CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The domestic fowls (Gallus-gallus doxssticus) are the most numerous than any kind

of poultry. They are kept for income generation particularly in the rural areas the

poultry industry in Nigeria offers the quickest supply of animal protein to man in form

of high quality eggs and meat and provide comparatively faster return to investment

than cattle, small ruminants or pigs (Matur et al. 2010). Their manure is important in

maintaining soil fertilities and is widely used by farmers, over the years there has

been an increase in attention given to the health care of the birds by poultry farmers.

The greatest impediment to poultry production in Nigeria is disease (Lawal et, al,

2019). The domestic fowls are raised traditionally under free ranger management

system in villages with little or no supplementary feeding and without any veterinary

care. There by exposing them to parasite infection (Gary and Richard 2012).

Parasitism rank high among factors that serve as a threat to chickens, the preserve

of a few parasite do not usually cause a problem, however large- eggs production

and overall health. The concentration of parasite eggs in the chickens has been

attributed to limited housing and veterinary care services. The environment

plays a major role in determining the severity of the infection.

The chickens pick up the parasite eggs directly by ingesting contaminated feed,

water litter or by eating snails, earthworms millipedes and other insects which can

carry the eggs of the parasite (Gary and Richard 2012). Helminth parasite commonly

found in chickens include Nematodes, Cestodes and Trematodes. The Nematodes

are the most important group of helminth that affects the chicken both in terms at

number and extent of damage caused to the gastro intestinal tract of the chickens. A

1
good knowledge of the parasite of domestic chickens, species composition and

predilection site is essential for prompt disease diagnosis and treatment, many insect

that act as vector for Helminthes are also favored by high temperature and to some

extent humidity. These factors may explain the wide range and distribution of

Nematodes and Custodies species in poultry, especially during the tropical raining

season (Debe et. al, 2010). In the past, few studies have analyzed the incidence of

Helminthes parasites in the free-range local or background and commercial chickens

in different part of the country (Eshetu et. al, 2011, Ashenafi & Eshetu. 2014) with

less information on the parasite especially around the Federal Capital territory,

Abuja. This study is therefore aimed at investigating the gastrointestinal parasites of

local free range and exotic breeds of chicken reared.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

The common internal parasitic infections occur in poultry include gastrointestinal

helminthes (cestodes, nematodes) and Eimmeria species that cause considerable

damage and great economic loses to the poultry industry due to malnutrition,

decreased feed conversion ratio, weight loss lower egg production and death in

young birds (Puttalakshmarnma, 2018).

Furthermore, parasites can make the flockless resistant to disease and exacerbate

existing disease conditions (Gary and Richard, 2012: Katoch et al, 2012). Parasitism

ranks high among factors that threaten chicken production (Flynn, 2003). The

mortality due to parasitic diseases was higher than those attributed to Newcastle

causing viral infection of poultry. Common poultry parasites range from lice, fleas,

ticks and helminthes to gnats and eoccidian (Tlikmann, 1990), Parasitism causes

reduced growth, egg production, emaciation and anaemia as well as mortality (Rupf

2
& James, 2013). Moreover, some of the ectoparasites, especially tick and mites are

vectors of other poultry disease such as pasture ilosis, fowl pox, Newcastle diseases

and possibly Chiamydia.

1.3 Justification of the Study

A parasite is a common problem in poultry especially when nematode and cestode

infections occur at times in high proportions in animals reared in intensive

management systems. In Nigeria, the poultry industry is developing in both local and

exotic chickens, but only a few surveys have been carried out to determine the

burden of helminth parasites of chickens in this country. Therefore, it is essential to

have a current knowledge of this problem. This research was conducted to

determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites of poultry raised under two

systems of management.

Ectoparasites can affect health of chicken by causing tissue damage and blood loss

(Vega, 2004). Toxiocosis (Aleya and Sabrina, 2011). Derrnatitis and allergies (Taylor

et. al, 2007). Furthermore, some ectoparasites act as vectors of a number of

pathogens (Swai et. al., 2010) and during period of heavy infection may weaken

them, and lower their resistance and may lead to death (Saulshy, 2010).

1.4 Aims and Objectives

The aim of this research is to compare the gastrointestinal parasites on local and

exotic chickens slaughter at Gwandu Market, Kebbi state as follows:

i. To isolate and identify the Gastro-intestinal parasite of local and exotic chicken.

ii. To determine the frequency of occurrence of the parasite

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Gastrointestinal Parasites

Worms are classified as Nematodes (Round worms) or Cestodes (Tape worms).

Some worms require an intermediary host, such as earth worms, snails, insects etc

and consequently preventing contact with these invertebrates is an obvious step in

control and prevention (Leeson and Summer, 2009). Nematodes are the most

common and most important helminth species in poultry. More than 50 species have

been described in poultry. Of these, the majority causes pathological damage to the

host (Permin and Hansen 2018).

Coccidiosis, caused by the Protozoan Eimmeria is a common disease in poultry.

There are nine described species of Bimmeria infecting chickens: Eimmeria

acervulina, Eimmeria brunette, Eimmeria maxima, Eimmeria mits, Eimmeria necatrix,

Eimmeria praecox, Elninieria tenella, Eimmeria mits, and Eimmeria hagani. A severe

infection may lead to weight loss and sometimes high mortality, depending on the

species or strain present. These verity of the disease and clinical characteristics of

the infection differ among Eimemria species and precise identification of the species

affecting the flock is essential nr monitoring and control of coccidiosis and play sakey

role in selection of appropriate treatment measures (Martynova-Van Key et al.

2008).

2.2 Characteristics of Nematodes, Cestodes and Eimmeria Species

2.2.1 Nematodes

Nematodes belong to the phylum Nemathelminthes, class Nematode. The

nematodes of poultry are parasitic, unsegmented worms. The shape is usually

cylindr4ical and elongated but the cuticle may have circular annulations, e smooth

4
and have longitudinal striations or nementations in the form of cuticular plague

sorspnes. All worms have an alimentary tract. The sex esareseparate. The life cycle

may be direct or indirect including an intermediate hos (Permin and Hansen 2008).

