The Singer's Guide To German Diction by Valentin Lanzrein

The Singer’s Guide
to German Diction
The Singer’s
Guide to
German
Diction
Valentin Lanzrein
and
Richard Cross
1
3
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lanzrein, Valentin, author. | Cross, Richard, author.
Title: The singer’s guide to German diction / Valentin Lanzrein and Richard Cross.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2016. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016037860| ISBN 9780190238407 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780190238414 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Singing—Diction. | German language—Pronunciation.
Classification: LCC MT883 .L36 2016 | DDC 783/.043—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016037860
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
About the Companion Website xv
■ ■ PART I: FUNDAMENTALS
1. Introduction 3
A Brief History of the German Language: Where It Came From 3
International Phonetic Alphabet 6
2. Word Structure 11
2.1. Word Stem 12
2.2. Prefixes 13
2.3. Suffixes 16
2.4. Grammatical Endings 17
2.5. Compound Words 20
2.6. Word Stress 20

vi ■ Con te n ts
■ ■ PART II: VOWELS
3. Introduction to Vowels 27
Vowel Chart 28
Vowel Length 29
Neutral Vowels—Schwa and Vocalic-R 30
Vowel Onset—Glottal Separation 30
4. Monophthongs I: Tongue Vowels 33
4.1. Long and Closed [iː], Non-Syllabic [i ̯], Short and

Open [ɪ] 34
4.2. Long and Closed [eː], Long and Open [ɛː], Short and
Open [ɛ], Schwa [ə] 41
4.3. Long and Open [ɑː], Short and Closed [a] 52
5. Monophthongs II: Lip Vowels 59
5.1. Long and Closed [oː], Short and Open [ɔ] 60
5.2. Long and Closed [uː], Short and Open [ʊ] 67
6. Monophthongs III: Mixed Vowels 75
6.1. Long and Closed [øː], Short and Open [œ] 76
6.2. Long and Closed [yː], Short and Open [ʏ] 85
7. Diphthongs 95
7.1. Diphthongs [a͡e], [ɑ͡o], and [ɔ͡ø] 97
■ ■ PART III: CONSONANTS
8. Introduction to Consonants 107
Voicing 107
Con tents ■ vii
Places of Articulation 107
Manner of Articulation 108
Consonant Length 111
9. Fricatives 113
9.1. Labiodental Fricative [f] and [v] 115
9.2. Alveolar Fricative [s] and [z] 120
9.3. Pre-Palatal Fricative [ʃ] and [ʒ] 124
9.4. Palatal Fricative [ʝ], [ç], and Velar Fricative [x] 130
9.5. Glottal Fricative [h] 138
9.6. Glottal Separation [ǀ] 140
10. Plosives 145
Aspiration 145
Devoicing 146
10.1. Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b] 146
10.2. Alveolar Plosives [t] and [d] 153
10.3. Velar Plosives [k] and [ɡ] 160
11. Nasals 169
11.1. Bilabial Nasal [m] 170
11.2. Alveolar Nasal [n] 171
11.3. Velar Nasal [ŋ] 173
12. Lateral and Trills 181
12.1. Alveolar Lateral [l] 183
12.2. Alveolar Trills [r] and [ɾ], Vocalic-R [ɐ], and

Uvular Trill [ʀ] 187
viii ■ Con te n ts
13. Affricates 197
13.1. Affricates [p͡s], [p͡f], [t͡s], [t͡ʃ], [k͡s], and [k͡v] 198
■ ■ PART IV: ADVANCED DICTION PROBLEMS
14. Exceptions, Vagaries, and Problem Words 211
14.1. Vowel Length Exceptions 211
14.2. Final -ie in Words of Non-Germanic Origin 220
14.3. Eszett (ß) and Vowel Length 221
14.4. Vowel Length Preceding x 222
14.5. Prefixes dar-, her-, hin-, vor- 222
14.6. Consonant plus l, n, or r 222
14.7. Ending -ig 224
14.8. Consonant Combination ch 225
14.9. Diminutive Ending -chen 227
14.10. Foreign-Origin Words 229
14.11. No Rhyme or Reason 230
15. Sounds from Foreign Loanwords 233
15.1. French Nasalized Vowels [ɛ̃], [ɑ̃], [õ], [œ̃ ] 234
15.2. French Semi Vowel Glides [w], [ɥ] 236
16. German Latin 237
Vowels 239
Consonants 249
The Ordinary of the Mass in German Latin 258
An Excerpt from Carl Orff ’s Carmina Burana in German Latin 264

Con tents ■ ix
Appendix 269
Alphabetical Index of German Spellings 269
List of Difficult Words, Names, and Exceptions 278
Glossary 283
Notes 287
Bibliography 289
Index 291
Preface
This book is intended as a companion for singers, teachers, and anyone who wishes to
articulate German correctly. The textbook format with extensive exercises and work-
sheets makes it usable in both undergraduate and graduate level lyric diction classes.
Easy-to-navigate reference sections make it a useful tool for advanced work in art song
and opera.
We find that most German diction books are about pronunciation only and teach
little about how to sing the language. Lyric diction is not just pronunciation but a combi-
nation of proper pronunciation and clear enunciation that will carry the intended
meaning to the ear of the listener. In this book we have chosen a format in which these
two elements of good diction will be presented side by side in two parallel but interde-
pendent columns. Both elements of good diction, pronunciation and enunciation, are
presented simultaneously rather than sequentially.
Language diction is a practical skill. People speak their native language without par-
ticular attention to the formation of the sounds. However, in a new language one needs a
guide for the formation of new sounds. Sometimes it is enough to know that a sound is
very similar to a sound in one’s own language. But often the sound in the new language is
different enough so that relating it to a similar sound in the known language is not close
enough to sound authentic. Therefore, we have offered guides for the position and move-
ment of the articulators so that the correct and authentic sound will be produced. Each
section of this book is followed by extensive articulation exercises to help in the practical
application of the newly acquired skills.
We hope that our readers will find this book a useful companion throughout a career
of singing and teaching.
■ xi
Acknowledgments
We want to thank all of our brilliant students at the DePauw University School of Music,
The Juilliard School, the Soochow University School of Music (China), the University of
North Carolina, and the Yale School of Music, who over the years allowed us to put to test
our ideas and methods. Thanks also to Jennifer Casey Cabot and her students at the
University of Maryland at College Park for class testing the manuscript and providing us
with useful feedback.
We wish to especially thank Wonjung Kim for the design of all the anatomical illustra-
tions in this book. We thank Margo Garrett and W. Stephen Smith for their encourage-
ment; Gary Arvin, Inge Aures, Matthew Balensuela, Douglas Dickson, and other readers
who contributed to this book with their generous comments and suggestions; and the
team at Oxford University Press—executive editor Suzanne Ryan, senior editor Norm
Hirschy, editorial assistants Andrew Maillet and Victoria Kouznetsov, and senior produc-
tion editor Amy Whitmer—for their hard work in making this book available to a larger
audience.
Finally, we want to thank our spouses and children for their patience, sacrifice, and
encouragement.
■ xiii
About the Companion
Website
Oxford has created a website to accompany this book, where you will find our chapter,
Lyric Diction in Musical Context. In this chapter we explore some of the options that a
singer must employ to project text in extreme tessitura and how to clear some of the other
hurdles that German might put in the singer’s path. Also available on the companion web-
site are worksheets for IPA transcription practice, audio recordings of all the oral exer-
cises in Parts II and III, as well as additional musical exercises with audio examples from
the German solo vocal literature recorded by leading artists in the field. Examples availa-
ble online are indicated in the text with Oxford’s symbol
www.oup.com/us/singersguidetogermandiction
■ xv
The Singer’s Guide
to German Diction
■
1
FUNDAMENTALS
■ ■ CH A P T ER 1
INTRODUCTION
■ ■ A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE: WHERE

IT CAME FROM
The German language as it is spoken today has evolved from the same roots as all of the
European languages except Finnish and Hungarian. Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Spanish,
Indo-European
Asian Languages European Languages Tocharian Languages

Armenian Albanian
Indian Baltic
Iranian Celtic
Hellenic (Greek)
Italic (Latin)
Slavic
Germanic
First Consonant Shift
North-Germanic
East-Germanic West-Germanic
(Scandinavian)
Danish Gothic
Icelandic Second
Norwegian Consonant
Swedish Shift
Low German High German

