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SAGE Publishing, 2018
Chapter 7: Lifespan Development

Test Bank
Multiple Choice
1. On the basis of research on gender differences in newborn infants, it can be

concluded that ______.
A. males and females, for the most part, behave similarly
B. the forces of gender-role socialization are already having a strong effect
C. females are more sociable than males
D. male are generally more difficult to care for
Ans: A
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Gender Differences in Infant Behavior
Difficulty Level: Medium
2. Infant gender differences have been documented in ______.

A. dependency
B. sociability
C. responses to frustration
D. activity level
Ans: D
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
3. ______ refers to biologically based emotional and behavioral traits that appear early
in life and predict later behaviors, personality, and psychological problems.
A. Emotional intelligence
B. Temperament
C. Gender differences
D. Socialized differences
Ans: B
4. According to meta-analysis of studies of gender differences in infancy into early

childhood, ______.
A. boys display more perceptual sensitivity
B. girls display more personality
C. girls score higher in inhibitory control
D. boys score higher in focusing attention

Ans: C
5. In a study by Mondschein et al. (2000), mothers of 11-month-old babies were asked

to estimate how steep a slope their infant could successfully crawl down. The results
indicated that ______.
A. mothers of girls estimated success at steeper slopes than mothers of boys did
B. parents have different expectations for their sons than for their daughters
C. parents have similar expectations for their sons and daughters at early ages, but this
changes as they get older
D. mothers of boys estimates success at lower slopes than mothers of girls did
Ans: B
Answer Location: Adults’ Treatment of Infants
6. Between birth and 3 months of age, infants ______.

A. develop the ability to distinguish between female and male faces
B. experience peer influences encouraging stereotyped behavior
C. have a gender identity
D. show gender differences in stranger anxiety
Ans: A
Answer Location: Gender Learning in Infancy
7. By 3–4 months, infants who have female caregivers favor looking at female faces
instead of male faces. This research is an example of a researcher utilizing which
technique?
A. gender constancy
B. incongruent looking
C. facial recognition
D. preferential looking
Ans: D
Answer Location: Gender Learning in Infancy
Difficulty Level: Hard
8. Which of the following is a stage of gender constancy development?

A. gender permanency
B. gender role adherence
C. gender stability
D. appearance flexibility
Ans: C
Answer Location: Gender Learning in Childhood
9. Mina, a 4-year-old girl, recently decided that she will only wear pink and purple
dresses and refuses to wear pants. This is an example of ______.
A. gender consistency
B. appearance rigidity
C. external stability
D. gender identity
Ans: B
Difficulty Level: Easy
10. Sky is 7 years old and was raised as a male and has been dressed and treated as a
male his entire life. However, Sky is starting to realize that he does not really feel like he
is a boy and has been asking his parents to buy him “girl clothes” and let him grow his
hair out. His parents are confused and Sky begins to feel distressed about his gender
label. Sky is likely experiencing ______.
A. gender dysphoria
B. gender identity misunderstanding
C. gender flexibility
D. gender constancy
Ans: A
Answer Location: Nonconforming Child Development
11. Olson et al. (2015) conducted a study with transgender children and cisgender
children on implicit and explicit gender identity preferences. The results from this study
indicated that ______.
A. the majority of the transgender children were pretending or confused
B. the transgender children’s gender identity was true to themselves and inconsistent
with their gender assigned at birth
C. the transgender children’s gender identity was overall consistent with their gender
assigned at birth when measuring implicit preferences
D. only about 30% of the transgender children were pretending or confused, whereas
the rest displayed gender identities that were true to themselves.
Ans: B
Answer Location: Nonconforming Child Development
12. David is a boy and Sasha is a girl. David’s mother usually buys him cars and trucks
and has never bought him a doll. Sasha’s father signs Sasha up for dance instead of
baseball. These are examples of ______.
A. differential treatment
B. direct instruction
C. channeling
D. modeling
Ans: C
Answer Location: Gender Role Socialization
13. Much of the gender teaching in parents’ talk is ______.