The Nematodesor round women are the most common internal parasites of

chickens. These include Ascardiagalli (intestine), Heterakis gallinarum (ceca) and

various Capillaria species (crop-intestine) found through the digestive. As a group,

the Nematodes are characterized by being long spindle shaped worms varying in

colour from off-white to creamy yellow (Leeson and Summer, 2019). Capillaria

contorta and the Capillaria Obsignata are parasites of the crop and intestine

respectively. As caridiagalli occurs in the jejunum and Heterak is gallinarumin the

cecum (Simon and Emeritus, 2015).

As caridiagalli. :is a parasite round women belonging to the phylum Nematoda. As

cardiagalli is the most prevalent and pathogenic species, especially in domestic fowl,

Gallus domesticus. It causes as caridias is a disease of poultry due to heavy worm

infection, particularly in chicken and turkeys.

These papillae are the sensory organs of then ematode. As caridiagalli is diecious

with distinct sexual dimorphism. Females are considerably longer and more robust,

with vulvaopening at the middle portion (approximately midway from anterior and

posteriorends) of’ the body and anusat the posterior end of the body. The tail end of

females is characteristically blunt and straight. Males are relatively shorter and

smaller, with adistinct pointed and curved tail (Ramadan, 1 992). There are also ten

pairs of caudal papillae towards the tail region of the body, and they are arranged

linearly in well-defined groups such as precloacal (3 pairs), cloacal (lpair), post-

cloacal (ipair) and subterminal (3pairs) papillae. The eggs are elliptical, thick—

shelled and are not embryo natcd at thc time of deposition. They measure 73 — 92 x

5
45 -S7jam (Soulsby 2002; RLIIg 2001:Urquart et al, 2006). Heterakis gallinarum: It is

a small, white caecal worm having 3 smallequalized lipson the mouth and has 21 at

cell membrane sex tending almost the entire length of its body. The worm has a

distinct oesophagus, ending in a well developed bulbcontaining a vulvar apparatus

(Urquart et al, 2006). The maleis 7-13mm long, having a well- developed preanal

sucker and long a lae with l2pairs of papillae. The spicules are

not equal, with the right spicule being slender and 2mm long and the jell being broad

and measuring 0.37-1.9mm long. The female is 10-15mm long. Its vulva is prominent

and dispositional slightly to the middle of the body. It has along and narrow tail with

eggs that are thick-shelled, ellipsoid and unsegmented when deposited. Thcy

mcasure approximately 63-75 x 36-50pm (Soulsby, 2002; Hall, 2005; Permin and

Hansen; 2008).Capillaria species: Six Capillaria species are commonly found in

poultry: C.annulata, C.contorta, C.caudinflata, C.bursata, C.obsignata (Synonym. C.

columbae) and C.anatis. All six species have been reported to occur in domesticated

and wild birds. Furthermore. all species are cosmopolitan in their distribution

(Soulsh. 2002). ‘Ihe Capillaria species are located throughout the intestinal tract.

C.annulata and C. contora are found in the crop and in the oesophagus.

C.caudinflata, C.bursata and C.obsignata parasitizes the small intestine, whereas

C.anatis occurs in the caeca. The worms of this genus arc small and hair like and

difficult to detect in the intestinal content. The C.annulat a males are 15- 25mm long

and the females are 37-80mm long. The characteristic eggs have hipolarplugs and

measure 60 x 25gm. C.contortamales are equalinsize to the males of C.annulata. but

the females are shorter only measuring 27 - 38.mm. The eggs of C.contorta arc

apn.60 x 25gm. C.caudinfiata, C.bursata, C.obsignata and C.anatis are all smaller

only measuring 6-35mm. The eggs measure 45 x 25jim (Permin and Hansen, 2008).

6
Subulurabrumpti: It is very common in chickens, turkeys. gluinc a hn\ls. ducks.

pheasants, grouse and quailsin North and South America. Africa and Asia (Soulshy.

2002).The adult worms occur in the lumen of the caeca. The males arc 7-l Omm

Long and the females measure 9-18mm. The eggs are spherical and thin-shelLed,

52 -- 64 x 41 - 49pm. The adult worms are quite similar in shape and size to

Heterakis spp. And can be differentiated by microscopical examination of the

oesophagus and the spicules (Urquart

et al, 2006).

2.2.2 Cestodes

Tape worms belong to the phylum Platyhelminthes, class Cestoda. The tapeworms

of poultry are all end parasitic, hermaphroditic worms with a flat, long segmented

body without an alimentary tractor body cavity. Poultry tape worms may reach a

length of 30 - 50cm. They have a scolex (the head) followed by a neck. The rest of

the body is called the strobili consisting of a number of proglottids (segments)

developing from the neck. Each segment contains a set of reproductive organs. The

number of segments differsbetween species. The segments furthest away from the

neck mature and are detached from the body. These gravid segments contain

numerous eggs which are released to the environment with the faeces (Permin and

Hansen. 2008).

The most commonly diagnosed Cestodes include: Davaine a proglottina- a 4mm

Cestode located in the duodenum. Choanotaenia in fundihulum- a 25cm

Cestodelocated in the distalduodenum and jejunum. Rail lietinate tragona- a 25cm

Cestode located in the distal jejunum. Rail lietinaechinobothridia — a 30cm Cestode

of the jejunum resulting in nodulargranulomas and catar rhalenteritis (Simon and

Emeritus. 2005).

7
 1. Rail lietinna cestiocillus

2. Rail lietina echinobothrida

3. Davainea proglotina

4. Chaonotaenia infundibulum.

Modified from Kassa, (2005). Rail lietinna cesticillus and Rail lietinna echinobothrjda:

Rail lietinais the name for a genus of tape worms that includes helminth parasites of

vertebrates, mostly of birds. The genus was named in 1920 in honour of a French

veterinarian and helminthologist, Louis Joseph Alcide Raillict. Of the 37 species

recorded under the genus, R. echinobothrida, R. tetragona, and R. cesticillus are the

most important species interms of prevalence and pathogenicit) among wild and

domestic birds (Cheng, 1986; Mc Dougald, 2011).

The body of an adult Rail lietinaisa typical tape worm structure, composed of a series

of ribbon-like body segments, gradually enlarging from the anteriorend towards the

posterior. It is whitish in colour, highly elongated, dorso-ventrally flat, and entirely

covered with a tegument. The entire body is divisible in to 3 parts. namely the

headregion called scolex, followed by anun segmented neck or growth region, and

then by highly segmented body proper called strobili (Mu et al, 2009). The

scolexisabulbousknob-like structure bearing suckers and a rostellum, which are the

organs of attachment to the host.

