A
(C) circuit 3 and 1 circuit 3
(C) 1 A (D) 0 A
(D) circuit 1 only 19. In which of the following figures the junction diode
is in reverse bias
15. In the figure, an A.C. of 200 rms voltage is applied
to the circuit containing diode and the capacitor and
N P
it is being rectified. The potential across the capacitor –5V
–10V
C will be -
(A) (B)
–5V
~ 200 V C
rms
–6V 10V
(A) 500V (B) 200V
(C) 283V (D) 141V
(C) P N (D)
N P
16. Which of the following statements is wrong ? 5V
(A) The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with
the increases of temperature
(B) In electric field the displacement of holes is
opposite in direction to that of electrons
(C) The resistance of conductor decreases with the
increase of temperature
(D) N-type semiconductors are neutral
20. Two identical capacitors A and B are charged to the 24. A cube of germanium is placed between the poles of
same potential V and are connected in two circuits a magnet and a voltage is applied across opposite
at t = 0 as shown in figure. The charge of the faces of the cube as shown in Figure. Magnetic field
capacitors at a time t = CR are respectively - is directed vertical downward in the plane of the
paper :
V V
+ – + – What effect will occur at the surface of the cube ?
B p-Type Germanium
Top
Front
R R Applied Voltage
(A) VC, VC (B) VC/e, VC

(C) VC, VC/e (D) VC/e, VC/e (A) The top surface of cube will become negatively
charged
21. In the circuit shown in figure, Voltage V0 is–
(B) The front surface of the cube will become
positively charged
12V
(C) The front surface of the cube will become
negatively charged
(D) Both top and front surface of cube will become
Si Ge
positively charged
25. A full wave rectifier circuit along with the output is

V0 2.2K
shown in the following diagram. The contribution(s)
from the diode (1) is (are) -
(A) 11.7 volt (B) 11.3 volt V
(C) 0 (D) None
t 1 Output
0
22. Determine current I in the configuration –
I V
10V Si
10
Si A B C D
t
0
(A) 1 amp (B) 0 amp (A) C (B) A,C
(C) less than 1 amp (D) None (C) B,D (D) A, B, C, D
23. In the given circuit V01 & V0 2 are - 26. In the given figure potential difference between A
and B is -
Si 4.7 k
12V V02 A
V01 10k
Ge 30V 10k 10k
B
(A) 11.3 V & 0.3 V (B) 0.3 V & 11.3 V
(C) 11.3 V & 11.3 V (D) 0.3 V & 0.3 V (A) 0 (B) 5 volt
(C) 10 volt (D) 15 volt
27. In figure the current supplied by the battery is - 30. A conducting wire of Copper and Germenium are
20 cooled from room temperature to temperature 80K,
then their resistance will :–
(A) increase
10
(B) decrease
2V (C) copper's increase and Germenium's decrease
(D) copper's decrease and Germenium's increase
(A) 0.1 A (B) 0.2 A
(C) 0.3 A (D) 0.4 A
31. Consider an n–p–n transistor amplifier in common–
28. In a p-n junction - emitter configuration. The current gain of the
(A) new holes and conduction electrons are produced transistor is 100. If the collector current changes by
continuously throughout the material 1 mA, what will be the change in emitter current
(B) new holes and conduction electrons are produced (A) 1·1 mA (B) 1·01 mA
continuously throughout the material except in the
(C) 0·01 mA (D) 10 mA
depletion region
(C) holes and conduction electrons recombine
continuously throughout the material 32. In semiconducting material the mobilities of
(D) holes and conduction electrons recombine electrons and holes are e and h respectively. Which
continuously throughout the material except in the of the following is true :–
depletion region (A) e > h (B) e < h
(C) e = h (D) e < 0; h > 0
29. Temperature coefficient of resistance for a pure
semiconductor is -
33. In a transistor the base is very lightly doped as
(A) 0
compared to the emitter because by doing so -
(B) negative
(C) positive (A) The flow across the base region is mainly
(D) depends on nature of semiconductor because of electrons
(B) The flow across the base region is mainly
because of holes
(C) Recombination is decreased in teh base region
(D) Base current is high
Exercise - 3 Previous Year | JEE Mains

1. If temperature increases, conductivity of 8. When npn transistor is used as an amplifier –
semiconductor will be – [AIEEE-2002] (A) electrons move from collector base
(A) increases (B) decreases (B) holes move from emitter to base
(C) remain unchanged (D) none of these (C) electrons move from base to collector
(D) holes move from base to emitter
2. At 0K, silicon behave as – [AIEEE-2002]
9. A piece of copper and another of germanium are
(A) super conductor (B) conductor
cooled from room temperature of 77 K, the resistance
(C) Insulator (D) none of these
of – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) copper increases and germanium
3. The energy band gap is maximum in – (B) each of them decreases
[AIEEE-2002] (C) each of these increases
(A) Metals (B) Superconductors (D) copper decreases and germanium increases
(C) Insulators (D) Semiconductors
10. The manifestation of band structure in solids is due
4. The part of a transistor which is most heavily doped to – [AIEEE-2004]
to produce large number of majority carriers is – (A) Bohr’s correspondence principle
[AIEEE-2002] (B) Pauli’s exclusion principle
(A) Emitter (B) Base (C) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
(C) Collector (D) Boltzmann’s law
(D) Can be any of the above three
11. When p–n junction diode is forward biased,
then – [AIEEE-2004]
5. In the middle of the depletion layer of a reverse-biased (A) both the depletion region and barrier height are
p-n junction, the – [AIEEE-2003] reduced
(A) Potential is maximum (B) the depletion region is widened and barrier height
(B) Electric field is maximum is reduced
(C) Potential is zero (C) the depletion region is reduced and barrier height
(D) Electric field is zero is increased
(D) both the depletion region and barrier height are
6. The difference in the variation of resistance with increased
temperature in a metal and a semiconductor arises
essentially due to the difference in the – 12. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
[AIEEE-2003] increases when electromagnetic radiation of
(A) Variation of the number of charge carriers with wavelength shorter than 2480 nm is incident on it.
temperature The band gap in (eV) for the semiconductor is –
(B) Type of bonding [AIEEE-2005]
(C) Variation of scattering mechanism with (A) 1.1 eV (B) 2.5 eV
(C) 0.5 eV (D) 0.7 eV
temperature
(D) Crystal structure 13. In a full wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz
mains frequency, the fundamental frequency in the
7. A strip of copper and another of germanium are ripple would be – [AIEEE-2005]
cooled from room temperature of 80 K. The (A) 50 Hz (B) 25 Hz
resistance of – [AIEEE-2003] (C) 100 Hz (D) 70.7 Hz
(A) copper strip increases and that of germanium
decreases 14. In a common base amplifier the phase difference
(B) copper strip decreases and that of germanium between the input signal voltage and output voltage
increases is – [AIEEE-2005]
(C) each of these increases  
(A) (B)  (C) 0 (D)
(D) each of these decreases 4 2
15. If the ratio of the concentration of electrons to that 20. The circuit has two oppositely connected ideal
7 diodes in parallel. What is the current flowing in the
of holes in a semiconductor is and the ratio of
5 circuit ? [AIEEE-2006]
7
currents is , then what is the ratio of their drift 4
4
velocities – [AIEEE-2006]
D1 D2
5 4 5 4
(A) (B) (C) (D)
4 7 8 5
12V 3 2
16. A solid which is not transparent to visible light and