A. subtle and implicit
B. explicit and direct
C. declining over the decade
D. ambiguous
Ans: A
14. Based on research by Hilliard and Liben (2010), a teacher who makes gender
salient in the classroom is more likely to have students who have ______.
A. higher gender stereotypes
B. higher positive ratings of other-gender peers
C. more play with other-gender peers
D. lower positive ratings of the teacher
Ans: A
15. The media, including books, movies, television, and videogames, are ______.
A. helping decrease gender stereotypes
B. powerful socializing agents
C. beginning to promote less stereotypical gender roles
D. the most important socializing factor during childhood
Ans: B
16. By 3 years of age, children have a tendency to seek out and play with other children
of their own gender, and the all-male groups and all-female groups have different play
styles. This is referred to as ______.
A. peer group effect

B. gender segregation effect
C. integration effect
D. gender inclusive effect
Ans: B
Answer Location: Peers and the Gender Segregation Effect
17. When children play alone, gender differences in behavior are minimal. When in their
same-gender group, gender differences are large and striking. From this finding, we can
infer that ______.
A. there is less pressure to conform to gender role norms in same-gender groups
B. peers are the most important gender socializing influence in childhood
C. gender differences in behavior are emphasized regardless of the environment
D. context is important in shaping gender differences in behavior
Ans: D
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Peers and the Gender Segregation Effect
18. Products for girls, like the Bratz dolls and Barbie, are examples of products that
______.
A. segregate based on gender
B. focus on inclusion
C. contribute to sexualization of girls
D. are less likely to be played with by children of color
Ans: C
Answer Location: The Sexualization of Girls
19. Gervais et al. (2011) conducted a study where both men and women were subject
to an objectifying gaze before completing a math exam. The researchers found that the
objectifying gaze led to ______.
A. lower math performance for both women and men
B. lower math performance for women but not for men
C. higher math performance for women but not for men
D. no significant difference between women and men’s math performance
Ans: B
20. Dinah is a 12-year-old girl and has recently been feeling pressured to wear skirts
and dresses like many of the girls at her school and to stop playing basketball so she
can pursue cheerleading like many of her friends. Dinah is likely experiencing ______.
A. gender intensification
B. the gender stereotyping process
C. adolescent gender upheaval
D. gender conformity
Ans: A
Answer Location: Gender Intensification
21. Erikson’s theory on girls’ and women’s identity formation indicates that ______.
A. women are more mature than men because they form their identities first
B. men seek out women to help shape their identity
C. a woman’s identity is tied to her husband’s identity
D. women’s identities are more flexible than men’s identities
Ans: C
Answer Location: Identity Development
22. Friendship networks become ______ across adolescence.

A. more gender-segregated
B. chaotic and imbalanced
C. less intense and more supportive
D. less gender-segregated
Ans: D
Answer Location: Friendship and Dating
23. Emily, an 11-year-old girl, says she is fat. Her friend, Deyanna, tells her that Emily
isn’t, but she herself is. The conversation continues to cycle. This is an example of
______.
A. peer support
B. appearance dysmorphia
C. fat talk
D. a stress-reducing conversation
Ans: C
Answer Location: Body Dissatisfaction
24. The 2015 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges leads to ______.
A. same-gender couples being able to adopt children together
B. same-gender couples having the right to marry