Dutch Yiddish
English Modern High German
Flemish
Frisian
Modern Low German
■3
4 ■ F UN DA M E N TA LS
all the Slavic languages, German, English, Dutch, the Scandinavian languages, and some
Asian languages all belong to the Indo-European (sometimes called the Indo-Germanic)
family of languages.
It is thought that the first Indo-European language originated in Asia Minor on the
southern end of the Caspian Sea as early as 2500 bce. From there, the speakers of this
language migrated northwest to Europe, northeast to establish the Tocharian languages,
and east to India.
The Indo-European roots are from a language long lost in antiquity. They have been
extrapolated by scholars from modern languages and from the earliest writings in Germanic
and other languages. Particularly valuable in this study is Julius Pokorny's Indogermanisches
Etymologisches Wörterbuch, in which he lists the Indo-Germanic roots of 85 languages.
In this way scholars have been able to track the evolution of these languages.
The linguistic transformation that distinguishes the Germanic languages from other
languages in this “family” is what is called the First Consonant Shift, or Lautverschiebung.
Jacob Grimm (1785–1863), the older of the two brothers who authored the famous
Grimm's Fairytales, recognized and codified the first of two consonant shifts. It is therefore
also called Grimm's law. This first shift may have occurred as early as 500 bce. In this shift
the voiced plosives b, d, and g become unvoiced p, t, and k.
First Consonant Shift or Grimm’s Law (500 bce): b, d, g Become p, t, k
Indo-European Root Latin Gothic Old Germanic

bheu bucca puggs pocca (anglosaxon)
duo duo twai twa/twai
gneu genu kniu Knio
The term High German comes from the Second Consonant Shift, which transpired before
700 ce in the geographically higher regions of Germanic language speakers, i.e., the mountain-
ous regions of the Alps and the southern Germanic lands as far North as Cologne and Frankfurt
am Oder. However, the “shift” did not reach as far as the coastal lowlands, leaving “Platt”
or Low German, Dutch, Flemish, and English, which do not reflect this transformation.
In the Second Consonant Shift the sounds, p, t, and k become High German pf, z [t͡s], and ch.
Second Consonant Shift (500–600 ce): p, t, k Become pf, z, ch
English Dutch Low German High German

plough ploeg Ploog Pflug
forty veertig veertig vierzig
make maken moaken Machen
Introduction ■ 5
Modern High German has evolved from what is called Old High German, spoken
from the seventh century until the eleventh century, followed by Middle High German,
spoken from c. 1050 to 1350. This was the period of the early lyric poets, called the min-
nesingers, who wrote in the vernacular German rather than Latin. Early New High German
was spoken from c. 1350 to 1650 and finally evolved into present-day New High German.
There can be no doubt that Luther's translation of the Latin Bible into German, pub-
lished in 1534, was the most powerful influence in the development of modern German
and gradually led to the standardization of the Hochdeutsch that is spoken today. There
were, however, many other very important events and forces, both literary and political,
that contributed to the development and standardization of High German. The heroic
poem Nibelungenlied was influential in literature and in the development of the German
language. Walther von der Vogelweide, Wolfram von Eschenbach, and many others were
leading poets of the minnesingers. They composed heroic epic poems as well as lyric
poetry in Middle High German.
In 1439 Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468) introduced moveable type printing in
Europe. This, with the Luther Bible, was the beginning of mass communication and the
development of a standard language that could be understood in all parts of the German-
speaking world. Meistersinger guilds encouraged the writing of poems as well as singing.
By 1500, however, restrictive rules had stifled creativity among them. This is the theme of
Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg by Richard Wagner. Hans Sachs broke formal guild tradi-
tions and became a leading poet and famous Meistersinger. His praise of Luther caused
him political trouble until the local government finally became sympathetic to Luther’s
doctrine.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), considered Germany's greatest writer,
exhibited a versatility and enjoyed a popularity that served to set a standard for German
literary language. There was great political unrest from 1830 to 1848 resulting in social up-
heaval and change. The ensuing easing of censorship resulted in massive increases of
printed material and contributed to standardization. In 1871 the German duchies were
unified into one country, and all the states had one official language—Hochdeutsch (High
German). Konrad Duden wrote the Complete Orthographic Dictionary of the German
Language in 1880 in an effort to standardize written German. Theodor Siebs, author of
Deutsche Bühnensprache, philologist and linguist, strove for a standard of spoken German,
free of dialect and regional influences. The first edition appeared in 1898. After several revi-
sions, in 1969 the title was changed to Deutsche Aussprache and standard International
Phonetic Alphabet transcription was added to both the main body of the work and to the
dictionary, which is also used as a source for this book. In 1996 Dudenverlag published a
newly edited and enhanced edition of rules of spelling and usage, removing many illogical
exceptions and clarifying syllable separation and comma placement, etc.
German Language Chronology

500 bce First Consonant Shift: Division between Germanic Languages
and other European Languages
500–600 ce Second Consonant Shift: Division between High German and
Low German
600–1050 Old High German: Existing written documents from this era, e.g.,
Das Hildebrandslied
1050–1350 Middle High German: Beginnings of literature in German rather
than Latin, e.g., Nibelungenlied, and early lyric poetry by
minnesingers, e.g., Wolfram von Eschenbach (c. 1160–1220),
Walther von der Vogelweide (c. 1170–1230)
1350–1650 Early New High German: Period of Meistersinger Guilds, e.g.,
Hans Sachs (1494–1576)
1534 Martin Luther (1483–1546) publishes German Bible translation
1650–present New High German: First German novel, i.e., Grimmelshausen’s
Simplicius Simplicissimus (1668)
1774 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) publishes Die
Leiden des jungen Werthers
1871 Unification of German duchies1880 Konrad Duden
(1829–1911) publishes Complete Orthographic Dictionary
1898 Theodor Siebs (1862–1941) publishes Deutsche Bühnensprache
1996 Language Reform: Dudenverlag publishes new rules
■ ■ INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
In the second half of the nineteenth century, a system for transcribing the sounds of lan-
guage was beginning to be developed by phonetics and linguistics scholars so that speak-
ers of other languages could read and understand the phonemes (sounds) needed to
form the words as they are spoken. Until this alphabet was standardized, linguists and
lexicographers had to make do with whatever system they could invent for the publica-
tion or dictionary at hand. This varied with each dictionary and was extremely confusing.
The standardized system of transcription is called the International Phonetic
Alphabet, or IPA. The symbols are easily learned, and we can use IPA to indicate what
sounds or phonemes are used in forming the sounds of any language. Most languages use
more sounds than the regular spelling can represent with individual symbols. The Roman
alphabet, which is used for the spelling of many Western languages, has only a limited
number of symbols so that many of the symbols are used for more than one sound, e.g.,
bough, rough. In IPA, each sound is represented with a single symbol. Each sound can be
Introduction ■ 7
further altered with diacritical marks that enable the transcription of fine nuances, e.g.,
vowel length, aspiration, and word stress. It is, of course, an imperfect system be-
cause there are phonemes in speech that cannot be transcribed no matter how detailed
the system may be. The transcription cannot actually produce the sounds. The reader
must do that. The element between the eye and the voice is the ear. Therefore, ultimately
everything that is transcribed must be defined by being audibly spoken. We use IPA in
this book to indicate pronunciations and urge the student to listen to native speakers
and singers to note the finest details of good pronunciation and enunciation of High
German.
The standard pronouncing dictionaries for German are Siebs, Deutsche Aussprache: Reine
und Gemäßigte Hochlautung mit Aussprachewörterbuch and Duden: Das Aussprachewörterbuch.
If you consult more than one pronouncing dictionary, you will notice that there is some
disagreement about the pronunciation of some words and the representation of certain
sounds in IPA. Before we begin using IPA, it would be wise to explain which symbols we
use that might differ from those in other books. For the most part, we have followed the
IPA found in Siebs, Deutsche Aussprache. Whereas Duden and others strive to represent
German as it is commonly spoken, Siebs offers guidelines for German as it should sound
on the stage, i.e., lyric diction. Specifically, we have chosen the following IPA symbols:
[a͡e], [ɔ͡ø], and [ɑ͡o] for the diphthongs in mein, Freude, and Haus. We use the symbol [ ͡ ] to
connect the sounds in diphthongs as above, in affricates as [t͡s] and [k͡ s], and double con-
sonants as [t ͡d]. The symbol [ʝ] is used for the voiced palatal fricative in ja and jene. The
glottal separation (glottal stop) is indicated with the symbol [ǀ].
The following table shows the German sounds and their IPA symbols. Sounds can be
categorized in many ways. In this table we include the most common categorization of
the sounds in the order in which they are introduced in this book and further explained
in each individual section (Chapters 3–13). In order to give a complete overview, we also
include the nasal vowels and the semi vowel glides, even though they are only used in a
few French loanwords (Chapter 15).
Sounds of the German Language
IPA
Category Symbol German Example English Comparison
Monophthongs [iː] Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love) bee
[i ̯] Lilie [ˈliːli ̯ə] (lily) similar to j-glide in view
[ɪ] Licht [lɪçt] (light) zip
[eː] Leben [ˈleːbən] (life) hay
IPA
Monophthongs [ɛ] Herz [hɛrt͡s] (heart) heaven
(cont.)
[ɛː] Räder [ˈrɛːdɐ] (wheels) a long [ɛ]
[ə] Erde [ˈeːrdə] (earth) heaven
[ɑː] Tag [tɑːk] (day) father
[a] Ratte [ˈratə] (rat) night
[ɐ]1 Vater [ˈfɑːtɐ] (no comparable
example)
[oː] Rose [ˈroːzə] (rose) like long o in boat
[ɔ] Wonne [ˈvɔnə] (delight) bought
[uː] Blume [ˈbluːmə] (flower) soon
[ʊ] Mutter [ˈmʊtə] (mother) put
[øː] Flöte [ˈfløːtə] (flute) (no comparable
example)
[œ] Götter [ˈɡœtɐ] (gods) (no comparable
example)
[yː] Tür [tyːɐ] (door) (no comparable
example)
[ʏ] Küche [ˈkʏçə] (kitchen) (no comparable
example)
Nasal Vowels2 [ɛ̃] cousin [kuˈzɛ̃] (cousin) (no comparable
example)
[ɑ̃] orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒə] (orange) (no comparable
example)
[õ] jargon [ʒarˈɡõ] (jargon) (no comparable
example)
[œ̃ ] Parfum [parˈfœ̃ ] (parfume) (no comparable
example)
Diphthongs [a͡e] Hain [ha͡en] (grove) similar to i in mine
[ɑ͡o] Maus [mɑ͡os] (mouse) similar to ou in mouse
[ɔ͡ø] Freude [ˈfrɔ͡ødə] (joy) similar to oy in boy
Introduction ■ 9
IPA
Fricatives [f] Fenster [ˈfɛnstɐ] (window) fish
[v] Wasser [ˈvasɐ] (water) voice
[s] Ross [rɔs] (horse) song
[z] Sonne [ˈzɔnə] (sun) zoo
[ʃ] Schuh [ʃuː] (shoe) hush
[ʒ] Genie [ʒeˈniː] (genius) vision
[ʝ] Jäger [ˈʝɛːɡɐ] (hunter) y in you with friction
[ç] Licht [lɪçt] (light) (no comparable
example)
[x] Bach [bax] (brook) loch (Scottish)
[h] Haus [hɑ͡os] (house) house
Plosives [ǀ]3 ihrem Aug’ [ˈǀiːɾəm ǀɑ͡ok] vowel onset: on earth
(her eye)
[p] Platz [plat͡s] (place) Peter
[b] Burg [bʊrk] (castle) boy
[t] Tat [tɑːt] (act) table
[d] Dach [dax] (roof) dawn
[k] König [ˈkøːnɪç] (king) king
[ɡ] Garten [ˈɡartən] (garden) garden
Nasals [m] Morgen [ˈmɔrɡən] morning
(morning)
[n] Nacht [naxt] (night) night
[ŋ] Gesang [ɡəˈzaŋ] (song) song
Lateral [l] Lied [liːt] (song) light
Trills [r] Ruh [ruː] (rest) tongue trill
[ɾ] Haar [hɑːɾ] (hair) single tongue tap
10 ■ F U NDA M E N TA L S
IPA
Affricates [p͡s] Psyche [ˈp͡syçe] (psyche) [p] immediately
followed by [s]
[p͡f ] Pforte [ˈp͡fɔrtə] (gate) [p] immediately
followed by [f]
[t͡s] Zauber [ˈt͡sɑ͡obɐ] (magic) [t] immediately
followed by [s]
[t͡ʃ] Deutsch [dɔ͡øt͡ʃ] (German) choose
[k͡s] Hexe [ˈhɛk͡sə] (witch) boxes
[k͡v] Quelle [ˈk͡vɛlə] (well) [k] immediately
followed by [v]
Semi Vowel [w] Toilette [twaˈlɛtə] (toilet) we
Glides4
[ɥ] Nuance [ˈnɥɑ̃sə] (nuance) like a nonsyllabic [y]
Other IPA [ː] Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love) indicates long vowel
Symbols
[h] Tor [thoːɾ] (gate) indicates aspiration of
plosives)
[ ̃] Orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒə] (orange) indicates nasalization
[ˈ] Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl] indicates primary word
stress
[ˌ] Vogelgesang[ˈfoːɡəlɡəˌzaŋ] indicates secondary
word stress
WORD STRUCTURE
A basic knowledge of German word structure, inflection, and word stress is necessary
for correct pronunciation. Many of the rules of pronunciation that you will find in this
book require the understanding of word elements, the ability to recognize them, and
how they are put together to form words.
German words may consist of several elements. The basic word element is the word
stem, also called root stem. The word stem may be supplemented with prefixes, suf-
fixes, and inflective (grammatical) endings, each of them comprising a separate ele-
ment. The following example illustrates how this works.
Prefix: Prefix: Word Stem: Suffix: Ending: Complete Word:
un be schreib lich e unbeschreibliche