A defining structure from those of other tape worms is a single prominent rostetlum

surrounded by four suckers (Lalchh and ama, 2009). Further, an important

diagnostic character among the different species of the genusis the number and

arrangement of hooks and spines on the scolex (Kaufmann, 2006). The suckers are

poorly developed, and completely devoid of special devicesorspines (1-lambridge,

2011).

8
The scolex measures approximately 11’ in diameter and the hooks are 7-l0m in

length. Individual segments in the strobili are called ‘proglottids’ and are entire em

cred with hair — like microtriches (Radha et al., 2006). These microtriehes are the

absorptive structures for feeding, and the rcarenodigestive organs. As all other

cestodes, they are hermaphrodite. A set of both male and female reproductive

systems is present in each proglottid (Baker, 2008). Davainea proglottina: they are

also called the minute tape worm or the small chicken tape worm, is a parasitic worm

that has chicken, turkey. guinea fowl, grouse, other domestic and wild gallinaceous

birds but also pigeons as final hosts. The worms are buried in the mucosa of the

duodenum. The adult tape worms are small, 0.5-3mm, with 4 to 9 proglottids. The

eggs measure 28-404m (Permin and Hansen.2008).

Figure: Adult Davainea proglottina. Source: Perniin and Hansen. (2008).

Choanotaeniainfundibulum: The worms are attached to the mucosa in the upper half

of the small intestine. The mature worms reach a length of up to 23cm and may be

1.5-3mm wide. The segments are clearly wider at the posterior end of the parasite.

The eggs have a distinctly long filam ent and measure 47 x 54µm (Soulsby, 2002).

2.2.3 Eimmeria Species

Important species of Eimmeria in chickens may include Simmeria tenella. lE.

necatrix, E. brunetti, E. maxima, E. mitis and Eacervulina. Identification can be made

at microscopic level, either by examining the faeces for the presence of

scraping sorhistological sections of affected tissues. In domestic poultry, coccidiosis

can conveniently be divided in to caecal and intestinal coccidiosis (Urquhart et al,

2006).

Eimmeria is a genus of Apicomplexan parasites that includes various species

responsible for the poultry form of the disease coccidiosis, Eimrneria are obligated

9
intracellular parasites with complex life cycles including sexual and asexual stages

(Lorenzoni, 2010). When the oocysts are expelled in the faeces they are spheric in

shape and not embryonated. They measure 16 x 42pm. During sporulaiioiì 4 sporoc

sU ire firmed cadi containing two sporozoites (Permin and Hansen. 2008). Eirnnìeria

species are frequentl described from the morphology of the oocyst, a thick walled

zygoteshed infaecal material by the infected host. Oocysts are enclosed in a thick

outer shell and consist of a single cell that begins the process of sporulation to yield

the infixtivestage in about 48hours. Infective oocyst contains four sporocysts, which

in turn contain two sporozoites. A membrane consists from three layers (one layer of

lipoprotein between two layers ofprotein) locomotion by contraction. Fimmeria

species secretes enzymes to desirhy host cell membrane and gets oxygen results

from digest nutrients (Saif ci aL. 2003).

2.3 General Life Cycles of Nematodes, Cestodes, and Eimmeria Species

2.3.1 Nematodes

The life cycle of gastro intestinal nematodes of poultry may have a direct, or an

indirect life cycle. The nematodes of poultry that exhibit a direct life cycle; for

examples, Ascaridia galli and Heterak is gallinarum, do not require an intermediate

host to complete their life cycle of development. The infected birds pass the helminth

eggs in their droppings, contaminating the litter, feed, and water. This then possess

as the main way b which the infection is transmitted (Ruff. 2001). Mechanical

transmission by earth worms or cockroaches has been reported by 1-Tall (2(305)

and there is no development of the larval stage in side these carriers. When the

susceptible fowl ingest the infective eggs or carrier hosts, the larvae then penetrate

the mucousa of the duodenum and develop to reach maturity and enter the intestinal

lumen (approximately 28-30davs) (Soutsh3, 2002).

10
The life cycle of A. galli (a) and H. gallinarum (b). Eggs are passed with the faeces

and embryonation of the eggs takes place in the environment, Susceptible host then

in gests infective eggs (with L 3 larvae. Occasionally earth worms can act as

transport hosts (Permin & Hansen, 2008).

The life cycle of Ascaridia galli can be a representative example: The life cycle of A.

galli is direct in a single host, involving two principal populations, namely the sexually

mature parasite in the gastrointestinal tract and the infective stage (L3). This can

take about two weeks but the period depends on other fact or such as the weather

condition. The life cycle is completed when the infective eggs are in gested by new

hosts through contaminated water feed.

The eggs containing the L3- larvae are mechanically transported to the duodenum.

The infective eggs are in gested by a chicken where it reaches the peuvent ‘icu lus

aid hatch (Anderson, 2000). Temperature, carbondioxide levels and pli are thought

to be triggerine factors that signal the larva to hatch from its egg. The larva then

burrows in to the mucosallining of the small intestine where it undergoes vo

additional moults. It is this phase of their lifecycle where these worms cause the

most damage to their host. They then reenter the small intestine and develop into

adults where they live their lives out feeding on gut content and making a vast

amount of eggs that would then be excreted by a host and free to continue their

lifecycle. If the animal is able to mount all iflhifluac response to the larvae, i.e. from

pre-exposure. the larvae do not develop in to adults hut

hide in the mucosa of the small intestine. This is common for infection of older birds.

Transport hosts such as earth worms are thought to play arolein transmission of A.

galliand hence, free range birds tend to have a higher risk of infection (Jacobs et al.,

2003).

