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Contents
1 L
 earning about Human
Biology 1
  1.1 Shared Features of Life 2
  1.2 Our Place in the Natural World
Humans have evolved over time 3
Humans are related to all other living things—but we
have some distinctive characteristics 3
  1.3 Life’s Organization 4
Nature is organized on many levels 4
Organisms are connected through the flow of energy
and cycling of materials 4
  1.4 Using Science to Explain Natural Events
Scientific studies are systematic 6
Doing experiments is a common way to test a
scientific prediction 7
In science, logic rules! 7
  1.5 Critical Thinking in Science and Life
Evaluate the source of information 8
Evaluate the content of information 8
  1.6 Science in Perspective
It is important to understand what the word theory
means in science 9
Science has limits 9
  1.7 Connections: Homeostasis 10
  1.8 Focus on Health: Living in a World
of Disease Threats 10
2 Chemistry of Life
  2.1 Atoms and Elements 16
Elements are pure substances 16
Atoms are composed of smaller particles 16
Isotopes are varying forms of atoms 17
  2.2 Science Comes to Life: PET Scanning—
Using Radioisotopes in Medicine 17
  2.3 Chemical Bonds: How Atoms Interact 18
Atoms interact through their electrons 18
Chemical bonds join atoms into molecules 18
Molecules may contain atoms of a single element or
of different elements 19
  2.4 Important Bonds in Biological Molecules
An ionic bond joins atoms that have opposite
electrical charges 20
vi
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
In a covalent bond, atoms share electrons 20
A hydrogen bond links polar molecules 21
  2.5 Water: Necessary for Life 22
Hydrogen bonds make water liquid 22
Water can absorb and hold heat 22
3
Water is a solvent 23
  2.6 Focus on Health: Antioxidants Help Protect
Cells 23
  2.7 Acids, Bases, and Buffers: Body Fluids
in Flux 24
The pH scale indicates the concentration of hydrogen
ions in fluids 24
Acids give up H1 and bases accept H1 24
6
A salt releases other kinds of ions 25
Buffers protect against shifts in pH 25
  2.8 Molecules of Life 26
Biological molecules contain carbon 26
Carbon’s key feature is versatile bonding 26
8
Functional groups affect the chemical behavior of
organic compounds 26
Cells have chemical tools to assemble, break apart,
9 and rearrange biological molecules 27
  2.9 Carbohydrates: Plentiful and Varied 28
Simple sugars are the simplest carbohydrates 28
Oligosaccharides are short chains of sugar units 28
Polysaccharides are sugar chains that store energy 29
2.10 Lipids: Fats and Their Chemical Relatives 30
Fats are energy-storing lipids 30
Phospholipids are basic building blocks
15 of cell membranes 31
Cholesterol and steroid hormones are built
from sterols 31
2.11 Proteins: Biological Molecules with
Many Roles 32
Proteins are built from amino acids 32
The sequence of amino acids is a protein’s
primary structure 33
2.12 A Protein’s Shape and Function 34
Proteins fold into complex shapes that determine
their function 34
A protein may have more than one polypeptide chain 34
Glycoproteins have sugars attached and
20 lipoproteins have lipids attached 34
Disrupting a protein’s shape prevents it from
functioning normally 35
 2.13 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids 36 3.12 Focus on Human Impact: A Watery Disaster
Nucleotides are energy carriers and have other roles 36 for Cells 57
Nucleic acids include DNA and the RNAs 36 3.13 Metabolism: Doing Cellular Work 58
2.14 F
 ocus on Our Environment: Food Production ATP is the cell’s energy currency 58
and a Chemical Arms Race 37 There are two main types of metabolic pathways 58
Enzymes are essential in metabolism 59

3 Cells and How They Work 41

The body controls the activity of enzymes 59
3.14 How Cells Make ATP 60
  3.1 What Is a Cell? 42 Cellular respiration makes ATP 60
All cells are alike in three ways 42 Step 1: Glycolysis breaks glucose down
There are two basic kinds of cells 42 to pyruvate 60
Most cells have a large surface area compared to Step 2: The Krebs cycle produces
their volume 42 energy-rich transport molecules 60
Membranes enclose cells and organelles 43 Step 3: Electron transport produces
  3.2 Organelles of a Eukaryotic Cell 44 many ATP molecules 61

  3.3 Science Comes to Life: How Do We See 3.15 Summary of Cellular Respiration 62
Cells? 45 3.16 Other Energy Sources 63
  3.4 The Plasma Membrane: A Double Layer 3.17 Focus on Our Environment: A Way with
of Lipids 46 Arsenic 63
The plasma membrane is a mix
of lipids and proteins 46
Proteins in cell membranes carry out many
4 T
 issues, Organs, and Organ
functions 46 Systems 67
The plasma membrane is “selective” 47
  4.1 Epithelium: The Body’s Covering and Linings 68
  3.5 Science Comes to Life: 100 Trillion of Your There are two basic types of epithelium 68
Closest Friends 47 Glands develop from epithelium 69
  3.6 The Nucleus 48
  4.2 Connective Tissue: Binding, Support,
A nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus 48
and Other Roles 70
The nucleolus is where cells make the parts
Fibrous connective tissues are strong and stretchy 70
of ribosomes 48
Special connective tissues include cartilage, bone,
DNA is organized in chromosomes 49
adipose tissue, and blood 71
Events that begin in the nucleus continue in the
cell cytoplasm 49
  4.3 Muscle Tissue: Movement 72

  3.7 The Endomembrane System 50

  4.4 Nervous Tissue: Communication 73
Neurons carry messages 73
ER is a protein and lipid assembly line 50
Neuroglia are support cells 73
Golgi bodies “finish, pack, and ship” 50
Vesicles have a range of roles in cells 51   4.5 Focus on Health: Regenerative Medicine 73

  3.8 Mitochondria: The Cell’s Energy Factories 52   4.6 Cell Junctions: Holding Tissues Together 74
Mitochondria make ATP 52   4.7 Tissue Membranes: Thin, Sheetlike Covers 75
ATP forms in an inner compartment In epithelial membranes, epithelium pairs
of the mitochondrion 52 with connective tissue 75
Mitochondrial disorders deprive cells of energy 52 Membranes in joints consist only of connective
  3.9 The Cell’s Skeleton 53 tissue 75

