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Chapter 10: Leadership Effectiveness: Foundations
TRUE/FALSE
1. According to Learning from Experience: Douglas Conant’s Leadership at Campbell Soup Co., under
Conant’s leadership, Campbell’s has reversed a decline in shareholder value and employee
commitment.
ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 289

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Recall
2. According to Learning from Experience: Douglas Conant’s Leadership at Campbell Soup Co., Conant
led the development of a 5-year plan, called the “Campbell’s Mission.”
ANS: F
It was a 10-year plan, called the “Campbell’s Journey,”
PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 289

3. While effective leadership encompasses all seven of the foundation competencies, it also goes beyond
them.
ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 290

OBJ: 10-1 NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles
MSC: Recall
4. Leadership is the process of developing ideas and a vision, living by values that support those ideas
and vision, influencing others to embrace them in their own behaviors, and making hard decisions
about people and other resources.

MSC: Recall
5. Leadership emphasizes planning, control, rules and procedures, authority relations, and the like.
ANS: F
This describes management. Values, ideas, vision, influencing others, and making tough decisions are
the key attributes of leadership.
PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 290 OBJ: 10-1

6. Management emphasizes planning, control, rules and procedures, and authority relations.

MSC: Recall
7. All leaders use power and engage in political behaviors to influence others.
MSC: Recall
8. The zone of indifference is an area where the manager does not have actual authority.
ANS: F
The zone of indifference is an area within which employees will accept certain directives without
questioning the manager’s power.

9. The are three basic sources of a leader's power are (1) reward, (2) legitimate, and (3) referent power.
ANS: F
There are five basic sources of a leader's power: legitimate, reward, coercive, referent, and expert
power.

10. The five basic sources of a leader's power are (1) legitimate, (2) reward, (3) coercive, (4) referent, and
(5) expert power.

MSC: Recall
11. The use of legitimate power would be present in a situation where followers do something because the
leader has the right to request them to do it and they have an obligation to comply, as a consequence of
the leader's position in the organization.

MSC: Recall
12. The zone of indifference is an area within which employees will accept certain directives without
questioning the manager’s power.

MSC: Recall
13. Coercive power is the potential to influence others through the use of sanctions or punishment.

MSC: Recall
14. Reward power comes from the leader's ability to provide something positively desired by followers in
return for behaviors the leader expected and wanted.

MSC: Recall
15. Referent power is an individual’s ability to influence others because they respect, admire, or
like the person.

MSC: Recall
16. Expert power is an individual’s ability to influence others because they respect, admire, or
like the person.
ANS: F
Expert power is an individual’s ability to influence others’ behaviors because of recognized
competencies, talents, or specialized knowledge.

17. For successful organizations, the pattern in the use of the sources of power is shifting toward greater
reliance on reward, referent, and expert power and less reliance on coercive and legitimate power.
ANS: T PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 293

MSC: Recall
18. Political behavior means doing whatever it takes to move up in a company.
ANS: F
Political behavior involves attempts by individuals to influence the behaviors of others and the course
of events in the organization in order to protect their self-interests, meet their own needs, and advance
their own goals.

19. Organizational politics involves actions by individuals, teams, or leaders to acquire, develop, and use
power and other resources in order to obtain preferred outcomes.

MSC: Recall
20. Organizational politics involves attempts by individuals to influence the behaviors of others as a
means to protect their self-interests, meet their own needs, and advance their own goals.
ANS: F
Organizational politics involves actions by individuals, teams, or leaders to acquire, develop, and use
power and other resources in order to obtain preferred outcomes.
PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 293 OBJ: 10-1

21. Taking counsel is a common political tactic in which the individual communicates everything.
ANS: F
Taking counsel is a common political tactic in which the individual exercises great caution in seeking
or giving advice.

22. Durability is a common political tactic in which the individual maintains flexibility and never
completely commits to any one position or program.
ANS: F
This describes maneuverability.

23. Maneuverability is a common political tactic in which the individual maintains flexibility and never
completely commits to any one position or program.

MSC: Recall
24. Communication is a common political tactic in which the individual never communicates everything
but instead withholds information and/or releases information at carefully chosen times.

MSC: Recall
25. Compromising is a common political tactic in which the individual accepts compromise
as a short-term tactic while continuing to press ahead with one's own agenda.

MSC: Recall
26. Always the boss is a common political tactic in which the individual accepts compromise only as a
short-term tactic while continuing to press ahead with one's own agenda.
ANS: F
This describes compromising.

27. Maneuverability is a common political tactic in which once the individuals have made their decisions,
and must always give the impression of knowing what they are doing, even when they do not.
ANS: F
This describes confidence.
28. “Confidence” is a common political tactic in which once the individuals have made their decisions,
they must always give the impression of knowing what they are doing, even when they do not.

MSC: Recall
29. “Always the boss” is a common political tactic that occurs when the leader will not accept any
subordination.
ANS: F
“Always the boss” is a common political tactic that occurs when the leader typically maintains a sense
of distance and separation from subordinates.

30. There are no beneficial effects of political behavior.
ANS: F
Career advancement and achievement of organizational goals are among the beneficial effects of
political behavior.

31. Career advancement and misuse of resources are among the beneficial effects of political behavior.
ANS: F
Misuse of resources is not beneficial.

32. Ineffective organizational culture and emotional withdrawal from the organization are among the
harmful effects of political behavior.

MSC: Recall
33. The probability of political behavior typically increases inversely to disagreements over goals.
ANS: F
The probability of political behavior typically increases in proportion to disagreements over goals.

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Comprehension
34. The probability of political behavior typically increases when decision-making procedures and
performance measures are certain and known.
ANS: F
The probability of political behavior typically increases when decision-making procedures and
performance measures are uncertain and complex.

35. When a reward system focuses solely on team accomplishments and minimizes individual
contributions, individuals may be tempted to behave politically to ensure that they receive much more
of the rewards than other team members.
ANS: F
The opposite is true. When a reward system focuses solely on individual accomplishment and
minimizes team contributions, individuals may be tempted to behave politically to ensure that they
receive much more of the rewards than other team members.

36. The organizational reward system is not a significant factor in the occurrence of political behavior.
ANS: F
The organizational reward system can be a significant factor in the occurrence of political behavior.

37. The performance appraisal process provides a good example of a situation in which
managers may encourage political behavior among employees.

MSC: Comprehension
38. Leaders should link rewards to their feelings about how an employee performs to limit some of the
problems with political performance appraisals.
ANS: F
Leaders should link specific actions and performance results to rewards to limit some of the problems
with political performance appraisals.

39. Leaders should develop goals and standards that are as clear and specific as possible to limit some of
the problems with political performance appraisals.

MSC: Recall
40. One of the negative aspects of political performance appraisals is it can expose the organization to
litigation if employees are terminated.
MSC: Recall
41. In the Change Competency: Carol Bartz’s Use of Power to Change Yahoo!, Bartz noticed that
employees on the inside spend too much time looking at what is taking place on the outside.
ANS: F
The opposite is true. The employees are spending too much time focusing on internal company
problems. Bartz is quoted as saying, “I’ve noticed that a lot of us on the inside don’t spend enough
time looking to the outside.”

42. In the Change Competency: Carol Bartz’s Use of Power to Change Yahoo!, Bartz is focused on
providing the consumer with awesome products.

MSC: Recall
43. The contingency models are probably the most popular and oldest of the leadership models.
ANS: F
The traits, Theory X/Theory Y, and behavioral models are probably the most popular and oldest of the
leadership models.

44. The traits, Theory X/Theory Y, and behavioral models are probably the most popular and oldest of the
leadership models.

MSC: Recall
45. The traits model of leadership is based on characteristics of many leaders—both successful
and unsuccessful—and is used to predict leadership effectiveness.

MSC: Recall
46. Evidence suggests that most (but not all) successful leaders share four common traits: intelligence,
maturity and breadth, achievement drive, and honesty.

MSC: Recall
47. When employees are asked to rank and comment on various traits of successful and unsuccessful
leaders, honesty is the most important characteristic identified by many surveys.

MSC: Recall
48. One of the limitations of the traits model of leadership is that research has demonstrated no consistent
patterns between specific traits or sets of traits and leadership effectiveness.

MSC: Recall
49. Theory X is a composite of propositions and underlying beliefs that take a command-and-control
approach to management based on a negative view of human nature.

MSC: Recall
50. Theory Y is a composite of propositions and underlying beliefs that take a command-and-control
approach to management based on a negative view of human nature.
ANS: F
This describes Theory X. Theory Y is a composite of propositions and beliefs that take a leadership
and empowering approach to management based on a positive view of human nature.

51. Theory Y is a composite of propositions and beliefs that take a leadership and empowering approach
to management based on a positive view of human nature.

MSC: Recall
52. Theory X is a composite of propositions and beliefs that take a leadership and empowering approach
to management based on a positive view of human nature.
ANS: F
This describes Theory Y. Theory X is a composite of propositions and underlying beliefs that take a
command-and-control approach to management based on a negative view of human nature.

53. Theory Y assumes that, without the strong intervention of managers, most employees would be
passive—even resistant—to organizational needs.
ANS: F
This describes Theory X.
54. Theory Y assumes that the motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming
responsibility, and the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in
employees.

MSC: Recall
55. Behavioral models of leadership have identified two main dimensions of leadership behavior:
aggressiveness and strategy.
ANS: F
Behavioral models of leadership have identified two main dimensions of leadership behavior:
consideration and initiating structure.

56. Behavioral models of leadership have identified two main dimensions of leadership behavior:
relationship orientation and empowerment.
ANS: F
The two main dimensions are consideration and initiating structure.

57. The behavioral model of leadership focuses on what leaders think about.
ANS: F
The behavioral model of leadership focuses on what leaders actually do and how they do it.

58. The behavioral model of leadership suggest that effective leaders help individuals and teams achieve
their goals in two ways: task-centered relations and consideration.

MSC: Recall
59. A high degree of consideration indicates psychological closeness between the leader and subordinates.

MSC: Comprehension
60. Consideration tends to be an effective leadership behavior when employees feel that strong status
differences should not exist between them and their leader.
MSC: Recall
61. Consideration tends to be an effective leadership behavior when employees are psychologically
predisposed toward being instructed in what to do, how to do it, and when it should be achieved.
ANS: F
Under this condition, initiating structure tends to be more effective. Consideration tends to be more
effective when followers are predisposed toward participative leadership.

62. Initiating structure is the extent to which the leader has relationships with subordinates that are
characterized by mutual trust, two-way communication, respect for employees’ ideas, and empathy for
their feelings.
ANS: F
This describes consideration.

63. Initiating structure is the extent to which a leader defines and prescribes the roles of subordinates in
order to set and accomplish goals in their areas of responsibility.

MSC: Recall
64. Consideration is the extent to which the leader has relationships with subordinates that are
characterized by mutual trust, two-way communication, respect for employees’ ideas, and empathy for
their feelings.

MSC: Recall
65. Consideration is the extent to which a leader defines and prescribes the roles of subordinates in order
to set and accomplish goals in their areas of responsibility.
ANS: F
This describes initiating structure.

66. Leaders who rank low on initiating structure and high on consideration generally have large numbers
of grievances, absenteeism, and high turnover rates among employees.
ANS: F
Leaders who rank high on initiating structure and low on consideration generally have large numbers
of grievances, absenteeism, and high turnover rates among employees.
67. Effective leaders can not possess high consideration and initiating structure at the same time.
ANS: F
The now widely accepted view is that effective leaders can possess high consideration and initiating
structure at the same time.
PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 302 OBJ: 10-2

68. The main limitation of the behavioral model is the lack of attention it gives to the effects of the
situation on effective leadership style.

MSC: Recall
69. The primary weakness in the behavioral model is that many leaders do not engage in both initiating
structure and consideration behaviors.
ANS: F
The main limitation of the behavioral model is the lack of attention it gives to the effects of the
situation on effective leadership style.

70. According to Self Competency: Colin Powell’s “Lessons in Leadership”, a dream doesn’t become
reality through magic; it takes sweat, determination, and hard work.

MSC: Recall
71. According to Self Competency: Colin Powell’s “Lessons in Leadership”, the trick of leadership is
being at the right place at the right time.

MSC: Recall
72. The Situational Leadership Model matches the situation to one of four leadership styles.

