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FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS

1 FLUID PROPERTIES

1. INTRODUCTION

Fluid mechanics deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion. It is logical to begin
with a definition of fluid. Fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application
of shear (tangential) stress no matter how small the stress may be. Alternatively, we may
define a fluid as a substance that cannot sustain a shear stress when at rest.

2. FLUID AS A CONTINUUM

Fluids are composed of molecules. We thus treat a fluid as infinitely divisible substance i.e.
continuum and do not concern ourselves with the behaviour of individual molecules.
The concept of continuum is the basis of classical fluid mechanics. As a consequence of the
continuum assumption, each fluid property is assumed to have a definite value at every point
in the space.
Thus, fluid properties such as density, temperature, velocity and so on are considered to be
continuous functions of position and time

3. FLUID PROPERTIES

3.1. Mass density (ρ):

It is defined as mass per unit volume.
m
=
V

SI unit of mass density is (kg / m3 ) .

ρ of water = 1000 kg/m3 or 1 kg/liter or 1 gm/cc.
3.2. Weight density or specific weight (ω):
It is defined as weight per unit volume.
weight m  g
= = = ( g )
volume V

SI unit is (N / m3 )
ω of water = 9.81 kN/m3

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3.3. Specific gravity or (relative density) (S):

It is defined as ratio between density of fluid and density of standard fluid i.e., water


S=

eg: Specific gravity of Hg is 13.6

ρHg = 13.6 × 1000 kg/m3

3.4. Specific volume (ν):

It is defined as volume per unit mass = (

V 1 3
= m / kg
m 
)
Example.1 If 5 m3 of a certain oil weighs 40 kN. Calculate the specific weight, mass

density and specific gravity of this oil.

Solution:

Given,

Oil weight (W)= 40kN,

Volume (V) = 5m3

Weight 40  1000 N
Specific weight of oil() = = = 8000 N/m3
Volume 5 m3

Specific weight of oil

Mass density of oil() =
Acceleration due to gravity

8000N/m3
ρ = = 815.49kg/m3
9.81 m/s2

Specific weight of oil 8000 N/m3

Specific gravity of oil (S) = = = 0.815
Specific weight of water 9810 N/m3

3.5. Viscosity (µ):

• The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate.

Viscosity can be conceptualized as quantifying the frictional force that arises between

adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion.

• A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid.

3.5.1. Newton’s Law of Viscosity:

Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress between the layer is directly

proportional to velocity gradient or rate of angular deformation on rate of shear strain

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Fig.1: Variation of fluid velocity in vertical direction

du
 =µ
dy
Where,

µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid

du
= rate of shear strain
dy
Derivation:

Assumptions:

(i) F = shear force on the upper plate

(ii) A = Area of upper plate in contact the with the fluid

(iii) V = Velocity of the upper plate

(iv) Y = distance between the plates

(v) V and Y are not very larger

Fig.2: Variation of fluid velocity with distance from fixed plate

Consider:
JM = DE = dy, BJ = y, EG = du

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JD = ME = u
In similar Δ BCK and Δ BJD:
CK BC V Y
=  =
JD BJ u y

Vy
u= ........(1) (Linear velocity profile)
Y
Observation ⇒ (F, A, Y, V)
A, Y = constant, F ∝ V ……. (2)
V, Y = constant, F ∝ A ……… (3)
V
A, V = constant, F  ......(4)
Y
From equation (2), (3) and (4):
VA
F
Y
F V

A Y
V
Thus,   .......(5)
Y
In similar tringle Δ BCK and Δ DEG
CK BC V Y
=  =
EG DE du dy

V du
= ...............(6)
y dy
Now, from (5) and (6):
du

dy

du
= ………………. Newton’s law of viscosity
dy

Where μ is constant of proportionality which is termed as the absolute or dynamic

viscosity of the fluid.
Note.1:
Now consider triangle Δ HIT:
IT = Vdt = Ydθ
V d
= .....(7)
y dt