3.10 How Diffusion and Osmosis Move Substances   4.8 Organs and Organ Systems 76
across Membranes 54   4.9 The Skin: An Example of an Organ System 78
In diffusion, a dissolved molecule or ion moves down a Epidermis and dermis are the skin’s two layers 78
concentration gradient 54 Sweat glands and other structures develop
Each type of solute follows its own gradient 54 from epidermis 79
Water crosses membranes by osmosis 54 Skin disorders are common 79
3.11 Other Ways Substances Cross Cell 4.10 Homeostasis: The Body in Balance 80
Membranes 56 The internal environment is a pool of
Many solutes cross membranes through the inside extracellular fluid 80
of transporter proteins 56 Homeostasis requires the interaction of sensors,
Vesicles transport large solutes 56 integrators, and effectors 80

CONTENTS   vii

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 Negative feedback is the main control mechanism
of homeostasis 81
Positive feedback plays a role outside
of homeostasis 81
4.11 How Homeostatic Feedback Maintains
the Body’s Core Temperature 82
Excess heat must be eliminated 82
Several responses counteract cold 83
5 The Skeletal System
  5.1 Bone: Mineralized Connective Tissue
There are two kinds of bone tissue 88
A bone develops on a cartilage model 88
Bone tissue is constantly “remodeled” 89
  5.2 The Skeletal System: The Body’s Bony
Framework 90
The skeletal system consists of bones, ligaments,
and tendons 90
Bones have several important functions 90
  5.3 The Axial Skeleton
The skull protects the brain 92
Facial bones support and shape the face 92
The vertebral column is the backbone 93
The ribs and sternum support and help protect
internal organs 93
  5.4 The Appendicular Skeleton
The pectoral girdle and upper limbs provide
flexibility 94
The pelvic girdle and lower limbs support body
weight 94
  5.5 Joints: Connections between Bones
  5.6 Disorders of the Skeleton 98
Tissue in bones or joints may break down 98
Inflammation is the culprit in repetitive motion
injuries 98
Joints are susceptible to strains, sprains,
and dislocations 98
Bones break in various ways 99
Genetic diseases, infections, and cancer
all may affect the skeleton 99
  5.7 Connections: The Skeletal System
in Homeostasis 100
Bones and skeletal muscles work like a system
of levers 106
Many movements involve pairs or groups
of skeletal muscles 106
Skeletal muscle includes “fast” and “slow” types 107
  6.3 How Muscles Contract 108
A muscle contracts when its cells shorten 108
Muscle cells shorten when actin filaments slide
over myosin 108
  6.4 How the Nervous System Controls
87 Muscle Contraction 110
Calcium ions are the key to contraction 110
88 Neurons signal muscle cells at
neuromuscular junctions 111
  6.5 Ways Muscle Cells Get Energy 112
  6.6 Properties of Whole Muscles 112
Several factors determine the characteristics
of a muscle contraction 112
A tired muscle can’t generate much force 113
  6.7 Diseases and Disorders of the
Muscular System 114
92
Muscle injuries include strains and tears 114
Cramps and spasms are abnormal contractions 114
Muscular dystrophies destroy muscle fibers 114
Bacterial infections can interfere with nervous system
signals to muscles 115
Cancer may develop in muscle tissue 115
94
  6.8 Focus on Health: Making the Most of
Muscles 116
  6.9 Connections: Muscles and the Muscular
System in Homeostasis 117
96
7 Circulation: The Heart
and Blood Vessels 121
  7.1 The Cardiovascular System: Moving Blood
through the Body 122
The heart and blood vessels make up the
cardiovascular system 123
The cardiovascular system is linked to the
lymphatic system 123
Blood circulation is essential for maintaining
homeostasis 123
  7.2 The Heart: A Muscular Double Pump 124

6 The Muscular System 103 The heart has two halves and four chambers 124
In a “heartbeat,” the heart’s chambers contract,
  6.1 The Body’s Three Kinds of Muscle 104 then relax 124
The three kinds of muscle have different structures   7.3 The Two Circuits of Blood Flow 126
and functions 104 In the pulmonary circuit, blood picks up oxygen in
  6.2 The Structure and Function of Skeletal the lungs 126
Muscles 106 In the systemic circuit, blood travels to and
A whole skeletal muscle consists of bundled from tissues 126
muscle fibers 106 Subsets of systemic vessels serve the heart and liver 127

viii Contents 

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  7.4 How Cardiac Muscle Contracts 128   8.5 Rh Blood Typing 148
Electrical signals from “pacemaker” cells drive Rh blood typing looks for an Rh marker 148
the heart’s contractions 128 There are also many other markers on red blood cells 148
The nervous system adjusts heart activity 128   8.6 Focus on Health: What Can Your Blood Say
  7.5 Blood Pressure 129 about You? 149
Blood exerts pressure against the walls   8.7 Hemostasis and Blood Clotting 150
of blood vessels 129 Hemostasis prevents blood loss 150
  7.6 Structure and Functions of Blood Vessels 130 Factors in blood or damaged tissue may cause a clot
Arteries are large, strong blood pipelines 130 to form 150
Arterioles are control points for blood flow 130   8.8 Focus on Human Impact: Save Lives—Be
Capillaries are specialized for diffusion 130 a Blood Donor 151
Venules and veins return blood to the heart 131
  8.9 Blood Disorders 152
Many vessels have roles in homeostatic mechanisms
Anemias are red blood cell disorders 152
that help control blood pressure 131
Viruses and leukemias affect white blood cells 152
  7.7 Capillaries: Where Substances Move Carbon monoxide poisoning prevents hemoglobin
between Blood and Tissues 132 from binding oxygen 152
A vast network of capillaries brings blood close Toxins can poison the blood 153
to nearly all body cells 132
Some substances pass through “pores” in
capillary walls 132
Blood in capillary beds flows onward to venules 133
9 Immunity and Disease 155

  7.8 Major Cardiovascular Disorders 134   9.1 Overview of Body Defenses 156
Arteries can clog, stiffen, or weaken 134 Three lines of defense protect the body 156
Heart damage can lead to heart attack and We are born with some general immune defenses
heart failure 134 and acquire other, specific ones 156
Arrhythmias are abnormal heart rhythms 135 White blood cells and their chemicals are the defenders
Inflammation is a factor in cardiovascular disease 135 in immune responses 157
  7.9 Infections and Heart Defects 136 Gender and stress influence the immune system 157