MSC: Recall
73. The Situational Leadership Model states that the style of leadership should be matched
to the level of readiness of the followers.
MSC: Recall
74. The four leadership styles outlined in the Situational Leadership Model involve various combinations
of event behavior and interaction behavior.
ANS: F
The four leadership styles outlined in the Situational Leadership Model involve various combinations
of task behavior and relationship behavior.

75. The Situational Leadership Model is based upon the amount of task and relationship behavior that a
leader provides to subordinates in a situation.

MSC: Recall
76. In the Situational Leadership Model, task behavior is the extent to which a leader listens, provides
support and encouragement, and involves subordinates in the decision-making process.
ANS: F
This describes relationship behavior.

77. According to the Situational Leadership Model, when a leader gives his or her subordinates
emotional support, that leader is demonstrating relationship behavior.

MSC: Comprehension
78. The four leadership styles of the Situational Leadership Model - telling, giving, participating, and
observing - are based on different combinations of task and relationship behavior.
ANS: F
The four leadership styles are telling, selling, participating, and delegating.

79. When a leader provides clear instructions, gives specific directions, and supervises the work closely,
the leader is using the selling style, according to the Situational Leadership Model.
ANS: F
The leader is using the telling style.

80. When a leader provides direction, encourages two-way communication, and helps build confidence
and motivation on the part of the follower, the leader is using the participating style, according to the
Situational Leadership Model.
ANS: F
This describes a selling style. A participating style is when the leader encourages followers to
share ideas and facilitates the work by being encouraging and helpful to subordinates.

81. When a leader encourages followers to share ideas and facilitates the work by being encouraging and
helpful to subordinates, the leader is using the participating style, according to the Situational
Leadership Model.

MSC: Comprehension
82. When a leader turns over responsibility for making and implementing decisions to followers, the
leader is using the delegating style, according to the Situational Leadership Model.

MSC: Comprehension
83. When a leader encourages followers to share ideas and facilitates the work by being encouraging and
helpful to subordinates, the leader is using the delegating style, according to the Situational
Leadership Model.
ANS: F
This describes the participating style.

84. According to the Communication Competency: Paul Millman, CEO, Chroma Technology, at Chroma
Technology’s beginning, no one was officially in charge of strategy or long-term planning.

MSC: Recall
85. According to the Communication Competency: Paul Millman, CEO, Chroma Technology, Millman
used to think a company could be structured as an inverted pyramid, with the leader largely
subservient to the employees.

MSC: Recall
86. The five core leadership styles in the Vroom-Jago leadership model are: decide, consult individually,
facilitate, consult team, and delegate.

MSC: Recall
87. The five core leadership styles in the Vroom-Jago leadership model are: sell, consider, tell, evaluate,
and participate.
ANS: F
The five core leadership styles in the Vroom-Jago time-driven leadership model are: decide, consult
individually, consult team, facilitate, and delegate.

88. The facilitate style in the Vroom-Jago leadership model represents the highest level of subordinate
empowerment.
ANS: F
The delegate style in the Vroom-Jago time-driven leadership model represents the highest level of
subordinate empowerment.

89. The Vroom-Jago contingency variables are: decision significance, importance of commitment, leader
expertise, likelihood of commitment, team support, team expertise, and team competence.

MSC: Recall
90. The Vroom–Jago leadership model prescribes a leader’s choice(s) among five leadership styles based
on seven situational factors, recognizing the time requirements and costs associated with each style.

MSC: Recall
91. Victor Vroom developed a Windows-based computer program called Expert System that enables the
leader to record judgments on a five-point scale as to the extent to which a factor is present in a
particular situation.

MSC: Comprehension
92. Team support is the degree to which subordinates will support the leader’s decision if it is made.
ANS: F
This describes Likelihood of commitment. Team support is the degree to which subordinates relate to
the interests of the organization as a whole or a specific unit in solving the problem.
93. Victor Vroom and Arthur Jago developed the Vroom–Jago Leadership model to (1) assess variations
that may exist in situational factors, (2) present five leadership styles, and (3) emphasize the choice of
leadership style in relation to decision-making situations.

MSC: Recall
94. The consult and delegate styles are viewed as the more participative styles of leadership in the Vroom-
Jago model.

MSC: Recall
95. The Vroom–Jago leadership model solution matrix begins on the left where you evaluate the leader
expertise.
ANS: F
The Vroom–Jago leadership model solution matrix begins on the left where you evaluate the
significance of the situation.

96. According to the Vroom-Jago leadership model, if leaders can diagnose situations correctly, choosing
the best leadership style for those situations is still a significant challenge.
ANS: F
According to the Vroom-Jago leadership model, if leaders can diagnose situations correctly, choosing
the best leadership style for those situations becomes easier.

97. According to the Ethics Competency: The Bank CEO, your bank is in serious danger of being closed
by bank regulators.

MSC: Recall
98. According to the Ethics Competency: The Bank CEO, your objective is to find a creative way to save
the bank from failure, without laying anyone off.
ANS: F
Your objective is to use Vroom–Jago Leadership Model solution matrix to find the best style of
leadership to use in this situation.

99. One weakness of the Vroom-Yago leadership model is that subordinates in various countries
may have a strong desire to participate in decisions affecting their jobs, regardless of the model’s
recommendation of a style for the leader to use.

MSC: Recall
100. One strength of the Vroom-Jago leadership model is choosing the best leadership style enables leaders
to make high-quality, timely decisions.

MSC: Recall
101. A strength of the Vroom-Jago leadership model is that certain competencies of the leader play a key
role in determining the relative effectiveness of the model.
ANS: F
This describes a weakness of the model.

102. A weakness of the Vroom-Jago leadership model is that it is based on the assumption that decisions
involve a single process, while in reality decisions sometimes goes through several cycles.

MSC: Recall
MULTIPLE CHOICE
led the development of a 10-year plan. The first phase of this plan was the ____.
a. Building for Extraordinary Growth Plan
b. Quality Growth Plan
c. Transformation Plan
d. Campbell’s Journey
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 289
MSC: Recall
set about reinvigorating the employees and firm by:
a. using a personal touch
b. setting expectations.
c. featuring communications
d. all of these were used
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 290
MSC: Recall
3. All of the following statements about leadership are true except:

a. The leadership process entails developing ideas and a vision, living by values supportive
of that vision, influencing others to embrace those ideas, values, and vision, and making
hard decisions.
b. Effective leadership not only encompasses the seven foundation competencies, but goes
beyond them.
c. Leadership can be learned but not taught.
d. All of these statements are true.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 290
MSC: Comprehension
4. All of the following statements about leadership are false except:

a. Leadership is the process of developing ideas and a vision, living by values that support
those ideas and that vision, influencing others to embrace them in their own behaviors, and
making hard decisions about human and other resources
b. Leadership means demonstrating at least three of the seven foundation competencies.
c. Leadership means creating an effective command and control structure.
d. Effective leadership is becoming easier to provide through advances in education and
training.
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 290
MSC: Comprehension
5. The key attribute(s) of leadership is (are):

a. influencing others
b. ideas, vision, and values
c. making tough decisions
d. all of these are considered key attributes of leadership
MSC: Recall
6. All of the following are among the basic sources of a leader's power except:
a. reward power
b. coercive power
c. expert power
d. referral power
MSC: Recall
7. A traditional ____ directs, controls, and plans the work of others and is responsible for results.
a. leader
b. subordinate
c. manager
d. disciple
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 262
MSC: Recall
8. Traditional managers in organizations usually accept three key functions in their roles, including all of
the following except:
a. authority
b. influencing
c. responsibility
d. accountability
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 290
MSC: Recall
9. The three key functions that traditional managers in organizations usually accept include all of the
following except:
a. visioning
b. authority
c. responsibility
d. accountability
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 290
MSC: Recall
10. All of the following are among the basic sources of a leader's power except:
a. coercive power
b. logical power
c. referent power
d. expert power
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 290
MSC: Recall
11. When employees do something because the leader has the right to request them to do it and they have
an obligation to comply, ____ power has influenced their behavior.
a. referent
b. coercive
c. expert
d. legitimate
MSC: Recall
12. The ____ is an area within which employees will accept certain directives without questioning the
manager’s power.
a. zone of indifference
b. difference zone
c. legitimate power zone
d. safety zone
MSC: Recall
13. The valet manager at a large casino has implemented a procedure, which she hopes will increase
customer satisfaction with the services delivered by her staff. She began by issuing a memo to each
member of her staff emphasizing the importance of increasing customer satisfaction with their
services. She has followed that up by providing a written warning to any staff member who is
observed behaving antagonistically toward customers. Which of the following sources of a leader's
power has the valet manager apparently used in this example?
a. expert power
b. referent power
c. legitimate power
d. none of these are manifest in the example
MSC: Comprehension
14. The valet manager at a large casino has implemented a procedure, which he hopes will increase
customer satisfaction with the services delivered by his staff. He began by issuing a memo to each
member of his staff emphasizing the importance of increasing customer satisfaction with their
services. He has followed that up by providing a written warning to any staff member who is observed
behaving antagonistically toward customers. Which of the following sources of a leader's power has
the valet manager apparently used in this example?
a. coercive power
b. legitimate power
c. both coercive power and legitimate power
d. reward power
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 291-292
MSC: Comprehension
15. ____ power comes from the leader's ability to provide something desired by team members in return
for their desired behaviors.
a. Legitimate
b. Referent
c. Coercive
d. Reward
MSC: Recall
16. A manager who controls the allocation of merit pay raises in a department has ____ power over
employees in that department.
a. coercive
b. reward
c. expert
d. referent
MSC: Recall
17. The billing manager at a large hospital has implemented a procedure, which she hopes will increase
patient satisfaction with the services delivered by her staff. She began by issuing a memo to each
member of her staff emphasizing the importance of increasing patient satisfaction with their services,
and describing penalties for employees whose performance is weak in this area. She has followed that
up by providing a verbal reprimand as well as a written warning to any staff member who is observed
behaving antagonistically toward patients. Which of the following sources of a leader's power has the
billing manager apparently used in this example?
a. reward power
b. coercive power
c. referent power
d. expert power
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 291-292
MSC: Comprehension
18. ____ power influences employees when they do something because they admire the leader, want to be
like the leader, and want to receive the leader's approval.
a. Reward
b. Coercive
c. Referent
d. Legitimate
MSC: Recall
19. Individuals who possess admired personal characteristics, such as charisma, integrity, and courage,
may often also have ____ power.
a. referent
b. coercive
c. reward
d. legitimate
MSC: Recall
20. ____ is least likely to be effective in promoting desirable behavior.