whose conductivity increases with temperature is (A) 2.31 A (B) 1.33 A
formed by – [AIEEE-2006] (C) 1.71 A (D) 2.00 A
(A) Vander Waals binding 21. If in a p-n junction diode, a square input signal of
(B) Metallic binding 10 V is applied as shown. Then the output signal
(C) Ionic binding across RL will be –
(D) Covalent binding [AIEEE-2007]
17. In a common base mode of a transistor, the collector 5V
current is 5.488 mA for an emitter current of 5.60 RL
mA. The value of the base current amplification ()
will be – [AIEEE-2006] –5V
(A) 51 (B) 48
10V
(C) 49 (D) 50
(A) (B)
18. If the lattics constant of this semiconductor is –10V
decreased, then which of the following is correct –
+5V
[AIEEE 2006] (C) –5V (D)
conduction band width Ec
band gap
22. Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence
Eg
electrons each. At room temperature which one of
valence band width Ev the following statements is most appropriate ?
(A) Ec and Ev decrease, but Eg increases [AIEEE-2007]
(B) All Ec, Eg, Ev decrease (A) The number of free conduction electrons is
(C) All Ec, Eg, Ev increase significant in C but small in Si and Ge
(D) Ec and Ev increase, but Eg decreases (B) The number of free conduction electrons is
negligibly small in all the three
19. In the following, which one of the diodes is (C) The number of free electrons for conduction is
reverse biased – [AIEEE-2006] significant in all the three
(D) The number of free electrons for conduction is
significant only in Si and Ge but small in C
(A) R
–10 V
23. A working transistor with its three legs marked P, Q
+5 V
and R is tested using a multimeter. No conduction
R
is found between P and Q. By connecting the
common (negative) terminal of the multimeter to R
(B)
and the other (positive) terminal to P or Q, some
resistance is seen on the multimeter. Which of
–10V following is true for the
(C) R transistor ? [AIEEE-2008]
+5V (A) It is a pnp transistor with R as collector
–12V
(B) It is a pnp transistor with R as emitter
(D) R
(C) It is an npn transistor with R as collector
–5V
(D) It is an npn transistor with R as base
24. In the circuit below, A and B represent two inputs 27. The combination of gates shown below yields
and C represents the output. [AIEEE-2008]
(A) NAND gate (B) OR gate

B
(C) NOT gate (D) XOR gate
[AIEEE-2010]
The circuit represents
(A) AND gate (B) NAND gate 28. Truth table for system of four NAND gates as shown
(C) OR gate (D) NOR gate in figure is- [AIEEE-2012]
A
25. An p-n junction (D) shown in the figure can act as a
Y
rectifier. An alternating current source (V) is
B
connected in the circuit. [AIEEE-2009]
A B Y A B Y
D 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
R (A) (B)
V ~ 1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
The current (I) in the resistor R can be shown by - A B Y A B Y

0 0 1 0 0 0
I I 0 1 0 0 1 1
(C) 1 0 0
(D) 1 0 1
(A) (B) 1 1 1 1 1 0
t t
I I
29. The current voltage relation of diode is given by I =
(C) (D) (e1000V/T – 1) mA, where the applied voltage V is in
t t volts and the temperature T is in degree Kelvin. If a
student makes an error measuring  0.01 V while
26. The logic circuit shown below has the input measuring the current of 5 mA at 300 K, what will
waveforms ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown. Pick out the correct be the error in the value of current in mA?
output waveform. [AIEEE-2009] [JEE MAIN 2014]
A (A) 0.5 mA (B) 0.05 mA
Y (C) 0.2 mA (D) 0.02 mA
B
30. The forward biased diode connection is :
Input A
(A)
Input B
Output is - (B)
(A) (B)
(C)
(C) (D)
(D)
[JEE MAIN 2014]
31. The temperature dependence of resistances of Cu 33. If a, b, c, d are inputs to a gate and x is its output,
and undoped Si in the temperature range 300–400 then, as per the following time graph, the gate is :
K, is best described by : [JEE MAIN 2016] [JEE MAIN 2016]
(A) Linear increase for Cu, exponential increase d
for Si.
(B) Linear increase for Cu, exponential decrease
c
for Si.
(C) Linear decrease for Cu, linear decrease for Si.
(D) Linear increase for Cu, linear increase for Si. b
32. Identify the semiconductor devices whose charac- a

teristics are given below, in the order (1), (2), (3),
(4) : [JEE MAIN 2016] x
(A) AND (B) OR
l (C) NAND (D) NOT
34. For a common emitter configuration, if and  have

their usual meanings, the incorrect
v relationship between  and  is :
[JEE MAIN 2016]
(b)
 
(A)   (B)  
1 1
l Resistance
2 1 1
dark (C)   (D)     1
1  2
v v
Intensity
(c)illuminated (d)of light
(A) Zener diode, Simple diode, Light dependent

resistance, Solar cell
(B) Solar cell, Light dependent resistance, Zener
diode, Simple diode
(C) Zener diode, Solar cell, Simple diode, Light
dependent resistance
(D) Simple diode, Zener diode, Solar cell, Light
dependent resistance
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. A 6. C 7. D
8. D 9. A 10. B 11. C 12. B 13. C 14. C
15. A 16. A 17. D 18. A 19. D 20. A 21. B
22. A 23. A 24. A 25. B 26. D 27. A 28. C
29. D 30. B 31. D 32. B 33. A 34. B 35. B
36. C 37. A 38. A 39. B 40. A 41. B 42. C
43. C 44. C 45. B 46. B 47. B 48. C 49. D
50. A 51. A 52. B 53. D 54. B 55. B 56. D
57. B 58. A 59. A 60. D 61. A 62. A 63. C
64. B 65. A 66. D 67. C 68. A 69. C 70. C
71. B 72. A 73. B
1. A 2. B,C 3. A 4. B 5. D 6. A 7. A
8. C 9. A 10. B 11. D 12. A 13. B 14. B
15. C 16. C 17. C 18. D 19. B 20. B 21. A
22. A 23. A 24. B 25. B 26. C 27. A 28. A,D
29. B 30. D 31. B 32. A 33. C
Exercise - 3 Previous Year | JEE Mains

1. A 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. A 7. B
8. C 9. D 10. B 11. A 12. C 13. C 14. C
15. A 16. D 17. C 18. D 19. B,C 20. D 21. D
22. D 23. D 24. C 25. C 26. A 27. B 28. D
29. C 30. C 31. B 32. D 33. B 34. A,D
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM | 4.1
1. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM INPUT OUTPUT

TRANSMITTER COMMUNICATION RECEIVER
SIGNAL
A communication system is the set-up used in the (MESSAGE)
CHANNEL S IGNAL
transmission of information from one place to another. The

Figure (1)
present day communication system are electrical, electronic
or optical in nature.
In principle, a communication system consists of TRANS MITTING
ANTENNA
the following three parts : MICRO
PHONE
(i) Transmitter (ii) Communication MODULATOR AMPLIFIER
Channel (iii) Receiver