7.10 Focus on Human Impact: How You Can Save   9.2 The Lymphatic System 158
a Life 136 The lymph vascular system functions in drainage,
delivery, and disposal 159
7.11 Connections: The Cardiovascular System
Lymphoid organs and lymphatic tissues are specialized
and Blood in Homeostasis 137
for body defense 159
  9.3 Barriers to Infection 160
  9.4 Innate Immunity
8 Blood 141
160
  9.5 Overview of Adaptive Defenses 162
  8.1 Blood: Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets 142 Adaptive immunity has four key features 162
Plasma is the fluid part of blood 142 Lymphocytes become specialized for different roles
Red blood cells carry oxygen and CO2 143 in adaptive immunity 162
White blood cells defend and clean up 143   9.6 Antibodies: Defense against Threats
Platelets help clot blood 143 outside Cells 164
  8.2 How Blood Transports Oxygen 144 Antibody-mediated immune responses produce a flood
Hemoglobin is the oxygen carrier 144 of antibodies 164
What determines how much oxygen hemoglobin There are five classes of antibodies 165
can carry? 144   9.7 Cell-Mediated Responses: Fighting Threats
  8.3 Making New Red Blood Cells 145 inside Cells 166
  8.4 Blood Types: Genetically Different Red Cytotoxic T cells cause the body to reject
Blood Cells 146 transplanted tissue 166
Self markers on red blood cells include the ABO group   9.8 Immunology in Everyday Life 168
of blood types 146 Vaccination stimulates immunity 168
Mixing incompatible blood types can cause the Antibodies provide “borrowed” immunity 168
clumping called agglutination 146 Monoclonal antibodies are used in research
Some people bank their own blood as and medicine 169
“transfusion insurance” 147 Immunotherapies reinforce defenses 169

CONTENTS  ix

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  9.9 Immune System Malfunctions
In allergies, harmless substances provoke
an immune attack 170
Autoimmune disorders attack “self” 171
Immune responses can be deficient 171
9.10 Focus on Health: HIV and AIDS
HIV is transmitted in body fluids 172
HIV infection begins a fateful struggle 172
What are our anti-HIV weapons? 172
9.11 Focus on Human Impact: A Constant Enemy:
Infectious Disease 173
10 The Respiratory System
10.1 The Respiratory System: Built for
Gas Exchange 178
Airways are pathways for moving air 178
Gases are exchanged in the lungs 179
10.2 Respiration 5 Gas Exchange
In gas exchange, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse
down a pressure gradient 180
Gases are exchanged across a thin, moist respiratory
surface 180
When hemoglobin binds oxygen, it helps maintain
the steep pressure gradient 181
10.3 Science Comes to Life: Breathing at High
Altitude and Underwater 181
10.4 Breathing: Air In, Air Out
When you breathe, air pressure
gradients reverse in a cycle 182
How much air is in a “breath”? 183
10.5 How Gases Are Exchanged and
Transported 184
Alveoli are built for gas exchange 184
Hemoglobin is the oxygen carrier 184
Hemoglobin and blood plasma
both carry carbon dioxide 185
10.6 Controls over Breathing
A respiratory pacemaker in the brain sets the basic
rhythm of breathing 186
Carbon dioxide is the main trigger for controls over
the rate and depth of breathing 186
Other controls help match air flow to blood flow 187
Only minor aspects of breathing are under
conscious control 187
10.7 Respiratory System Disorders: Tobacco,
Irritants, and Apnea 188
Tobacco is an avoidable threat 188
Irritants cause other disorders 188
Malfunctioning breathing controls cause apnea 189
10.8 Pathogens and Cancer in the Respiratory
System 190
x CONTENTS 
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170 10.9 Connections: The Respiratory System
in Homeostasis 191
11 Digestion and Nutrition 195
172
11.1 Overview of the Digestive System 196
The digestive tube has four layers 197
The different parts of the digestive system perform
five basic functions 197
11.2 Chewing and Swallowing:
Food Processing Begins 198
The teeth tear and grind bulk food into
177
smaller chunks 198
Enzymes in saliva begin the chemical digestion
of food 198
Swallowing has voluntary and involuntary phases 199
11.3 The Stomach: Food Storage, Digestion,
and More 200
180 11.4 The Small Intestine: A Huge Surface for
Digestion and Absorption 201
11.5 Accessory Organs: The Pancreas, Liver,
and Gallbladder 202
The pancreas produces key digestive enzymes 202
The liver makes bile and the gallbladder stores it 202
The liver is a multipurpose organ 203
11.6 Digestion and Absorption in the Small
Intestine 204
182 11.7 The Large Intestine 206
11.8 Controls over Digestion 207
11.9 Digestive System Disorders 208
“Heartburn” is an upper GI tract disorder 208
Hepatitis and cirrhosis strike the liver 208
Colon problems range from constipation
to cancer 208
Malabsorption disorders prevent nutrients from being
properly absorbed 209
11.10 Infections in the Digestive System 210
186
11.11 Connections: The Digestive System
in Homeostasis 211
11.12 The Body’s Nutritional Requirements 212
Complex carbohydrates are best 212
Some fats are healthier than others 212
Proteins are body-building nutrients 213
Guidelines for healthy eating include limiting meat,
refined grains, saturated and trans fats, salt,
and refined sugar 213
11.13 Vitamins, Minerals, and Phytochemicals 214
11.14 Food Energy and Body Weight 216
The scientific standard for body weight is based on
the ratio of weight to height 216
Genes, hormones, and activity affect weight 217
11.15 Focus on Health: Dealing with Weight Urinary tract infections are common 234
Extremes 218 Painkillers and other drugs may harm
Surgery can be an option for treating extreme the kidneys 234
obesity 218 12.8 Connections: The Urinary System
Eating disorders can be life-threatening 218 in Homeostasis 235
11.16 Focus on Human Impact: Hunger 12.9 Focus on Human Impact: Chain
for Change 219 of Life 236