a. expert power
b. reward power
c. coercive power
d. referent power
MSC: Recall
21. Although ____ power may stop or reduce undesirable behaviors, it does not necessarily encourage
desired behavior.
a. referent
b. expert
c. coercive
d. legitimate
MSC: Recall
reliance on:
a. referent power
b. coercive power
c. legitimate power
d. absolute power
MSC: Recall
reliance on all of the following except:
a. referent power
b. coercive power
c. expert power
d. reward power
MSC: Recall
reliance on all of the following except:
a. expert power
b. legitimate power
c. referent power
d. reward power
MSC: Recall
25. ____ involves attempts by individuals to influence the behaviors of others and the course of events in
the organization in order to protect their self-interests, meet their own needs, and advance their own
goals.
a. Maneuverability
b. Organizational politics
c. Performance appraisal
d. Political behavior
MSC: Recall
26. ____ involves actions by individuals, teams, or leaders to acquire, develop, and use power and other
resources in order to obtain preferred outcomes.
a. Political behavior
b. Performance appraisal
c. Organizational politics
d. Maneuverability
MSC: Recall
27. ____ is a common political tactic in which the individual exercises great caution in seeking or giving
advice.
a. Communication
b. Maneuverability
c. Taking counsel
d. Compromising
MSC: Recall
28. ____ is a common political tactic in which the individual maintains flexibility and never completely
commits to any one position or program.
a. Maneuverability
b. Taking counsel
c. Communication
d. Compromising
MSC: Recall
29. ____ is a common political tactic in which the individual never communicates everything but instead
withholds information and/or releases information at carefully chosen times.
a. Taking counsel
b. Maneuverability
c. Communication
d. Compromising
MSC: Recall
30. ____ is a common political tactic in which the individual accepts splitting the difference only as a
short-term tactic while continuing to press ahead with one's own agenda.
a. Taking counsel
b. Compromising
c. Communication
d. Maneuverability
MSC: Recall
31. ____ is a common political tactic in which once the individual has made a decision, he must always
give the impression of knowing what he is doing, even when he does not.
a. Taking counsel
b. Confidence
c. Maneuverability
d. Always the boss
MSC: Recall
32. ____ is a common political tactic that occurs when the leader always maintains a sense of distance and
separation from subordinates.
a. Taking counsel
b. Always the boss
c. Communication
d. Confidence
MSC: Recall
33. Beneficial effects of political behavior include all of the following except:
a. career advancement
b. recognition for individuals looking after their legitimate interests
c. achievement of organizational goals
d. demotions
MSC: Recall
34. A beneficial effect of political behavior is:

a. misuse of resources
b. ineffective organizational culture
c. emotional withdrawal from the organization
d. achievement of organizational goals
MSC: Recall
35. Harmful effects of political behavior include all of the following except:
a. misuse of resources
b. ineffective organizational culture
c. recognition for individuals
d. emotional withdrawal from the organization
MSC: Recall
36. The probability of political behavior typically increases in proportion to all of the following except:
a. disagreements over goals
b. different ideas about the organization and its problems
c. the need to allocate sufficient resources
d. different information about the situation
MSC: Comprehension
37. When a reward system focuses solely on individual accomplishment and minimizes team
contributions, individuals may be tempted to behave politically to ensure that they:
a. can press ahead with their own agenda
b. receive much more of the rewards than other team members
c. appear to know what they are doing
d. maintain distance from team members
MSC: Comprehension
38. Political performance appraisals by leaders can:

a. develop goals and standards clearly
b. link specific actions and performance results to rewards
c. increase political behavior in other organization processes and decisions
d. offer performance feedback on an ongoing basis
MSC: Comprehension
39. Political performance appraisals by leaders can do all of the following except:
a. undermine organizational goals and performance
b. compromise the link between performance and rewards
c. offer performance feedback on an ongoing basis
d. expose the organization to litigation if employees are terminated
MSC: Comprehension
40. To reduce the problems with political performance appraisals, leaders should:
a. keep goals and standards ambiguous
b. decouple specific actions from rewards
c. conduct unstructured reviews
d. Acknowledge that the potential for politics in performance appraisals exists and make this
topic a focus of ongoing discussions throughout the organization
MSC: Comprehension
41. In the Change Competency: Carol Bartz’s Use of Power to Change Yahoo!, What is Bartz’s plan to
make Yahoo! faster?
a. new computers
b. new management structure
c. better leadership by Bartz
d. less political performance appraisals
MSC: Recall
42. In the Change Competency: Carol Bartz’s Use of Power to Change Yahoo!, a number of people noted
that the new organization is a vast improvement over the previous “ _____” system that handed
multiple executives oversight over many products and new projects.
a. executive management
b. direct report
c. matrix management
d. single management
MSC: Recall
43. Which of the following does research evidence suggest may differentiate more effective from less
effective leaders?
a. interests
b. abilities
c. personality traits
d. all of these may differentiate more effective from less effective leaders
MSC: Recall
44. All of the following are traits shared by most successful leaders except:
a. maturity and breadth
b. achievement drive
c. smoothing-oriented
d. intelligence
MSC: Recall
b. integrity
c. intelligence
d. forcing-oriented
MSC: Recall
b. internal attributions
c. honesty
d. intelligence
MSC: Recall
47. Which of the following is one of the traits shared by most successful leaders?
a. integrity
b. external locus of control
c. perceptual predetermination
d. high need for power
MSC: Recall
48. Which of the following is one of the traits shared by most successful leaders?
a. high need for power
b. external locus of control
c. achievement drive
d. intraversion
MSC: Recall
49. Which of the following is identified by many surveys as most important when employees are asked to
rank and comment on various traits of successful leaders?
a. achievement drive
b. maturity and breadth
c. honesty
d. intelligence
MSC: Recall
50. All of the following are criticisms of the traits model of leadership except:
a. leadership is complex
b. leaders' traits may not be reflected in their decisions
c. no consistent trait patterns have been identified among successful leaders
d. physical characteristics do not correlate highly with leadership performance
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 298
MSC: Recall
51. All of the following are propositions of Theory X except:

a. People are inherently lazy and must therefore be motivated by incentives.
b. Because of irrational feelings, people are basically incapable of self-discipline and self-
control.
c. Rules, top-down managerial control, and the threat of punishment are not the only means
for achieving organizational goals.
d. The average person prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and wants
security above all.
MSC: Recall
52. ____ is a composite of propositions and underlying beliefs that take a command-and-control approach
to management based on a negative view of human nature.
a. Theory X
b. Theory Y
c. Theory Z
d. Leadership Theory
MSC: Recall
53. ____ is a composite of propositions and beliefs that take a leadership and empowering approach to
management based on a positive view of human nature.
a. Theory X
b. Theory Y
c. Theory Z
d. Command Theory
MSC: Recall
54. All of the following are propositions of Theory Y except:

a. The average human does not inherently dislike work.
b. The average person learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek
responsibility.
c. The average person prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, and wants
security above all.
d. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity
in the solution to organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the
population.
MSC: Recall
55. Behavioral models have identified ____ and ____ as two main dimensions of leader behavior.
a. empowerment; initiating structure
b. consideration; envisioning
c. initiating structure; consideration
d. envisioning; initiating structure
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 300
MSC: Recall
56. In the behavioral model of leadership, the behavior known as ____ refers to the extent to which leaders
are likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, two-way communication, respect for
employees' ideas, and empathy for their feelings.
a. telling style
b. consideration
c. selling style
d. initiating structure
MSC: Recall
57. The following interchange occurs between Angelo, a customer service representative at an insurance
company, and Amber, his supervisor. "I'm really embarrassed to ask you this, but I didn't think you'd
mind. I know I've used up all of my days off, but my daughter was just selected to play the lead in her
fourth grade class play next Friday, and I was wondering if I could have the afternoon off so that I
could be there for her. She would really be disappointed if I couldn't make it." Amber responded:
"Sounds to me like a pretty important job for a Dad. Go and have a good time. I can get Clarence to
cover for you. He owes me a favor." It is likely that Amber emphasizes ____ in her leadership
behavior.
a. empowerment
b. initiating structure
c. a delegating style
d. consideration
MSC: Comprehension
58. Research on leadership behavior demonstrates that consideration is more important in all of the
following circumstances except:
a. team members must learn something new
b. the task satisfies employees
c. employees are predisposed to participative leadership
d. few status differences exist between the leader and subordinate
MSC: Recall
59. Bill has just been promoted from within a group of design engineers to the position of team leader.
Team members are required to lay out production specifications from rough plans drawn up in the
product development group. This is straightforward work that is rather tedious and not particularly
fulfilling. Although Bill still does some of the engineering design work, he is also now responsible for
supervising members of the team. Under these circumstances, it would probably be most appropriate
for Bill to emphasize ____ in his leadership behavior.
a. a telling style
c. delegating
d. consideration
MSC: Application
60. McIllory comments: "I think it is very important when delegating tasks to employees to be specific
about how the job is to be done and what the expected timetable and results are." McIllory's leadership
behavior apparently emphasizes ____.
a. charisma
b. consideration
c. initiating structure
d. empowerment
MSC: Comprehension
61. Andy, the second shift supervisor in a telemarketing organization, has just been called into his boss's
office. His boss says: "Andy, another one of your employees quit this morning. This is the third time
that I'm talking to you about employee complaints regarding your supervisory style. It's getting to the
point where your staff is not only calling in sick regularly, but now they're starting to quit. Something
has to be done about this." Under these circumstances, Andy's boss should investigate to see whether
Andy is placing too much emphasis on ____.
a. consideration and not enough on initiating structure
b. initiating structure and not enough on consideration
c. both consideration and initiating structure
d. initiating structure
MSC: Application
62. Initiating structure is not likely to be effective under which of the following circumstances?
a. employees do not find the task satisfying
b. more than 12 employees report to the leader
c. employees depend on the leader for information and direction on how to complete the task
d. a high degree of pressure for output is imposed by someone other than the leader
MSC: Recall
63. Mary has 10 employees reporting to her, all of whom enjoy the work that they do. It is probably
appropriate for Mary's leadership behavior to emphasize ____.
a. initiating structure
b. consideration
c. centralization
d. delegating
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 302
MSC: Application
64. According to Self Competency: Colin Powell’s “Lessons in Leadership”, leaders are primarily
responsible for ____.
a. showing employees what to do
b. giving speeches
c. setting strategic goals
d. giving Powerpoint presentations
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 303-304
MSC: Recall
65. According to Self Competency: Colin Powell’s “Lessons in Leadership”, In high-performance

organizations, what do leaders do?
a. you get the right people
b. you manage risk
c. have contingency planning
d. all of these
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 303-304
MSC: Recall
66. The Situational Leadership Model is based on the amount of ____ and ____ that a leader provides in
a situation.
a. guidance; direction
b. task; relationship behavior
c. training; empowerment
d. support; delegation
MSC: Comprehension
67. In the Situational Leadership Model, task behavior is similar to ____.