C. polyamorous couples having the right to marry more than one person at one time
D. less rights for same-gender couples
Ans: B
Answer Location: Romantic Relationships and Marriage
25. Compared to their White counterparts, divorced Black women are ______.
A. more likely to receive child support and more likely to live in poverty
B. less likely to experience depression as a result of getting divorced
C. less likely to receive child support and more likely to live in poverty
D. more likely to receive alimony and less likely to receive child support
Ans: C
Answer Location: Divorce
26. Whereas in the 1960s, the average age of first birth was _____ for women, today
the average age is ______.
A. 17; 20
B. 21; 24
C. 19; 27
D. 19; 30
Ans: B
Answer Location: Motherhood
27. Research shows that 84% of American women have at least one child by age 50.
This is likely influenced by ______.
A. the motherhood mandate
B. a woman’s innate desire to be a mother
C. her age relative to her husband’s age
D. intensive mothering
Ans: A
28. Rita’s last child is leaving for college out of state and her older children have their
own homes and families now. Rita is entering the phase of family life cycle known as
the ______.
A. parental period
B. emerging older adult phase
C. empty nest
D. isolation period
Ans: C
Answer Location: An Empty Nest
29. Ellen, a young adult, believes that older adults are generally forgetful, incompetent,
and depressed. This is an example of ______.
A. double standard of aging
B. cultural norms
C. devaluation of older adults
D. ageism
Ans: D
Answer Location: Later Adulthood
30. A man reaches middle age and beyond and appears more distinguished and
handsome. A women of the same age is considered less beautiful or even invisible.
This is referred to as ______.
A. cultural norms
B. the double standard of aging
C. ageism
D. the devaluation of older women
Ans: B
Answer Location: Later Adulthood
31. The longer life expectancy of women and the tendency of women to marry men
older than themselves leads to ______.
A. women living with their adult children in later life
B. higher rates of satisfaction among older women
C. women becoming widowed at higher rates than men
D. higher rates of remarriage among older women
Ans: C
Answer Location: Widowhood and Gender Ratios
32. Older women are more likely than older men to ______.
A. live in poverty
B. experience depression
C. feel less satisfied in life
D. have higher rates of suicide
Ans: A

Answer Location: Widowhood and Gender Ratios
True/False
1. Fausto-Sterling et al. (2015) found that mothers tended to use more affectionate and
caretaking touch with their sons and more stimulatory touch with their daughters.
Ans: F
Answer Location: Adults’ Treatment of Infants
2. Preschool children between the ages of 2 and 3 tend to have a strong preference for
gender-typed toys and same-gender playmates.
Ans: T
Answer Location: Gender Differences in Child Behavior
3. The largest gender difference in appearance rigidity is found among Latinx children.
Ans: F
4. Children can recognize gender discrimination as early as 6 or 7 years old.

Ans: T
Answer Location: From Gender Identity to Gender Roles: Self-Socialization
5. Teachers, on average, pay more attention to and interact more with boys.
Ans: T
6. Stereotype-inconsistent behavior is far less tolerated for girls than it is for boys.
Ans: F
7. Girls who develop breasts and feminine curves earlier than their peers tend to get
harassed and sexualized.
Ans: T
Answer Location: Puberty for Cisgender and Transgender Youth
8. Research indicates that adolescent girls’ identity development focuses primarily on

nurturing, whereas boys’ identity development focuses mainly on autonomous identity.
Ans: F
Answer Location: Identity Development
9. The American Association of University Women (2011) found that nearly half of
students had experienced some form of sexual harassment by peers.
Ans: T
Answer Location: Peer Sexual Harassment in the Schools
10. Research indicates that heterosexual marriage provides more benefits to wives than
husbands.
Ans: F
Answer Location: Romantic Relationships and Marriage
11. Research shows a spike in depression and loneliness in women after the
postparental period of life.
Ans: F
Answer Location: An Empty Nest
12. When grandmothers are more involved in the lives of their grandchildren, it can
enhance the children’s adjustment and protect them from risk factors for poor
adjustment.
Ans: T
Answer Location: Grandmotherhood
Short Answer
1. Explain one of the two lines of reasoning behind researchers spending so much time
studying infant gender differences.
Ans: Varies. Some have reasoned that, if gender differences are found in newborns,
then those differences must surely be innate and the result of biological factors,
because gender role socialization can scarcely have had time to have an effect. The
idea, then, is to try to discover which gender differences are innate by studying
newborns. OR Many investigators think it is important to study the way parents and
other adults treat infants, to discover subtle differences in the way adults treat boy
babies and girl babies, beginning the process of socialization at a critical age. The logic
here is that boys and girls are socialized to be different.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Infancy
2. Define transaffirmative practice (also known as gender-affirming care) and explain