[ʊn] [bə] [ˈʃrae
͡ p] [liç] [ə] [ʊnbəˈʃrae
͡ pliçə]
The word stem in the above example is -schreib- (to write). The prefix be- (de-) alters
the meaning to “describe” (to write about). The suffix -lich can be translated as “able to”
and the prefix un- is used like the English prefix “in-” or “un-” to make the word negative;
thus “unable to describe” or in one English word, “indescribable.” The inflective ending -e
has no impact on the meaning of the word but is needed for grammatical reasons to indi-
cate that the adjective relates to a noun with feminine gender; for example, eine unbesch-
reibliche Sehnsucht (an indescribable longing). The word Sehnsucht is the compound of
the verb sehnen (to long for) and the noun Sucht (mania) that translates as “longing.” Such
combinations are called compound words.
The word stress in simple words usually falls on the first syllable of the word stem,
and in compound words the stress falls on the first syllable of the first word stem, unbesch-
reibliche Sehnsucht [ʊnbəˈʃra͡eplɪçə ˈzeːnzʊxt]. The following sections will help you to iden-
tify the different kinds of word elements and the placement of word stress.
■ 11
■ ■ 2.1 WORD STEM
As you learned above, the basic element of a word is the word stem or root. Without any
knowledge of German vocabulary and grammar, it might be difficult to recognize the
word stem and you may need the help of a dictionary. As your vocabulary and your ability
to recognize word elements grow, it will become easier to determine the word stem. It will
also help to know that the stressed vowel of the word stem may change in inflected forms.
The following tables explain how the stem changes in verbs, plural forms of nouns and
adjectives, and in comparative forms.
Strong Verbs
In weak (regular) verb forms the stem remains unchanged (leben, lebte, gelebt), but
in strong (irregular) verbs the stressed vowel in the stem changes independent from
its ending (singen, sang, gesungen). There are approximately 200 strong verbs in German.
A few of the most common strong verbs are listed here as examples. For a complete list of
strong verbs, refer to a book of conjugations.
Infinitive 3rd Pers. Singular Simple Past Past Participle

leiden [ˈla͡edən] leidet [ˈla͡edət] litt [lɪt] gelitten [ɡəˈlɪtən]
steigen [ˈʃta͡eɡən] steigt [ʃta͡ekt] stieg [ʃtiːk] gestiegen [ɡəˈʃtiːɡən]
fliegen [ˈfliːɡən] fliegt [fliːkt] flog [floːk] geflogen [ɡəˈfloːɡən]
singen [ˈzɪŋən] singt [zɪŋt] sang [zaŋ] gesungen [ɡəˈzʊŋən]
sinnen [ˈzɪnən] sinnt [zɪnt] sann [zan] gesonnen [ɡəˈzɔnən]
sehen [ˈzeːən] sieht [ziːt] sah [zɑː] gesehen [ɡəˈzeːən]
sprechen [ˈʃprɛçən] spricht [ʃprɪçt] sprach [ʃprɑːx] gesprochen [ɡəˈʃprɔxən]
tragen [ˈtrɑːɡən] trägt [trɛːkt] trug [truːk] getragen [ɡəˈtrɑːɡən]
schlafen [ˈʃlɑːfən] schläft [ʃlɛːft] schlief [ʃliːf] geschlafen [ɡəˈʃlɑːfən]
Plural Forms of Nouns
In the plural of some nouns the stressed vowel in the stem changes its quality by adding
the umlaut (¨); thus a becomes ä, o becomes ö, u becomes ü, and au becomes äu.
Word Structure ■ 13
Singular Plural
Vater [ˈfɑːtəɾ] Väter [ˈfɛːtəɾ]
Macht [maxt] Mächte [ˈmɛçtə]
Boden [ˈboːdən] Böden [ˈbøːdən]
Schloss [ʃlɔs] Schlösser [ˈʃlœsəɾ]
Bruder [ˈbruːdəɾ] Brüder [ˈbryːdəɾ]
Frucht [frʊxt] Früchte [ˈfrʏçte]
Baum [bɑ͡oːm] Bäume [ˈbɔ͡ømə]
Comparative Forms of Adjectives
The stressed vowel also changes quality by adding the umlaut in the comparative and su-
perlative of most monosyllabic adjectives.
Positive Comparative Superlative

nah [nɑː] näher [ˈnɛːəɾ] am nächsten [am ˈnɛːçstən]
stark [ʃtark] stärker [ˈʃtɛrkəɾ] am stärksten [am ˈʃtɛrkstən]
groß [ɡroːs] größer [ˈɡrøːsəɾ] am größten [am ˈɡrøːstən]
kurz [kʊrt͡s] kürzer [ˈkʏrt͡səɾ] am kürzesten [am ˈkʏrt͡səstən]
■ ■ 2.2 PREFIXES
Prefixes are elements added before the word stem to modify the meaning of the word.
Most prefixes precede verbs, but they can also be attached to other words (adjectives,
adverbs, nouns) or to another prefix. Some prefixes can stand by themselves as separate
words (separable prefixes). Others cannot and are always attached to a verb stem (insep-
arable prefixes). Some prefixes like erz- and ur- are only attached to nouns and adjectives.
Familiarize yourself with the following prefixes and their pronunciation, which does not
always conform to the general pronunciation rules.
Prefixes that do not separate from the word stem in conjugated verb forms (erzählen,
ich erzähle) are usually unstressed, and they remain unstressed when attached to a noun
or adjective.
Unstressed Prefixes
be- [bə] bedenken [bəˈdɛŋkən] to consider, to deliberate

ent- [ɛnt] entgegnen [ɛntˈɡeːɡnən] to reply
er- [ɛɐ] ertragen [ɛɐˈtrɑːɡən] to endure
ge- [ɡə] gehören [ɡəˈhøːɾən] to belong
ver- [fɛɐ] vergessen [fɛɐˈɡɛsən] to forget
zer- [t͡sɛɐ] zerschlagen [t͡sɛɐˈʃlɑːɡən] to smash, to destroy
Prefixes that are separable from the word stem are usually stressed in the infinitive,
vorziehen (to prefer) and retain the stress even when they are separated from the word
stem in some conjugated verb forms, ich ziehe vor (I prefer). When two normally stressed
prefixes are connected to further modify the meaning, the second prefix will retain the
stress, herein [hɛˈɾa͡en] (into), hereinkommen [hɛˈɾa͡enkɔmən] (to come in). The separable
prefixes da-, dar-, her-, vor-, and zu- often change the vowel length and/or the vowel
quality when they are followed by another prefix. For example the prefix her- is stressed
and pronounced with a long and closed e-vowel, [ˈheːɾ] when directly preceding a verb
stem, as in herbringen [ˈheːɾbrɪŋən], but short and open, [ˈhɛɾ] when followed by another
prefix that takes the word stress, as in herbei [hɛɾˈba͡e]. For clarity in the table of Stressed
Prefixes below, the prefixes that change pronunciation when followed by another stressed
prefix are marked with an asterisk (*). The unstressed pronunciation is listed following
the regular stressed pronunciation.
Stressed Prefixes
ab- [ˈap] ablehnen [ˈapleːnən] to reject

an- [ˈan] angeben [ˈanɡeːbən] to declare
auf- [ˈɑ͡of] aufziehen [ˈɑ͡of t͡siːən] to bring up
aus- [ˈɑ͡os] ausführen [ˈɑ͡osfyːɾən] to carry out
bei- [ˈba͡e] beigeben [ˈba͡eɡeːbən] to add or attach
da- * [ˈdɑː] dasein [ˈdɑːza͡en] to be there
[da] davorkommen [daˈfoːɾkɔmən] to come before
dar- * [ˈdɑːɾ] darbieten [ˈdɑːɾbiːtən] to present, to perform