a. supportive behavior
c. consideration
d. delegating behavior
MSC: Recall
68. In the Situational Leadership Model, the leadership style that provides high levels of both task and
relationship behaviors is ____.
a. selling
b. telling
c. participating
d. delegating
MSC: Comprehension
69. According to the Situational Leadership Model, as the readiness level of individuals increases from
R1 to R4, a leader should ____.
a. increase directive behavior
b. increase supportive behavior
c. change his or her leadership style
d. maintain a balance of directive and supportive behavior
MSC: Comprehension
70. Tammy supervises the work of a team of relatively inexperienced design engineers who are required to
develop production specifications from rough plans drawn up by the product development group. This
is complicated and challenging work that requires considerable creativity and expertise in order to
maximize both product quality and efficiency in the production process. Tammy is the team leader
because she has the most experience and is the most knowledgeable member of the team. The team has
just been assigned a new project. The team members are unsure of how to proceed with the design.
They are uncertain about their own capabilities to do the job well. Under these circumstances, the
Situational Leadership Model recommends that Tammy use a ____ leadership style.
a. participating
b. delegating
c. selling
d. telling
MSC: Application
71. In the Situational Leadership Model, the leadership style that is best when followers are able, willing,
and confident to perform their tasks (i.e., they are at the highest level of follower readiness) is ____.
a. delegating
b. selling
c. telling
d. participating
MSC: Comprehension
72. Steve supervises the work of a team of relatively inexperienced design engineers who are required to
maximize both product quality and efficiency in the production process. Steve is the team leader
because he has the most experience and is the most knowledgeable member of the team. The team has
just been assigned a new project. The team members are willing and enthusiastic. But, they are not
very sure about the most appropriate way to proceed with the design. Under these circumstances, The
Situational Leadership Model recommends that Steve use a ____ leadership style.
a. participating
b. delegating
c. telling
d. selling
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 305
MSC: Application
73. Molly supervises the work of a team of design engineers who are required to develop production
specifications from rough plans drawn up by the product development group. This is complicated and
challenging work that requires considerable creativity and expertise in order to maximize both product
quality and efficiency in the production process. Molly is the team leader because she has the most
experience and is the most knowledgeable member of the team. The team has just been assigned a new
project. Team members are enthusiastic about the challenge involved. But, they are not completely
certain that they have the necessary expertise required. Molly knows that every member of the team is
capable of producing excellent designs on this project, and that they just lack confidence in their
abilities. Under these circumstances, The Situational Leadership Model probably recommends that
Molly use a ____ leadership style.
a. participating
b. delegating
c. selling
d. telling
MSC: Application
74. Pam supervises the work of a team of highly experienced design engineers who are required to
maximize both product quality and efficiency in the production process. Pam is the team leader
because she has the most experience and is the most knowledgeable member of the team. The team has
just been assigned a new project. The team members are enthusiastic about the opportunity to put their
skills to work on a challenging and rewarding assignment. Pam knows that every member of the team
is capable of producing excellent designs on this project. Under these circumstances, The Situational
Leadership Model probably recommends that Pam use a ____ leadership style.
a. participating
b. delegating
c. selling
d. telling
MSC: Application
75. In the Situational Leadership Model, the leadership style that is best when followers are able, willing,
and confident to perform their tasks is ____.
a. participating
b. selling
c. delegating
d. telling
MSC: Comprehension
76. In the Situational Leadership Model, ____ is a follower’s ability to set high but attainable task-related
goals and a willingness to accept responsibility for reaching them.
a. readiness
b. participating
c. relationship behavior
d. task behavior
MSC: Comprehension
77. According to the Communication Competency: Paul Millman, CEO, Chroma Technology, In 2002, a
new competitor to Chroma emerged: Semrock, a small company in Rochester, New
York. By some standards, Semrock’s filters worked better than Chroma’s, but there was still a
problem. What was the problem?
a. Semrock’s new technology will eventually make Chroma’s obsolete
b. it took two years before Chroma started developing its own version of Semrock’s
technology
c. leadership was so weak at Chroma, that when employees found this out, they began to
leave for Semrock
d. Chroma was not able to create their own version of Semrock’s filters
ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 306-307
MSC: Comprehension
78. According to the Communication Competency: Paul Millman, CEO, Chroma Technology, tension at
the company reached a high point when the steering committee ____.
a. reorganized the company
b. fired the CEO
c. sent a memo giving members of the sales team guidelines on the hotels they could choose
while traveling on business
d. told the engineers they had to design products more quickly
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 306-307
MSC: Comprehension
79. The ____ model holds that the leader's effective performance improves the capabilities of
subordinates, and therefore requires a change in leadership style over time.
a. traits
b. behavioral
c. Fiedler contingency
d. Situational Leadership
MSC: Comprehension
80. The ____ model prescribes a leader’s choice(s) among five leadership styles based on seven
situational factors, recognizing the time requirements and costs associated with each style.
a. Vroom-Jago leadership
b. Situational Leadership
c. Fiedler contingency
d. behavioral
MSC: Recall
81. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, the ____ style entails the manager making the decision and then
either announcing or selling it to the team.
a. delegate
b. decide
c. facilitate
d. consult
MSC: Recall
82. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, the ____ style represents the highest level of subordinate
empowerment.
a. facilitate
b. decide
c. delegate
d. consult
MSC: Recall
83. The Vroom-Jago Leadership Model suggests there are five core leadership styles including all of the
following except:
a. decide
b. consult team
c. consult program
d. consult individually style
MSC: Recall
84. The Vroom-Jago Leadership Model suggests there are five core leadership styles including all of the
following except:
a. delay
b. decide
c. consult team
d. delegate
MSC: Recall
85. According to the Vroom-Jago leadership model, you should be using the ____ style if you need to
retain managerial autonomy in making a decision, but include team interaction to discuss the problem.
a. facilitate
b. consult team
c. consult individually
d. delegate
MSC: Comprehension
86. According to the Vroom-Jago leadership model, you should be using the ____ style if you need to
retain managerial autonomy in making a decision, but include input from your subordinates without
providing them the opportunity to influence each others' opinions on the matter.
a. facilitate
b. consult individually
c. delegate
d. consult team
MSC: Comprehension
87. The ____ model works by allowing a manager to make a series of sequential decisions regarding
potentially relevant contingency variables in order to identify the most appropriate leadership style for
the situation.
a. Fiedler contingency
b. Vroom-Jago leadership
c. Situational Leadership Model
d. behavioral
MSC: Comprehension
88. Which of the following is one of the seven situational factors (contingency variables) considered in the
Vroom-Jago time-driven leadership model?
a. follower readiness
b. decision significance
c. least preferred coworker score
d. group atmosphere
MSC: Recall
89. Which of the following is not one of the seven situational factors (contingency variables) considered in
the Vroom-Jago time-driven leadership model?
a. importance of commitment
b. follower readiness
c. likelihood of commitment
d. team expertise
MSC: Recall
90. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ is the degree to which subordinates' personal willingness to
support the decision has an impact on the effectiveness of implementation.
a. importance of commitment
d. team expertise
MSC: Comprehension
91. In the Vroom-Jago time-driven leadership model, ____ is the degree to which the leader has relevant
information and competencies to understand the problem fully and select the best solution to it.
a. leader support
b. leader competence
c. leader expertise
d. none of these is correct
MSC: Comprehension
92. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ is the degree to which subordinates will support the leader's
decision.
a. likelihood of support
b. likelihood of commitment
c. team support
d. none of these is correct
MSC: Comprehension
93. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ is the degree to which subordinates relate to the interests of
the organization as a whole or a specific unit in solving the problem.
a. decision significance
b. importance of commitment
c. team support
d. leader support
MSC: Comprehension
94. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ is the degree to which the subordinates have the relevant
information and competencies to understand fully the problem and select the best solution to it.
a. likelihood of commitment
b. team expertise
c. team competence
d. leader expertise
MSC: Comprehension
95. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ is the degree to which team members have the abilities
needed to resolve conflicts over preferred solutions and work together in reaching a high-quality
decision.
a. leader expertise
b. team competence
c. leader competence
d. team expertise
MSC: Comprehension
96. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ is the degree to which the leader has relevant information
and competencies to understand the problem fully and select the best solution to it.
a. team competence
b. leader expertise
d. team expertise
MSC: Recall
97. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ answers the question: Does the leader believe that she has
the ability and information to make a high-quality decision?
a. leader expertise
b. team competence
d. importance of commitment
MSC: Recall
98. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ answers the question: Does the leader think that
subordinates have the abilities and information to make a high-quality decision?
a. leader expertise
b. team competence
c. team expertise
d. team support
MSC: Recall
99. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ answers the question: How important is the technical
quality of the decision?
a. leader expertise
b. likelihood of commitment
c. decision significance
d. importance of commitment
MSC: Recall
100. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ answers the question: How important is subordinate
commitment to the decision?
a. leader expertise
b. importance of commitment
d. decision significance
MSC: Recall
101. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ answers the question: If the leader were to make the
decision, would subordinates likely be committed to it?
a. leader expertise
c. importance of commitment
d. likelihood of commitment
MSC: Recall
102. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ answers the question: Do subordinates share the goals to be
achieved by solving this problem?
a. leader expertise
b. team support
c. team competence
d. team expertise
MSC: Recall
103. In the Vroom-Jago leadership model, ____ answers the question: Are team members capable of
handling their own decision-making process?
a. team competence
b. leader expertise
c. team support
d. team expertise
MSC: Recall
104. Which of the following is not a strength or benefit of applying the Vroom-Jago time-driven leadership
model in an organizational setting?
a. The model is consistent with earlier work on group and team behaviors.
b. If leaders can diagnose situations correctly, choosing the best leadership style becomes
easier.
c. The choices provided by the model enable leaders to make high-quality, timely decisions.
d. All of these are a benefit or strength of the model.
MSC: Comprehension
105. According to the Ethics Competency: The Bank CEO, what is important about the three junior
executives helping you out?
a. they are dedicated to the survival of the bank
b. they have plenty of experience
c. they come from wealthy backgrounds
d. they have been in this situation before
MSC: Comprehension
106. According to the Ethics Competency: The Bank CEO, the book suggests the use of which leadership
style for this case?
a. decide
b. consult team
c. delegate
d. consult individually
MSC: Comprehension
107. Which of the following is a limitation of applying the Vroom-Jago leadership model in an
organizational setting?
a. Most subordinates have a strong desire to participate in decision affecting their jobs.
b. Certain competencies of the leader play a key role in determining the relative effectiveness
of the model.
c. The model is based on the assumption that decisions involve a single process.
d. All of these are limitations of the model.
ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 311-312
MSC: Comprehension
SHORT ANSWER
1. Briefly list the essential components required for the effective practice of leadership in today's world.
ANS:
Effective leadership encompasses the seven foundation competencies of managing self, managing
communication, managing diversity, managing ethics, managing across cultures, managing teams, and
managing change. However, effective leadership goes beyond these competencies to include several
key attributes. These are: (1) developing ideas and a vision; (2) living by values that support those
ideas and that vision; (3) influencing others to embrace those ideas, values, and vision; and (4) making
hard decisions about people and other resources.

2. List and briefly define any three of the five sources of a leader's power.
ANS:
The sources of a leader's power are the same as those of a manager's power: legitimate, reward,
coercive, referent, and expert power. Legitimate power comes from the leader's position in the
organization, and refers to the ability to influence followers because the leader has the right to request
they do something, and they have the obligation to comply. Reward power comes from the leader's
ability to provide something positively desired by followers in return for behaviors the leader expected
and wanted. Coercive power is the potential to influence others through the use of sanctions or
punishment. Referent power usually is associated with individuals who possess admired personal
characteristics, such as humility, integrity, and courage. It is manifest when followers engage in
behaviors because they admire the leader, want to be like the leader, and want to receive the leader's
approval. Expert power is manifest when followers engage in behaviors because they believe that the
leader has special knowledge and knows what is needed to accomplish a goal or solve a problem.
PTS: 1 DIF: Easy REF: p. 290-292 OBJ: 10-1

3. Discuss the aspects of the situation that may lead to political behavior in organizations.
ANS:
The probability of political behavior occurring typically increases in proportion to sources such as
disagreements over goals, different ideas about the organization and its problems, different
information about the situation, and the need to allocate scarce resources. Leaders and employees are
more likely to act politically when decision-making procedures and performance measures are
uncertain and complex, and competition for scarce resources is strong. Even though individual
differences may contribute to political behavior, such behavior is typically more strongly influenced
by aspects of the situation Political behavior is higher when leaders reward it.

4. Describe any four of the following common political tactics: taking counsel, maneuverability,
communication, compromising, confidence, and always the boss.
ANS:
The taking counsel tactic occurs when the individual exercises great caution in seeking or giving
advice. The maneuverability tactic occurs when the individual maintains flexibility and never
completely commits to any one position or program. The communication tactic occurs when the
individual never communicates everything but instead withholds information and/or releases
information at carefully chosen times. The compromising tactic occurs when the individual accepts
compromise only as a short-term tactic while continuing to press ahead with one's own agenda. The
confidence tactic occurs when once the individual has made a decision, he must always give the
impression of knowing what he is doing, even when he does not. The always the boss tactic occurs
when the leader always maintains a sense of distance and separation from subordinates.

5. What are three of the negative aspects of political performance appraisals and what are three various
actions managers can take to help reduce the problem of politically based performance appraisals?
ANS:
The negative aspects of political performance appraisals are they:
• undermine organizational goals and performance,
• compromise the link between performance and rewards,
• increase political behavior in other organizational processes and decisions, and
• expose the organization to litigation if employees are terminated.
Managers can take the following actions to reduce the problem of politically based performance
appraisals:
• Develop goals and standards that are as clear and specific as possible.
• Link specific actions and performance results to rewards.
• Conduct structured, professional reviews, including specific examples of observed
performance and explanations for ratings given.
• Offer performance feedback on an ongoing basis, rather than just once a year.
• Acknowledge that the potential for politics in performance appraisals
exists and make this topic a focus of ongoing discussions throughout the
organization.

6. Comment on the extent to which specific characteristics tend to be shared by effective (versus
ineffective) leaders, and identify the single trait that appears to be most important in this category.
ANS:
There is support for the notion that successful leaders have interests and abilities and, perhaps, even
personality traits that are different from those of less effective leaders. Some evidence suggests that the
following four traits are shared by most (but not all) successful leaders: intelligence, maturity and
breadth, achievement drive, and honesty. Many surveys show that honesty is the most important
characteristic when employees are asked to rank and comment on various traits of successful and
unsuccessful leaders. However, research has found no consistent patterns between specific traits or sets
of traits and leadership effectiveness.
PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate REF: p. 297-298 OBJ: 10-2

7. Describe three legacy models of leadership: traits, Theory X/Theory Y, and behavioral.
ANS:
Three of the legacy leadership models are the traits, Theory X/Theory Y, and behavioral models. The
traits model emphasizes the personal qualities of leaders and attributes success to certain abilities,
skills, and personality characteristics. This model fails to explain why certain managers succeed and
others fail as leaders. The primary reason is that it ignores how traits interact with situational variables.
The Theory X/Theory Y model is based on the premise that the behavior of managers is often
influenced by their assumptions and beliefs about followers and what motivates their followers.
Theory X is a composite of propositions and underlying beliefs that take a command-and-control
approach to management based on a negative view of human nature. In contrast, Theory Y is a
composite of propositions and beliefs that take a leadership and empowering approach to management
based on a positive view of human nature. The behavioral model emphasizes leaders’ actions instead
of their personal traits. We focused on two leader behaviors—initiating structure and consideration—
and how they affect employee performance and job satisfaction. The behavioral model tends to ignore
the situation in which the manager is operating. This omission is the focal point of the two contingency
models of leadership that we reviewed. The contingency approach emphasizes the importance of
various situational factors for leaders and their leadership styles.