12 The Urinary System 223 13 The Nervous System 239

12.1 The Challenge: Ever-Changing Extracellular 13.1 Neurons: The Communication Specialists 240
Fluid 224 Neurons are the communication lines
The urinary system adjusts fluid that is outside of the nervous system 240
cells 224 Properties of a neuron’s plasma membrane allow it
The body gains water from food and to carry signals 240
metabolic processes 224 13.2 Nerve Impulses 5 Action Potentials 242
The body loses water in urine, sweat, feces, Action potentials travel away from their starting point 242
and by evaporation 224 A neuron can’t “fire” again until ion pumps restore its
Solutes enter extracellular fluid from food, respiration, resting potential 242
and metabolism 225 Action potentials are “all-or-nothing” 243
Solutes leave the ECF by urinary excretion, in sweat, 13.3 How Neurons Communicate 244
and during breathing 225 Neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit
12.2 The Urinary System: Built for Filtering a receiving cell 244
and Waste Disposal 226 Competing signals are “summed up” 245
Nephrons are the kidney filters 226 Neurotransmitter molecules must
Special vessels transport blood to, in, and away be removed from the synapse 245
from nephrons 227 13.4 Information Pathways 246
12.3 How Urine Forms: Filtration, Reabsorption, Nerves are long-distance lines 246
and Secretion 228 Reflexes are the simplest nerve pathways 246
Filtration removes a large amount of fluid and solutes In the brain and spinal cord, neurons interact
from the blood 228 in circuits 247
Next, reabsorption returns useful substances 13.5 Overview of the Nervous System 248
to the blood 228 13.6 Major Expressways: Peripheral Nerves
Secretion rids the body of excess hydrogen ions and the Spinal Cord 250
and some other substances 229 The peripheral nervous system consists of somatic
Urination is a controllable reflex 229 and autonomic nerves 250
12.4 How Kidneys Help Manage Fluid Balance Autonomic nerves are divided into parasympathetic
and Blood Pressure 230 and sympathetic groups 250
Water follows salt as urine forms 230 The spinal cord links the PNS and the brain 251
Hormones control whether kidneys make urine that 13.7 The Brain: Command Central 252
is concentrated or dilute 230 The brain’s three main functional areas are the
A thirst center monitors sodium 231 hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain 252
12.5 Removing Excess Acids and Other Substances Cerebrospinal fluid fills spaces in the brain
in Urine 232 and spinal cord 252
The kidneys play a key role in maintaining the balance 13.8 A Closer Look at the Cerebrum 254
of acids and bases in the blood 232 The cerebral cortex is the seat of consciousness 254
Various factors may cause serious acid–base The limbic system governs emotions 255
imbalances 232 13.9 Consciousness 256
12.6 Kidney Disorders: When Kidneys Fail 233 13.10 Memory 257
12.7 Cancer, Infections, and Drugs in 13.11 Disorders of the Nervous System 258
the Urinary System 234 Physical injury is a common cause of nervous
Urinary system cancer is on the rise 234 system damage 258