Figure 2
A schematic model of an electrical communication system
is shown in Figure 1.
(ii) Communication Channel :
The communication channel carries the modulated
(i) A transmitter : transmits the information after
wave from the transmitter to the receiver. In
modifying it to a form suitable for transmission. The
ordinary conversation, the air through which sound
key to communication system is to obtain an electrical
travels from the speaker to the listener serves as
signal (voltage or current), which contains the
the communication channel. In case of telephony
information. For example, a microphone converts
and telegraphy, communication channel is the
speech signals into electrical signals. Similarly,
transmission lines, which connect the transmitter
piezoelectric sensors convert pressure variations
and the receiver. In radio communication (or
into electrical signals. Light signals are converted into
wireless communication), the free space through
electrical signals by photo detectors. The devices
which the modulated signal travels serves as the
like microphone, piezoelectric sensors and photo
communication channel.
detectors, which convert a physical quantity (called
information, here) into electrical signal are known as
(iii) The receiver : In the radio communication or wireless
Transducers. Such an electrical signal contains the
communication, the receiver consists of
information to be transmitted.
(a) a pick up antenna to pick the signal,
We define a signal as a single valued function of time
(b) a demodulator, to separate the low frequency audio
(that conveys the information). This function has a unique
signal from the modulated signal,
value at every instant of time.
(c) an amplifier, to boost up suitably the audio signal,
Most of the speech or information signals cannot
and
be transmitted directly over long distances. These
(d) the transducer, like loud speaker to convert the audio
signals have to be loaded or superimposed on a high
signal (in the form of electrical pulses) into sound
frequency wave, which acts as the carrier wave.
waves.
This process is known as modulation. The signal
The receiver part of the communication system is
so obtained is called modulated signal/wave. The
shown schematically in Fig.3
power of the signal is boosted signal using a suitable
amplifire. The modulated signal is then radiated into
space with the help of an antenna called DEMODULATOR AMPLIFIER
transmitting antenna. The arrangement is shown LOUD
in Fig.2 Figure 3 SPEAKER
4.2 | Theory and Exercise Book
2. ANTENNA (ii) Dish type antenna, shown

An antenna plays a vital role in a communication in Fig.5 is a directional
system. It is used in both, the transmission and Dipole
antenna. Such an antenna
reception of radio frequency signals. Infact, an has a parabolic reflector
antenna is a structure that is capable of radiating with an active element,
electromagnetic waves or receiving them, as the case
called the dipole or horn
may be. Basically, an antenna is generally a metallic
feed at focus of the
object, often a wire or collection of wires, used to
convert high frequency current into electromagnetic reflector. The dish type
waves and vice-versa. Thus, a transmitting antenna antenna can transmit
Figure 5
converts electrical energy into electromagnetic waves in a par t icu l ar
waves, whereas a receiving antenna converts d i r e ct i o n . Also, it can
electromagnetic waves into electrical energy. Apart receive only those waves which are directed towards
from their different function, transmitting and it. For transmission, the signal is fed to the active element,
receiving antennas behave idenically i.e. their which directs it on to the reflector. The signal is then
behaviour is reciprocal. When a transmitting antenna
transmitted in the form of a parallel beam as shown in
is held vertically, the electromagnetic waves produced
Fig.5. For reception, the waves directed towards the
are polarized vertically.
dish are reflected on to the active element, which converts
A Hertz antenna is a straight conductor of length equal
to half the wavelength of radio signals to be transmitted them into electrical signals. The dish type antennas are
or received i.e. l = /2. commonly used in radar and satellite communication.
A Marconi antenna is a straight conductor of
length equal to a quarter of the wavelength of radio 3. MESSAGE SIGNALS
signals to be transmitted or received i.e. l = /4. It Message signals are electrical signals generated
is held vertically with its lower end touching the
from the original information to be transmitted, using
ground. The ground provides a reflection of the
an appropriate transducer. A message signal is a
voltage and current distributions set up in the
antenna. The electromagnetic waves emitted from single valued function of time that conveys the
(Marconi) antenna ground system are the same as information. This function has a unique value at
those emitted from Hertz antenna, which is not every instant of time. These signals are of two type
grounded. (i) Analog signals
The design of an antenna depends on frequency of (ii) Digital signals
carrier wave and directivity of the beam etc. Two
common types of antenna are : (i) Analog signals. An analog signal is that in which
current or voltage value varies continuously with
(i) Dipole antenna, shown in Fig.4 is used in
time. In the simplest form of an analog signal,
transmission of radio waves. It is omni directional.
amplitude of the signal varies sinusoidally with time.
It is represented by the equation
E = E0 sin (t + )
where E0 is max. value ofvoltage, called the amplitude, T is
2
time period and  = is angular frequency of the signal.
T
In fig.6,  represents the phase angle. Such signals can
have all sorts of values at different instants, but these values
Figure 4 shall remain within the range of a maximum value
(+ E0) and a minimum value ( – E0).
An analog signal can be converted suitably into a

Y digital signal and vice-versa.
Time period Note. As stated above, a digital signal is represented
(T)
2 by binary digits 0 and 1 called bits. A group of bits is
Ampitude  =
T called a binary word or a byte. A byte made of 2 bits
O can give four code combinations : 00, 01, 10 ; 11.
X
4. TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEMS
Y time There is no unique way of classifying communication
Figure 6
systems. However, for the sake of convenience, we
can classify them broadly on the basis of -
Examples of analog signals are speech, music, (i) nature of information source,
sound produced by a vibrating tuning fork, variations (ii) mode of transmission,
in light intensity etc. These are converted into current/ (iii) type of transmission channel used,
voltage variations using suitable transducers. The (iv) type of modulation employed, as detailed
information bearing signals are called base band below :
signals.
(a) Based on nature of information source
(ii) Digital signals. A digital signal is a (i) Speech transmission as in radio
discontinuous function of time, in contrast to an (ii) Picture as well as speech transmission as
analog signal, wherein current or voltage value in television
varies continuously with time. (iii) Facsimile transmission, as in FAX
Such asignal isusually in theformof pulses. Each (iv) Data transmission as in computers
pulse has two levels of current or voltage,
represented by 0 and 1. Zero (0) of a digital signal (b) Based on mode of transmission
refers to open circuit and (1) of a digital signal refers (i) Analog communication, where the modulating
to closed circuit. Zero (0) is also referred to as ‘No’ signal is analog. The carrier wave may be
or space and (1) is referred to as ‘Yes’ or mark. sinusoidal or in the form of pulses. For example,
Both 0 and 1 are called bits. in telegraphy, telephony, radio network, radar,
A typical digital signal is shown in Fig.7. television network, teleprinting, telex etc.
The significant characteristics of a digital signal (ii) Digital communicatoin, where the
are : modulating signal is digital in nature. For
example, Fax, mobile phone network, e-mail,
PULSE
DURATION teleconferencing, telemetry, communication
1 1 1 satellites and global positioning system are
PULSE PULSE
PULSE all digital communication systems.
AMPLITUDE
RISE FALL
0 0 0 0
(c) Based on transmission channel
Figure 7 (i) Line communication
1. Two wire transmission line
Pulse amplitude ; Pulse Duration or Pulse Width 2. Co-axial cable transmission
and Pulse Position, representing the time of rise and 3. Optical fibre cable communication
time of fall of the pulse amplitude, as shown in Fig.7. (ii) Space communication
Examples of digital messages are : (d) Based on the type of modulation