8. Explain the behavioral dimensions described in the behavioral models of leadership.
ANS:
The behavioral model of leadership focuses on what leaders do and how the do it. Two main
dimensions of leader behavior are consideration and initiating structure. Consideration is the extent to
which the leader has relationships with subordinates that are characterized my mutual trust, two-way
communication, respect for employees' ideas, and empathy for their feelings. Initiating structure is the
extent to which a leader defines and prescribes the roles of subordinates in order to set and accomplish
goals in their areas of responsibility. The two dimensions are not mutually exclusive and may be
related.

9. Explain the key features of the Situational Leadership Model®.
ANS:
The Situational Leadership Model® states that the style of leadership should be matched to the level of
readiness of the followers. Like other contingency models of leadership, this one contains three basic
components: a set of several possible leadership styles, a description of several alternative situations
that leaders might encounter, and recommendations for which leadership styles are most effective in
each situation. The four leadership styles are telling, selling, participating, and delegating. These four
leadership styles involve various combinations of task behavior and relationship behavior A leader
should consider the situation before deciding which leadership style to use. The situational
contingency in this model is the degree of follower readiness.

10. Briefly identify the range of leadership styles utilized in the Vroom-Jago leadership model, and specify
the dimensions on which these leadership styles vary.
ANS:
The Vroom-Jago leadership model identifies five core leadership styles that vary in terms of the levels
of empowerment and participation available to the leader's subordinates. In increasing levels of
empowerment and participation, these styles are: Decide style (make the decision and either announce
it or sell it to the team); Consult individually style (discuss the problem with subordinates individually,
then make a decision that may or may not reflect their influence); Consult team style (discuss the
problem with subordinates in a team meeting, then make a decision that may or may not reflect their
influence); Facilitate style (act as a facilitator at a team meeting to get concurrence on a decision, but
don't try to influence the team to adopt "your" solution); and Delegate style (permit the team to make
the decision within prescribed limits).

ESSAY
1. From your own experience, describe when you've observed various leaders use the following types of
power: legitimate, reward, coercive, referent, and expert. These leaders could be individuals that you
know personally or individuals that you have heard or read about. You can use the same leader or
several different leaders to provide an example of each type of power use.
ANS:
Students should be able to provide examples that illustrate the types of power. Legitimate power
would be manifest in a situation where followers do something because the leader has the right to
request them to do it and they have an obligation to comply, as a consequence of the leader's position
in the organization. Reward power comes from the leader's ability to provide something positively
desired by followers in return for behaviors the leader expected and wanted. Coercive power is the
potential to influence others through the use of sanctions or punishment. Referent power is an
individual's ability to influence other because she is respected, admired, or like. Expert power is an
individual's ability to influence others' behaviors because of recognized competencies.
PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult REF: p. 290-293 OBJ: 10-1

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Evaluation
2. Explain how the sources of a leader's power differ in terms of their scope, or capability of influencing
employees in a variety of different situations. Use what you know about how organizations and
managers typically operate to logically expand upon the specific comments made in the text on this
topic.
ANS:
The sources of a leader's power are: legitimate, reward, coercive, referent, and expert power.
Legitimate power comes from the leader's position in the organization, and refers to the ability to
influence followers because the leader has the right to request they do something, and they have the
obligation to comply. Reward power comes from the leader's ability to provide something positively
desired by followers in return for behaviors the leader expected and wanted. Coercive power is the
potential to influence others through the use of sanctions or punishment. Referent power usually is
associated with individuals who possess admired personal characteristics, such as humility, integrity,
and courage. It is manifest when followers engage in behaviors because they admire the leader, want to
be like the leader, and want to receive the leader's approval. Expert power is manifest when followers
engage in behaviors because they believe that the leader has special knowledge and knows what is
needed to accomplish a goal or solve a problem. Expert power has a narrow scope, in that followers
are influenced by a leader only within that leader's area of expertise.
The above paragraph summarizes the text's direct statements on this topic. True critical thinking
responses to this question will go beyond the above statements to include some comments on the
logical differences in power scope for all five power bases, given the manner in which organizations
typically operate. For example, it should be pointed out that the scope of legitimate, reward, and
coercive power will depend upon the leader's specific job description and responsibilities, as well as
his or her position in the organizational hierarchy. Typically, managers further up in the hierarchy will
have a greater scope of power in all of these areas (e.g., a vice-president versus a frontline supervisor),
and in most cases a line manager will have a greater scope of power than a staff manager (e.g., the
power of a production manager is typically greater than that of a human resource manager). Similarly,
since referent power relies on broadly defined, desirable personal characteristics, insightful students
will identify it as the source of power that may have the broadest scope in an organizational setting. In
fact, referent power may sometimes allow a manager to influence the behavior of employees over
whom he or she has neither reward, legitimate, nor coercive power (e.g., employees who report to a
different manager in a different department). In any event, all responses should minimally identify
expert power as having the most restricted scope, as this is clearly presented in the text and such a
response requires minimal originality or insight. Even in this case, students should point out that the
scope of the manager's expert power will vary depending upon the scope of the manager's expertise.
For some managers, with considerable education, training, experience, and expertise, this scope could
well be relatively wide.

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Synthesis
3. Describe the role of political behavior in the leadership process and how leaders can foster or
minimize political behaviors of subordinates in relation to the performance appraisal process.
ANS:
All leaders engage in political behavior to influence others - sometimes ineffectively. Political
behavior and organizational politics focus on efforts to protect to enhance self-interest, goals, and
preferred outcomes. The drivers of political behavior include disagreements over goals, different ideas
about the organization and its problems, different information about the situation, and the need to
allocate scarce resources. Leaders and employees are more likely to act politically when decision-
making procedures and performance measures are uncertain and complex, and competition for scarce
resources is strong. Even though individual differences may contribute to political behavior, such
behavior is typically more strongly influenced by aspects of the situation. Political behavior is higher
when leaders reward it. Because performance of employees is not easily measured, the allocation of
scarce resources (such as pay) is based on complex criteria. To minimize problems with politics in
performance appraisals, leaders should develop goals and standards that are a clear and specific as
possible, link specific actions and performance results to rewards, conduct structured, professional
reviews, including specific examples of observed performance and explanations for ratings given,
offer performance feedback on an ongoing basis, rather than once a year, acknowledge that appraisal
politics exists and make this topic a focus of ongoing discussions throughout the organization.

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Application
4. Explain how the Situational Leadership Model apparently builds upon and extends the earlier work of
the behavioral leadership theorists.
ANS:
The early work of the behavioral leadership theorists emphasized leaders actions rather than their
traits, and identified two distinct leader behaviors--initiating structure and consideration--that comprise
two main dimensions of leader behavior. The behavioral theorists went on to identify specific
circumstances in which either consideration or initiating structure would tend to have more positive
effects on employee performance and job satisfaction. However, the behavioral model tends to ignore
the situation in which the leader is operating.
The Situational Leadership Model begins where the behavioral model leaves off. Rather than try to
identify the leadership characteristics that apply in most situations, this model, as a contingency
theory, attempted to identify how a situational variable (follower readiness) made combinations of the
specific leadership behaviors more or less effective. In the Situational Leadership Model, initiating
structure is referred to as task behavior, and consideration is referred to as relationship behavior. These
dimensions can independently vary from low to high, creating a four quadrant model of possible
leadership styles. These styles are referred to as telling (high task and low relationship), selling (high
task and high relationship), participating (low task and high relationship) and delegating (low task and
low relationship). The situational variable of follower readiness (defined as the subordinate's ability
and willingness to perform the prescribed tasks) is used to identify the appropriate leadership style in
the context of that one situational variable. Thus, the model builds upon and extends the earlier work
of the behavioral leadership theorists by demonstrating how the two main dimensions of leadership
behavior can be varied to promote greater leader effectiveness, given a specific set of characteristics on
the part of subordinates. In this process, it has served as a decision tool for many managers attempting
to determine which leadership approach would be most effective for them to use in a given situation.

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Application
5. Review the following scenario, and (a) identify which leadership style the Situational Leadership
Model would recommend for Juan, and (b) explain why that style would be appropriate.
Juan supervises the work of a team of experienced design engineers who are required to develop
production specifications from rough plans drawn up by the product development group. This is
complicated and challenging work that requires considerable creativity and expertise in order to
maximize both product quality and efficiency in the production process. Juan is the team leader
because he has the most experience and is the most knowledgeable member of the team. The team has
just been assigned a new project. Team members are enthusiastic about the challenge involved, but not
completely certain that they have the necessary expertise required. Juan knows that every member of
the team is capable of producing excellent designs on this project, and that they just lack confidence in
their abilities.
ANS:
The Situational Leadership Model recommends that a leader vary the level of his or her directive
(task oriented) versus supportive (relationship oriented) behavior, depending upon the level of follower
readiness. Follower readiness is defined as the subordinate's ability and willingness to perform a task.
As follower readiness increases from low through moderate to high, the model specifies a decrease in
directive behavior, and an increase, then decrease in supportive behavior. This analysis provides four
possible leadership styles: telling (appropriate for low follower readiness, characterized by high task
and low relationship behavior); selling (appropriate for low-moderate follower readiness, characterized
by high task and high relationship behavior); participating (appropriate for high-moderate follower
readiness, characterized by low task and high relationship behavior); and delegating (appropriate for
high follower readiness, characterized by low task and low relationship behavior). Under the
circumstances described, it appears that the subordinates are able but not fully confident of their ability
to perform the tasks. Therefore, a participating style would probably be most appropriate.

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Evaluation
6. Explain how the Vroom-Jago leadership model differs from other leadership models.
ANS:
The Vroom-Jago leadership model differs from other leadership models in that it (1) focuses on the
role played by leaders in making decisions, (2) utilizes a decision matrix for systematically diagnosing
the situation, and (3) emphasizes different criteria in evaluating leader effectiveness. While other
models are designed to select among, essentially, task and relationship-oriented leadership styles, the
Vroom-Jago model selects a style along a continuum from autocratic (decide) to participative
(delegate). The concrete decision matrix and related "Expert System" computer program are probably
the most significant dimensions in the model, because they facilitate a careful and systematic diagnosis
of the situation. Diagnosis in the other models is less refined and more intuitive. Finally, the Vroom-
Jago model evaluates leader effectiveness in terms of more and different criteria (including decision
quality, commitment to implementation, employee development, and cost) as opposed to the other
models, which consider essentially only one or two criteria--performance and employee satisfaction. If
a situation requires making a decision with a group, the Vroom-Jago model is the only one that
specifically addresses the selection of an appropriate leadership style. If improving individual
performance is most important, then the Situational Leadership Model may be more useful.