CONTENTS xi

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 In some disorders, brain neurons break down 258
Infections and cancer inflame or destroy
brain tissue 258
Headaches only seem like brain “disorders” 259
Various neural disorders affect development, behavior,
and mood 259
13.12 Science Comes to Life: Studying the Brain
13.13 Focus on Health: The Brain on “Mind-
Altering” Drugs 260
13.14 Connections: The Nervous System
in Homeostasis 261
14 Sensory Systems
14.1 Sensory Receptors and Pathways
14.2 Somatic Sensations 268
Receptors near the body surface sense touch, pressure,
and more 268
Free nerve endings detect stimuli that we perceive
as pain and itching 268
Referred pain is a matter of perception 269
14.3 Taste and Smell: Chemical Senses
Gustation is the sense of taste 270
Olfaction is the sense of smell 270
14.4 Science Comes to Life: Tasty Science 271
14.5 Hearing: Detecting Sound Waves 272
The ear gathers “sound signals” 272
Sensory hair cells are the key to hearing 272
14.6 Balance: Sensing the Body’s Natural
Position 274
14.7 Disorders of the Ear 275
14.8 Vision: An Overview 276
The eye is built to detect light 276
Eye muscle movements fine-tune the focus 277
14.9 From Visual Signals to “Sight”
Rods and cones are the photoreceptors 278
Visual pigments intercept light energy 278
The retina begins processing visual signals 279
Signals move on to the visual cortex 279
14.10 Disorders of the Eye
Some eye disorders are inherited 280
The eyes also are vulnerable to infections
and cancer 280
Aging increases the risk of some types
of eye disorders 281
Medical technologies can remedy some vision
problems and treat eye injuries 281
15 The Endocrine System
15.1 The Endocrine System: Hormones
Hormones are long-distance signaling molecules
carried in the bloodstream 286
xii CONTENTS 
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Hormones are produced in small amounts
and often interact 286
15.2 Types of Hormones and Their Signals 288
Hormones come in several chemical forms 288
Steroid hormones interact with cell DNA 288
Nonsteroid hormones act indirectly, by way
259 of second messengers 288
15.3 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 290
The posterior pituitary lobe stores and releases
hormones made in the hypothalamus 290
The anterior pituitary lobe makes hormones 291
15.4 Hormones as Long-Term Controllers 292
265 15.5 GH Growth Functions and Disorders 293
15.6 The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 294
266
Thyroid hormones affect metabolism and growth 294
PTH from the parathyroids is the main
calcium regulator 294
15.7 Adrenal Glands and Stress Responses 296
The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids
and mineralocorticoids 296
Hormones from the adrenal medulla help regulate
270
blood circulation 296
15.8 Focus on Our Environment: Phthalates:
Endocrine Disrupters 297
15.9 The Pancreas: Regulating Blood Sugar 298
15.10 Blood Sugar Disorders 299
Type 2 diabetes is a global health crisis 299
“Prediabetes” is a warning sign 299
Low blood sugar threatens the brain 299
15.11 Other Hormone Sources 300
The gonads produce sex hormones 300
The pineal gland makes melatonin 300
Skeletal muscle, the thymus, the heart, and the GI tract
also produce hormones 300
278
15.12 Connections: The Endocrine System
in Homeostasis 301
16 Reproductive Systems 305
280
16.1 The Female Reproductive System 306
Ovaries are a female’s primary reproductive organs 306
During the menstrual cycle, an oocyte is released from
an ovary 306
16.2 The Ovarian Cycle: Oocytes Develop 308
Hormones guide ovulation 308
The ovarian and menstrual cycles dovetail 308
16.3 The Male Reproductive System 310
285
Sperm form in testes 310
Sperm mature and are stored in the coiled
286 epididymis 311
Substances from seminal vesicles and the prostate
gland help form semen 311
 16.4 How Sperm Form 312
Sperm form in seminiferous tubules 312
Hormones control the formation of sperm 313
16.5 Sexual Intercourse between Males
and Females 314
In sexual intercourse, both partners experience
physiological changes 314
Intercourse can produce a fertilized egg 314
16.6 Fertilization 315
16.7 Preventing Pregnancy
Surgery and barrier methods are the most effective
options 316
Abortion is highly controversial 317
16.8 Options for Coping with Infertility
Fertility drugs stimulate ovulation 318
Assisted reproductive technologies include artificial
insemination and IVF 318
16.9 Some Common Sexually Transmitted
Diseases 320
Chlamydia infections and PID are most common
in young sexually active people 320
Gonorrhea may have no symptoms at first 321
Syphilis eventually affects many organs 321
16.10 STDs Caused by Viruses and Parasites
Genital herpes is a lifelong infection 322
Human papillomavirus can lead to cancer 322
Hepatitis can be sexually transmitted 322
Parasites cause some STDs 323
16.11 Focus on Health: Eight Steps to Safer
Sex 323
16.12 Cancers of the Breast and Reproductive
System 324
Breast cancer is a major cause of death 324
Uterine and ovarian cancer affect women 325
Testicular and prostate cancer affect men 325
16.13 Focus on Human Impact: Eggs for ART
17 Development and Aging
17.1 Overview of Early Human Development
After fertilization, the zygote soon becomes a ball
of cells 330
Three primary tissues are the first to form 330
Next, cells become specialized 330
A process called morphogenesis forms organs 331
17.2 From Zygote to Implantation
Cleavage produces a multicellular embryo 332
Implantation secures the embryo in the uterus 332
17.3 Focus on Health: A Baby Times Two
17.4 How the Early Embryo Develops
First, a basic body plan is established 334
Next, organs develop and take on the proper shape
and proportions 335
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17.5 The Four Extraembryonic Membranes 336
17.6 The Placenta: A Pipeline for Oxygen,
Nutrients, and Other Substances 337
17.7 The Second Four Weeks: Human Features
Appear 338
17.8 Development of the Fetus 340
In the second trimester, movements begin 340
Organ systems mature during the third trimester 340
The blood and circulatory system of a fetus have special
316 features 340
17.9 Birth and Beyond 342
Maternal changes and fetal hormones set the stage
for childbirth 342
318 Labor has three stages 342
Lactation is milk production in a mother’s mammary
glands 343
17.10 Disorders: Miscarriages, Stillbirths,
and Birth Defects 344
Poor maternal nutrition puts a fetus at risk 344
Infections present serious risks 345
Drugs of all types may do harm 345
17.11 Science Comes to Life: Prenatal Diagnosis:
Detecting Birth Defects 346
322 17.12 From Birth to Adulthood 347
There are many transitions from birth to adulthood 347
Adulthood is also a time of bodily change 347
17.13 Time’s Toll: Everybody Ages 348
Genes may determine the maximum life span 348
Cumulative damage to DNA may also play a role
in aging 348
Visible changes occur in skin, muscles, and
the skeleton 348
Most other organ systems also decline 348
Aging also alters the brain and senses 349
326
18 Cell Reproduction 353
18.1 Reproduction: Continuing the Life Cycle
329
Body cells have two sets of 23 chromosomes 354
354
330 Gametes have only one set of chromosomes 355
18.2 Overview of the Cell Cycle and
Cell Division 356
A chromosome undergoes changes in preparation
for cell division 357
18.3 The Four Stages of Mitosis 358
332 Mitosis begins with prophase 358
Next comes metaphase 358
Anaphase, then telophase follow 358
333 18.4 How the Cytoplasm Divides 360
334 18.5 Science Comes to Life: Concerns and
Controversies over Irradiation 361
Irradiation has varying effects on the body 361
Food may be irradiated to kill pathogens 361
CONTENTS xiii
 18.6 Meiosis: The Beginnings of Eggs and Sperm 362 20.5 Inheritance of Genes on Autosomes 392
In meiosis the parent cell nucleus divides twice 362 Inherited recessive traits on autosomes cause a variety
Meiosis leads to the formation of gametes 362 of disorders 392
18.7 The Stages of Meiosis 364 Some disorders are due to dominant genes 392
Meiosis I produces two haploid cells that contain 20.6 Inheritance of Genes on the X
duplicated chromosomes 364 Chromosome 394
Meiosis II produces four haploid cells, each with a set Some disorders are recessive X-linked traits 394
of unduplicated chromosomes 365 Some X-linked abnormalities are quite rare 395
18.8 How Meiosis Produces New Combinations Many factors complicate genetic analysis 395
of Genes 366 20.7 Science Comes to Life: Personalized
Pieces of chromosomes may be exchanged 366 Medicine 396
Gametes also receive a random assortment of maternal 20.8 Changes in a Chromosome or Its Genes 396
and paternal chromosomes 366 Various changes in a chromosome’s structure may cause
18.9 Mitosis and Meiosis Compared 368 a genetic disorder 396
20.9 Changes in Chromosome Number 398
Nondisjunction is a common cause of abnormal
19 Introduction to Genetics 373 numbers of autosomes 398
Nondisjunction also can change the number of sex
19.1 Basic Concepts of Heredity 374 chromosomes 398
19.2 One Chromosome, One Copy of a Gene 375
19.3 Genetic Outcomes: Probability and
Independent Assortment 376 21 D
 NA, Genes, and
A Punnett square helps predict genetic outcomes 376
Biotechnology 403
Genes for different traits sort into gametes independent
of each other 376 21.1 DNA: A Double Helix 404
19.4 Single Genes, Varying Effects 378 DNA is built of four kinds of nucleotides 404
One gene may affect several traits 378 Chemical “rules” determine which nucleotide bases
In codominance, more than one alleleof a gene in DNA can pair up 404
is expressed 379 A gene is a sequence of nucleotides 405

19.5 Other Gene Effects and Interactions 380 21.2 Passing on Genetic Instructions 406
Polygenic traits come from several genes combined 380 How is a DNA molecule copied? 406
The environment can affect phenotypes 381 A mutation is a change in the sequence of a gene’s
nucleotides 406
21.3 DNA into RNA: The First Step in Making
20 C
 hromosomes and Human Proteins 408
In transcription, DNA is decoded into RNA 408
Genetics 385 Gene transcription can be turned on or off 409

20.1 A Review of Genes and Chromosomes 386

21.4 The Genetic Code 410
Codons are mRNA “words” for building proteins 410
Understanding inheritance starts with gene–
chromosome connections 386 21.5 tRNA and rRNA 411
Some traits often are inherited together because their tRNAs match amino acids with mRNA “code words” 411
genes are physically linked 386 rRNAs are ribosome building blocks 411