11
The nematode parasites of poultry that exhibit an indirect lifecycle require an

intermediate host to complete their lifecycle of development; an example here with

cockroaches and beet lesas intermediate hosts (NEll, 2UU 1). After

the eggs have passed with the faeces they develop in the intermediate hosts finalk

encapsulating in the intestinal wall after 7-8da s. Aller another 7da\ s il the

intermediate host the infective L3 larvae have developed. The final host becomes

infected when in gesting the infected beet lessor cockroaches. The larvae migrate to

the cace a and de4’elop in to adults in 6weeks (Soulsby, 2002). Theretòre, in a1

indirect ifcvcle when the infected fowl pass their droppings. the intermediate hosts

feeding on the dropping spike up the embryonated eggs. The development to

infective stage then occurs inside the intermediate host (i.e. cockroach. beetles.

weevils, and among others. grasslmppers. Infection within a flock is then transmitted

by fowl feeding on the intermediate hosts (Soulsby, 2002: Permin and Hansen,

2008).

The lifecycle of Tetrameres Americana (a) and Subulurabrumpti (h). with

embryonated eggs passed in the faeces. The eggs are ingested by the intermediate

host such as cockroach, beetles, weevils among others and within which the larvae

undergoes development to the infective stage (L3). When the final hostingests the

inter mediate hosts, the adult worms develop in the proven triculus of the host (Ziela.

2009).

2.3.2 Cestodes

The typical lifecycle of Cestodes is indirect with one intermediate host. With Few

exceptions, the adult tape worm is ibund in [lie small intestine of’ the litaI host, the

segments and eggs reaching the exterior in the faeces. When the egg is ingested h’

the intermediate host, the gastric and intestinal secretions digest the embryophore

12
and . activate the onchosphere. Using it shooks. it tears through the tuneosatoreuch

the blood or lymphstreamor. in the case of invertebrates, the body cavity. On ceinit

spredileetion Site. the onchosphereloses it shooks and develops, depending un the

species. iii 1(1 Hit’ ) the larval stages. of ten known as metaeestodes. When the

metueesiode NIl] cesiecl I’\ ih final host, the scolexattaches to the mucosa there

mainder of the structure is digested oft’. and a chain of proglottids begins to grow

Loin the hase o f tite se lL’\ I l RIU I art ci u/ . 2006). Mature tape worms can be up to

25cm in length and the coat n na I shedding and regrowing of body segments leads

to a continual drain on the nutrient reserves of the bird (Leeson and summer, 2009).

Lifecycle of’ Raillietina species: the gravid progiottids are passed out with the faces.

The eggs hatch after being swallowed by various species of gasrtropod molluscs

such as Limax, Cepaea, Agriolimax and Arion. Cysticercoids develop after 3 weeks

and develop into adult tape words in 2 weeks upon ingestion by the final ghostes

(Ruff, 2001).

Lifecycle of Choanotaenia intundihulum: Afer the eggs ha e been deposited with the

faeces, they hatching the gut of the intermediate hosts following ingestion. The

intermediate hosts are among others beetle soft he genera riholiuni. Geotrupes

Aphodiusor Calathus and the housefly, Muscadomestica Alter de development in the

intermediate host the intermediate host are infective for the fluid host. After ingestion

of an intermediate host gm; id segments are released with the facees of the host

(Soulsbv. 2002: Urquart et., al, 2006).

2.3.3 Eimmeria Species

The lifecycle of Eimmeria starts with the ingestion of mature occysts. Each infective

oocystis formed by four sporocysts and in turn each sporocysts contain two

sporozoites, Bilesalts and chymotryps in stimulate there lease of the sporozoites

13
from the oocyst. Once freed, the sporozoites and tile sexual stage of development

begins (ganiogoll) with the production and release of’ ooeyss into the intestinal linen.

Once in environment. ooeysts must sporulate to become in Sporulation process

usually takes from 2 to 3 days depending on environmental conditions (Waldenstedts

et. al. 2001).

Majority of 2nd generation merozoites (I I) entertain host intestinal epitliel ial cells.

Some become microgamatocyles (16, 17). which produce a large number of

nuicroganiatt’s (iS). Other stum in to macrogamates (19. 20). The macmgamatcs are

fertilized by the microgamates and become zygotes (21). The zygoes mature and

become young occysts, these breakdout of the host cell and passout with the faeces

(22). The oocysts begin to sporulate (23,24). When the sporylkated occysts in gested

by a chicken, the sporoziotes are released

2.4 Parthogenecity and Clinical Signs of Namatodes, Cestodes, and Eimmeria

Species

2.4.1 Namatodes

Ascaridiagalli infects fowl of all ages, but the greatest degree of damage is often

found in young birds under 12weeks of age. Heavy infection is the major cause of

weight depression and reduced egg production in poultry husbandry. In severe

infections intestinal blockage can occur. It resuls in unthriftiness. Drooping of the

wings bleaching of the head and emaciation. It also cause loss of blood reduced

blood sugar content increased urates, shrunken thymus glands, retarled growth and

greatly increased mortality. In heavy infections. Adult worms may move up the

oviduct and be found in hens’ eggs and something they are also found in the birds

14
feces (Jacobs et. al., 2003) extensive a galli infection may reduce egg production in

floor hused breeders and commercial

Layers death may occur due to intestinal obstruction in birds which are immune

suppressed or are affected by an inter current debilitating condition(Simon and

Emeritus. 2005). The presence of Hererak is gallinrumal so poses the danger of

enhanced transmission of Histomon as mele agrd is to both susceptible turkeys and

other poultry through shadding of the eggs in the environment (Nnadi and George,

2010) infections with capillaria species can be highly pathogenic for bird skept in

deep systems of in free-rang systems where big numbers of infective eggs may build

up in the litter or in the soil. Light infections with C. contorta and C, annul at a

produce inflammation and thickening of the crop and oesophagus heavy infections

produce marked thickening of the oesophagus and crop wall with catarrhal and

croupous inflammation. When infections occur in the small intertineorin the caeca (C.

caudin flata. C. bursata, C obsignata or C anatis) the animals become emaciated

weak and anaemic. Bloody diarrhea with heamorrhagic entertisis seen in heavy

infection C. obsignata infections are very pathogenic in pigeons and may cause high

mortality rates clinical signs due to subulurabrumpti are rarely seen. But the worm is

important as a differential diagnosis to heterakis spp. (Permin and Hansen, 2008).