NAT: AACSB Analytic | Leadership Principles MSC: Analysis
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whether their seat is central or peripheral. We will notice here some
of the prominent symptoms resulting from nerve injuries which may
be useful in distinguishing peripheral from central lesions, although
in many cases it is only by the careful consideration of all symptoms
and the impartial weighing of all attending circumstances that a
probable conclusion can be arrived at.
The rapid loss of muscular tone and the early atrophy of the muscles
is a mark of paralysis from nerve-injury which distinguishes it from
cerebral paralysis, even when the latter occupies circumscribed
areas, as is sometimes the case in cortical brain lesion. In spinal
paralysis also the muscles retain their tone and volume (the latter
being slightly diminished by disuse), except in extensive destruction
of gray matter, when all tonicity is lost, and in lesions of the anterior
horns of gray matter (poliomyelitis), when there is loss of muscular
tone and marked atrophy. The first of these spinal affections may be
distinguished by the profound anæsthesia and by the paralysis being
bilateral—by the implication of bladder and rectum and the tendency
to the formation of bed-sores; such symptoms being only possible
from nerve-injury when the cauda equina is involved. In poliomyelitis
the complete integrity of sensation—which is almost always
interfered with at some period after nerve-injury—and the history of
previous constitutional disturbance will aid us in recognizing the
diseased condition. While the reflexes are wanting in peripheral, they
are, as a rule, retained, and often exaggerated, in cerebral and
spinal paralysis; the exceptions being in the two lesions of the cord
above mentioned, in which the reflex arc is of course destroyed by
the implication of the gray matter. Loss or alteration of sensation,
where it occurs from nerve-injury, generally shows itself in the
distribution of the nerve, while the sensitive disturbances from
disease or injury of the brain or spinal cord are less strictly confined
to special nerve territories. The trophic disturbances arising from
nerve-irritation are distinctively characteristic of nerve-injury.
But it is in the behavior of the nerves and muscles to electricity that

we find some of the strongest points on which to base a diagnosis of
nerve-injury, and, although not always conclusive as to the seat of
lesion, it enables us to reduce within very narrow limits the field for
discrimination. The degenerative reaction which we have seen takes
place in muscles the continuity of whose nerves have been
destroyed, or in which degenerative changes have taken place in
consequence of injury to their nerves, is never found in muscles
paralyzed from the brain. In spinal paralysis resulting from
transverse myelitis the electrical excitability of the nerves and
muscles may be increased or diminished, but there is no
degenerative reaction. In progressive muscular atrophy a careful
electrical examination may discover the degenerative reaction in the
affected muscles; but it is too obscure, and there are besides too
many characteristic symptoms in that disease, to allow of a practical
difficulty in diagnosis from its presence. In poliomyelitis anterior
(infantile paralysis and the kindred affection in the adult) we have, it
is true, the quantitative, qualitative changes of degenerative reaction,
such as are seen after nerve-injury, and in such cases its presence
is not conclusive of peripheral lesion. Here we may be assisted by
remembering that while in poliomyelitis sensation is intact, in nerve-
injury it is almost always affected in a greater or less degree,
although it may have been recognizable but for a short time. In lead
paralysis we also have the degenerative reaction, but whether the
seat of lesion in that affection is central or peripheral is an undecided
question.
TREATMENT OF NERVE-INJURIES.—The therapeutics of nerve-injuries

belong largely to surgery. When there is complete division of a nerve
the ends should be united by suture at the time of injury. When this
has not been done, and after the lapse of time no return of function
is observed, the ends of the nerve should be sought for, refreshed
with the knife, and brought together by suture. There is the more
hope that such a procedure will be successful as we know that after
a time the fibres of the peripheral portion of the nerve may be
regenerated, even when there has been no reunion, and thus be in a
condition to render the operation successful. It is a matter for
consideration whether in injuries in which a certain portion of the
nerve, not too great in extent, has been crushed or otherwise
obviously destroyed, it would not be best to excise the destroyed
portion and bring the ends together. Whether the use of electricity,
the galvanic current, hastens the regeneration and restitution of the
injured nerves cannot be affirmed with certainty, although in practice
this has seemed to us to be the case, and the known catalytic action
of the current gives us a possible explanation of such beneficial
effects. But, however this may be, it is certain that with the first
symptoms of returning function in the nerves and muscles the use of
electricity obviously accelerates the improvement. And, again, in the
treatment of the results of nerve-injury, such as paralysis,
anæsthesia, pain, it is in the careful and very patient use of the
electric currents, both faradic and galvanic, that most confidence is
to be placed; the galvanic being generally most applicable and giving
the better results. The symptoms of nerve-irritation are amongst
those most difficult to treat successfully. Counter-irritation, heat, cold,
electricity, may all be tried in vain, and as a last resource against
pain, ulceration, and perverted nutrition we may be obliged to resort
to nerve-stretching, or neurotomy. Under the head of Neuritis much
must be said of treatment applicable to the inflammation, acute and
chronic, resulting from nerve-injuries.
INFLAMMATION OF NERVES.
Neuritis.
Although inflammation of the nerves has been for a long time a

recognized disease, its frequency and the extent and importance of
its results have been appreciated only within a comparatively short
time. The observations upon neuritis were formerly almost
exclusively confined to acute cases, the results of traumatic lesions
or the invasion of neighboring disease, while the more obscure forms
occurring from cold, toxic substances in the circulation, constitutional
disease, etc., or those apparently of spontaneous origin, escaped
attention, or were classed according to their symptoms simply as
neurosis, functional disease of the nerves, or affections of the spinal
cord. Hence the classic picture of neuritis is made to resemble
exclusively the acute inflammation of other tissues, and tends to
blind as to the subtler but not less important morbid processes in the
nerves which at present we must classify as inflammation, though
wanting, it may be, in some of the striking features seen in
connection with inflammatory processes elsewhere. In short, we
must not look for heat, redness, pain, and swelling as absolutely
necessary to a neuritis.
Entering into the structure of the peripheral nerves we have the true
nervous constituent, the fibres, and the non-nervous constituent, the
peri- and endoneurium, in which are found the blood-vessels and
lymph-channels. Though intimately combined, these tissues,
absolutely distinct structurally and functionally, may be separately
invaded by disease; and although it may not be practicable nor
essential in every case to decide if we have to do with a
parenchymatous or interstitial (peri-) neuritis, it is necessary to keep
in mind how much the picture of disease may be modified according
as one or the other of the constituents of the nerve are separately or
predominantly involved. Thus, a different group of symptoms will be
seen when the vascular peri- and endoneurium is the seat of
inflammation from that which appears when the non-vascular nerve-
fibres are themselves primarily attacked and succumb to the
inflammatory process with simple degeneration of their tissue.
Furthermore, it is not too speculative to consider that the different
kinds of nerve-fibres may be liable separately or in different degrees
to morbid conditions, so that when mixed nerves are the seat of
neuritis, motor, sensitive, or trophic symptoms may have a different
prominence in different cases in proportion as one or other kind of
fibres is most affected.
ETIOLOGY.—Traumatic and mechanical injuries of nerves are the

most common and best understood causes of neuritis. Not only may
it be occasioned by wounds, blows, compression, and other insults
to the nerves themselves, but jolting and concussion of the body,
and even sudden and severe muscular exertion, have been recorded
as giving rise to it. We readily understand how neuritis is caused by
the nerves becoming involved in an inflammation extending to them
from adjacent parts, although the nerves in many instances show a
remarkable resistance to surrounding disease. Less easily
understood but undoubted causes of neuritis are to be found in the
influence of cold, especially when the body is subjected to it after
violent exertion. Although the causal connection is unexplained, we
find neuritis a frequent sequel of acute diseases, as typhoid fever,
diphtheria, smallpox, etc. In the course of many chronic
constitutional affections, as syphilis, gout, elephantiasis græcorum,
we encounter neuritis so frequently as to make us look for its cause
in these diseases. Finally, neuritis may develop apparently
spontaneously in one or many nerves.
MORBID ANATOMY.—The macroscopic appearance of nerves affected

by neuritis is very varied, according as the disease is more interstitial
or parenchymatous, acute or chronic. Sometimes the nerve is
swollen, red, or livid, the blood-vessels distended, with here and
there points of hemorrhage, the glistening white of the fibres being
changed to a dull gray. Sometimes the nerves are reduced to gray
shrunken cords. When the perineurium has been the principal seat
of the inflammation we may have swellings at intervals along the
course of the nerve (neuritis nodosa, perineuritis nodosa acuta) or,
as in chronic neuritis, the trunk of the nerve may be hard and
thickened from proliferation of the connective tissue, sclerosis of the
nerve. The nerve does not always present the appearance of
continuous inflammation, but the evidence of neuritis may be seen at
points along its course which are separated by sound tissue. These
points of predilection are usually exposed positions of the nerve or
near joints. Often the nerve appears to the naked eye normal, and
the characteristic changes of neuritis are only revealed by the
microscope. The microscopical changes in neuritis may extend to all
of the constituents of the nerve, and present the ordinary picture of
acute inflammation, hyperæmia, exudation, accumulation of white
corpuscles in the tissues, and even the formation of pus, the nerve-
fibres exhibiting in various degrees the destruction of the white
substance of Schwann and the axis-cylinder. Or, as in chronic
neuritis, the alterations may consist in the more gradual proliferation
of the peri- and endoneurium, which, contracting, renders the nerve
dense and hard and destroys the nerve-fibres by compression. In
acute as well as in chronic neuritis the perineurium may be
exclusively affected, the fibres remaining normal (Curschman and
Eisenlohr). The nerve-fibres themselves may be the primary and
almost exclusive seat of the neuritis, exhibiting more or less
complete destruction of all their constituent parts, except the sheath
of Schwann, without hyperæmia and with little or no alteration of the
interstitial tissue. Sometimes the fibres are affected at intervals, the
degeneration occupying a segment between two of Ranvier's nodes,
leaving the fibre above and below normal (nèvrite segmentaire peri-
axile, Gombault). All of these lesions of the nerve-fibres may be
recovered from by a process of regeneration, the fibres showing a
remarkable tendency to recover their normal structure and function.
SYMPTOMS OF NEURITIS.—When a mixed nerve is the seat of an acute

neuritis, with hyperæmia of its blood-vessels, it becomes swollen by
inflammatory exudation, and can be felt as a hard cord amongst the
surrounding tissues. It is not only highly sensitive to direct pressure,
but muscular exertion, or even passive movement of the part, excites
pain. Spontaneous pain is one of the most prominent symptoms, and
is sometimes so severe and continuous as to destroy the self-control
of the patient, and demand the employment of every agent we
possess for benumbing sensibility and quieting the excited system.
At first there may be hyperæsthesia of the skin in the region of the
distribution of the nerve, but a much more constant and significant
symptom is cutaneous anæsthesia, which generally makes its
appearance early in the course of the disease. The degree and
extent of the anæsthesia varies very much in different cases, but is
seldom total, except over small areas, even when the inflammation
has seriously damaged the nerve-fibres. This is explained by the
sensibility supplied to the part by neighboring nerves, as already
described in treating of traumatic nerve-injuries. Very characteristic
of acute neuritis are various abnormal sensations (paræsthesiæ)
which are developed in a greater or less degree during the progress
of the disease, and are described by the patients as numbness,
tingling, pins and needles, burning, etc. In a case of acute neuritis of
the ulnar nerve seen by the writer the patient was much annoyed by
a persistent sensation of coldness in the little and ring fingers, which
caused him to keep them heavily wrapped up even in the warm
weather of summer. When motor symptoms make their appearance
they begin with paresis of the muscles, which may increase rapidly
to paralysis. As this is the result of destructive changes, more or less
complete, in the motor nerve-fibres, we will have, as would be
expected, accompanying the paralysis the symptoms already
detailed in the consideration of nerve-injuries with destruction of
continuity—namely, absence of muscular tone, loss of skin and
tendon reflexes, increased mechanical excitability, atrophy of
muscles, and the different forms of degenerative reaction, with loss
of faradic contractility. When spasm or tremor has been observed in
acute neuritis of mixed nerves, it is a matter of doubt whether it is not
to be explained by reflex action of the cord excited by irritated
centripetal fibres. Various trophic symptoms may show themselves,
as herpes zoster or acute œdema. Erythematous streaks and
patches are sometimes observed upon the skin along the course of
the inflamed nerve-trunks. In chronic neuritis, into which acute
neuritis generally subsides or which arises spontaneously, the
symptoms above described are very much modified; indeed, cases
occur which exist for a long time almost without symptoms. While the
affected nerve may be hard and thickened by proliferation of its
connective tissue, pain, spontaneous or elicited by pressure, is not of
the aggravated character present in acute neuritis, and may be quite
a subordinate symptom. It has more of a rheumatic character, is less
distinctly localized, more paroxysmal, and has a greater tendency to
radiate to other nerves. It is probable that many ill-defined, so-called
rheumatic pains which are so frequently complained of are the result
of obscure chronic neuritis. Anæsthesia and various paræsthesiæ
are often more prominent symptoms than pain. Sometimes there is a
hyperæsthesic condition of the skin, in which touching or stroking the
affected part causes a peculiarly disagreeable nervous thrill, from
which the patient shrinks, but which, however, is not described as
pain.
The motor symptoms in chronic neuritis of mixed nerves often
remain for a remarkably long time in abeyance or may be altogether
wanting. They may appear as tremor, spasm, or contraction, these,
however, being probably reflex phenomena. Most commonly there is
paresis, which may deepen into paralysis with atrophy of muscles
and degenerative reaction. The trophic changes dependent on
chronic neuritis are frequently very prominent and important. The
skin sometimes becomes rough and scaly, sometimes atrophied,
smooth, and shining (glossy skin). Œdema of the subcutaneous
cellular tissue is often seen, for example, on the dorsum of the hand,
where it may be very marked. The hair of the affected part shows
sometimes increased growth, sometimes it falls off. The nails may
become thickened, ridged, and distorted. Deformity of joints with
enlargement of the ends of the bones is not infrequently met with as
the result of chronic neuritis. In short, we may meet with all of those
trophic changes which have been described as arising from nerve-
irritation, and which occur in chronic neuritis as the result of
compression of nerve-fibres by the contraction of the proliferated
connective tissue in the nerve-trunk.
The symptom-complex varies greatly in neuritis, so that there is