(i) letters printed in this book (i) For sinusoidal continuous carrier waves, the
(ii) listing of any data, types of modulation are :
(iii) output of a digital computer, 1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
(iv) Electronic transmission of a document at a 2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
distant place via telephone line i.e. FAX etc. 3. Phase Modulation
(ii) For pulsed carrier waves, the modes of All the three reasons explained above suggest that
modulation are : there is a need for transmissions at high frequencies.
1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) This is achieved by a process, called modulation,
2. Pulse Time Modulation (PTM). It includes where in we superimpose the audio frequency
– Pulse Position Modulation (PPM), baseband message or information signals (called the
– Pulse Width modulation (PWM), modulating signals) on a high frequency wave (called,
– Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) the carrier wave). The resultant wave is called the
3. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) modulated wave, which is transmitted.
In the process of modulation, some specific
5. AN IMPORTANT STEP IN characteristic of the carrier wave is varied in
COMMUNICATIONS MODULATION accordance with the information or message signal.
AND ITS NEED The carrier wave may be
Suppose we wish to transmit an electrical signal in (i) Continuous (sinusoidal) wave, or
the audio frequency (AF) range (20 Hz to 20 kHz) (ii) Pulse, which is discontinuous
over a long distance. We cannot do it, as such A continuous sinusoidal carrier wave can be
because of the following reasons : expressed as E = E0 sin (t + ).
1. Size of the antenna or aerial. An antenna or aerial Three distinct characteristics of such a wave are :
is needed both for transmission and reception. Each amplitude (E0), angular frequency () and phase
antenna should have a size comparable to the angle (). Any one of these three characteristics
wavelength of the signal, (atleast /4 in size), so can be varied in accordance with the modulating
that time variation of the signal is properly sensed baseband (AF) signal, giving rise to the respective
by the antenna. For an audio frequency signal of Amplitude Modulation ; Frequency Modulation and
frequency  = 15 kHz, the wavelength, Phase Modulation.
c 3  108
= = = 20000 m. The length of the Notes. Phase modulation is not of much practical
 15  103
importance. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to
 20000 the study of amplitude and frequency modulations only.
antenna = = = 5000 metre. To set up an
4 4
Again, the significant characteristics of a pulse are
antenna of vertical height 5000 metre is practically : Pulse Amplitude, Pulse Duration or Pulse Width
impossible. Therefore, we need to use high and Pulse Position (representing the time of rise
frequencies for transmission. or fall of the pulse amplitude). Any one of these
2. Effective Power radiated by antenna. Theoretical
characteristics can be varied in accordance with
studies reveal that power P radiated from a linear
the modulating baseband (AF) signal, giving rise
antenna of length l is
to the respective, Pulse Amplitude Modulation
1 (PAM), Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or
P
l2 Pulse Widhth Modulation (PWM) and Pulse
As high powers are needed for good transmission, l Position Modulation (PPM).
should be small i.e. antenna length should be small, for
which wavelength  should be small or frequency  6. AMPLITUDE MODULATION
should be high. When a modulating AF wave is superimposed on a
3. Mixing up of signals from different transmitters. high frequency carrier wave in a manner that the
Suppose many people are talking at the same time. frequency of modulated wave is same as that of
We just cannot make out who is talking what. the carrier wave, but its amplitude is made
Similarly, when many transmitters are transmitting proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband information signals simultaneously, they
audio frequency modulating voltage, the process is
get mixed up and there is no way to distinguish
called amplitude modulation (AM).
between t hem. Th e possi ble sol uti on i s,
communication at high frequencies and allotting Let the instantaneous carrier voltage (e c ) and
a band of frequencies to each user. This is what modulating voltage (em) be represented by
is being done for different radio and T.V. ec = Ec sin ct ....(1)
broadcast stations. em = Em sin mt ....(2)
Thus, in amplitude modulation, amplitude A of (Ec + Em sin wm t) top envelope

modulated wave is made proportional to the
Em
instantaneous modulating voltage em Ec
i.e. A = Ec + k em ....(3) A Em Em ax
where k is a constant of proportionality. O

Em in
In amplitude modulation, the proportionality canstant k t
is made equal to unity. Therefore, max. positive amplitude
of AM wave is given by
A = Ec + em = Ec + Em sin mt ....(4) –(Ec + Em sin wm t) bottom envelope
It is called top envelope
Fig.8(c) AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE
The maximum negative amplitude of AM wave is
given by In amplitude modulation, the degree of modulation
is cefined by a term, called modulation index or
– A = – Ec – em
modulation factor or depth of modulation
= – (Ec + Em sin mt) ....(5) represented by ma . It is equal to the ratio of
This is called bottom envelope amplitude of modulating signal to the amplitude of
The modulated wave extends between these two carrier wave i.e.
limiting envelopes, and its frequency is equal to the Em E max  E min
unmodulated carrier frequency. Fig.8(a) shows the ma = E = E  E ....(7)
c max min
variation of voltage of carrier wave with time. Fig.8(b) Obviously, modulation index (ma) is a number lying
shows one cycle of modulating sine wave and Fig.8(c) between 0 and 1. Often, ma is expressed in percentage
shows amplitude modulated wave for this cycle. and is called the percentage modulatoion.
As is clear from Fig.8(c) Importance of moduation index is that it determines
the quality of the transmitted signal. When modulation
E max  E min index is small, veriation in carrier amplitude will be
Em =
2 small. Therefore, audio signal being transmitted will
be weak. As the modulataion index increases, the
E max  E min
Ec = ....(6) audio signal on reception becomes clearer.
2
6.1 Frequency Spectrum of AM wave
ec A detailed study of amplitude modulation reveals that
the amplitude modulated wave consists of three discrete
O frequencies, as shown in Fig.9. Of these, the central
t
frequency is the the carrier frequency (fc), which has
the highest amplitude. The other two frequencies are
placed symmetrically about it. Both these frequencies
have equal amplitudes-which never exceeds half the
Fig.8(a) CARRIER WAVE
carrier amplitude. These frequencies are called side
band frequencies.
eM C
O LSB USB
t
fm fm
Fig.8(b) MODULATING SIGNAL
(fc–fm) fc (fc +fm )

Figure 9
fSB = fc ± fm Fig.10(a) represents the variation of carrier voltage with

 Frequency of lower side band is time, and Fig.10(b) represents the variation of modulating
fLSB = fc – fm ....(8) AF voltage with time.
and frequency of upper side band is
fUSB = fc + fm ....(9) ec
Band width of amplitude modulated wave is
= fUSB – fLSB O
t
= (fc + fm) – (fc – fm) = 2fm ....(10)
Band width = twice the frequency of the modulating
signal
Fig.10(a) CARRIER WAVE
6.2 Power and Current Relations in AM wave
Average power/cycle in the unmodulated carrier wave
eM
is
E 2c O
Pc = ....(11) t
2R
where R is resistance (of antenna) in which power
is dissipated.
It can be shown that total power/cycle in the Fig.10(b) MODULATING SI GNAL
modulated wave is
A
 m a2 
Pt = Pc 1  2  ....(12)
  O
t
Pt m 2a
 Pc = 1 + 2
But Pt = I 2t R and Pc = I 2c R Fig.10(c) FM Wave (exaggerated)