From equation (6) and (7):

V du d
= = …………… (8)
y dy dt

Thus, from equation (8) it is clear that:

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Velocity gradient = deformation rate or Rate of shear strain

du
tan  =
dy
Note.2:
• SI unit of dynamic viscosity is N-s/m2 or pascal-sec.
• Dimensional unit of dynamic viscosity =[ML–1T–1]
• CGS unit for dynamic viscosity is poise.
1
1 poise = Pa − sec
10
3.5.2. Kinematic viscosity (ν):
It is defined as the ratio between dynamic viscosity (µ) and density.
µ
=

Units:
Its SI unit is m2/s.
CGS unit of kinematic viscosity is stoke.
1 stoke = 1 cm2/sec = 10–4 m2/sec.
Example.2 At a certain point in castor oil the shear stress is 0.216 N/m 2 and the velocity
gradient 0.216s–1. If the mass density of castor oil is 959.42 kg/m 3, find kinematic
viscosity.
Solution:
 dv 
Given,  = 0.216 N/m2;   = 0.216 s
−1
 dy 
ρ = 959.42 kg/m3
 dv 
According to Newton’s law of viscosity:  =   
 dy 

By substitution, we get
0.216 = μ (0.216)
∴ μ = 1 N.s/m2

 1
∴Kinematic viscosity  = = = 1.042  10−3 m2 /s
 959.42

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Example.3 If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = y − y 2 in which u is
3
the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the
shear stress at y = 0 and y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poise.
Solution:

2
Given, u = y − y2
3

du 2
 = − 2y
dy 3

 du  2 2
  = − 2(0) = =0.667
 dy y = 0 3 3

 du  2
Also   = − 2 × .15 = 0.667 − 0.30 = 0.367
 dy y = 0.15 3

Given,  = 8.63 poise

We know that: 1poise = 0.1 N s/m2

8.63
Then,  = N s/m2 = 0.863 N s/m2
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du
shear stress,  = 
dy

(i) Shear stress at y = 0 is given by:

 du 
0 =    = 0.863 × 0.667 = 0.5756 N/m2.
 dy  y = 0

(ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 m is given by:

 du 
()y = 0.15 =    = 0.863 × 0.367 = 0.3167 N/m2.
 dy  y = 0.15

Example.4 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil having thickness 1.5mm along the
plane & used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m × 0.8m in and an
inclined plane with angle of inclination 60 from the vertical. The weight of the square
plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s.
The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm.
Solution:

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Given,
Area of plate, A = 0.8 × 0.8 = 0.64 m2
Angle of plane form horizontal,  = 90° - 60° = 30
Weight of plate, W = 300 N
Velocity of plate, u = 0.3 m/s
Thickness of oil film, t = dy = 1.5 mm = 1.5 × 10−3 m
Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is .
Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60 = 300 cos 60° = 150 N
This component of the weight is responsible for motion of the plate:
Thus, the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N
F 150
and shear stress,  = = N / m2
Area 0.64
du
=
dy

where du = change of velocity = u − 0 = u = 0.3 m/s (velocity of Oil on plane is zero).

dy = t = 1.5 × 10−3 m
150 0.3
 =
0.64 1.5  10−3

150  15  10−3
 = = 1.17 N s/m2 = 1.17 × 10 = 11.7 poise
0.64  0.3
Example.5 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft having
diameter 0.4m, and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft rotates at 190rpm. Then calculate the
power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5
mm.