20.2 Science Comes to Life: Picturing 21.6 The Three Stages of Translation 412
Chromosomes with Karyotypes 387 21.7 Tools for Engineering Genes 414
20.3 The Sex Chromosomes 388 Enzymes and plasmids from bacteria are
Gender is a question of X or Y 388 basic tools 414
In females, one X is inactivated 389 PCR is a super-fast way to copy DNA 415
Some genes are expressed differently in males 21.8 “Sequencing” DNA 416
and females 389 21.9 Mapping the Human Genome 416
20.4 Human Genetic Analysis 390 Mapping shows where genes are located 416
A pedigree shows genetic connections 390 DNA chips help identify mutations and diagnose
Genetic analysis may predict disorders 391 diseases 417

xiv CONTENTS 

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21.10 Applying Biotechnology to Human Chance can also change a gene pool 442
Concerns 418 The ability to interbreed defines a species 443
Researchers are exploring gene therapy 418 23.4 Looking at Fossils and Biogeography 444
Genes can be inserted two ways 418 Fossils are found in sedimentary rock 444
Gene therapy results have been mixed 418 The fossil record is spotty 444
Genetic analysis also is used to read DNA Biogeography provides other clues about ancient
fingerprints 419 evolutionary events 445
21.11 Engineering Bacteria, Animals, 23.5 Comparing the Form and Development
and Plants 420 of Body Parts 446
21.12 Science Comes to Life: To Clone or Not to Comparing body forms is one way to uncover
Clone? 421 evolutionary connections 446
Cloning of bacteria, plants, and nonhuman animals Development patterns also provide clues 446
raises concerns 421 23.6 Science Comes to Life: Comparing Genes 448
Controversy swirls over cloning 421
23.7 How Species Come and Go 448
In extinction, species are lost forever 448
In adaptive radiation, new species arise 449
22 G
 enes and Disease: 23.8 Evolution from a Human Perspective 450
Cancer 425 Five trends mark human evolution 450
23.9 Emergence of Early Humans 452
22.1 The Characteristics of Cancer 426 Early hominins lived in central Africa 452
Some tumors are cancer, others are not 426 We all come from Africa 452
A cancer cell’s structure is abnormal 427
23.10 Earth’s History and the Origin of Life 454
Cancer cells also do not divide normally 427
Conditions on early Earth were intense 454
22.2 Cancer, a Genetic Disease 428 Biological molecules paved the way for cells
Cancer usually involves several genes 428 to evolve 454
Various factors can cause mutations leading
to cancer 428
22.3 Focus on Our Environment: Cancer Risk
from Environmental Chemicals 430
24 Principles of Ecology 459

22.4 Major Types of Cancer 431 24.1 Some Basic Principles of Ecology 460
22.5 Cancer Screening and Diagnosis 432 24.2 Feeding Levels and Food Webs 462
Blood tests can detect chemical indications Energy moves through a series of ecosystem
of cancer 432 feeding levels 462
Medical imaging can reveal the site and size Food chains and webs show who eats whom 463
of tumors 432 24.3 Energy Flow through Ecosystems 464
Biopsy is the surest way to diagnose cancer 433 Producers capture and store energy 464
22.6 Cancer Treatment and Prevention 434 Consumers take energy from ecosystems 464
Chemotherapy and radiation kill cancer cells 434 24.4 Introduction to Biogeochemical Cycles 465
Good lifestyle choices can limit cancer risk 435
24.5 The Carbon Cycle 466
24.6 The Nitrogen Cycle 468

23 Principles of Evolution 439

23.1 A Little Evolutionary History 440 25 H

 uman Impacts on
23.2 A Key Evolutionary Idea: the Biosphere 471
Individuals Vary 441
Individuals don’t evolve—populations do 441 25.1 Human Population Growth 472
Genetic differences produce variation 441 The human population has grown rapidly 472
23.3 Microevolution: How New Species Demographics help explain differences in population
Arise 442 growth in different countries and regions 473
Mutation produces new forms of genes 442 25.2 Nature’s Controls on Population Growth 474
Natural selection can reshape the genetic makeup There is a limit on how many people Earth can
of a population 442 support 474

CONTENTS xv

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 Some natural population controls are related
to population density 474
25.3 Ecological “Footprints” and Environmental
Problems 475
Everyone has an ecological footprint 475
Some resources are renewable but others are not 475
Pollution can result from human activities 475
25.4 Assaults on Our Air
Air pollution has damaged the ozone layer 477
25.5 Global Warming and Climate Change
25.9 Endangered Species and the Loss
of Biodiversity 486
Habitat loss pushes species to the brink 486
Marine resources are being overharvested 486
The principle of sustainability is the answer 486
25.10 Science Comes to Life: Biological
Magnification 487
476
478
Appendix I: Concepts in Cell Metabolism A-1

What will climate change mean for us? 479 Appendix II: Periodic Table of the Elements A-8
25.6 Problems with Water and Wastes 480 Appendix III: Units of Measure A-9
Water issues affect 75 percent of humans 480 Appendix IV: A Closer Look at Probability and
Managing solid wastes is another challenge 480 Independent Assortment A-10
25.7 Problems with Land Use and Deforestation 482 Appendix V: Answers to Critical Thinking
Feeding and housing billions of humans requires land Genetics Problems A-12
and other scarce resources 482
Appendix VI: Answers to Self-Quizzes A-14
Deforestation has global repercussions 482
Appendix VII: A Plain English Map of the Human
25.8 Moving toward Renewable Energy Sources 484
Chromosomes and Some Associated Traits A-15
There are growing issues with fossil fuels 484
Can “green” energy sources meet the need? 484 Glossary G-1
What about nuclear power? 485 Index I-1

xvi CONTENTS 

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 Preface

This new edition of Human Biology continues our dedication Chapter 16 it explores the growing commerce in human
to providing an accessible, relevant, and appealing intro- eggs used in assisted reproduction technologies.
duction to the study of the human body. Although most
students who use this book will not become scientists, all On-Page Glossary As in the previous edition, an on-page
can benefit from a better understanding of body structures glossary presents boldface key terms introduced in each
and their functions and from the real-world application section. This section-by-section glossary offers definitions
of basic biological concepts and principles. Knowing how in alternate wording and can also be used as a quick study
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems work will help and review aid. All terms are available in the end-matter
students make informed choices about lifestyle and nutri- glossary as well.
tion, while having a deeper understanding of common dis-
eases and disorders will help them navigate issues related Self-Assessment Tools As with the previous edition, each
to health care. In addition, some background in ecology text section closes with a focused Take-Home Message that
will help them grasp why human activities such as adding allows students to check their grasp of the section contents
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere put us and other spe- before moving on. At the end of each chapter, Review, Self-
cies at risk. In this way, as they progress through this text, Quiz, and Critical Thinking questions provide students with
students will learn both the core concepts of human biology the opportunity to assess their understanding of the chap-
and how they apply to everyday situations, preparing them ter’s concepts. A graphic “thumbnail” from chapter sections
to make well-informed decision in their lives. serves as a visual reminder of each section’s main content.