2.4.2 Cestodes

More than 1400 tape worm species have been described in domesticated poultry

and wild birds. The pathogenicity of the majority of these tape worms is unknown. A

great numbers are harmless or have a mild pathogenicity. Few species cause severe

reactions in the host (Permin and Hansen. 2008)

15
Chronic infections due to railllietina species are characterized by reduced growth

emaciation and weakness. Of the three species R. echino both ridais the most

pathogenicity nodules and ghyperplastic centeritis may develop at the site of

attachment. This phenomenon is named “Nodular tape worm disease” and may

occur in heavy infections cestodiasis results in emaciation in mature flocks,

especially if severa infection is exacerbated by malnutrition or immunosuppression

(simon and emeritus, 2005) davaineaproglottina is the most pathogenic of the poultry

cestodes the doublyarmedscolexpenetrating deeply between the duodenalvilli.

Heavy infections may cause haemorrhagicenteritis and light infection retarded

growth and weakness (Urquharte et., al. 2006). D. proglottina is despite of the small

size one of the more pathogenic species especially in young birds and particularly if

it occur in large numbers. Clinical signs included ullplumage. Slow movement

reduced weight gain emaciation dyspnea (difficulties in breathing). Leg paralysis and

death microscopically thickened mucosal membrane with haemorrhages fetidmucus

and necrosisareseen. The presence of the cestode, davainea proglottina is not e

worthy because of its association with haemorrhagicenter it is which could

complicate and aemia of ectoparasite origin (Nnadi and George, 2010) the adult

choanotaeniain fundibulum lape worms are moderately pathogenic causing weight

loss.

2.4.3 Emmeria Species

The histopathological examination of caccals craping soffarm birds infected with

emmeria oocysts revealed necrosis of villous epithelium massive haemorrhages and

infiltration of inflammatory cells in the laminapropria and submucosa (pattalak

shmamma el. al 2008). Coccidios is generally acute inonset and is characterized by

depression, ruffled plumage, and diarrhea. Birds infected with E. tenella show pallor

16
of the comband wattles and blood-stained cecal droppings severe eimmeria tenella

infection may show hemorrhagicceca (simon and emeritus, 2005) in poultry

emimeria affect the interstine making it prone to other diseases (necroticenteritis)

and reducing the ability of this organto absorb nutrients (lorenxzoin, 2010).

Pathological lesions which may be attributed to the different eimmeria species can

be listed as follows: acervulina and E. mivati: 1-2mm are as of hemorrhage inter

spersed with white focivisible through these rosa of the distal duodenumand proximal

jejunum. E. necatrix severe distemion of the mid-jejunum with hemorrhages in the

mucosaandred stained fluidinthelumen E.maxima: distention of the mid-jejunum with

hemorrhages in the mucosa E. tenella: hemorrhagic typhlit is (inflammation of the

cecum) E. brunette: hemorrhages of the mucosa of the distal jejunumand colon.

Fibrinonecroue enteritis: may occur in chroniccases (simon and emeritus, 2005).

2.5 General Epidemiology of Nematodes, Cestodes, and Eimmeria Species

2.5.1 Nematodes

In ascaridae, adult are symptomless carriers, and there servoir of infection is on the

ground. Eitheras free eggs of in earth worm transport hosts (Urquhart et., al., 2006).

Few epidemiologyical studies have been carried out to investigate that the infection

and transmission of A. galli it is generally accepted the establishment of worms in the

intestine is influenced by many factors such as the age of the chicken, the size of the

infective dose, the age of the infective eggs, the sex of the chickens, and the diet of

the host (Permin and Hansen, 2008) heterakis gallinarumis wide spread in most

poultry flocks and Is of little pathogenic significance in itself, but is of great

importance in the epidemiology of histomonasmeleagridis (Urquhart et., al. 2006).

17
2.5.2 Cestodes

Poultry reared under free range conditions are likely to be infected with cestodes

(tape worm). All tape worms of poultry have indirect lifecyles within term ediate hosts

such as earthworms, beetles, flies antsor grasshoppers. The intermediate hosts are

essential to perpetuate the lifecycle and infections are therefore rare in indoor

system.

Davaineaproglottina that is found worldwide is quite common in traditional and free

ranfing oultyr (Permin and Hansen, 2008)

2.5.3 Eimmeria Species

Modern poultry practices including rearing animals in high densities facilitate the

distribution of this disease within poultry house. Between poultry house the disease

is transmitted by mechanical carriers like Inserts (Black Beetle) and wild birds. While

Eimmeria eggs (oocysts) can be mechanically transported by wild birds, the

supersites are host specific and thus wild birds do not serve as biological reservoir

(Lorenzon 2010). The sporulated oocysts representing a problem in multi-

ageoperatiins, oocysts can be transmitted mechanically on the clothing and foot

wear of personnel, contaminated equipment, or in some cases, by wind spreading

poultry house dust and litters over short distance. Factors contributing to outbreak of

clinical coccidian in include:-litter moisture content exceeding 30% due to n gress of

rain or leaking waterers, immune suppression, suboptimal inclusion of anticoccidials

or incomplete (poor mixing) in feed: and environmental and managemental stresses

such as over stocking inoperative feeding system, inadequate eventilation (Simon

and Emeritus. 2005) the key factors in the epidemiology of coccidiosis can be

summarized as : (1) oocysts persists in the environment: (2) there is no maternally

18
derived protective immunity in chicken: (3) the parasite has a shorter prepatent

period and a high biotic potentials: 94) disease is the function of cocyst dose and

species: and (5) immunity is acquired by infection and maintained by continual rein

fection (Jordan and Pattison. 2008)

2.6 Diagnoses of Nematodes, Cestodes amd Eimmeria Species

2.6.1 Nematodes

In infection with adult Ascaridia worms, the egg will be found infeces, but since it is

difficult to distinguish these from Heterakis eggs, confirmation must be made by post

mortem examination of a casualty when the large white worms will be found in the

prepatent period, larvae will be found in the intestinal contents and insraping of the

mucosa. H. Gallinarum infection is usually only diagnosed accidentially. By the

finding of egg infeaces or the presence of worm atnecropsy. H isolonche infection is

designed at necropsy by the finding of caecalnosules containing adult worms, and if

necessary confirmed microscopically by examination of the speckles (Urquhart el al.

2006). Parasitism can be diagnosed by examination of mucosal scraping and fecal

flotation, which reveal characteristics bi-oper culatedova (Simon and Emeritus 2005).