Solution:
Given:

6 Ns Ns
Viscosity, = 6 poise = = 0.6 2
10 m2 m
Diameter of shaft (D) = 0.4 m
Speed of shaft (N) = 190 rpm
Sleeve length (L) = 90 mm = 90 × 10−3 m

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Thickness of oil film (t) = 1.5 mm = 1.5 × 10−3 m

DN   0.4  190

Tangential velocity of shaft u = = = 3.98 m/s
60 60

du
Now,  = 
dy

Where,
du = Change of velocity = u − 0 = u = 3.98 m/s
dy = Change of distance or gap between the sleeve and shaft = t = 1.5 × 10 −3 m

3.98
shear stress on shaft,  = 10  = 1592 N/m2
1.5  10−3

 Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress × Area

F = 1592 × D × L= 1592 ×  ×.4 × 90 × 10−3 = 180.05N

D 0.4
Torque on the shaft, T= Force × = 180.05 × = 36.01Nm
2 2

2NT 2  190  36.01

 Power lost = = = 716.48 W
60 60
Example.6 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the surfaces
is filled with glycerine having viscosity 8.10 × 10−1 N s/m2. What force is required to drag
a very thin plate of surface area 0.5m 2 between the two large plane surfaces which is
moving at a speed of 0.6 m/s, if:
(i) The thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces.
(ii)The thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces?
Solution:
Given,
Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 cm
Area of thin plate, A = 0.5 m2
Velocity of thin plate, u = 0.6 m/s
Viscosity of glycerine,  = 8.10 × 10−1 N s/m2
Case I. When the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces:

Let F1 = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate

F2 = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate

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F = Total force required to drag the plate
Then, F = F1 + F2
The shear stress (1) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation:
 du 
1 =  
 dy  1

Where:
du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface
du = 0.6 m/sec
dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface
dy = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m (plate is a thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected)

 0.6 
 1 = 8.10 × 10−1 ×   = 40.5 N/m2
 .012 
Now shear force, F1 = Shear stress × Area
F1 = 1 × A = 40.5 × 0.5 = 20.25 N
Similarly shear stress (2) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by:
 du   0.6 
2 =   = 8.10 × 10−1 ×   = 40.5 N/m2
 dy 2  0.012 

 Shear force, F2 = 2 × A = 40.5 × 0.5 = 20.25 N

 Total force, F = F1 + F2 = 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N
Case II. When the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces

Let the thin plate is at a distance 0.8 cm from the lower plane surface.

Then distance of the plate from the upper plane surface

dy = 2.4 − 0.8 = 1.6 cm = .016 m (Neglecting thickness of the plate).

The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate:

F1 = Shear stress × Area = 1 × A

 du   0.6 
F1 =   × A = 8.10 × 10−1 ×   × 0.5 = 15.18 N
 dy 1  0.016 

The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate:

 du 
F2 = 2 × A =     A
 dy  2

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 0.6 
F2= 8.10 × 10−1 ×   × 0.5 = 30.36N
 0.008 

 Total force required = F1 + F2 = 15.18 + 30.36 = 45.54 N.

3.5.3. No slip condition of Viscous fluid:

When a viscous fluid flows over a solid surface, the fluid elements adjacent to the surface

attains the velocity of surface i.e. the relative velocity between the solid surface and the

adjacent fluid particles is zero. This phenomenon is called ‘No-slip’ condition.

3.5.4. Causes of viscosity:

The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly due to two factors

(i) intermolecular force of cohesion

(ii) molecular momentum exchange.

• Since cohesion decreases with increase in temperature, the liquid viscosity decreases

with increase in temperature.

• While in gases the intermolecular cohesive forces are very small, and the viscosity is

dictated by molecular momentum exchange. As the random molecular motion

increases with a rise in temperature, the viscosity also increases accordingly.

4. FLUID FLOW BEHAVIOUR

Various types of Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids are shown in the figure.

Fig.3: Viscous behaviour of various fluids

• The fluids like water, air, mercury obeys Newtons law of viscosity and are known as

Newtonian fluids

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du
=
dy

• Other fluids like paints, differential polymer solution, blood do not obey typical linear

relationship of τ and du/dy and are known as non-Newtonian fluids.