Enhancement Features As with the previous edition, Think

Features of This Edition Outside the Book features point students to opportunities
to use library or online resources to learn more about a
Each chapter opens with a concise real-life story and an “real-world” subject related to a chapter’s content. Con-
engaging—and often dramatic—photograph. More than cise Explore on Your Own exercises allow students to delve
half of the streamlined opening stories are new to this edi- deeper into a selected chapter topic. At the close of each
tion. A brief Links to Earlier Concepts summary reminds chapter a brief, timely, illustrated Your Future paragraph
students of relevant information that has been covered in gives students a glimpse of promising developments on the
previous chapters, and Key Concepts statements preview the frontiers of medical or genetic research.
current chapter’s content. An eye-catching photograph or
graphic that appears in icon form next to each key concept
also occurs within a relevant section, as part of a visual Chapter-Specific Changes
message that threads through the chapter.
Chapter 1 illustrates scientific methodology with a Univer-
Sections The content of every chapter is organized as a sity of Missouri case study of how the protein content of
series of Concepts, each explored in a numbered section breakfast influenced hunger and appetite in female college
that is two pages or less. A section’s title reflects its con- students. Focus on Health, which introduces coverage of
cept, and sentence-style subsection headers guide students infectious disease threats, adds a graphic on hand washing
through the discussion. Bulleted sentences in the Take- and other practices that can help prevent disease spread.
Home Message summarize and reinforce the Concept and
the section’s supporting information. Chapter 2 introduces basic chemistry with a new opening
vignette on phytochemicals in common foods. New graph-
Focus on Human Impact Our new Focus on Human Impact ics illustrate the shell model of atomic structure and ionic
feature enriches the chapter’s relevance to students’ lives and covalent bonding. Updated photographs illustrate pro-
by exploring the impacts of our collective activities and tein denaturation by heat and acids.
individual choices on real-world concerns. For example,
in Chapter 8, the Focus on Human Impact feature examines Chapter 3 illustrates different types of microscopy with
the challenges and benefits of blood donation efforts. In new photographs and a new feature on microbiomes in the

  xvii

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human body. A Focus on Human Impact feature focuses on Chapter 12 has a new diagram of kidney nephrons and the
the spread of cholera in Haiti in the aftermath of the 2010 arterioles and capillaries associated with them.
earthquake.
In Chapter 13, reworked graphics provide an overview of
Chapter 4 begins with an updated vignette on applications information flow in the nervous system and show the struc-
of stem cell technology. The chapter contains new photo- ture of motor neurons. Think Outside the Book points inter-
graphs and improved graphics throughout. ested students to the Human Connectome Project’s efforts
to map the brain’s neural wiring. A new Science Comes to
Chapter 5 has updated illustrations and explores current Life feature explores the use of technologies such as func-
ideas on vitamin D’s physiological role in a new Think tional magnetic resonance imaging to study brain function
Outside the Book. and disorders. An updated Focus on Health includes the
substances known as “bath salts,” “Spice,” and K2 in the
Chapter 6 introduces the muscular system with a new discussion of psychotropic drugs.
vignette on lab testing of oxygen use by working skeletal
muscles. Several vivid new graphics and images enhance Chapter 14 on sensory systems begins with a new opening
text discussions of the structure and functioning of whole vignette on the biology of itching. A simplified introduc-
skeletal muscles. tion to sensory receptors outlines the three main forms of
receptors: free nerve endings, encapsulated receptors, and
Chapter 7 uses new and reorganized graphics to show receptors that synapse directly with sensory neurons.
the heart’s basic anatomy and location in the chest. An
improved table and new illustration enhance Section 7.5 on Chapter 15 has a fresh beginning with the story of Sultan
blood pressure. Section 7.8 updates the chapter’s coverage Kosen, whose (now treated) pituitary tumor made him
of cardiovascular disorders and treatment options for them. famous as possibly being the tallest man alive. The chapter
also considers the suspected endocrine disrupting effects of
Chapter 8 launches with a new vignette on blood typing, phthalates in a new Focus on Our Environment feature.
illustrated by a photograph of heart surgery underway.
Revisions to Section 8.7, which covers hemostasis and blood For Chapter 16, a new opening vignette on the increasing
clotting, include improved graphics to illustrate both topics. use of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) introduces
A Focus on Human Impact feature discusses the ongoing need the chapter’s discussion of reproductive systems. New
for blood donors and procedures for becoming a donor. graphics illustrate the ovarian cycle and the most common
options for ART. Striking new images show pathogens
Chapter 9 has new art to illustrate the workings of the com- responsible for a range of STDs. The section of reproductive
plement system, antibody binding, and both cell-mediated cancers has an expanded discussion of prostate cancer. A
and antibody-mediated immunity. Fresh art also appears in Focus on Human Impact feature discusses the lucrative com-
the reworked subsection on allergies. merce in “donated” oocytes for use in assisted reproduction.

Chapter 10’s discussion of ventilation is illustrated by an Chapter 17 has more explanatory and streamlined graphics
improved graphic showing the related muscle movements. to illustrate cleavage, early embryonic development, and
We also reworked the graphic illustrating the Heimlich development of extraembryonic membranes. It also pro-
maneuver. Updates include discussions of sleep apnea and vides an expanded discussion of lactation.
the current controversy over electronic cigarettes in Section
10.7 on respiratory system disorders, with corresponding Chapter 18 revisions include new photographs to illustrate
new photographs. cytokinesis in animal cells and how events in meiosis pro-
duce the genetic and phenotypic diversity we observe in
In Chapter 11, new micrographs help illustrate the struc- human populations.
ture of the small intestine’s absorptive surface, and new
artwork clearly shows the steps by which various types of Chapter 19 has a new opening vignette that uses the
nutrients are digested and absorbed. The updated section example of freckling to introduce concepts of heredity.
on human nutritional requirements presents the latest gov- Inheritance patterns of this and other familiar traits are
ernment guidelines for healthy eating. The discussion of used throughout the chapter in streamlined discussions
vitamins and minerals includes up-to-date thinking on the of the role of probability in determining genetic outcomes,
nutritional importance of phytochemicals. Following the independent assortment, and other basic genetic concepts.
chapter’s discussion of eating disorders, a Focus on Human In keeping with current research in human genetics, the
Impact feature discusses efforts to reduce food waste in the chapter section on gene interactions (19.5) emphasizes the
United States and elsewhere. polygenic basis of traits such as eye color and skin color.

xviii PREFACE

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Chapter 20’s discussions of chromosomes and human on air pollution, climate change, solid waste management,
genetics includes general updating, a new example to and renewable energy sources includes numerous new
illustrate the use of pedigree analysis, and numerous new photographs.
photographs.