[daɾ] darüberbreiten [daˈɾyːbəɾbra͡etən] to spread over
ein- [ˈa͡en] einreden [ˈa͡enreːdən] to persuade
erz- [ˈɛrt͡s] Erzengel [ˈɛrt͡sǀɛŋəl] Archangel
fort- [ˈfɔrt] fortsetzen [ˈfɔrtzɛt͡sən] to resume
her- * [ˈheːɾ] herbringen [ˈheːɾbrɪŋən] to bring here
[hɛɾ] hervorragen [hɛɾˈfoːɾ͡rɑːɡən] to stand out
hin- [ˈhɪn] hinsehen [ˈhɪnzeːən] to look there
los- [ˈloːs] losfahren [ˈloːsfɑːɾən] to drive away
mit- [ˈmɪt] mitgehen [ˈmɪtɡeːən] to go with
nach- [ˈnɑːx] nachdenken [ˈnɑːxdɛŋkən] to think about
nieder- [ˈniːdəɾ] niederlegen [ˈniːdəɾleːɡən] to lie down
ur- [ˈuːɾ] uralt [ˈuːɾǀalt] immemorial, ancient
vor- * [ˈfoːɾ] vorziehen [ˈfoːɾt͡siːən] to prefer
[foɾ] vorangehen [foˈɾanɡeːhen] to pass by
weg- [ˈvɛk] wegnehmen [ˈvɛkneːmən] to take away
zu- * [ˈ t͡suː] zuwenden [ˈ t͡suːvɛndən] to turn towards
[t͡su] zurückkehren [t͡suˈɾʏk͡keːɾən] to return
The meaning of words with the prefixes durch, um, über, and unter is defined not
only by the meaning of the prefix but also by the word stress: for example, the verb
überziehen [ˈyːbəɾt͡siːən], with a stress on the prefix means, “to slip over,” while über
ziehen [yːbəɾˈ t͡siːən] with the stress on the word stem means “to overdraw.” The stressed
prefix is separable in conjugated verb forms, while the unstressed prefix is inseparable;
thus, er zieht ein Hemd über (puts a shirt on) versus er überzieht sein Konto (he over-
draws his bank account). Nouns that are derived from these prefixes usually keep
the stress pattern of the verb: Überzug [ˈyːbəɾt͡suːk] (cover), Überziehung [yːbəɾˈ t͡siːʊŋ]
(overdraft).
Prefixes That Can Be Stressed or Unstressed
durch- [ˈdʊrç] durchsetzen [ˈdʊrçzɛt͡sən] to prevail

[dʊrç] durchsetzen [dʊrçˈzɛt͡sən] to intersperse
um- [ˈʊm] umziehen [ˈʊmt͡siːən] to relocate, to change (clothes)
[ʊm] umziehen [ʊmˈ t͡siːən] to surround
über- [ˈyːbəɾ] überziehen [ˈyːbəɾt͡siːən] to cover
[yːbəɾ] überziehen [yːbəɾˈ t͡siːən] to overdraft
unter- [ˈʊntəɾ] untergehen [ˈʊntəɾɡeːən] to decline
[ʊntəɾ] untergehen [ʊntəɾˈɡeːən] to undergo
The prefixes wider-, miss-, in-, and un- follow an irregular stress pattern. They can be
stressed or unstressed depending upon the stem to which they are attached. Use a reliable
dictionary whenever you are in doubt about the stress of words with these irregular prefixes.
Prefixes with an Irregular Stress Pattern
wider- [ˈviːdəɾ] widerspiegeln [ˈviːdəɾʃpiːɡəln] to reflect

[viːdəɾ] widerlegen [viːdəɾˈleːɡən] to disprove
miss- [ˈmɪs] missverstehen [ˈmɪsfɛɐʃteːən] to misunderstand
[mɪs] misstrauen [mɪsˈtrɑ͡oən] to distrust
in- [ˈɪn] indiskret [ˈɪndɪskreːt] indiscreet
[ɪn] informieren [ɪnforˈmiːɾen] to inform
un- [ˈʊn] untreu [ˈʊntrɔ͡ø] unfaithful
[ʊn] unendlich [ʊnˈǀɛntlɪç] eternal
■ ■ 2.3 SUFFIXES
Like the prefix, the suffix is an element added to the word stem to modify the meaning
of the word. In contrast to the prefix that precedes the word stem, the suffix follows the
word stem or another suffix as in Wachsamkeit, which consists of the stem Wach- and
the suffixes -sam- and -keit. Suffixes are unstressed except for the suffix -ei (marked *),
which is always stressed, as in Träumerei [trɔ͡øməˈɾa͡e]. Remember that a suffix is a separate
element. The suffix neither changes the pronunciation of the preceding element, nor is it
altered by the element that follows it. The vowel length and quality of the suffix itself
remain unchangeable. Familiarize yourself with the following suffixes and their pronunci-
ation. In particular, notice the long vowels in the suffixes -bar, -los, -sal, -sam, and -tum.
Suffixes
-bar [bɑːɾ] spürbar [ˈʃpyːɾbɑːɾ] perceptible

-chen [çən] Kindchen [ˈkɪntçən] small child
-haft [haft] herzhaft [ˈhɛrt͡shaft] hearty
-heit [ha͡et] Klugheit [ˈkluːkha͡et] cleverness
-ei * [ˈa͡e] Träumerei [trɔ͡øməˈɾa͡e] reverie
-in [ɪn] Königin [ˈkøːnɪɡɪn] queen
-ig [ɪç] wonnig [ˈvɔnɪç] lovely
-isch [ɪʃ] malerisch [ˈmɑːleɾɪʃ] picturesque
-keit [ka͡et] Tapferkeit [ˈtap͡fɐka͡et] bravery
-lein [la͡en] Mägdelein [ˈmɛːɡdəla͡en] little maiden
-lich [lɪç] fröhlich [ˈfrøːlɪç] happy
-ling [lɪŋ] Fremdling [ˈfrɛmtlɪŋ] stranger
-los [loːs] herzlos [ˈhɛrt͡sloːs] heartless
-mut [muːt] Wehmut [ˈveːmuːt] melancholy
-nis [nɪs] Bildnis [ˈbɪltnɪs] portrait, picture
-sal [zɑːl] Trübsal [ˈtryːpzɑːl] sadness
-sam [zɑːm] wachsam [ˈvaxzɑːm] wake, alert
-schaft [ʃaft] Landschaft [ˈlantʃaft] landscape,
countryside
-tum [tuːm] Heiligtum [ˈha͡elɪçtuːm] sanctuary
-ung [ʊŋ] Wertung [ˈveːɾtʊŋ] assessment, score
-wärts [vɛrt͡s] vorwärts [ˈfoːɾvɛrt͡s] forward
■ ■ 2.4 GRAMMATICAL ENDINGS
Inflective endings are added to words to further define their grammatical function in the
phrase. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation and indicates person, number,
tense, and mood. The inflection of nouns and adjectives is called declension and indi-
cates number, case, and gender.
Conjugation
Verb endings indicate the subject of the sentence and the time of the action. Verb endings
are always unstressed, and the e vowel is pronounced as schwa, [ə]. Dictionaries usually
list verbs only in the infinitive; therefore, you might have to refer to a book of conjuga-
tions when you have difficulties in identifying a verb in an inflected form. Verb infinitives
end with -en or -n. In weak (regular) verb forms, the stem remains unchanged when the
verb is conjugated. Most German verbs are weak and follow the pattern here.
Conjugation Table: Weak (Regular) Verb
Infinitive: hören [ˈhøːɾən] (to hear)

Past participle: gehört [ɡəˈhøːrt]
Personal
Pronoun: Present Tense: Simple Past: Subjunctive:
1st pers. sing. ich höre [ˈhøːɾə] hörte [ˈhøːrtə] höre [ˈhøːɾə]
2nd pers. sing. du hörst [ˈhøːrst] hörtest [ˈhøːrtəst] hörest [ˈhøːɾəst]
3rd pers. sing. er, sie, es hört [ˈhøːrt] hörte [ˈhøːrtə] höre [ˈhøːɾə]
1st pers. plur. wir hören [ˈhøːɾən] hörten [ˈhøːrtən] hören [ˈhøːɾən]
2nd pers. plur. ihr hört [høːrt] hörtet [ˈhøːrtət] höret [ˈhøːɾet]
3rd pers. plur. sie hören [ˈhøːɾən] hörten [ˈhøːrtən] hören [ˈhøːɾən]
In strong (irregular) verb forms the stem changes its quality in some forms of the
conjugated verb. A table of a few irregular verbs was provided earlier. The endings of
the strong verbs follow the pattern in the following table.
Conjugation Table: Strong (Irregular) Verb
Infinitive: singen [ˈzɪŋən] (to sing)