+f
I 2t ma 2  fc
 = 1  2 
I 2c  
O
t
It m2
or = 1 a ....(13)
Ic 2
–f
Fig.10(d) Frequency vs time in FM wave
7. FREQUENCY MODULATION
When a modulating AF wave is superimposed on a In frequency modulation, the amount by which
high frequency carrier wave in such a way that the carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated
amplitude of modulated wave is same as that of the value (fc = c/2 ) is called the deviation. This
carrier wave, but its frequency is varied in deviation is made proportional to the instantaneous
accordance with the instantaneous value of the value of the modulating voltage. The rate at which
the frequency variation takes place is equal to the
modulating voltage, the process is called frequency
modulating frequency. Fig.10(c) represents an
modulation (FM). exaggerated view of frequency modulated wave.
Let the instantaneous carrier voltage (e c ) and Fig.10(d) shows the frequency variation with time
modulating voltage (em) be represented by in the FM wave. This is identical to the variation
ec = Ec sin ct ....(15) of the modulating voltage with time, Fig.10(b).
em = Em sin mt ....(16) Note that
(i) All signals having same amplitude will change the (i) The output of an FM wave consists of carrier
carrier frequency by the same amount, whatever frequency (ƒc) and almost an infinite number of side
be their frequencies bands, whose frequencies are (ƒc ± ƒm), (ƒc ± 2ƒm),
(ƒc ± 3ƒm),... and so on. The sidebands are thus
(ii) All modulating signals of same frequency, say 1 kHz,
separated from the carrier by ƒm, 2ƒm, 3ƒm ....etc
will change the carrier frequency at the same rate
i.e. they have a recurrence frequency of ƒm.
of 1000 times, per second-whatever be their
individual amplitudes (ii) The number of sidebands depends on the modulation
index (mƒ). The number of sidebands increases,
(iii) The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave when frequency deviation () is increased, keeping
remains constant at all times, being equal to the (ƒ m) constant. Similarly, number of sidebands
amplitude of the carrier wave decreases, when frequency of modulating signal
If ƒ is frequency of FM wave at any instant t and (ƒ m) is increased keeping frequency deviation
ƒc is constant frequency of the carrier wave, then
constant
deviation (in frequency),  = (ƒ – ƒc)....(17)
(iii) The sidebands are disposed symmetrically about the
By definition of frequency modulation,
carrier. Further, sidebands at equal distances from
 em
or  Em sin mt the carrier have equal amplitudes.
 = k Em sin mt ....(18) (iv) As the distance of sidebands from carrier frequency
where k is a constant of proportionality, Using (17), increases, their amplitude decreases. Therefore,
we get number of significant sideband pairs is limited
 = ƒ – ƒc = k Em sin mt (v) In frequency modulated wave, the information
or ƒ = ƒc + k Em sin mt ....(19) (audio signal) is contained in the sidebands only.
The deviation will be maximum, when Since the sidebands are separated from each other
(sin mt)max = ± 1
by the frequency of the modulating signal (ƒm),
 From (19), ƒmax = ƒc ± k Em ....(20)
therefore,
or dmax = ƒmax – ƒc = ± k Em ....(21)
The modulation index (mƒ ) of a frequency Band width = 2n × (ƒm) ....(24)
modulated wave is defined as the ratio of maximum where n is the number of the particular sideband pair.
frequency deviation to the modulating frequency i.e.
8. COMPARISON OF AMPLITUDE F
 max  k Em MODULATION AND FREQUENCY
mƒ = ƒ = ƒm
....(22)
m MODULATION
Clearly, modulating index increases, as modulating Following are some of the advantages of
frequency (ƒm) decreases. mƒ has no units, it being frequency modulation over the amplitude
the ratio of two frequencies. The instantaneous
modulation :
amplitude of frequency modulated wave is given
(i) FM transmission is far more efficient compared to
by
AM transmission. This is because amplitude of FM
A = A0 sin 
where  is the function of carrier angular frequency wave is constant, whatever be the modulation index.
(c) and modulating angular frequency (m). Infact, Therefore, transmitted power is constant. Amplifiers
used in FM transmission handle constant power and
  
 =  c t  ƒ sin m t  ....(23) are more efficient. Further, all the power transmitted
 m 
in FM is useful, whereas in AM transmission, most
The frequency spectrum of FM wave is far more of the power goes waste in the transmitted carrier,
complex than the frequency spectrum of AM wave. which contains no useful information.
Infact,
(ii) FM reception is almost immune to noise as 9.1 TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

compared to AM reception. This is because noise OR COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
is a form of amplitude variation in transmitted signal. The transmission medium or communication
Therefore, by using amplitude limiters in the FM channel is a link through which information/message
receivers, we can almost eliminate noise. Noise can signal may propagate from the source to the destination,
also be reduced by increasing the frequency without any noise or distorsion. It is a sort of electronic
deviation in FM wave. This feature is not available roadways along which signals travel.
in the AM wave.
Broadly, transmission media have been divided into
Further, FM broadcasts operate in VHF and UHF
two types :
frequency ranges—where the noise is much less
(i). Guided Transmission Medium
than in MF and HF ranges for AM broadcasts.
(ii) Unguided Transmission Medium
(iii) With the use of space wave in FM broadcasts,
(i) Guided Transmission Medium. It is that
radius of operation is limited to slightly more than
the line of sight transmission. This reduces the communication medium or channel which is used in
chances of adjacent channel interference. signal communication, for point to point contact
The chances of interference reduce further by between the transmitter and receiver. For example,
standard frequency allocations by the International parallel wire lines, twisted pair and co-axial cable are
Radio Consultative Committee (IRCC). This guided transmission media. Optical fibres are other
provides a guard band between commercial FM examples of guided transmission medium. Guided
stations. transmission medium is used in line communication.
Some of the disadvantages of frequency
(ii) Unguided Transmission Medium. It is that
modulation are :
communication medium which is used, where there
is no point to point contact between the transmitter
(i) The channel width required in FM transmission is
almost 10 times as large as that needed in AM and receiver. Free space is an example of unguided
transmission. Therefore, much wider frequency transmission medium. It is used in space
channel is required in FM transmission communication and satellite communication.
The characteristics and quality of transmission
(ii) The equipment used in FM transmission and medium depend upon
reception is far more complex than the equipment (a) nature of transmission medium,
used in AM transmission and reception (b) nature of signal
Thus, basically there are two types of
(iii) As FM reception is limited to ‘line of sight’, the communications (1) Space communication (2) Line
area of reception of FM is much smaller than that communication.
for AM
Range of frequencies allotted for commercial FM radio 9.2. GROUND WAVE
and T.V. broadcasts is given in Table 10.1 : The antennas should have a size comparable to the
TABLE 10.1 wavelength  of the signal (at least – /4) to radiate
Nature of Broadca st Fre que ncy Band
signals with high efficiency. At longer wavelengths
(i.e., at lower frequencies), the antennas have large
FM radio 88–108 MHz physical size and they are located on or very near to
VHF T.V 47–230 MHz the ground. In standard AM broadcast, ground based
vertical the propagation of the signal. The mode of
UHF T.V 470–960 MHz
propagation is called surface wave propagation and the
9. PROPAGATION OF wave glides over the surface of the earth. A wave
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE induces current in the ground over which it passes and
An antenna at the transmitter in communication using it is attenuated as a result of absorption of energy by the
radio waves, radiates the electromagnetic waves earth. The attenuation of surface waves increases very
which travel through space and reach the receiving rpidly with increase in frequency. The maximum range
antenna at the otehr end. Several factors affect the of coverage depends on the transmitted power and
propagation of em waves and the path, they follow. frequency (less than a few MHz).
Table:- Different layers of atmosphere and their interaction with the propagating electromagnetic
waves
Approximate
Name of the Stratum Frequencies most
height over Exists during
(layer) affected
earth's surface
Troposphere 10 km Day and night VHF (up to several GHz)
D (part of Reflects LF, absorbs MF
Parts of ionosphere 65-75 km Day only
stratosphere) and HF to some degree
E (part of Helps surface waves,
100 km Day only
stratosphere) reflects HF
Partially absorbs HF
F 1 (part of Daytime, merges
170-190 km waves yet allowing them
mesosphere) with F 2 at night
to reac h F 2
300 km at night, Efficiently reflec ts HF
F 2 (Thermosphere) 250-400 km during Day and night waves, particularly at
daytime night
9.2 BEHAVIOUR OF ATMOSPHERE TOWARDS ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