why it is important. Specifically, why would it be important for you to practice gender-
affirming care in your future profession?
Ans: Varies. Transaffirmative practice is care that is respectful, aware, and supportive of
the identities and life experiences of transgender and gender nonconforming people.
Gender-affirming care is important because it is inclusive of more people than just those
who conform to the gender binary. Being inclusive means you will likely be able to serve
more people and a variety of people in your community. As a therapist, it will be
important for me to practice this type of care because I want to help and support people
through life’s journeys, transitions, and mental health issues. I’m sure I will end up
serving people who are transgender and/or gender nonconforming and will need to
understand how to best care for them based on their needs. I will be better able to join
with these clients if they feel understood and validated and will hopefully see better
outcomes if I do therapy from a transaffirming practice lens.
Answer Location: Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Child Development
3. Name three of the four ways parents influence their children’s gender development
and provide one example for each.
Ans: Varies. One way parents influence their children’s gender development is through
channeling or shaping. For example, putting a daughter in ballet lessons and a son on
the football team. Another way is through differential treatment. For example, in some
countries, a parent may give more food to a son than to a daughter when resources are
scarce. Direct instruction is another way parents influence their children’s gender
development. For example, fathers may tell sons that boys don’t cry or mothers may
teach daughters how to care for babies. Finally, parents also engage in modeling
behaviors for their children. For example, the mother is always the one doing dishes
and the laundry while the father is always the one doing the yard work, so the children
believe certain tasks are for women and others are for men.

4. Provide at least one example of how girls are sexualized in U.S. culture. Explain at
least one implication of sexualization of girls and women.
Ans: Varies. Beauty pageants for little girls (particularly the ones with an extreme focus
on appearance) is one example of how girls are sexualized in U.S. culture. One
implication of sexualizing girls and women is that they learn that their value is tied to
their appearances. This can lead to more focus on changing physical appearance and
may also lead to lower levels of self-esteem and self-worth as well as higher levels of
depression and anxiety among girls and women. The sexualization of girls and women
may also lead to girls and women experiencing self-objectification, restricted eating, and
feelings of shame.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension and Application
5. Explain how relationships in adolescence serve a developmental function in the

transition to adulthood. Specifically, how do these relationships play a role in identity
formation?
Ans: Varies. Relationships during adolescence provide a context for learning about the
self, including consideration of one’s gender identity and sexual orientation. They help
adolescents understand what they like and dislike in a romantic partner as well as learn
what to expect (and what not to expect) in relationships as they move through the
lifespan.
Answer Location: Friendship and Dating
6. Statistics indicate that 40–50% of today’s marriages will end in divorce. What is one
implication of this research, specifically for women?
Ans: Varies. One implication is that women need to acquire the education and skills
necessary to support themselves. Another implication is that women may need to learn
stereotypical masculine tasks. Divorced women may also experience role strain and
role overload. Women may also need to continue family and friend relationships and
support through marriage, as social support is extremely important during the divorce
transition.
Answer Location: Divorce
7. Define the grandmother effect.

Ans: The grandmother effect is an evolutionary theory that states that natural selection
occurred among early humans, favoring women who lived longer, were vigorous, and
helped to care for their grandchildren. Older women who are healthy and active
enhance their own fitness by providing care for their grandchildren who carry their
genes, thereby enhancing the survival of those offspring.
Answer Location: Grandmotherhood
Essay
1. Define gender constancy. Differentiate between each of the three stages in which it
develops and describe what age range each stage typically occurs in.
Ans: Varies. Gender constancy is the understanding that gender is a stable and
consistent part of oneself, which develops in three stages according to Kohlberg’s
cognitive developmental theory. The first stage is the development of gender identity, in
which children can identify and label themselves, as well as others, as boys or girls;
gender identity develops around 18 months to 2 years. However, at this stage, a girl
may feel strongly that when she grows up she can be a boy if she wants to. The second
stage of gender constancy is the development of gender stability, which happens
around 3–4 years of age and refers to the understanding that gender is stable over time.
Yet a 4-year-old girl with a firm grasp of gender stability may still insist that if she wears
pants she will no longer be a girl. Once kids understand that gender is generally stable
over time, they go through a period of rigidity in adhering to gender norms. In the third
stage of gender constancy development, between 5 and 7 years of age, gender
consistency develops and kids become more flexible about gender stereotypes. Gender
consistency is the understanding that gender remains consistent despite superficial
changes in appearance (such as wearing long dresses instead of pants). After this is
fully developed, children become more flexible because they know that playing with
gender-stereotyped toys or wearing gender-typed clothing won’t have any effect on their
gender. However, the majority of children continue stereotypical gender roles and
appearance.
Cognitive Domain: Application and Analysis
2. Kohlberg argued that once children have a concept of gender identity, and especially
a concept of gender constancy, they essentially self-socialize. A more contemporary
version of Kohlberg’s ideas is the gender self-socialization model. Explain the gender
self-socialization model, including how it is related to stereotype emulation and identity
construction.
Ans: Varies. As children develop, they tend to want to adopt the characteristics of their
gender based on their knowledge of the characteristics of the people they see in the
world around them. This idea is the foundation of the gender self-socialization model.
According to this model, children’s gender identity, their gender stereotypes, and their
gender self-perceptions all influence each other as children develop. One of the
processes linking these three aspects is stereotype emulation; the more that children
identify with their gender, the more they view themselves as having the qualities
specified by stereotypes about their gender. A second process is identity construction;
the more that children engage in gender-stereotyped activities, the more identified with
their own gender they become. In short, the culture provides plenty of information about
acceptable behavior for boys and girls, but children do not always have to be forced to
conform, so in many ways, they self-socialize.
Cognitive Domain: Application and Analysis
Answer Location: From Gender Identity to Gender Roles: Self-Socialization
3. Explain how the motherhood mandate influences women’s decisions to become