Past participle: gesungen [ɡəˈzʊŋən]
Personal
Pronoun: Present Tense: Simple Past: Subjunctive:
1st pers. sing. ich singe [ˈzɪŋə] sang [zaŋ] sänge [ˈzɛŋə]
2nd pers. sing. du singst [zɪŋst] sangst [zaŋst] sängest [ˈzɛŋest]
3rd pers. sing. er, sie, es singt [zɪŋt] sang [zaŋ] sänge [ˈzɛŋə]
1st pers. plur. wir singen [ˈzɪŋən] sangen [ˈzaŋən] sängen [ˈzɛŋən]
2nd pers. plur. ihr singt [zɪŋt] sangt [zaŋt] sänget [ˈzɛŋet]
3rd pers. plur. sie singen [ˈzɪŋən] sangen [ˈzaŋən] sängen [ˈzɛŋən]
Most German Lieder are settings of poetry from the romantic or classic period.
Therefore, you will find conjugated verb forms that are no longer used in modern-day
German. Often verbs in the second person singular end on -est as in rauschest [ˈrɑ͡oʃəst]
and lauschest [ˈlɑ͡oʃəst] (Brahms/Brentano, O kühler Wald).
Declension
The relationship of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives within a phrase is shown by endings
that show gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), number (singular or plural), and case
(nominative, accusative, dative, genitive). In words of Germanic origin, noun and adjective
endings are always unstressed and do not influence the pronunciation of the vowel in the
word stem. The e vowel in unstressed endings is always pronounced as schwa [ə]. For pro-
nunciation purposes, it is imperative that you recognize the declension endings -e, -em,
-en, -er, and -es. The following lines (all from Dichterliebe, Schumann/Heine) contain ex-
amples with adjectives and nouns using these endings.
-e Und grüne Bäume singen [ǀʊnt ˈɡryːnə ˈbɔ͡ømə ˈzɪŋən] (And green trees sing)
Es ist eine alte Geschichte [ǀɛs ǀɪst ˈǀa͡enə ˈǀaltə ɡəˈʃɪçtə] (It is an old story)
-em Aus wildem Marmorstein [ǀɑ͡os ˈvɪldəm ˈmarmɔrʃta͡en] (Out of rough marble)
Mit Bräutlichem Gesicht [mɪt ˈbrɔ͡øtlɪçəm ɡəˈzɪçt] (with a bride-like visage)
-en Aus alten Märchen winkt es [ǀa͡os ˈǀaltən ˈmɛrçən vɪŋkt ǀɛs] (Out of the old fairy
tales it beckons)
Zu deinen süßen Füßen [t͡su ˈda͡enən ˈzyːsən ˈfyːsən] (At your sweet feet)
-er Du trauriger, blasser Mann [duː ˈtrɑ͡oɾɪɡɐ ˈblasɐ man] (You sad, pale man)
Und rote Lichter rennen [ǀʊnt ˈroːtə ˈlɪçtɐ ͡ˈrɛnən] (And red lights rush about)
-es Mein übergroßes Weh’ [ma͡en ˈǀyːbəɾɡroːsəs veː] (My unbearable grief)
Es treibt mich ein dunkles Sehnen [ǀɛs tra͡ept mɪç ǀa͡en ˈdʊŋkləs ˈzeːnən] (A dark
longing drives me)
In German the present participle of a verb is often used as an adjective. It is formed

by adding a -d to the verb infinitive (blühen → blühend) followed by an adjective ending
(-e, -em, -en, -er, -es):Viel blühende Blumen . . . [fiːl ˈblyːəndə ˈbluːmən]; Erquickenden Gesang
[ǀɛɐˈkvɪkəndən ɡəˈzaŋ].
■ ■ 2.5 COMPOUND WORDS
German romantic poetry thrives on long words that are constructed out of several
shorter words. A wonderful example is the title of Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte (The Magic
Flute). Many compound words are composed of two nouns, such as Winterreise1
(Winter Journey); others may be composed with a verb and a noun, as in Sehnsucht
(longing), a noun and an adjective as in eiskalt (cold as ice), or an adverb and an adjec-
tive as in wunderselig2 (wonderfully blissful). Compound words can also be composed
of more than two words, such as Mindest/haltbarkeits/datum (expiration date). Some
are words used in everyday language, such as Vogelgesang (birdsong) and Todesangst
(fear of death); other, more complex words have a poetic value that is very difficult
to translate or might require a lengthy explanation, and the singer will need some
deeper knowledge of German in order to understand the meaning. In most cases, how-
ever, it is possible, with the help of a dictionary, to easily recognize and translate the
separate elements.
Diamanten/pracht3—compound of Diamant (diamond) and Pracht (splendor)

Mondes/glanz4—compound of Mond (moon) and Glanz (shine)
Väter/saal5—compound of Väter (ancestors) and Saal (hall)
■ ■ 2.6 WORD STRESS
As in English, stress in German is tonic, meaning that in spoken language, the pitch of the
voice rises slightly on stressed syllables. This applies to all words used in the German lan-
guage whether they are of Germanic or non-Germanic origin. Nevertheless, words of
non-Germanc origin do not always follow the same stress pattern as words of Germanic
origin.
In IPA, the stress is indicated at the beginning of the stressed syllable. Simple words
(with one word stem) have only one stress, which is indicated with the symbol [ˈ] as in
Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl] and singen [ˈzɪŋən]. Compound words (with two word stems) have, in addi-
tion to the primary word stress, a secondary stress that is indicated with the symbol [ˌ] as
in Vogelgesang [ˈfoːɡəlɡəˌzaŋ].
The following general rules for word stress may be understood from the above de-
scriptions of word elements.
RULES FOR STRESS IN WORDS OF GERMANIC ORIGIN
The first syllable of the (first) word stem is stressed

■ in simple words when not preceded by a stressed prefix or followed by the suffix-ei:
Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl], singen [ˈzɪŋən], dunkel [ˈdʊŋkəl]
■ in compound words when not followed by the suffix -ei. (Secondary stress may be
applied on the first syllable of the second stem):
Vogelgesang [ˈfoːɡəlɡəˌzaŋ], Todesangst [ˈtoːdəsˌǀaŋst]
except the following units of time and holidays, where the primary stress is
on the second word stem: Jahrzehnt [jɑːɾˈ t͡seːnt] (decade), Jahrhundert
[jɑːɾˈhʊndərt] (centennial), Jahrtausend [jɑːɾˈtɑ͡ozənt] (millennium),
Pfingstsonntag [p͡fɪŋstˈzɔntɑːk] (White Sunday), Ostermontag [ˌoːstɐˈmoːntɑːk]
(Monday after Easter), Karfreitag [kɑːɾˈfra͡etɑːk] (Good Friday)
The stressed prefix is stressed

■ in all combinations:
vorsingen [ˈfoɾzɪŋən], herkommen [ˈheːɾkɔmən], nachdenken [ˈnɑːxdɛŋkən],
Aufzug [ˈɑ͡oft͡suːk], Ausgang [ˈɑ͡usɡaŋ]
except when followed by another stressed prefix, in which case the second
stressed prefix receives the stress: herein [hɛɾˈa͡en], einher [a͡enˈheːɾ],
hereinkommen [hɛɾˈa͡enkɔmən], einhergehən [a͡enˈheːɾɡeːən]
Note: The pronunciation of a prefix may change depending on whether it is stressed

or unstressed (see list of Stressed Prefixes).
The suffix -ei is stressed

■ in all combinations:
Träumerei [ˌtrɔ͡øməˈɾa͡e], Malerei [ˌmɑːləˈɾa͡e], Zuckerbäckerei [ˌt͡sʊkɐbɛkəˈɾa͡e]
It must be added here that stress can also change according to the intended meaning
by emphasizing one element over another. For example, in the noun, Kunstmalerei
[ˌkʊnstmɑːləˈɾa͡e] (art painting), the primary stress would normally fall on the suffix -ei.
However, if the speaker intends to distinguish “art painting” from regular painting one
might choose to emphasize “art” by putting the primary word stress on Kunst, thus
[ˈkʊnstmɑːləɾa͡e]. Another example is the word dahin, which changes its function and
meaning depending on what element takes the stress. If the first element (da-) takes the
stress, the word functions as an adverb meaning there: Gehe nicht dahin! [ˈdɑːhɪn] (“Do
not go there!”). If the second element (-hin) is stressed, it functions as an adjective and
means gone: Er ging dahin [daˈhɪn] (“He left”).
The following examples demonstrate how the stress changes to reflect different meaning.
Maler [ˈmɑːlɐ] (painter)

malen [ˈmɑːlən] (to paint)
bemalen [bəˈmɑːlən] (to paint on)

ausmalen [ˈɑ͡osmɑːlən] (to color in)
malerisch [ˈmɑːləɾɪʃ] (picturesque)
Malerei [ˌmɑːləˈɾa͡e] (painting)
Kunstmaler [ˈkʊnstˌmɑːlɐ] (artist painter)

Kunstmalerei [ˌkʊnstmɑːləˈɾa͡e] (art painting)
Kunstmalerei [ˈkʊnstmɑːləˌɾa͡e] (art painting)
The noun Maler and the verb malen have the stress on the first syllable of the word
stem. The prefix be- is unstressed, and the stress remains on the first syllable of the word
stem in bemalen. However, aus- is a stressed prefix and takes the stress in ausmalen. Like
most suffixes, the suffix -isch is unstressed, and the stress is on the word stem in malerisch.
In Malerei, however, the primary stress falls on the only stressed suffix, -ei.
Kunstmaler is a compound word, and the primary stress goes on the first syllable of
the first word stem. Kunstmalerei normally has the primary stress on the stressed suffix -ei,
but depending on the situation, one might also choose to stress the first word stem Kunst
(art) in order to emphasize the difference between regular painting and art painting, thus
Kunstmalerei.
Stress in Words of Non-Germanic Origin
No single rule can be given for stress in words of non-Germanic origin. The following
examples may serve to help recognize certain patterns.
■ Final -ie is usually stressed in words of Greek origin:

Harmonie [harmoˈniː]
Melodie [meloˈdiː]
■ Other words ending on -ie are stressed on the penultimate (second to last)
syllable, and the -ie is pronounced [i ̯ə]. Most of these words are of Latin origin:
Arie [ˈɑːɾi ̯ə]
Lilie [ˈliːli ̯ə]
■ The word endings -ion, -ist, -tät, -phon, and -tiv, are stressed:
Motion [moˈ t͡si ̯oːn]
Komponist [kɔmpoˈnɪst]
Universität [univɛrsiˈtɛːt]
Xylophon [k͡syloˈfoːn]
Stativ [ʃtaˈtiːf]
■ Words of Greek origin ending on -ik usually have the stress on the penultimate
syllable:
Lyrik [ˈlyːɾɪk]
Tragik [ˈtrɑːɡɪk]
■ Other words, also of Greek origin, ending on -ik are stressed on the final syllable:
Mathematik [matemaˈtiːk]
Musik [muˈziːk]
■
2
VOWELS
INTRODUCTION TO VOWELS
Vowels are sounds that resonate in the vocal tract without any obstruction above the
vocal folds. The term vowel is derived from the Latin word vocalis, which means, “sound-
ing.” The German word for vowel is Vokal or Selbstlaut, i.e., a sound that sounds by itself.
In contrast, the word consonant, in German Konsonant or Mitlaut, comes from the
Latin word consonare, which means “to sound with.”
Vowels can be classified as follows:
■■ long vowels and short vowels according to the length and manner of
phonation.
■■ bright vowels and dark vowels according to the tone quality resulting from
the presence or lack of high overtones.
■■ front vowels, back vowels and central vowels according to where the
highest point of the tongue is located in the mouth.
■■ rounded vowels and unrounded vowels according to the degree of lip
rounding.
■■ tongue vowels are vowels that are primarily formed by the tongue; lip vowels
are vowels that are primarily formed by the lips. Vowels that have both a raised
tongue and rounded lips are called mixed vowels.
■■ open vowels and closed vowels according to the relative space in the oral cavity.
The vowel chart (which follows) will help you clarify the above concepts. The di-
agram shows the tongue positions of the vowel sounds captured by x-ray images. The dots
on the figure indicate the high point of the tongue for each specific sound. You will recog-
nize that the tongue is more forward for front vowels and more arched toward the back
for back vowels. Closed vowels have a higher tongue position than open vowels, and only
■ 27
28 ■ VOW E LS
the rounded vowels have rounded lips in various degrees. In general, a more forward
tongue results in a brighter tone quality while a more backward tongue causes the sound
to be darker. For central vowels the tongue is in a more neutral position, therefore these
vowels are also called neutral vowels.
To familiarize yourself with the sounds listen to your teacher’s demonstration and to the
audio examples on the website accompanying this book. The schematic graphs will lead to
a better understanding of the relationship between vowels. When practicing vowel sounds,
one should use the schematic graphs as a guide only, without attempting to force the tongue
and lips into arbitrary positions. It is much better to look in a mirror and to observe the nat-
ural placement of the tongue and lips while exploring the sounds with hearing and touch.
■ ■ VOWEL CHART
* The mixed vowels [y], [ʏ], [ø], [œ] have the tongue position of a tongue vowel, [i], [ɪ], [e], [ɛ] and the lip
rounding of the corresponding lip vowel [u], [ʊ], [o], [ɔ] on the right side of the vowel chart.
** Vocalic-R, [ɐ], is used as alternative for [ɾ] (see Chapter 12).
Introduction to Vowels ■ 29
■ ■ VOWEL LENGTH
You have already learned above that vowels can differ in length. In IPA, all symbols repre-
sent an audible sound. The IPA symbol used to show that a vowel is long is [ː]. This
symbol also indicates a decay of intensity as the sustained vowel nears the following
consonant. The decay separates the long vowel from the following consonant, making
it seem to be disconnected from the vowel and to belong to the next syllable, as in the
word wieder [ˈviːdɐ] (again). The short vowel is lacking the length symbol [ː] and main-
tains its intensity until the following consonant interrupts it. Thus, the short vowel seems
to be attached to the consonant following it as in the word Widder [ˈvɪdɐ] (Aries). As
shown in the following table, each German vowel letter can represent a long or a short
vowel sound.
Letter Long Short

i [i:] Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love) [ɪ] Lippe [ˈlɪpə] (lip)
e [e:] Heer [heːɾ] (army) [ɛ] Herr [hɛr] (master)
ä [ɛː] Mär [mɛːɾ] (old tale) [ɛ] März [mɛrt͡s] (March)
a [ɑː] Bahn [bɑːn](path) [a] Bann [ban] (banishment)
o [oː] Ofen [ˈoːfən] (oven) [ɔ] offen [ˈɔfən] (open)
ö [øː] Höhle [ˈhøːlə] (cave) [œ] Hölle [ˈhœlə] (hell)
u [uː] Grube [ˈɡruːbə] (mine) [ʊ] Gruppe [ˈɡrʊpə] (group)
ü [yː] fühlen [ˈfyːlən] (feel) [ʏ] füllen [ˈfʏlən] (fill)
Notice that the long and short vowels have different IPA symbols: when you compare
the above table with the vowel chart you will see that in most cases the long vowel is more
closed and brighter in quality while the short vowel is more open and darker in quality.
The exception to this is the letter ä, which represents only one sound quality, and the
letter a, which, in speech, is slightly brighter when short and a bit darker when long. For a
more detailed discussion on the a vowel see Chapter 4. The following general rules for
vowel length apply to all stressed vowels.
30 ■ VOW E LS
Usually a stressed vowel is long [ː] Usually a stressed vowel is short

■ when the vowel letter is doubled ■ before a double consonant in the
(two of the same vowels), ee, aa, oo: same element (including ck):
Seele [ˈzeːlə] (soul) hell [hɛl] (bright)
Saal [zɑːl] (hall) Ecke [ˈɛkə] (corner)
Schooß [ʃoːs] (lap)
■ when the vowel letter is followed by ■ before two or more consonant
an h in the same element: letters in the same element:
gehen [ˈɡeːən] (to go), Herz [hɛrt͡s] (heart)
Hahn [hɑːn] (rooster) Stadt [ʃtat] (city)
Stunde [ˈʃtʊndə] (hour)
■ when the vowel is followed by a
single consonant letter in the same
element:
Leben [ˈleːbən] (life)
Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl] (bird)
■ ■ NEUTRAL VOWELS—SCHWA AND VOCALIC-R
The schwa [ə] is not foreign to English speakers. We use it in colloquial English as a sub-
stitute for nearly all unstressed vowels, for example, the letters a and i in America
[əˈmɛɹəkə]. In German, the schwa is used only as a pronunciation for letter e in some un-
stressed syllables. However, it is necessary to determine whether an unstressed e is part of
the root of the word or a secondary syllable. The secondary syllable e is used as an ending
and is pronounced as schwa. Although the schwa is essentially a central vowel (see vowel
chart), it is also appropriate to consider it with the other e vowels.
You might have noticed one more symbol on the vowel chart that we have not yet
covered in our discussion about vowels: that is the vocalic-R, [ɐ]. Though pronounced
as a vowel, vocalic r is an optional substitute pronunciation for the final consonant r, as in
der [deːɐ]. Therefore, we have covered vocalic r in this book together with the other pro-
nunciations of the letter r.
■ ■ VOWEL ONSET—GLOTTAL SEPARATION
There is controversy among linguists and voice pedagogues about the physiological onset
of a vowel and its idiomatic use in the German language. On one hand, the German lan-
guage requires the new onset of an initial vowel with what is generally referred to as a
glottal stop, generally shown in IPA with the symbol [ʔ]; on the other hand voice
Introduction to Vowels ■ 31
pedagogues are concerned about the consequences of an abusive application of a hard

“glottal attack.”
There are three ways to initiate a vowel:
■■ The breathy onset occurs when breath flows through the glottis before the vocal
folds come to full closure for phonation. The resulting sound is that of f riction sim-
ilar to the glottal fricative [h] as in the initial sound of the English word house.
■■ The firm onset occurs when air pressure builds up behind the closed vocal folds
and is released with a plosive “pop” or “click” as the phonation of the vowel begins.
The degree of plosion varies according to the intensity of speech, but if exagger-
ated it can do harm to the vocal folds. The sound is commonly referred to as glottal
stop or glottal attack and is represented with the IPA symbol [ʔ].
■■ The balanced onset (sometimes also called soft onset) occurs when the flow
of the breath begins simultaneously with the gentle closure of the glottis. There is
neither additional sound of friction nor audible plosion before the phonation of
the vowel. The balanced onset, which is inserted to separate a word or element
that begins with a vowel from the preceding word or element, is called glottal
separation. In IPA, this is indicated with the symbol [ǀ].
Correct German requires a new onset for each word or element beginning with a
vowel. It is necessary for clear understanding that a separation before an initial vowel is
audible. Also in English, for instance, one would begin the initial vowel of “ocean” with a
clear new onset when saying “an ocean” in order to avoid being understood as having said
“a notion.” The strength of the onset results from the intensity of speech. Generally, a bal-
anced onset or a very gentle form of the firm onset sounds intense enough for clarity and
can be articulated healthily in singing and speaking. A hard form of the firm onset or glot-
tal attack should always be avoided, and we do not use the IPA symbol [ʔ] in this book
since it represents a sound that is executed by the plosive articulation of the vocal folds.
Because the glottal separation itself is an absence of sound before the onset, we have
chosen the IPA symbol [ǀ], which does not represent a sound, for all representations of
the soft glottal stop or glottal separation in this book. The following rules should help you
to determine the correct application:
32 ■ VOW E LS
BEGIN A VOWEL WITH A GLOTTAL SEPARATION WHEN