• General Relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient is given by:
n
 du 
 = K  + y
 dy 

Where:

n = flow behaviour index

K = consistency index

τy = Shear yield stress

From the above equation:

• The fluids in which the apparent viscosity increases with increases in velocity gradient(n>1)

the fluid is termed as dilatant (shear thickening) fluid.

For Dilatant fluids: n > 1

K =1 and τy = 0.

Examples: Suspension of starch and sand, sugar in water, better are examples of dilatant

fluids.

• The fluids in which the apparent viscosity decreases with increases with velocity

gradient(n<1) the fluid is termed as pseudoplastic (shear thinning) fluid.

Examples: paints, polymer solutions, blood, paper pulp, syrup, molasses, milk, gelatine.
• A fluid that behaves as a solid until a minimum yield stress is exceeded and subsequently
exhibits a linear relation between stress and deformation rate are called Bingham plastic
(ideal plastic) fluids. They have time dependent Newtonian behaviour.
Examples are: Clay suspension, drilling muds & toothpaste.
• Thixotropic and Rheopectic have time dependent viscosity. These fluids show an increase in
apparent viscosity with time.
Examples: printer’s ink, ketchup, certain paints and enamels.

5. SURFACE TENSION (σ)

• Surface tension is the apparent interfacial tensile stress (force per unit length of interface)
that acts whenever a liquid has a density interface, such as when the liquid contacts a gas,
vapour, second liquid, or a solid.
• The liquid surface appears to act as stretched elastic membrane as seen by nearly spherical
shapes of small droplets and soap bubbles. With some care it may be possible to place a
needle on the water surface and find it supported by surface tension.

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• A force balance on a segment of interface shows that there is a pressure jump across the
imagined elastic membrane whenever the interface is curved. For a water droplet in air, the
pressure in the water is higher than ambient; the same is true for a gas bubble in liquid.

Fig.4: Surface Tension

• Surface tension is due to intermolecular force. The surface layer of fluid is like a stretched
rubber member under tension, is called surface Tension (σ) N/m.
• The surface tension value of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.073 N/m.

5.1. To calculate gauge pressure inside a water droplet:

Fig.5 Sectional view of water droplet

The balancing force is surface tension force = σ x 2πR
For equilibrium of droplet,

Pgauge  R2 = x2R

2
Pgauge = N / m2
R

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5.2. Gauge pressure for soap bubble:

Fig.6 Cross sectional view of droplet

Breaking force = Pgauge × πR2
Balancing force = σ(4πR)

4
For static equilibrium, Pgauge = N / m2
R
5.3. Gauge pressure inside a jet of water:

Fig.7 sectional view of water jet

The breaking force = Pgauge × (2RL)
The balancing force = (σ × 2L)
For static equilibrium:


Pgauge = N / m2
R
Example.7 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04mm is 10.32N/cm 2.
Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension of water is 0.0725N/m.
Solution:
Given,
Diameter of droplet, d = 0.04 mm = .04 × 10−3m
Pressure outside the droplet, Po = 10.32 N/cm2 = 10.32×104 N/m2
Surface tension,  = 0.0725 N/m
The pressure difference inside and outside of the droplet

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4 4  0.0725 7250 N
or Δ p = = − 3
= 7250 N/m2 = = 0.725 N/cm2
d .04  10 104 cm2
 Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet
Pi = 0.725 + 10.32 = 11.045 N/cm2

6. CAPILLARITY

This phenomenon is due to interplay of terms of cohesion and adhesion.