hardly a symptom which may not be greatly modified or even
wanting in some cases—a fact, which, as we have already said, may
be explained by the morbid process fixing itself exclusively or in
different degrees upon one or other of the component parts of the
nerve-trunk, or, it may be, upon fibres of different functional
endowment. Thus pain, usually one of the most prominent symptoms
of neuritis, may be quite subordinate, or even absent, in cases of
neuritis acute in invasion and progress. In a case of neuritis of the
ulnar nerve seen by the writer, beginning suddenly with numbness
and paresis, and rapidly developing paralysis, atrophy of muscles,
loss of faradic contractility, with degenerative reaction, there was no
pain during the disease, which ended in recovery.7 On the other
hand, in mixed nerves the sensitive fibres may be long affected,
giving rise to pain and various paræsthesiæ before the motor fibres
are implicated, or these last may escape altogether.
7 “Two Cases of Neuritis of the Ulnar Nerve,” Maryland Medical Journal, Sept., 1881.
The swollen condition of the nerve, so characteristic in many cases

of neuritis where the perineurium is the seat of a hyperæmia, is
wanting in cases where the stress of the attack is upon the nerve-
fibres themselves. Again, the trophic changes induced in the tissues
by a neuritis may predominate greatly over the sensitive or motor
alterations. Thus, in the majority of cases in which herpes zoster
occurs it is without pain or paræsthesia. Indeed, in chronic neuritis
the symptoms show such variations in different cases that it is
difficult to give a general picture of the disease sufficiently
comprehensive and at the same time distinctive. The prognosis in
acute neuritis is generally favorable, although it must depend in a
great measure upon the persistence of the cause producing it. Thus,
if it has been excited by the inflammation of neighboring organs it
cannot be expected to disappear while these continue in their
diseased condition. In other cases the symptoms may subside with
comparative rapidity; and so great is the capacity of the nerve-fibres
for regeneration that recovery may be complete and nothing remain
to indicate the previous inflammation. The nerve, however, that has
once suffered from neuritis shows for a long time a tendency to take
on an inflammatory action from slight exciting causes. If there has
resulted an atrophy of muscles, we must expect some time to elapse
before they recover their functional activity and normal electric
reaction.
Acute neuritis most frequently passes into the chronic form, and it
may then drag on indefinitely, stubbornly resisting treatment and
giving rise to permanent derangement of sensibility, loss of muscular
power, or perverted nutrition. Neuritis shows a tendency to spread
along the affected nerve centripetally, sometimes reaching the spinal
cord, and, as it has appeared in some cases, even the brain, causing
tetanus or epilepsy.
Reflex paralyses, which at one time were believed to be the not

infrequent result of nerve-irritation and inflammation, affecting from a
distance the functions of the spinal cord, have been shown to be the
effect of an extension of the lesion of the inflamed nerve to the cord,
causing organic disease. Instances of the extension of a neuritis to
distant nerves, as those of an opposite extremity, without the
implication of the spinal cord (neuritis sympathica), are most
probably cases of multiple neuritis, to be considered farther on.
The DIAGNOSIS of cases of traumatic neuritis can scarcely present a

difficulty. Acute neuritis with spontaneous pain, swelling, and
tenderness of the nerve, presents distinctive features hardly to be
confounded with any other affection, although thrombosis of certain
veins, as the saphenous, may present some of its symptoms. To
distinguish chronic neuritis or the cases wanting those obvious
symptoms just indicated (many cases of sciatica) from neuralgia is a
more difficult task. The following distinctive points may be noted: In
neuritis the persistent and continuous character of the pain helps us
to distinguish it from the more paroxysmal exacerbations of
neuralgia, and its tendency, often seen, to spread centripetally
spontaneously or when pressure is made on the nerve, may be also
considered as characteristic of neuritis. Cutaneous anæsthesia,
paresis, and atrophy of muscles are distinctive in any case of a
neuritis rather than a neuralgia. Herpes zoster and other trophic
changes speak strongly for a neuritis.
In the TREATMENT of neuritis the first indication is to get rid, as far as

possible, of such conditions as may cause or keep up the
inflammation, as, for instance, the proper treatment of wounds, the
removal of foreign bodies, the adjustment of fractures, the reduction
of dislocations, the extirpation of tumors, etc. Absolute repose of the
affected part in the position of greatest relaxation and rest is to be
scrupulously enforced. In acute neuritis local abstraction of blood by
leeches and cups in the beginning of the affection is of the greatest
advantage and should be freely employed. The application of heat
along the course of the inflamed nerve has appeared to us
preferable to the use of ice, although this also may be employed with
excellent effect. The agonizing pain must be relieved by narcotics,
and the hypodermic injection of morphia is the most efficient mode of
exhibition. Salicylic acid or salicylate of sodium in large doses
contributes to control the pain. Iodide of potassium in large doses
appears to act beneficially, even in cases with no syphilitic
complications. In subacute or chronic neuritis local bloodletting is not
as imperatively demanded as in the acute form, although it is
sometimes useful. Here counter-irritation in its various forms and
degrees, even to the actual cautery, is to be recommended. An
excellent counter-irritation is produced by the application of the
faradic current with the metallic brush. It appears from general
experience that the counter-irritation has the best effect when
applied at a little distance from the inflamed nerve, and not directly
over its course. In the galvanic current we possess one of the very
best means not only for relieving the symptoms of chronic neuritis,
but for modifying the morbid processes in the nerve and bringing
about a restoration to the healthy condition. Its application is best
made by placing the anode or positive pole as near as possible to
the seat of the disease, while the cathode or negative pole is fixed
upon an indifferent spot at a convenient distance. The positive pole
may be held stationary or slowly stroked along the nerve. Finally, in
protracted cases nerve-stretching may be resorted to with great
benefit. It probably owes its good effects to the breaking up of minute
adhesions which have formed between the sheath of the nerve and
the surrounding tissues, and which act as sources of irritation.
Multiple Neuritis, Multiple Degenerative Neuritis, Polyneuritis.
Cases of this important form of neuritis have been observed and

recorded since 1864, but the resemblance of its symptoms to those
of certain diseases of the central nervous system (poliomyelitis,
Landry's paralysis, etc.) has prevented its general recognition, and it
is only within the last few years that its distinctive pathological
lesions have been demonstrated and its diagnosis made with
considerable certainty. We can hardly overrate the importance of this
in view of the great difference in gravity of prognosis between it and
other diseases with which it may be confounded.
Multiple neuritis consists in a simultaneous or more or less rapidly
succeeding inflammation of several or many usually bilaterally
situated nerves, with a greatly preponderating, almost exclusive,
lesion of the motor fibres. Commonly the disease attacks the lower
extremities and progresses upward, although occasionally it has
been seen to begin in the arms. It does not confine itself to the
nerves of the extremities and trunk, but often involves the phrenics,
causing paralysis of the diaphragm, and frequently invades one or
more of the cranial nerves, notably the vagus, thus giving rise to the
rapid heart-beat so often seen in the disease. In the cases of
multiple neuritis observed the muscles of deglutition have never
been paralyzed. The sphincter ani and bladder have likewise
escaped. All degrees of acuteness are observed in the course it
runs, from the cases terminating rapidly in death to those in which
the disease extends over months, slowly involving nerve after nerve,
until nearly all of the muscles of the body are paralyzed, when death
may result or a more or less complete recovery take place. The
invasion of the disease is in most cases sudden, even when its
subsequent course is chronic, and is often marked by decided
constitutional disturbance, as rigors, fever, delirium, albuminuria, etc.
Disturbances of sensation are prominent among the initial
symptoms, and are of great importance for the diagnosis of the
disease. Severe, spontaneous, paroxysmal pain of a shooting,
tearing character has ushered in most of the cases on record,
remitting, however, during their progress. Pain is not always present,
nevertheless, and cases not infrequently occur which run a painless
course. In some cases which have come under the writer's notice
spontaneous pain did not occur until some days after the disease
was fully declared by other symptoms. More constantly present, and
more characteristic of multiple neuritis, are the disturbances of
sensation which show themselves in subjective feelings of
numbness, tingling, pins and needles, coldness, burning, and other
paræsthesiæ, which appear at its outset and continue to be present
more or less during its course. Anæsthesia, not of a high degree nor
at all coextensive with the paralysis of the muscles—sometimes,
indeed, confined to very circumscribed areas—may be said to exist
always in multiple neuritis—a fact of great diagnostic value.
Hyperæsthesia of the skin is frequently seen. Hyperalgesia and
analgesia are sometimes observed. Hyperæsthesia of the muscles is
a very marked symptom in almost every case, and shows itself not
only upon direct pressure being made, but also in the pain elicited by
passive movements of the parts affected. Pressure upon nerve-
trunks does not cause pain as invariably as might have been
expected from the location of the disease. Delayed sensation has
been frequently observed.
Paresis of muscles, often commencing suddenly, is early seen in

multiple neuritis, and increases until there is more or less complete
paralysis, the most important feature of the disease. The paralyzed
muscles present the flabby condition characteristic of muscles
deprived of the tonic influence of the spinal cord. Atrophy, which is
not commensurate, however, with the paralysis, soon begins, and
may go on to an extreme degree. As the paralysis develops the
tendon reflexes are lost, and there may be diminution or loss of the
skin reflexes also. The paralyzed muscles lose their faradic
contractility, and exhibit diminution of electric excitability to the
galvanic current, and, finally, the various forms of degenerative
reaction. It is remarkable that neither the impairment of sensation nor
the paralysis is, as a rule, strictly confined to the areas of distribution
of particular nerves, but is diffused over regions of the body. Thus in
the limbs the motor and sensory symptoms are most marked at their
extremities, gradually diminishing toward the trunk. In some cases
multiple neuritis appears to have occasioned the inco-ordinate
movements of locomotor ataxy. In the progress of the disease a
rigidity and contracted condition of muscles may be developed,
occasioning a fixed flexion of some of the joints. Profuse sweating,
œdema of the hands and feet, trophic changes in the skin, mark at
times the implication of trophic and vaso-motor nerves. Bed-sores do
not occur.
The pathological changes in pure cases of multiple neuritis are found

in the nerve-trunks, mainly toward their peripheral terminations, and
in their muscular branches, the evidences of disease diminishing
toward the larger trunks, the nerve-roots being unaffected and the
spinal cord showing no lesions. Sometimes the affected nerves
present, even to the naked eye, unmistakable proof of acute
inflammation. They are reddened by hyperæmia, swollen by
exudation, and small extravasations of blood may be seen among
their fibres. The microscope shows congestion of the blood-vessels,
exudation of the white corpuscles, even to the formation of pus,
alteration of the endo- and perineurium; in short, all the evidence of
an interstitial inflammation, the nerve-fibres being comparatively little
altered, and suffering, as it were, at second hand. In most of the
cases, however, the nerves macroscopically present little or nothing
giving indication of disease. The microscopic changes, however, are
extensive, and pertain almost exclusively to the nerve-fibres
themselves. These are altered and degenerated, giving an
appearance almost precisely the same as already described in
treating of the changes occurring in nerves separated by injury from
the centres—Wallerian degeneration.8 There is no hyperæmia,
thickening, or change in the endoneurium. So great are these
differences in the microscopic appearance of the nerves in different
cases of multiple neuritis that objection has been raised to classing
the two varieties together, and it has been argued that we cannot
with right designate the cases in which hyperæmia and other
evidence of a general inflammation are absent as neuritis. It has
been, however, argued—apparently, to the writer, with better reason
—that the same morbid influence which at one time affects the
blood-vessels, causing their congestion and the passage through
their walls of the white corpuscles and the exudation of inflammation,
may at another time, by a direct and isolated influence upon the
nerve-fibres, cause their degeneration; in other words, that there
may be a parenchymatous neuritis, which shall affect only the nerve-
fibres. The vastly disproportionate implication of the motor fibres
would point to the fact of a selective infection in multiple neuritis of
certain fibres, as there is a selective infection in poliomyelitis of the
motor cells of the anterior horns of the spinal gray matter.
8 Gombault's observations (Arch. de Névrologie, 1880) would seem to show that
there is a difference in the lesion of the fibres in neuritis from that in simple Wallerian
degeneration, inasmuch as that in the former the first alteration is seen about the
nodes of Ranvier, and occurs at points separated from each other by healthy fibre,
and also in the more tardy destruction of the axis-cylinder.
ETIOLOGY.—Much in the symptomatology of multiple neuritis,