THE VOWEL APPEARS
■ initial in a word: in [ǀɪn], er [ǀeːɾ], aber [ˈǀɑːbəɾ], oben [ˈǀoːbən], unten [ˈǀʊntən]
■ initial in a component of a compound word:
Waldeinsamkeit [ˈvaltˌǀa͡enzɑːmka͡et], Todesahnung [ˈtoːdəsˌǀɑːnʊŋ]
■ initial in an element following a prefix (for a list of prefixes see Chapter 2):
uralt [ˈuːɾǀalt], unangenehm [ˈʊnǀanɡəneːm]
except when the prefixes her-, hin-, dar-, and vor- are followed by another
prefix, in which case the glottal is forbidden and the final consonant of the first
prefix is linked to the initial vowel of the following prefix: herüber [hɛˈɾyːbəɾ],
hinab [hɪˈnap], darauf [daˈɾɑ͡of], vorüber [foˈɾyːbəɾ]
Attention: Suffixes and inflectional endings should not be separated from the preceding
element by a glottal separation: Übung [ˈyːbʊŋ], leben [ˈleːbən]
Note: Because the glottal separation is merely a short interruption of sound between words
or elements, one does not need to indicate the glottal stop in IPA at the beginning of a
phrase where a new onset occurs naturally after the breath pause. (In this book we therefore
do not print the glottal separation before initial vowels of example words.)
Because in German the glottal separation is used only in relation to vowels, we have
included a full discussion on the vowel onset at the beginning of this chapter. However,
phonetically the glottal stop is a consonant. Because of its manner of articulation, it be-
longs to the stop-plosive consonants, as its name indicates. According to its place of artic-
ulation, the glottis, it is closely related to [h], the only other consonant in German with a
place of articulation between the vocal folds. Therefore, we discuss the glottal separation
in relation to the glottal fricative [h] (see Chapter 9).
MONOPHTHONGS I: TONGUE
VOWELS
A vowel is called a monophthong when the sound keeps its quality unchanged for the
entire duration of the syllable. The word monophthong is Greek, meaning monos, single,
and phthongos, sound. Combined, the two mean single sound.
Monophthongs can be further classified in tongue vowels that are primarily
formed by the tongue position, lip vowels that are primarily formed by various degrees
of lip rounding, and mixed vowels that are formed by using the tongue position of a
tongue vowel combined with the lip rounding of a lip vowel.
In this chapter we will discuss the monophthongs that are primarily formed by the
tongue position: [iː] as in bee, [ɪ] as in zip, [eː] as the long vowel in hay, [ɛ] as in heaven, [ɛː]
as a long version of [ɛ], [ɑː] as in father, and its slightly brighter short version [a] as the
first element of the diphthong in night.
Tongue Vowels
Letter Long Short

i [iː] Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love) [ɪ] Lippe [ˈlɪpə] (lip)
e [eː] Heer [heːɾ] (army) [ɛ] Herr [hɛr] (master)
ä [ɛː] Mär [mɛːɾ] (old tale) [ɛ] März [mɛrt͡s] (March)
a [ɑː] Bahn [bɑːn](path) [a] Bann [ban] (banishment)
Nearly all monophthongs in English end in a neutralizing audible diphthongal off-glide.

For this reason it is sometimes challenging for English speakers to speak long, pure vowels
in German without permitting a schwa-like off-glide. Because schwa, [ə], is always
■ 33
34 ■ VOW E LS
r epresented in German with the letter e, it is reasonable to discuss it in this chapter with
the other e vowels. English speakers are familiar with a form of this sound, but it takes
close attention to create the idiomatic German sound.
In the following sections you will find guidelines for the IPA transcription in the
Pronunciation column as well as descriptions of the sounds and instructions on how to
form them correctly in the Enunciation column.
■ ■ 4.1 LONG AND CLOSED [iː] , NON-SYLLABIC [i ]

̯ ,
SHORT AND OPEN [ɪ]
Pronunciation Enunciation
[iː] ■ i + single consonant = [iː]
■ ie, ih, ieh = [iː]
i Pronounce [iː] in spellings of the letter i Form the long and closed [iː] like
• before a single consonant letter ee in the English word bee.
wider [ˈviːdəɾ], Bibel [ˈbiːbəl],
The tip of the tongue touches the
wir [viːɾ], mir [miːɾ]
lower front teeth. The blade of
except in a few words: the tongue is arched forward
in [ɪn], im [ɪm], bin [bɪn], bis [bɪs], hin closely to the alveolus (dental
[hɪn], mit [mɪt], April [aˈprɪl], ridge), and the sides of the
Nachtigall [ˈnaxtɪɡal] tongue touch the upper molars.
except in the following suffixes: The lips are relaxed. (Compare
-in [ɪn] – Freundin [ˈfrɔ͡øndɪn] with the vowel chart in
-ig [ɪç] – wonnig [ˈvɔnɪç] Chapter 3).
-nis [nɪs] – Bildnis [ˈbɪltnɪs]
except when the final syllable -ik is
unstressed in some words of Greek
origin:
Chronik [ˈkroːnɪk], Lyrik [ˈlyːɾɪk],
Tragik [ˈtrɑːɡɪk], Epik [ˈeːpɪk]
ie Pronounce [iː] in spellings of the letter Attention: The [iː] is a pure
combination ie monophthong. The non-native
• medial: speaker has to pay particular
Wiege [ˈviːɡə], Lied [liːt] attention to avoid the involuntary
except in the following words: diphthongal off-glide [i͡ə] before r
Viertel [ˈfɪrtəl] (quarter) or l. Thus the German words vier
vierzehn [ˈfɪrt͡seːn] (fourteen) (four) and viel (much) should
vierzig [ˈfɪrt͡sɪç] (forty) sound [fiːɾ] and [fiːl], not [fi͡əɾ]
and [fi͡əl], as often heard in
Monophthongs I: Tongue Vowels ■ 35
but the following go by the rule: vernacular English in the words

vier [fiːɾ] (four) fear and feel.
vierteilen [ˈfiːɾta͡elən] (to quarter)
Tip: To avoid an involuntary
diphthong, sustain the [iː] without
• final in monosyllabic words: loss of color and move swiftly to
wie [viː], sie [ziː] the following consonant.
• final and stressed in words of Greek
origin:
Melodie [meloˈdiː]
Phantasie [fantaˈziː]
Harmonie [harmoˈniː]
and many more. (See chapter 14)
• before a single consonant letter that
is followed by the diminutive suffixes
-chen or -lein:
Liebchen [ˈliːpçən], Wieglein [ˈviːkla͡en]
ih Pronounce [iː] in spellings of the letter Attention: In the letter
combination ih in the same element: combinations ie, ih, ieh the only
ihm [iːm], ihr [iːɾ] sounding letter is i. The e and h
are used in spelling only to
ieh Pronounce [iː] in spellings of the letter
indicate the lengthening of the
combination ieh in the same element:
preceding i vowel but remain
fliehen [fliːn], zieht [ t͡s iːt]
silent. Thus the following words
sound all the same:
Stil [ʃtiːl] (style)
Stiel [ʃtiːl] (handle)
stiehl! [ʃtiːl] (steal! imp.)
[i] In speech there are cases where [iː] loses Note: The difference in length
its length [ː]. The sound becomes short, between long and short vowels
but keeps its closed quality, thus [i]. of the same quality is more
Pronounce [i] (short but closed): evident in spoken German. In
• in compound words where a singing, where the length of a
normally long [iː] loses its stress: vowel is determined by the
viel [fiːl] → viel/leicht [fiˈla͡eçt] musical notation, the long vowel
is only recognizable by the decay
• in unstressed syllables in words of
of its intensity and by the way it
foreign origin:
is “touched” by the following
Bariton [ˈbɑːɾitɔn], Politik [poliˈtiːk]
consonant. The quality of the
Kritik [kriˈtiːk]
vowel has to remain pure,
independent of the length of the
sound. (See also under Vowel
Length in Chapter 3.)
36 ■ VOW E LS
y • in spellings of the letter y at the end

of common names and nicknames:
Willy [ˈvɪli], Mary [ˈmaɾi]
[i ̯] ■ unstressed, final -ie = [i ̯ə]