The behaviour of atmosphere is different for electromagnetic waves of different frequencies. The atmosphere is transparent
to electromagnetic waves of visible region of wavelength range 4000 Å to 8000 Å, as we can see the sun and the stars
through it clearly. The electromagnetic waves belonging to infrared region of wavelength range 8 × 10–7 m to 3 × 10–5 m
are not allowed to pass through atmosphere rather they get reflected by atmosphere. The ozone layer of earth’s atmosphere
blocks the electromagnetic waves of ultraviolet region of wavelength range 6 Å to 4000 Å.
The behaviour of earth’s atmosphere towards electromagnetic waves of wavelength 10–3 m and higher is of special interest
in space communication. The lower part of atmosphere is more or less transparent to electromagnet waves of wavelength 20
m and higher used in radiocommunication but the top most layer, the ionosphere does not allow these waves to penetrate but
reflects, above 40 MHz, the ionosphere bends any incident electromagnetic wave but dies not reflect it back towards earths.
9.4 RADIOWAVES
The radiowaves are the electro-magnetic waves of frequency ranging from few kilo hertz to nearly few hundred
mega hertz (i.e. 3 kHz to about 300 GHz, where 1 GHz = 109 Hz). These waves are used in the field of radio
communication. With reference to the frequency range and wavelength range the radiowaves have been divided
into following categories ; See Table 12-1.
Table 12-1
S . No. Frequency band Frequency range Wavelength range Main us e
1 Very-Low Frequency (VLF) 3 kHz to 30 kHz 10 km to 100 km Long distance point to
point communication
2 Low Frequency (LF) 30 kHz to 300 kHz 1 km to 10 km Marine and navigational
purpos es
3 Medium Frequency (M F) 300 kHz to 3 M Hz 100 m to 1 km Marine and broadcas ting
purpos es
4 High Frequency (HF) 3 M Hz to 30 M Hz 10 m to 100 m
Communication of all types
5 Very-High Frequency (VHF) 30 M Hz to 300 MHz 1 m to 10 m T.V., Radar and air
navigation
6 Ultra-High-Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz to 3000 M Hz 10 cm to 1 m Radar and microwave
commnication
7 Super-High-Frequency (SHF) 3 GHz to 30 GHz 1 cm to 10 cm Radar,radio relays and
navigation purpos es
8 Extremely-High-Frequency 30 GHz to 300 GHz 1 mm to 1 cm Optical fibre communication
(EHF)
9.5 SPACEWAVE PROPAGATION 9.6 SKY WAVE

It is that mode of propagation in which the Long distance communication can be achieved by
radiowaves emitted from the transmitting antenna ionospheric reflection of radio waves back towards
reach the receiving antenna through space. These the earth. Sky wave propagation and is used by short
radiowaves are called space waves. The space wave broadcast services. The ionospheer is so called
because fo the presence of the large number of ions
waves are the radiowaves of frequency range from
or charged particles. It extends from a height of ~ 65
54 MHz to 4.2 GHz. The space waves travel in
km to about 400 km above the earth's surface.
straight line from transmitting antenna to receiving
Ionisation occurs due to the absorption of the
antenna. ultraviolet and other high energy radiation coming
Therefore, the space waves are used for the line from the sun by air molecules. The ionosphere is
of sight communication as well as for the further subdivided into several layers, the details of
satellite communication. The space wave which are given in table 3. The degree of ionisaton
propagation is used for television broadcast, varies with the height. The density of atmosphere
microwave link and satellite communication. decreases with height. At great heights, the solar
rdiation is intense but there are frew molecules to be
ionised. Close to the earth, even though the molecular
dM
dT concentration is very high, the radaition intensity is
low so that the ionisation is again low. However, at
some intermediate heights, there occurs a peak of
ionisation density. The ionospheric layer acts as a
EARTH SURFACE
reflector for a certain range of frequencies (3 to 30
MHz). Electromagnetic waves of frequencies higher
than 30 MHz. Penetrate the ionosphere and escape.
If the frequency of the radiowaves is greater than 54 These phenomena are shown in the figure. The
MHz ; then the waves can not travel along the surface phenomenon of bending of em waves so that they
of earth as they get absorbed by the earth. Hence, their are diverted towards the erath is similar to total internal
propagation cannot be like ground wave propagation. reflection in optics.
Morcover, these waves cannot be reflected by
here
ionosphere, hence their propagation cannot be like sky Ion osp
wave propagation. The communication through space

wave between transmitter and receiver is limited to line
of sight path. The line of sight communication is limited sky
waves
by (i) the line of sight distance and (ii) the curvature of O R1 R2
the earth. The space waves following the line of sight R3
propagation get blocked at some point by the curvature

of the earth as illustrated in Fig.14.
Here, dT is called the radio horizon of the transmitting
IMPORTANT TERMS FOR SKY
atenna, dM is called the maximum line of sight distance
between the two antennas. The line of sight distance WAVE PROPAGATION
is that distance between transmitting antenna and (a) Plasma frequency and critical frequency. Plasma
frequency is an important parameter in
receiving antenna at which they can see each other.
radiocommunication via the ionosphere. The plasma
It is also called range of communication (dM). The
frequency  is related to the electron density N (in m–3)
range of space wave communication can be
of a layer of ionosphere by a relation  = 9
increased by increasing the heights of transmitting The plasma frequency at the peak of a layer is called
antenna and receiving antenna. critical frequency (c).
Critical frequency c. It is that highest frequency (d) Fading. It is the variation in the strength of a signal
of radio wave, which when sent straight (i.e. at a receiver due to interference of waves. Fading
normally) towards the layer of ionosphere gets
is more at high frequencies. Fading causes an error
reflected from ionosphere and returns to the earth.
If the frequency of the radiowave is more than in data transmission and retrieval.
critical frequency, it will not be reflected by The signals received due to sky wave propagation
ionosphere. The critical frequency of a sky wave are subjected to fading in which the strength of the
for reflection from a layer of atmosphere is given
signal varies with time. It is so because, at the
by c = 9(Nmax)1/2, where Nmax is the maximum
number density of electron/m3. The number density receiver, a large number of waves reach, following
per cubic metre of electrons for D, E, F1 and F2 different number of paths.
layers are 10 9 , 10 11 , 5 × 10 11 and 8 × 10 11
respectively. (e) Refractive index  of a layer in sky wave
propagation is given by
(b) Maximum usable frequency (MUF). It is that
highest frequency of radio waves which when
81.45 N
sent at some angle towards the ionosphere,  = 1
2
gets reflected from that and returns to the
earth. where N is the number density of electrons/m3 of the
Quantitatively, MUF = = c sec i
layer of atmosphere under study and  is the frequency
where i is the angle between normal and the direction
of incidence of waves. The frequency normally used of electromagnetic wave in Hz).
for ionosphere transmission is known as optimum Relative permittivity or dielectric constant of
working frequency (OWF), which is taken to be the layer of atmosphere under study is given by
15% of MUF.
(c) Skip distance. It is the smallest distance between 81.45 N
r = 1 –
the transmitting antenna and the point R where 2
the sky wave of a fixed frequency, but not more
than critical frequency is first received after 10. RELATION BETWEEN COVERAGE
reflection from ionosphere. In Fig.15, OR1 = skip DISTANCE AND HEIGHT OF
distance. If the angle of incidence of sky wave on
the layer of ionosphere is large, then after reflection
TRANSMITTING ANTENNA
they will be reaching the earth at longer distance Suppose PQ is a T.V. transmitting angenna of height
from the transmitting antenna. It means, the larger h located at P on the surface of earth. Due to finite
is the angle of incidence of sky wave, the greater is curvature of earth, the T.V. signal transmitted from
the value of skip distance on the surface of earth.
Q cannot be received beyond the tangent points T
This shows that the transmission path of sky waves
is limited by the skip distance. The skip distance is and S on earth (Fig.16). The effective reception
given by the relation range of the T.V. broadcast is essential the region
2
from S to T on earth which is covered by the line of
  max 
Dskip = 2h   1 sight during T.V. transmission.
  