especially of its invasion, strongly urges us to the conclusion that it is
a constitutional disease caused by an unknown morbid influence, the
stress of which falls upon the nervous system. This view receives
strong support from the history of the Japanese kak-ke or Indian
beriberi, a disease at times epidemic in those countries, and which
has the undoubted symptoms and the characteristic pathological
alterations of multiple neuritis. After many acute infectious diseases
neuritis of individual nerves is not uncommon, but the distinctive
characteristics of multiple neuritis have, so far, been observed
almost exclusively after diphtheria, to which it is not infrequently a
sequel. It has been observed as the result at least occurring in
intimate connection with polyarthritis, and the frequency with which it
has occurred in the phthisical is remarkable. There have been not a
few cases of multiple neuritis recorded as having been produced by
chronic alcohol-poisoning. A well-marked case has come under the
writer's observation in which the immediate cause was acute
poisoning by arsenious acid, a very large amount having been taken
at one dose by mistake. The poison of syphilis has been regarded as
standing in a causal relation to multiple neuritis. For the rest, the
exciting causes (probably acting in connection with a peculiar
condition of the system) have appeared to be exposure to cold, great
muscular exertion, direct mechanical injury to the nerves, as the
rough jolting of a wagon, or the inflammation of a nerve which has in
some unknown way extended to others.
The DIAGNOSIS of multiple neuritis in certain cases presents great

difficulty, from the close resemblance of its symptoms to those of
poliomyelitis. The prominent symptoms in the muscular system—viz.
paralysis, atrophy, the degenerative reaction—are the same in both.
It may be remarked, however, that in multiple neuritis the paralysis is
more generally diffused over the muscles of the affected limbs, while
in poliomyelitis it is more confined to the areas of distribution of
particular nerve-branches. Pain is common to the beginning of both
diseases, but it generally passes off more quickly and completely in
poliomyelitis. The persistent hyperæsthesia of the muscles is
wanting in poliomyelitis. But it is in the diminution and alteration of
sensation that we have the surest means of distinguishing between
the two affections. This symptom seldom or never fails to show itself
in multiple neuritis, although its area may be circumscribed and it
may be slight in degree, while it certainly makes no part of the
symptomatology of poliomyelitis. It has been asserted that the
implication of the cranial nerves so often seen in multiple neuritis
never occurs in poliomyelitis. When we consider the intimate
connection of the anterior horns of the spinal gray matter with the
motor nerve-fibres, it appears highly probable that the same morbid
influence may invade both simultaneously or in quick succession,
thus producing a complex of symptoms rendering a diagnosis very
difficult, and probably giving rise to some confusion in the recorded
symptoms of multiple neuritis. From Landry's paralysis multiple
neuritis is to be distinguished by the impairment of sensibility, the
loss of faradic contractility, and absence of the tendon reflex; from
progressive muscular atrophy, by the loss of sensibility and the much
more obvious degenerative reaction.
The PROGNOSIS of multiple neuritis is in the great majority of cases

not grave, so far as life is concerned, even when there is extensive
paralysis. Death may occur early in the acute form of the disease or
it may take place at the end of chronic cases. When the disease
proves fatal, it is from paralysis of the diaphragm and the other
muscles of respiration. Where the paralysis and atrophy have been
great, showing profound alteration of the nerves, a long time is
required for recovery, and more or less paralysis, contracture, or
defective sensibility may permanently remain.
The TREATMENT consists, at the outset, in rest and position, the local
abstraction of blood (in cases where the nerve-trunk is swollen and
tender), and the administration of such drugs as we suppose act
favorably upon the inflammation of the nerves. Salicylic acid or
salicylate of sodium seem to act beneficially in relieving the severe
pains in the outset of the disease. Iodide of potassium, gradually
increased until large doses are taken, has, in the experience of the
writer, seemed to beneficially modify the course of multiple neuritis.
The necessary relief of pain is best obtained by hypodermic
injections of morphia, supplemented by heat applied to the affected
nerves. To these means may be added rubbing with chloroform and
applying to the painful parts cloths dipped in a 5 per cent. solution of
carbolic acid. After the acute stage has been passed and in chronic
cases, just as soon as we have reason to suppose that the
degenerative process in the nerves has come to a standstill, we
possess in the use of electricity the means of hastening the
regeneration of the nerve-fibres, strengthening the paralyzed
muscles, and restoring the sensation. The galvanic current is to be
preferred, and it is to be applied to the crippled nerves and muscles
—sometimes stable for its electrolytic action, sometimes interrupted
to obtain its exciting and stimulating effect. The excitement to nerves
and muscles by the use of the faradic current has also its uses in
hastening recovery. Protracted treatment and much patience are
required to overcome contractions and restore the nerves and
muscles, and the effects of the disease may be seen for a long time
in the weakness and diminished electric reaction of the muscles.
Anæsthesia of Peripheral Origin.
A prominent and important symptom of the lesion of peripheral

nerves is the diminution and loss of cutaneous sensibility. Besides
the anæsthesia caused by the affections of the fibres themselves,
which has been touched upon in the preceding pages, it may be
produced by morbid states of the peripheral end-organs or
cutaneous terminations of the nerves. Cold applied to a nerve-trunk
may produce alterations which for days after cause numbness and
paræsthesia in the surface to which it is distributed, and the
application of cold to the surface of the body, as we know from
common observation, causes blunting of the cutaneous sensations,
especially that of touch. In this way, from exposure to the
atmosphere at low temperatures, to cold winds, or by the immersion
of the body in cold water, the end-organs of the nerves in the skin
are morbidly affected, and anæsthesia results, the so-called
rheumatic anæsthesia. Many substances, as acids, notably carbolic
acid, alkalies, narcotics, etc., act upon the cutaneous end-organs in
a way to destroy their capacity for receiving or transmitting
impressions and produce a more or less persistent anæsthesia of
the skin. In the anæsthesia so often observed in the hands and
forearms of washerwomen we have an example of the action
probably of several of these causes, as the frequent plunging of the
hands into cold water and the action upon the skin of alkalies and
alkaline soaps. The diminution or interruption of the circulation
through the skin, as in ischæmia from spasm of the minute arteries
due to an affection of the vaso-motor nerves, is also a cause of
cutaneous anæsthesia. In lepra anæsthetica (Spedalskhed) the
cutaneous anæsthesia is dependent upon a neuritis of the minute
branches in the skin. The local anæsthesia met with so often in
syphilis, though its pathology is doubtful, is not improbably
sometimes caused by an affection of the peripheral nerves
(neuritis?) and their end-organs. After many acute diseases,
diphtheria, typhoid fever, etc., we have cutaneous anæsthesia in
connection with muscular paralysis, the cause of both being a
neuritis. The patient is made aware of the loss of sensation by some
interference with his usual sensations and movements. If he puts a
glass to his lips, the sensation is as if a bit were broken out of the
rim; his accustomed manipulations are awkward, because of the
want of distinct appreciation of the objects he holds; he fumbles in
buttoning his clothes or he stumbles unless looking to his steps. An
examination, nevertheless, almost always reveals that the
anæsthesia is greater than would have been supposed from the
subjective feelings of the patient; indeed, cases occur in which he is
not aware of an existing defect of sensation. But a careful
examination is not only required to determine the extent, but by it
alone can we arrive at a knowledge of the quality of the anæsthesia
—viz. whether there is a loss of all of the different kinds of sensation,
whether they are affected in an unequal degree, or whether some
have entirely escaped. Thus we must test for the acuteness of the
simple sense of touch by comparing the sensations elicited by the
contact of small surfaces of unequal size, as the point and head of a
pin or pencil, observing the appreciation by touch of the patient for
different substances, as woollen, silk, linen, cloth, or comparing the
sensation of the anæsthesic part with the same part on the opposite
healthy side of the body. The sense of locality and space may be
examined by placing at the same instant upon the skin of the patient,
his eyes being closed, two points (the anæsthesiometer or the points
of a compass), and observing his capacity for appreciating the
impression as double. As there is an enormous difference of
acuteness of the space-sense in the skin of different parts of the
body (see textbooks of physiology)—ranging from the tip of the
tongue, where the touch of two points separated 1.2 mm. gives a
double sensation, to the thigh, where the points must be separated
77 mm. to be felt as two—we must be careful to consider in making
the examination the normal space-perception of the region. Care
must be taken not to repeat the test too often, as a rapid education
of the surface to a more delicate appreciation of the impressions is
the result. In certain abnormal conditions from spinal disease we
have a condition of polyæsthesia in which the impression of one
point is felt as two or more. The sense by which we appreciate the
pressure of objects must be tested by placing upon the surface to be
examined, in succession, objects of different weight, care being
taken to have the area which touches the skin and the temperature
the same in each. The parts to be tested must be firmly supported,
and all muscular contraction on the part of the patient prevented.
The temperature sense is examined by the application of hot and
cold water or bodies of different temperature. We sometimes meet
with a perversion of this sense in which the application of a cold
surface to the skin gives the sensation of warmth, and the contrary.
In testing the sense of temperature and the sense of pressure it is
not the absolute capacity of appreciating on the part of the patient
that we investigate, but the power of discriminating between different
degrees of temperature or pressure. The sense of pain must likewise
be tested, since morbid conditions occur in which it may be caused
more readily than is normal by exciting the cutaneous nerves, and
that, too, in parts which have in a great measure or quite lost the
sense of touch; or, on the other hand, touch may be retained, while
irritation of the skin can excite no feeling of pain (analgesia). We
have in the faradic current an excellent means of testing the
cutaneous sensibility, inasmuch as it excites the skin over the
various parts of the body about equally, and it can be employed in
very gradually increasing or decreasing strength. Its effects on the
affected part must be compared with those produced on the healthy
surface of other parts of the patient's body or on healthy individuals.
Frequently accompanying cutaneous anæsthesia, but constituting no

part of it, are various paræsthesiæ, as formication, pins and needles,
burning, etc. Pain, sometimes of great intensity, is not infrequently
connected with it (anæsthesia dolorosa). The paræsthesiæ and pain
are the result of irritation in some portion of the conducting tracts,
and, together with the trophic changes so often seen in connection
with nerve-injuries, they have been already considered under that
head.
It is a very important point to make the diagnosis between central

and peripheral anæsthesia, but it is often a matter of great difficulty,
and sometimes not to be made at all. The history of the case must
be carefully considered, and an examination made for symptoms of
brain or spinal disease, the existence of nerve lesions, or if there is a
history of toxic influences, etc. In peripheral anæsthesia the reflexes
which may be normally excited from the affected surface are
wanting, in contradistinction to anæsthesia of central origin, in which
they are most generally retained or even increased. Concomitant
trophic changes speak strongly for a peripheral origin, as do also
paralysis and atrophy of muscles. Loss of some of the forms of
sensation, with retention of others—i.e. partial paralysis of sensation
—indicate a central origin.
The TREATMENT of peripheral anæsthesia must look, in the first place,

to removal, if possible, of its cause, and the treatment of diseased
conditions, if any exist, of the nerve-trunks, as neuritis, mechanical
injuries, etc. Local applications of a stimulating character may be
advantageously used upon the anæsthesic parts. By far the most
effective stimulant to the diseased nerves is the faradic or galvanic

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18. Political behavior means doing whatever it takes to move up in a company.

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30. There are no beneficial effects of political behavior.

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