When vied under microscope. Nematodes have Trans verse grooves running across

the body, but unlike the tape worms they do not physically segment and so only the

complete worms are found in the intestine or feces. Female worms produce eggs

which are deposited in the feces (Lesson and Summer, 2009).

2.6.3 Cestodes

Numerous Cestode species may occur in the intestinal tract and can be diagnosed at

postmortem or by examination of feces (Simon and Emeritus. 2005).

19
2.6.3 Eimmeria Species

Diagnosis is best on the post mortem examination of few affected birds. Oocysts are

detected on feacal examination. Antnecropsy, the location present provide a good

guide to the species which can be confirmed by examination of the oocysts in the

feaces and the schizonts and oocyst present in scrapping of the gut (Urquhart et al.,

2006) gross lesion of E. tenella. E. necatrix and E. brunettiarediagnostic. Microscopic

examination of intestinal and cecal scraping reveal oocyst. To confirm a diagnosis in

a commercial operation. The following specimens should be submitted to a

laboratory: intestine from as crificed affected bird preserved in 5% potassium

dichromate for culture and identification of Eimmeriaq Species: intestine showing

gross lesions in 10% formal in for histological examination representative feed

samples for anticoccodialassay: and liter sample for oocyst count. Careful

examination of intestinal tract from at least 5 clinical normal a crificed birds per flock

is necessary to monitor for coccidiosis (Simon and Emeritus, 2005).

20
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study Area

Gwandu, also called Gando, is a town and Emirate in Kebbi State. Nigeria. The seat

of Government for the Emirate and District of this name is in Birnin Kebbi,

which is the Capital of-Kebbi State and was Capital of the Historical Kingdom

of Kebbi. Gwandu Local government falls under the Sudan Savannah Climate

and has an average temperature of 32°C. farming is the major experience of the

people of Gwandu Local Government Area with crops such as groundnut,

tobacco, rice, millet, onion and sorghum grown in large quantities in the area.

Trade also booms in the area with the Local Government Area hosting several

markets such as .the Dodor Market where the area dwellers go to buy and sell

plethora of commodities. Otrher important economic actibiries that are popular

in Gwandu Local Government Are include cattle reaing and the making and sales of

the popilar Kilishi snack.

3.2 Sample Collection

The sample (intestinal content) for this research will be collected by using random

sampling method. The intestinal content sample will be collected from a slaughtered

chicken. A total of six (6) Gastrointestinal content will be collected from three

locations i.e. Gwandu Central Market, Kofar Masama and Gada. One sample from

local chicken and one from exotic from each location. The sample will be transferred

to a container to the department of Biology laboratory, Sokoto State University

Sokoto for analysis.

21
Fig 1. Map of Gwandu Local Government Showing the Study Areas

22
3.3 Microbial Analysis

Sample obtained will be taken to the laboratory for analysis. Simple fluctuation

technique will be used to detect the nematodes species, such as Ascardia galli, egg

of parasite, where the formaling solution will be used to dilute the faeces of chicken.

3g of faeces will be diluted with lOmls of formalin solution in the specimen container

and filter the sample, then the solution is transferred into 6 different test tubes, 3

from local and 3 from exotic chicken for spinning under centrifugation machine and

allow to stand for 5 minutes. The solution will be placed in glass slide and coverslip

will be added and still be examined under the microscope to detuning various

specimen of nematode.

3.4 Statistical Analysis

The data obtained will be analyzed using isolated microbes/parasite organism.

23
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT

4.1 Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminthes parasites of Local and exotic

chickens In Gwandu

Table 1 shows the prevalence of (66.7%) and exotic with 33.3% and out of three

(3.00)) samples examined. For exotic chickens one (1.00) were positive while with

prevalence of 33.3% and two (2.00) were negative with prevalence of 66.7%

4.2 Gastrointestinal helminth parasite infection

A total of 6 gastrointestinal parasites were isolated on local and exotic chickens in

Local Chickens out of three (3) samples examined. Two (2) prevalence of 66.7%

were affected with parasite while one (1) prevalence of 33.3% were not affected with

the parasites.

In exotic chickens of three (3) samples examined two (2) prevalence of 66.7% were

not affected with parasites one (12) prevalence of 33.3 were affected with parasites.

The Local chickens have higher percentage of gastro intestinal parasites.

24
Table 1: Prevalence of Gasttrointestinal Parasites in Local and Exotic

Chickens Slaughtered in Gwandu

Chickens No. of Examined No. of Positive Prevalence (%)

Local 3.00 2.00 66.7

Exotic 3.00 1.00 33.33

Total 6.00 3.00 100

25
4.3 Frequency of Intestinal Parasites Identified on Chickens

Table 2 shows that nematodes had the highest number of occurrence with (61.10%)

followed by cestodes with 27.8% followed by Emmeria species with 8.30% and

tremayodes with 2.80%. Nematodes is the most parasite of chickens also have more

percentage of occurewnce.

26
Table 2: Frequency of Gastrointestinal helminthes parasites identified on

Chickens

Intestinal Parasite Frequency Occurrence (%)

Nematodes 22.00 61.10

Cestodes 10.00 27.80

Emmeria species 3.00 8.30

Trematodes 1.00 2.80

Total 36.00 100.00

27
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Discussion

This study revealed that out of 6 samples chickens intestine 4 (66.7%) were affected

with helminth parasites which is local chickens while only 2 (33.3%) were not

affected with helminthes. The parasite which is exotic chicken. This work were

compared to the work of Sonaiya (1990) where he believed that a lot of losses in

poultry have been linked to diseases causing agent such as virus, bacteria and

parasites. He also estimated that more than 750 million chickens in African died

each year as a result of infection. It is also compared to the work of Jordan and

Pattison (1996). This work is similar to my work where the prevalence of our study is

almost lack like the same, were in local chickens out of 3 samples collected 2 were

affected with the parasites, and 1 were not affected while in exotic chickens out of 3

samples collected 1 were collected with helminthes parasites and 2 were not

affected. My work shows that the local chickens have most gastrointestinal

helminthes parasites than the exotic chickens.

28
5.2 Conclusion

Based on the prevalence of helminthes parasites at Local and Exotic chickens

slaughterd in Gwandu (66.7%^) of chickens were affected with helminthes parasite

out of 6 samnples collected with only (33.3%) were not affected.