Chapter 21 uses a new opening vignette on the buccal

(cheek) swab technique of obtaining cells for DNA analy- Student and Instructor
sis. A new example, spinal muscular dystrophy, illustrates
the topic of expansion mutations as causes of human Resources
genetic disorders. Graphic improvements clarify the dia-
gram of mRNA translation. Updates include outcomes of MindTap for Human Biology 11e MindTap is a fully online,
the Human Genome Project (HGP), the current status of highly customizable learning experience built upon Cen-
gene therapy efforts, and recent uses of biotechnology in gage Learning content. MindTap combines student learning
plant genetic engineering and animal cloning. Your Future tools—readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments—
alerts students to the discoveries of the 1,000 Genomes into a singular Learning Path that guides students through
Project, which is rapidly adding to the knowledge gained their course. Instructors personalize the experience by cus-
from HGP analysis. tomizing authoritative Cengage Learning content and learn-
ing tools, including the ability to add their own content in
Chapter 22 has updated information on the sites and types the Learning Path via apps that integrate into the MindTap
of major cancers in males and females and updated text framework seamlessly with Learning Management Systems.
and graphics related to cancer diagnosis, treatment, and New to this edition are assignable problems and a digital
prevention. Study Guide.

Chapter 23 revisions include new graphics depicting Homo Cognero for Human Biology 11e Cengage Learning Testing
habilis and comparing the skeletal organization of modern Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows
primates (gorillas and humans). Updates on the emergence you to:
of early humans reflect recent interpretations of fossil evi-
• author, edit, and manage test bank content from
dence for the divergence of Homo sapiens and H. erectus, and
multiple Cengage Learning solutions
interpretation of DNA evidence for interactions between
• create multiple test versions in an instant
modern non-African humans and Neanderthals.
• deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or
wherever you want
Chapter 24 revisions include an updated opening vignette
on wildfires in the western United States and striking new Instructor’s Companion Site for Human Biology 11e
photographs to illustrate the food web concept. Everything you need for your course in one place! This col-
lection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available
Chapter 25 includes updates to the graphic on human pop- online via www.cengage.com/login. Access and download
ulation growth to reflect current estimates and streamlines PowerPoint® presentations, images, an instructor’s manual,
the discussion of total fertility rate. Updating of sections videos, and more.

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Influential Reviewers Sharon T. Broadwater
College of William and Mary
Sheila Prabhakar Abraham Melvin K. Brown
Southeastern University Erie Community College, City Campus
John Alcock Linda D. Bruslind
Arizona State University Oregon State University
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xx PREFACE

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Glenn M. Fox Celeste Humphrey
Jackson Community College Dalton State College
John E. Frey Madelyn D. Hunt
Mankato State University Lamar University
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University of New Mexico Texas Woman’s University
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Yavapai College Northern Illinois University
David E. Fulford Leonard R. Johnson
Edinboro University of Pennsylvania University of Tennessee – College of Medicine
James G. Garner Ted Johnson
Long Island University, C.W. Post Campus St. Olaf College
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Case Western Reserve University St. Cloud State University
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Keene State College of the University of New Hampshire Vincennes University
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University of Massachusetts – Medical School Grand Valley State University
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Oakland University University of Washington
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Robert C. Little Chantilly Munson
Medical College of Georgia San Francisco City College
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University of Virginia University of Virginia – Health Sciences Center
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Karen A. McMahon G. Pozzi-Galluzi
University of Tulsa Dutchess Community College
Shirley A. McManus David Quadagno
Fresno City College Florida State University
F. M. Anne McNabb Jill D. Reid
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Virginia Commonwealth University
Leah M. Meek Maren Reiner
Kent State University, Salem Campus University of Richmond
John L. A. Mitchell David Reznick
Northern Illinois University University of California, Riverside
Robert B. Mitchell Caroline Clark Rivera
Pennsylvania State University Tidewater Community College
David E. Mohrman Jane C. Roberts
University of Minnesota, Duluth Creighton University
Hylan Moises Jan C. Rogers
University of Michigan State University of New York, Morrisville
David Mork Susan Rohde
St. Cloud State University Triton College
David Morton Elaine Rubenstein
Frostburg State University Skidmore College
Michael I. Mote Andrew M. Scala
Temple University Dutchess Community College
Rod Mowbray Maureen Scott
University of Wisconsin, LaCrosse Norfolk State University

xxii PREFACE 

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Lois Sealy William Thieman
Valencia Community College Ventura College
Gordon M. Shepherd Chad Thompson
Yale University – School of Medicine State University of New York – Westchester Community College
John W. Sherman Ed W. Thompson
Erie Community College, North Winona State University
Lauralee Sherwood Sandra L. W. Thornton
West Virginia University Eastern Shore Community College
Richard H. Shippee Ian Tizard
Vincennes University Texas A&M University
Eric M. Sikorski William Trotter
University of Tampa Des Moines Area Community College – Sciences Center
Om V. Singh Jeremy B. Tuttle
University of Pittsburgh University of Virginia – Health Sciences Center
Roger D. Sloboda James W. Valentine
Dartmouth College University of California, Berkeley
Barbara W. Smigel Kent M. Van De Graaff
Community College of Southern Nevada Weber State University
Robert L. Smith Pete Van Dyke
West Virginia University Walla Walla Community College
Terrill C. Smith Alexander Varkey
City College of San Francisco Liberty University
Ron Sorochin Bruce Walsh
State University of New York – College of Technology at Alfred University of Arizona
Ruth Sporer Margaret R. Warner
Rutgers University, Camden Purdue University
Craig W. Steele Dan R. Weisbrodt
Edinboro University of Pennsylvania William Paterson University
Fred E. Stemple Jr. Mark L. Weiss
Tidewater Community College Wayne State University
Patricia M. Steubing Brian J. Whipp
University of Nevada, Las Vegas St. George’s Hospital Medical School
Gregory J. Stewart Susan Whittemore
State University of West Georgia Keene State College
Analee G. Stone Diane Wilkening Fritz
Tunxis Community College Gateway Community and Technical College
John D. Story Roberta B. Williams
Northwest Arkansas Community College University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Robert J. Sullivan Morgan Wilson
Marist College Hollins University
Eric Sun Mary Wise
Macon State College Northern Virginia Community College
Rosalyn M. Sweeting Stephen L. Wolfe
Saginaw Valley State University University of California, Davis (Emeritus)
David Tauck Shanna Yonenaka
Santa Clara University San Francisco State University

PREFACE xxiii

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