 c  Let SP = TP = d (distance to the horizon). This
where h is the height of reflecting layer of distance is limited by the curvature of earth.
atmosphere, max is the maximum frequency of Therefore, The T.V. signals will be received on
electromagnetic waves and c is the critical earth in a circle of radius d.
frequency for that layer of ionosphere. Here, R = radius of earth
Note. Skip zone in radio communication is that = OS = OT = OP; PQ = h
range where there is no reception of either ground
or d = 2h R
wave of sky wave.
Q
Example 1 : A transmitting antenna at the top of a tower
has a height 32 m and the height of the receiving
antenna is 50 m. What is the maximum distance
P
d d
between them for satisfactory communication in the
line of sight mode. Given radius of earth 6.4 × 105
S T
90º 90º
R
R R
m.
EARTH
O
Sol. d= 2Rh T + 2RhR
d = 2  6.4  106  32 + 2  6.4  106  50

For T.V. signals, area covered
=  d2 =  2Rh = 64 × 102 × 10 + 8 × 103 × 10 m
Population covered = population density × area covered
Hence maximum line-of-sight distance between two = 144 × 102 × 10 m = 45.5 km
antennas will be calculated as follows
dM
dT
hT hR
dM = 2R.hT + 2R.hR
where d M : maximum line-of-slight distance

between the two antennas
dT : Radio horizon of transmitting antenna
hT : Height of transmitting antenna
hR : Height of receiving antenna
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM - 4.13
Exercise - 1 Objective Problems

1. A digital signal – 10. If the maximum and minimum voltages of an
(A) is less reliable than analog signal AM wave are Vmax. and Vmin. respectively
(B) is more reliable than analog signal then modulation factor –
(C) is equally reliable as the analog signal
Vmax . Vmin .
(D) none of the above (A) m = V (B) m = V
max .  Vmin . max.  Vmin .
2. Modern communication systems use –
Vmax .  Vmin . Vmax.  Vmin .
(A) analog circuits (C) m = V (D) m = V
(B) digital circuits V
max. min . V
max . min .
(C) combination of analog and digital circuits
(D) none of the above 11. The AM wave contains three frequencies, viz.:
fc fc  fs fc – fs
3. The audio signal – (A) , ,
2 2 2
(A) can be sent directly over the air for large (B) 2fc 2(fc + fs), 2(fc – fs)
distance (C) fc, (fc + fs), (fc – fs)
(B) cannot be sent directly over the air for
(D) fc, fc, fc
large distance
(C) possess very high frequency 12. In AM wave, carrier power is given by –
(D) none of the above 2E c2 E c2
(A) Pc = (B) Pc =
R R
4. The process of changing some characteristic
of a carrier wave in accordance with the E 2c E 2c
(C) Pc = (D) Pc =
intensity of the signal is called – 2R 2R
(A) amplification (B) rectification
13. Fraction of total power carried by side bands
(C) modulation (D) none of these
is given by –
5. If a carrier wave of 1000 kHz is used to carry Ps Ps 1
the signal, the length of transmitting antenna (A) P = m2 (B) P = 2
T T m
will be equal to –
(A) 3 m (B) 30 m
Ps 2  m2 Ps m2
(C) PT = m 2 (D) P =
(C) 300 m (D) 3000 m T 2  m2
14. Which of the following is/are the limitations
6. The types of modulation which are possible, of amplitude modulation?
are – (A) Clear reception
(A) one only (B) two only (B) High efficiency
(C) three only (D) none of these (C) Small operating range
(D) Good audio quality
7. In amplitude modulation – 15. What is the frequency above which radiation
(A) only the amplitude is changed but of electrical energy is particle ?
frequency remains same (A) 0.2 kHz (B) 2 kHz
(B) both the amplitude and frequency change (C) 20 kHz (D) 20 kHz
equally
(C) both the amplitude and frequency change 16. What type of modulation is employed in India
unequally for radio transmission?
(D) none the these (A) Pulse modulation
(B Frequency modulation
(C) Amplitude modulation
8. Modulation factor determines –
(D) None of these
(A) only the strength of the transmitted signal
(B) only the quality of the transmitted signal 17. For a carrier frequency of 100 kHz and a
(C) both the strength and quality of the signal modulating frequency of 5 kHz what is the
width of AM transmission -
(D) none of the above
(A) 5 kHz (B) 10 kHz (C) 20 kHz (D) 200 KHz
9. Degree of modulation –
(A) can take any value
(B) should be less than 100%
(C) should exceed 100%
(D) none of these

1. Polarization in electromagnetic wave is caused 11. The maximum range of ground or surface wave
by - propagation depends on -
(A) reflection (A) the frequency of the radio waves only
(B) refraction (B) power of the transmitter only
(C) transverse nature of e.m. waves (C) both of them
(D) longitudinal nature of e.m. waves (D) none of them
2. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in a 12. In which frequencies range space waves are
dielectric medium (r = 4, r = 4) is - normally propagated -
(A) 3 × 108 metre/second (A) HF (B) VHF
(B) 1.5 × 108 metre/second (C) UHF (D) SHF
(C) 6 × 108 metre/second
(D) 7.5 × 107 metre/second 13. For television broadcasting, the frequency
employed is normally -
3. If refractive index of core & cladding are 1 (A) 30 – 300 M Hz (B) 30 – 300 G Hz
& 2 respectively then : (C) 30 – 300 K Hz (D) 30 – 300 Hz
(A) 1 > 2 (B) 2 > 1
(C) 1 = 2 (D) None of these 14. The sound waves after being converted into
electrical waves are not transmitted as such
4. If critical frequency is 40 MHz then calculate because -
maximum density of electron- (A) they travel with the speed of sound
(A) 20 × 1012 (B) 20 × 1014 (B) the frequency is not constant
(C) 20 × 1010 (D) None of these (C) they are heavily absorbed by the
atmosphere
5. Communication satellites revolve at a height (D) the height of antenna has to be increased
of (over earth’s surface) ; several times
(A) 6 Re (B) 5 Re
(C) 7 Re (D) None of these 15. The process of superimposing signal frequency
6. The distance between consecutive maxima (i.e. audio wave) on the carrier wave is
and minima is given by - known as -
(A)  / 2 (B) 2  (A) transmission (B) reception
(C)  (D)  / 4 (C) modulation (D) detection
16. In an amplitude modulated wave for audio-
7. Through which mode of propagation, the radio frequency of 500 cycles/second, the
waves can be sent from one place to another appropriate carrier frequency will be -
(A) Ground wave propagation (A) 50 cycles/sec (B) 100 cycles/sec
(B) Sky wave propagation (C) 500 cycles/sec (D) 50,000 cycles/sec
(C) Space wave propagation
(D) All of them 17. The T.V. transmission tower in Delhi has a
height of 240 m. The distance, up to which
8. The frequencies of electromagnetic waves the broadcast can be received, (taking the
employed in space communication vary over radius of earth to be 6.4 × 106 m) is -
a range of - (A) 100 km (B) 60 km
(A) 104 Hz to 107 Hz (B) 104 Hz to 1011 Hz (C) 55 km (D) 50 km
(C) 1 Hz to 104 Hz (D) 1 Hz to 1011 Hz
9. The wavelength of electromagnetic waves

employed for space communication lie in the
range of -
(A) 1 mm to 30 m (B) 1 mm to 300 m
(C) 1 mm to 3 km (D) 1 mm to 30 km
10. The radio waves of frequency 300 MHz to