Fig.8: Capillary Rise

Fig.9: Capillary Fall

Fig.10: Surface tension and capillary action

For equilibrium of liquid column rising in glass tube

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The weight of liquid column = The surface tension force.
(πR2h) × ω = σ(2πR) cosθ

2 cos 
Capillarity rise h =  = g
R

4 cos 
h=
gd
• For water θ = 0 h=+ve = capillary rise
• For Hg = θ = 130°
cos 130° = –ve so, h=-ve = capillary fall
Example.8 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when
immersed in
(i) water,
(ii) mercury.
The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and
mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle
of contact for water is zero and that for mercury is 130. Take density of water at 20°C as
equal to 998 kg/m3.
Solution:
Given,
Diameter of tube, d = 4 mm = 4 × 10−3m
The capillary effect (i.e., capillary rise or depression) is given by
4 cos 
h=
 g d

where  = surface tension in N/m

 = angle of contact, and  = density

(I) Capillary effect for water:

 = 0.073575 N/m,  = 0

 = 998 kg/m3 at 20°C

4  0.073575  cos 0o
 h= = 7.51 × 10−3 m = 7.51 mm.
998  9.81  4  10−3

(ii) Capillary effect for mercury

 = 0.51 N/m,  = 130° and

 = specific gravity × 1000 = 13.6 × 1000 = 13600 kg/m3

4  0.51  cos 130o

 h= = − 2.46 mm.
13600  9.81  4  10−3

The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.

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7. VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

• The vapour molecules execute a partial pressure in the space above liquid, known as vapour
pressure.
• Cavitation occurs when the static pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure.
• The formation of vapor bubbles in cavitation is not a major problem in itself but the collapse
of these bubbles generates pressure waves, which can be of very high frequencies, causing
damage to the machinery.
• The bubbles collapsing near the machine surface are more damaging and cause erosion on
the surfaces called as cavitation erosion.
• Cavitation is formation of vapor bubbles in the liquid flowing through any Hydraulic Turbine.
The collapses of smaller bubbles create higher frequency waves than larger bubbles. So,
smaller bubbles are more detrimental to the hydraulic machines.

Fig.11: Vapour pressure

8. COMPRESSIBILITY OR BULK MODULUS

Bulk modulus of elasticity

– P
K=
( V / V )
Where ΔV and ΔP are volume and pressure respectively and V is the initial volume.
For a given mass substance, the change in volume and density satisfies the relation
m = cons tan t

V = cons tan t
Differentiating is
dV + Vd = 0
V 
=–
V 
– P – P  dP 
∴ Bulk modulus( = K = = = 
( V / V ) –   d 


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• The values of k are very high for liquid than gases. Hence liquids are treated of
incompressible fluids and gases are known as compressible fluids.
• Air is about 20000 times more compressible than water.
8.1. Isothermal Bulk Modulus:
For ideal gas, P = RT
 dP 
  = RT
 d  T = C
So, isothermal bulk modulus of an ideal gas (KT)= 𝜌𝑅𝑇
8.2. Adiabatic Bulk Modulus (KA):
KA= γ × Isothermal Bulk modulus
KA = γ ρRT
8.3. Compressibility(  ):
Compressibility is reciprocal of Bulk Modulus.
It tells about how much the fluid get compressed when it is subjected to change in
pressure.
1
Compressibility (  ) of fluid =
Bulk modulus of elasticity
 V 
−
1  V  1  d 
= = =  
K  P    dP 
 
If ρ = f(P) and if density changes are more than 5% ⇒ flow is compressible flow.
Example.9 What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a
cylinder from a volume of 0.0125 m 3 at 80 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m3 at
150 N/cm2 pressure?
Solution:
Given,
Initial volume, V1 = 0.0125 m3
Final volume = 0.0124m3
 Decrease in volume, dV = 0.0125 − 0.0124 = .0001 m3
dV V − V1 0.0001
 = 2 =−
V V1 0.0125
Initial pressure P1 = 80 N/cm2
Final pressure, P2 = 150 N/cm2
 Increase in pressure, dP = (P2 - P1) = (150 − 80) = 70 N/cm2
dp 70
Bulk modulus, K = = = 70 × 125 N/cm2
dV 0.0001
−
V 0.0125
K= 8.75 × 103 N/cm2.
****

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