mothers. Specifically, how are child-free women typically treated in U.S. society and
does this have an impact on women? How might this impact women who experience
infertility?
Ans: Varies. The motherhood mandate refers to the immense pressure society places
on women to become mothers. Women are typically socialized in a way that prepares
them for caregiving in motherhood. Young adult women are bombarded with questions
about when they plan to have kids and if they will stay home once pregnant, along with
countless other intrusive questions by both family and strangers. The motherhood
mandate is so pervasive in our culture that many women feel it is expected of them to
have children and have never considered never becoming a mother. Evidence indicates
that women who are voluntarily childless are highly stigmatized. They are perceived as
less warm and less psychologically fulfilled than women with children. Women who are
involuntarily childless due to infertility may experience even more feelings of shame, as
they may feel like a failure for not being able to produce children. They may experience
even more depression and anxiety due to being unable to have children in the way that
they had expected and wanted. All of this information highlights society’s pressure for
women to have children and to reinforce the idea that motherhood is central to the
female gender role.
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(Download PDF) Psychology of Women and Gender Half The Human Experience + 9th Edition Else Quest Test Bank Full Chapter

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Psychology of Women and Gender Half

the Human Experience + 9th Edition

Transformations Women Gender and Psychology 2nd Edition

Transformations Women Gender and Psychology 3rd Edition

Psychology of Women 7th Edition Matlin Test Bank

Microbiology The Human Experience 1st Edition Foster

Evolutionary Psychology Neuroscience Perspectives

Experience Psychology 2nd Edition King Test Bank

Experience Psychology 3rd Edition King Test Bank

Experience Human Development 12th Edition Papalia Test

SAGE Publishing, 2018

Chapter 7: Lifespan Development

1. On the basis of research on gender differences in newborn infants, it can be

2. Infant gender differences have been documented in ______.

4. According to meta-analysis of studies of gender differences in infancy into early

SAGE Publishing, 2018

D. boys score higher in focusing attention

5. In a study by Mondschein et al. (2000), mothers of 11-month-old babies were asked

6. Between birth and 3 months of age, infants ______.

8. Which of the following is a stage of gender constancy development?

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13. Much of the gender teaching in parents’ talk is ______.

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A. peer group effect

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22. Friendship networks become ______ across adolescence.

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B. same-gender couples having the right to marry

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Cognitive Domain: Knowledge

4. Children can recognize gender discrimination as early as 6 or 7 years old.

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8. Research indicates that adolescent girls’ identity development focuses primarily on

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2. Define transaffirmative practice (also known as gender-affirming care) and explain

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Cognitive Domain: Comprehension

5. Explain how relationships in adolescence serve a developmental function in the

7. Define the grandmother effect.

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SAGE Publishing, 2018

3. Explain how the motherhood mandate influences women’s decisions to become

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