3000 MHz belongs to -
(A) High frequency band
(B) Very high frequency band
(C) Ultra high frequency band
(D) Super high frequency band
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM - 4.15
Exercise - 3 Previous Year Problems | JEE MAIN

1. This question has Statement-1 and 4. Choose the correct statement: [AIEEE-2016]
Statement-2. Of the four choices given after (A) In amplitude modulation the frequency
the statements, choose the one that best
of the high frequency carrier wave is made
describes the two statements.[AIEEE-2011]
Statement-1 : to vary in proportion to the amplitude of the
Sky wave signals are used for long distance audio signal.
radio communication. These signals are in (B) In frequency modulation the amplitude
general, less stable than ground wave of the high frequency carrier wave is made
signals.
to vary in proportion to the amplitude of the
Statement -2 :
The state of ionosphere varies from hour to audio signal.
hour, day to day and season to season. (C) In frequency modulation the amplitude
(A) Statement -1 is true, Statement -2 is of the high frequency carrier wave is made
false to vary in proportion to the frequency of the
(B) Statement -1 is true, Statement -2 is
audio signal.
true and Statement -2 is the correct
explanation of Statement -1. (D) In amplitude modulation the amplitude
(C) Statement -1 is true, Statement -2 is of the high frequency carrier wave is made
true and Statement – 2 is not the correct to vary in proportion to the amplitude of the
explanation of Statement – 1. audio signal.
(D) Statement -1 is false, Statement -2 is
true.
5. In amplitude modulation, sinusoidal carrier
2. Which of the following four alternatives is frequency used is denoted by c and the
not correct ? We need modulation- signal frequency is denoted by m. The band
[AIEEE-2011]
width (m) of the signal is such that m
(A) to reduce the time lag between
transmission and reception of the << c. Which of the following frequencies is
information signal not contained in the modulated wave?
(B) to reduce size of antenna [AIEEE-2017]
(C) to reduce the fractional band width, that
(A) c – m (B) m
is, the ratio of the signal band width to the
centre frequency (C) c (D) m + c
(D) to increase the selectivity
6. A telephonic communication service is work-
3. A radar has a power of 1 kW and is operating
ing at carrier frequency of 10 GHz. Only 10%
at a frequency of 10 GHz. It is located on a
mountain top of height 500 m. The maximum of it is utilized for transmission. How many
distance upto which it can detect object telephonic channels can be transmitted
located on the surface of the earth simultaneously if each channel requires a
[AIEEE-2012] bandwidth of 5 kHz ? [AIEEE-2018]
(Radius of earth = 6.4 × 106 m) is- 6
(A) 2 × 10 (B) 2 × 103
(A) 16 km (B) 40 km 4
(C) 2 × 10 (D) 2 × 105
(C) 64 km (D) 80 km

1. B 2. B 3. B 4. C 5. C 6. C 7. A
8. C 9. B 10. D 11. C 12. C 13. D 14, C
15. C 16. C 17. B

1. C 2. D 3. A 4. A 5. A 6. D 7. D
8. B 9. D 10. C 11. C 12. C 13. A 14. C
15. C 16. D 17. C
Exercise - 3 Previous Year Problems
1. D 2. A 3. D 4. D 5. B 6. D

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JEE Class Companion

Chapter_1 Modern Physics - 1

Chapter_2 Modern Physics - 2

Chapter_3 Semi Conductor

(P–N Junction & Logic Gate)

Chapter_4 Communication System

Section A - Photoelectric Effect 1.1 Dalton's atomic model 1.15

Nature of light 1.1 Thomson's atomic model (or Plum-

A. Photoelectric Effect 1.2 motion 1.18

Three Major Features of the Bohr's Model of an Atom 1.18

Phtoelectric effect cannot be First Postulate 1.19

explained in terms of the classical Second Postulate 1.19

of the wave theory of light. 1.2 Third Postulate 1.20

Threshold frequency and Threshold Properties of Electron in Bohr's

wavelength 1.3 Atomic Model 1.20

Einstein relation 1.3 Excitation and Ionization of an Atom 1.23

Experimental Study of Photo Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom 1.26

Electric Effect 1.5 Application of nucleus motion on

Kinetic Energies of Electrons energy of atom 1.27

Reaching Anode 1.7 Section D - Atomic Collisions 1.28

Reversed Potential Across Discharge Tube 1.7 Atomic collision 1.28

Cut of Potential or Stopping Potential 1.8 Section E - X–rays production, X–Rays

Moseley’s law, X–Ray Properties 1.30

Section B - Radiation Pressure, Matter Waves

+ Davisson Germer Experiment 1.11 Variation of Intensity of x-rays with

Force Due to Radiation (Photon) 1.11 l is plotted as shown in figure 1.30

De-Broglie Wavelength of Matter Wave 1.15 Moseley's Law 1.32

De-Broglie Wavelength For an Electron 1.15 Exercise 1.33

Answer Key 1.57

Section A - Rutherford's Experiment, Nuclear (PN-Junction)

Mass Defect 2.2 Insulators 3.1

Radioactive decay : Statistical Law 2.7 Half wave rectifier 3.10

Half Life (T1/2) 2.7 Full wave rectifier 3.10

Activity 2.7 Bridge Rectifier 3.11

Average Life 2.7 Comparison Between Rectifiers 3.12

Filter circuit 3.12

Answer Key 2.26

amplifier 3.17 Modulation and Its Need 4.4

Point to Remember 3.20 Amplitude Modulation 4.4

Frequency Modulation 4.6

Answer Key 4.16

* Semi Conductor (PN Junction)

Section A - Photoelectric Effect 1.5 Debroglie Hypothesis

6.62  10 –34  3  108

Properties of Photon : When light is incident on a metal surface it was

1. The electron emission from a metal is only depends

From the graph we can note the following points.

In an experiment tungsten cathode which has or

A high potential is applied to a discharge tube is1

1.10 Reversed Potential Across Discharge

Beyond VP2, we can see that all the electrons ejected

1.9. Kin etic Ene rgie s of Ele ctro ns

1 the discharge tube is V then the seed vf with which

1.11 Cut off Potential or Stopping Potential :

EXAMPLE 9 KE max1  eV01 = 0.6 eV

h (v 2  v1 )  e (v 02  v 01 ) E2 = 1.91 + 1.1 eV = 3.01 eV

(v 02  v 01 ) (1.6 10 –19 ) case will be

When a surface is irradiated with light of EXAMPLE 11

As stopping potential for ejected electrons is 1.3 V,