The parasites are Ascaridia galli, helminthes eggs, etc concerned effort should be

made in order to maintain spread of helminthes parasite in Gwandu.

29
5.3 Recommendations

 It is recommended to keep the Chickens as dry as possible and to frequently

change it because development of warns need humidity.

 Many research should be carried out to determine the prevalence gastrointestinal

parasites of chickens.

 Biological control served as a medium to the intricate relationship with ecosystem

and the potential for humans work in harmony with nature to address parasitic

challenges.

 More attention should be focused toward the improvement of the management

and cover of the ranging chickens. This is because the high contract with a larger

area of land and different intermediate hosts while feeding.

30
References

Abebe, W., Asfaw, T., Genete, B., Kassa, B. and Dorchies, P. (1997), “Comparative
studies of external parasites and gastrointestinal helminthes of Chicken kept
under different managements in and around Addis Ababa (Ethiopia)”,
Medicine vetervinaire depays Tropicanx, Vol. 148, pp. 497-500

Ackert, J. E. J. P. (1931). The morphology and life history of the fowl nematode
Ascaridia lineata (Schneider). 23(3), 360-379.
Adang, K., Abdu, P., Ajanusi, J., Oniye, S., and Ezealor, A. J. P. J. S. T. (2010).
Histopathology of Ascaridia galli infection on the liver, lungs, intestines, heart
and kidneys of experimentally infected domestic pigeons (C. l. domestica) in
Zaria, Nigeria. 11, 511-515.

Afolabi O.J, Simon-Oke I.A, Olasunkanmi A.O. (2016). Intestinal parasites of

domestic chicken (Gallus gallusdomesticus) in Akure, Nigeria. Journal of
Biomedical Sciences. 2016;1(4):1–4.

Afr., No. 37, pp. 217-220. Biu, A.A. and Haddabi, I. (2005), “An investigation of
Tetrameres infection among local Chickens in Maiduguri”, Nig. Vet. J., No. 26,
pp. 44-46. Fakae, B.B., and Paul-Abiade,C.U.(2003), American-Eurasian
Journal Agriculture and Environmental Science,parasitic nematodes of
livestock. 46(1-4), 103-111. e, 9: 5, 529-533Gauly, M., Duss, C., and Erhardt,
G. J. V. p. (2007).

Amare, A., Netsanet, W., and Negussie, H. (2012). Coccidiosis Prevailing in Parent
Stocks: A Comparative Study Between Growers and Adult Layers in
Kombolcha Poultry Breeding and Multiplication Center, Ethiopia. Global
Veterinaria, 8: (3), 285-291.

Ashour, A. A. (1994). "Scanning electron microscopy of Ascaridia galli (Schrank,

1788), Freeborn, 1923 and A. columbae (Linstow, 1903)". J.E.S. Parasitology,
24: 2, 349–55.

Bachaya H.A, Raza M.A, Anjum M.A, Khan I.A, Aziz A, Manzoor Z, Munawar S.H.
(2015). Prevalence of Ascaridiagalli in white leghorn layers and Fayoumi-
Rhode Island red crossbred flock at government poultry farm Dina, Punjab,
Pakistan. Trop. Biomed. 2015;32(1):11–16.

Bailliere Tindall, London Yoriyo KL, Adang J, Fabiyi P, Adamu SU (2008) Helminth
parasites of local chicken in Bauchi state Nigeria. Braz Vet Parasitol 103:19–
27 Perimin A, Magwisha H, Kassuku AA, Nansen P, Bisgaard M, Frandsen F,
Gibbons L (1997) A cross-sectional study of helminthes in rural scavenging
poultry in Tanzania in relation to season and climate.

C. E. Bennett, R. Tomas, M. Williams et al. , “Te broiler chicken as a signal of a

human reconfgured biosphere,” Royal Society Open Science, vol. 5, no. 12,
Article ID 180325, 2018.

31
C. I. Ogbaje, E. O. Agbo, and O. J. Ajanusi, “Prevalence of Ascaridia galli, Heterakis
gallinarum and tapeworm infections in birds slaughtered in Makurdi township,”
International Journal of Poultry Science, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 103–107,

C. Ohaeri and C. Okwum, “Helminthic parasites of domestic fowls in Ikwuano, Abia

State Nigeria,” Journal of Natural Sciences Research, vol. 1, 2013.

Cheng, T. C. (1986). General Parasitology; 2nd edition. Academic Press, Division of

Hardcourt Brace & Company, USA; Pp. 402–416.

Domestic Fowls in Ikwuano, Abia State Nigeria; Journal of Natural Sciences

Research, 3: 11; Williams, R.B. (1999). A Compartmentalized Model for The
Estimation of the Cost of Coccidiosis in the World’s Chicken Production
Industry. International Journal of Parasitology, 29:1209-1229. (ISSN 2224-
3186 (2225-0921)).

Fakae BB, Umeorizu JM, Orajaka LSE (1991). Gastro-intestinal helminth infection of
the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus) during the dry season in eastern
Nigerian.

Fetterer, R., and Rhoads, M. J. V. p. (1993).Biochemistry of the nematode cuticle:

relevance to Hambridge, G. (2011).

Gary, D.B., and Richard, D.M. (2012). Intestinal Parasites in Backyard Chicken
Flocks: Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611: VM76.

H. Ashenaf and Y. Eshetu, “Study on gastrointestinal helminths of local chickens in

central ethiopia,” Revue de M´edecine V´et´erinaire, vol. 155, no. 10, pp. 504–
507, 2004.

H. K. Sebho, “Exotic chicken status, production performance and constraints in

ethiopia: a review,” Asian Journal of Poultry Science, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 30–
39, 2016.

H. Mikail and Y. Adamu, “A survey of the gastrointestinal helminthes of chickens in

Sokoto Metropolis, Nigeria,” Nigerian Veterinary Journal, vol. 29, no. 1, pp.
72–75, 2008.

Hall, H.T.B. (1985). The Nematode Parasites of Poultry: Diseases and Parasites in
Livestock in the Tropics, 2nd Edition. London Scientific and Technical, Longan
Group, UK. Pp, 237-261.

Hunduma, D., Regassa, C., Fufa, D., Endale, B., and Samson, L. (2010). Major
Constraints and Health Management of Village Poultry Production in Rift
Valley of Oromia, Ethiopia. IDOSI Publications. American-Eurasian Journal
Agriculture and Environmental Science, 9: 5, 529-533.

Hussen H, Chaka H, Deneke Y, Bitew M. (2012) Gastrointestinal helminthes are

highly prevalent in scavenging chickens of selected districts of eastern Shewa
zone Ethiopia. Pak J Biol Sci. 2012;15(6):284–289.
doi: 10.3923/pjbs.2012.284.289.

32
Ikpi A, Akiniwumi J (1981) The future of the poultry industry in Nigeria. World Poult
Sci J 37(1):39–43Phiri IK, Phiri AM, Ziela M, Chota A, Masuka M, Monrad J
(2007) Prevalence and distribution and distribution of gastrointestinal
helminths and their effects on weight gain in free range chicken in Central
Zambia.

J Nat Sci Res 4(19):120–125 Matur BM, Dawam NN, Malann YD (2010)
Gastrointestinal helminth parasites of local and exotic chickens slaughtered in
Gwagwalada, Abuja (FCT), Nigeria.

J. De Bruyn, E. Ferguson, M. Allman-Farinelli et al. , “Food composition tables in

resource-poor settings: Exploring current limitations and opportunities, with a
focus on animal-source foods in sub-Saharan Africa,” British Journal of
Nutrition, vol. 116, no. 10, pp. 1709–1719, 2016.

Jegede O.C, Asadu I.A, Opara M, Obeta S.S, Olayemi D.O. (2015). Gastrointestinal
parasitism in local and exotic breeds of chickens reared in Gwagwalada
Guinea Savannah zone of Nigeria.Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Science.
2015;13(3):25–30.

Jordan, F.T., W., and Pattison, M. (1996). Parasitic Diseases: Poultry Diseases; 4th
Edition; W.B. Saunders Company Ltd. Printed in Great Britain by the
University Press, Cambridge; Pp: 261.289.

Junaidu HI, Luka SA, Mijinyawa (2014) A. Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminth

parasites of the domestic fowl (Gallus-gallus domesticus) slaughtered in Giwa
market, Giwa local government, area, Kaduna state, Nigeria. J Nat Sci Res.
2014;4(19):120–125.

Katoch, R., Anish, Yadav, R., Godara, J.K., Khajuria, S., Borkataki, S., Sodhi, S.
(2012). Prevalence and impact of gastrointestinal helminthes on body weight
gain in backyard chickens in subtropical and humid zone of Jammu, India. J
Parasit Dis, 36: 1, 49–52.

Lalchhandama, K. (2009). "On the structure of Raillietina echinobothrida, the

tapeworm of domestic fowl". Science Vision, 9: 4, 174–182.

M. Mwale and P. J. Masika, “Point prevalence study of gastrointestinal parasites in

village chickens of Centane district, South Africa,”African Journal of
Agricultural Research, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 2033–2038, 2011.

M. Tufour and B. A. Oppong, “Proft efciency in broiler production: evidence from

greater accra region of ghana,” Journal of Parasitology Research 7
International Journal of Food and Agricultural Economics, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 23,
2014.

Matur BM, Dawam NN, Malann YD. Gastrointestinal helminth parasites of local and
exotic chickens slaughtered in Gwagwalada, Abuja (FCT), Nigeria. NY Sci J.
2010;3(5):96–99.

33
Naphade S.T. (2013). Studies on the prevalence of helminthic Infection in broiler
poultry birds from Marathwada region, (MS) India. Sci. Res. Report.
2013;3(2):233–238.

Rainy season period Prevalence of helminthes in the Domestic Fowl (Gallus gallus)
in Nsukka, Eastern Nigeria”, Nig. Vet. J., Vol. 24, pp. 21-27.

Rev Sci Tech 20:791–796 Fakae BB, Nwalusi CU (2001) Rainy season helminths
infections in the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus) in eastern Nigeria.

S. Luka and I. Ndams, “(2007). Gastrointestinal parasites of domestic chicken

Gallus-gallus domesticus Linnaeus 1758 in Samaru, Zaria Nigeria,” Science
World Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 2007

S. Satish and M. Priti, “Gastro intestinal helminths parasites of local chickens

samples from tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh,” International Journal of Life
Science, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 284–287, 2013.

Sci World J 3(2):35–3 Ferdushy, T., Hasan, M. T., and Kadir, A. G. J. J. o. P. D.

(2016). Cross sectional epidemiological investigation on the prevalence of
gastrointestinal helminths in free range chickens in Narsingdi district,
Bangladesh. 40(3), 818-822.

Soulsby E.J.L. (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domestic Animals. 7th
ed. London: Bailliere Tindall Publishers; 1982. pp. 787–792.

Taylor M.A, Coop R.L, Wall R.L. (2007). Veterinary Parasitology. 3rd ed. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd; 2007. p. 809. Teni J., Suratsingh V, Gyan L, Brown
G, Offiah N.V, Adesiyun A.A, Basu AK. (2016). The prevalence of intestinal
helminths in broiler chickens in Trinidad. Vet. Arhiv. 2012;82(6):591–597

Trop Anim Health Prod 33:521–537 Eshetu Y, Mulualem E, Ibrahim H, Berhanu A,

Aberra K (2001) Study of gastrointestinal helminthes of scavenging chicken in
four districts of Amhara Region, Ethiopia.

Uhuo A.C, Okafor F.C, Odikamnoro O.O, Onwe C.S, Abarike M.C, Elom J.N. (2013).
Common gastrointestinal parasites of local chicken (Gallus domesticus)
slaughtered in some selected eatery centers in Abakaliki, Ebonyi
state:Implication for meat quality. International Journal of Dev.
Sustain.2013;2(2):1416–1422

World Poult Sci J 37(1):39–43 Junaidu HI, Luka SA, Mijinyawa A (2014) Prevalence
of gastrointestinal helminth parasites of the domestic fowl (Gallus-gallus)
domesticus slaughtered in Giwa market, Giwa local government, area,
Kaduna state, Nigeria.

World Rev Anim Prod 9:59–64 Obiora FC (1992) A guide to poultry Production in the
Tropics, 1st edn. Acena Publishers, Enugu Ojok L (1993) Diseases as
important factor affecting increased poultry production in Uganda.

34