■ unstressed, final -ien = [i ̯ən]
■ final -ion = [i ̯oːn]
■ final -tion = [t͡si ̯oːn]
-ie Pronounce [i ̯ə] in the final combination Form the non-syllabic vowel [i ̯]
-ie when like closed [i], but move swiftly
• unstressed (mostly in words of Latin to the following vowel.
origin): Attention: The non-syllabic [i ̯]
Arie [ˈɑːɾi ̯ə], Akazie [aˈkɑːt͡si ̯ə], should neither be confused with
Familie [faˈmiːli ̯ə], Lilie [ˈliːli ̯ə], the j-glide, [j], nor the voiced
Tragödie [traˈɡøːdi ̯ə] lingual-palatal fricative [ʝ] (see
and many more (see Chapter 14) Chapter 9).
-ien Pronounce [i ̯ən]in the final combination Note: The pronunciation rules in
-ien (plural of -ie) when the lefthand column apply to
• unstressed: spoken text. In a musical setting
Arien [ˈɑːɾi ̯ən], Lilien [ˈliːli ̯ən], words might be divided
Italien [iˈtɑːli ̯ən], Spanien [ˈʃpɑːni ̯ən] differently than the example that
-ion Pronounce [ˈi ̯oːn]in the stressed final you would find in a dictionary. In
combination -ion such cases, follow the musical
• in words of Latin origin: notation. For example, if the word
Religion [reliˈɡi ̯oːn], Passion [paˈsi ̯oːn] Li/lie [ˈliːli ̯ə], has to be sung on
three notes rather than on two,
Attention: The Hebrew word Zion is Li-li-e, then the i becomes syllabic
pronounced [ˈt͡siːɔn]. and sounds independently as [i];
thus [ˈliː li ə] (compare with
Musical Examples 4.1.6 and 4.1.7
on the companion website).
-ti- In words of Latin origin with the ending
-tion or -tient the combination -ti- is
pronounced as [t͡s] (see chapter 13)
followed by the non-syllabic [i ̯].
Pronounce [t͡si ̯] in the combination -ti-
• in words ending on -tion and -tient:
Nation [naˈt͡si ̯oːn], Aktion [akˈt͡si ̯oːn],
Ration [raˈt͡si ̯oːn], Patient [paˈt͡si ̯ɛnt]
Note: To determine non-syllabic [i ̯], it
might help to know that it appears always
preceding another vowel. Remember also:
Ariadne [aˈɾi ̯adne], Premiere [prəˈmi ̯eːɾə]
[ɪ] ■ i + two consonants = [ɪ]

■ i in unstressed endings = [ɪ]
i Pronounce [ɪ]in spellings of the letter i Form the short and open [ɪ] like
• before two or more consonant i in the English word zip.
letters:
Licht [lɪçt], bitten [ˈbɪtən], frisch [frɪʃ], The tip of the tongue touches
mild [mɪlt], Widder [ˈvɪdəɾ] the lower front teeth. The blade
of the tongue is arched forward
except in the following word of
(but slightly less than for [iː])
French origin:
and the sides of the tongue
Nische [ˈniːʃə] (niche)
touch the upper molars. The lips
• before the consonant letter x (which are relaxed. (Compare with the
functions as a double consonant): vowel chart in Chapter 3.)
Nixe [ˈnɪk͡sə]
• before a single consonant letter in Attention: Be careful to avoid
the following words: any tendency to neutralize [ɪ]
in [ɪn] (in) toward a schwa [ə] or [ʌ]. The
im [ɪm] (in the) [ɪ], although darker in quality
bin [bɪn] (I am) than the [iː], is still a front

bis [bɪs] (until) vowel.
hin [hɪn] (there)
mit [mɪt] (with)
April [aˈprɪl] (april)
Nachtigall [ˈnaxtɪɡal] (nightingale)
• in the suffixes -in, -ig, -nis:
-in [ɪn] – Freundin [ˈfrɔ͡øndɪn]
-ig [ɪç] – wonnig [ˈvɔnɪç]
-nis [nɪs] – Bildnis [ˈbɪltnɪs]
except in the following proper
names:
Berlin [bɛrˈliːn]
Valentin [ˈvɑːlɛntiːn]
Konstantin [ˈkɔnstantiːn]
• when unstressed in the final syllable
-ik in some words of Greek origin:
Chronik [ˈkroːnɪk], Lyrik [ˈlyːɾɪk],
Tragik [ˈtrɑːɡɪk], Epik [ˈeːpɪk]
Attention: In other words of Greek origin,
where the final syllable -ik is stressed,
pronounce i as long and closed [iː]:
Musik [muˈziːk], Politik [poliˈtiːk],
Kritik [kriˈtiːk]
38 ■ VOW E LS
Exercises for [iː], [i], [i ̯], and [ɪ]

EXERCISE 4.1.1 Medial [iː] and [ɪ]
Practice speaking bieten [ˈbiːtən] (to offer) – bitten [ˈbɪtən] (to ask for)
these word pairs in
the proposed Bienen [ˈbiːnən] (bees) – binnen [ˈbɪnən] (within)
sequence and in
Biest [biːst] (beast) – bist [bɪst] (you are)
reverse order
(for example, –
fliegen [ˈfliːɡən] (to fly) flicken [ˈflɪkən] (to mend)
bieten–bitten;
bitten–bieten). Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love) – Lippe [ˈlɪpə] (lip)
Compare the long
and closed [iː] with Lied [liːt] (song) – litt [lɪt] (suffered)
the short and open
liest [liːst] (one reads) – List [lɪst] (cunning)
[ɪ]. Carefully avoid
any diphthongal –
mied [miːt] (avoided) mit [mɪt] (with)
off-glide. Your lips
and jaw stay Miene [ˈmiːnə] (mine) – Minne [ˈmɪnə] (love)
relaxed. The only
articulator that Miete [ˈmiːtə] (rent) – Mitte [ˈmɪtə] (middle)
moves is the –
tongue. It moves riechen [ˈriːçən] (to smell) richten [ˈrɪçtən] (to direct)
from the high rief [riːf] (called) – Riff [rɪf] (reef)
position of [iː] to
the slightly lower Riese [ˈriːzə] (giant) – Risse [ˈrɪsə] (cracks)
position of [ɪ].
Even though the schief [ʃiːf] (crooked) – Schiff [ʃɪf] (ship)
tongue is –
relatively high, it
schlief [ʃliːf] (slept) Schliff [ʃlɪf] (grinding)
should always be Stiel [ʃtiːl] (handle) – still [ʃtɪl] (quiet)
flexible.
stielt [ʃtiːlt] (one steals) – stillt [ʃtɪlt] (one satisfies)
wieder [ˈviːdəɾ] (again) – Widder [ˈvɪdəɾ] (Aries)
Wiesen [ˈviːzən] (meadows) – wissen [ˈvɪsən] (to know)
wir [viːɾ] (we) – wirr [vɪr] (confused)
EXERCISE 4.1.2 Initial [hiː], [hɪ] and [ǀiː], [ǀɪ]
Practice the glottal hier [hiːɾ] (here) – ihr [ǀiːɾ] (her)

separation in initial
long and closed [iː] Himmel [ˈhɪməl] (heaven) – immer [ˈǀɪməɾ] (always)
and short and open
hin [hɪn] (there) – in [ǀɪn] (in)
[ɪ] by comparing the
breathy onset in –
hindern [ˈhɪndərn] (to hinder) Inder [ˈǀɪndəɾ] (Indian)
words beginning on
hi- with the balanced hinnen [ˈhɪnən] (away) – innen [ˈǀɪnən] (inside)
onset in words
beginning on initial Hirt [hɪrt] (shepherd) – irrt [ǀɪrt] (one errs)
i-. (For help with the
hisst [hɪst] (one hoists) – isst [ǀɪst] (one eats)
glottal separation [ǀ],
refer to Chapter 3.)
EXERCISE 4.1.3 Initial [ǀiː] and [ǀɪ]

Compare the long ihm [ǀiːm] (to him) – im [ǀɪm] (in)
and closed [iː] with
the short and open ihn [ǀiːn] (him) – in [ǀɪn] (in)
[ɪ] in the initial sound
ihnen [ˈǀiːnən] (to them) – innen [ˈǀɪnən] (inside)
of the following word
pairs. Use a glottal –
ihr [ǀiːɾ](to her) irr [ǀɪr] (err)
separation [ǀ] for
each initial vowel ihren [ˈǀiːɾən] (their) – irren [ˈǀɪrən] (to wander)
sound, but avoid the
hard glottal attack as
well as the breathy
onset.
40 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 4.1.4 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [iː], [i], [i ̯], [ɪ]
Speak the mir [m__ɾ] (to me) Akazie [aˈkɑːt͡s__ə] (acacia)
following
kriechen [ˈkr__çən] (to crawl) Spanien [ˈʃpɑːn__ən] (Spain)
words and
apply the ziehen [ˈt͡s__ən] (to pull) Blick [bl__k] (gaze)
pronunciation Wille [ˈv__lə] (will) April [aˈpr__l] (April)
rules for [iː],
[i], [i ̯], and [ɪ]. Bibel [ˈb__bəl] (bible) zielen [ˈt͡s__lən] (to aim)
As an aid we bis [b__s] (until) Gift [ɡ__ft] (poison)
have provided
an IPA Zimmer [ˈt͡s__məɾ] (room) lieben [ˈl__bən] (to love)
transcription Linde [ˈl__ndə] (lime tree) ihnen [ˈ__nən] (to them)
for all the
in [__n] (in) Chronik [ˈkroːn__k] (chronicle)
other sounds
not covered in hin [h__n] (there) Berlin [bɛrˈl__n] (city name)
this section. In
addition to the Müllerin [ˈmʏləɾ__n] (miller) Fürstin [ˈfʏrst__n](princess)
stress marks [ˈ]
in IPA, we have Bündnis [ˈbʏntn__s] (alliance) blieb [bl__p] (stayed)
also underlined selig [ˈzeːl__ç] (blessed) Frist [fr__st] (deadline)
the stressed
klirren [ˈkl__rən] (to clink) Nische [ˈn__ʃə] (niche)
vowel
whenever word Distel [ˈd__stəl] (thistle) Nil [n__l] (river’s name)
stress is Flieder [ˈfl__dəɾ] (lilac) Nixe [ˈn__k͡sə] (water nymph)
important in
determining wichtig [ˈv__çt__ç] (important) Frieden [ˈfr__dən] (peace)
the correct zittern [ˈ t͡s__tərn] (to tremble) wickeln [ˈv__kəln] (to wrap)
sound.
Königin [ˈkøːn__ɡ__n] (queen) finden [ˈf__ndən] (to find)
Rinde [ˈr__ndə] (bark) Melodie [meloˈd__] (melody)
Schnitt [ʃn__t] (cut) Viertel [ˈf__rtəl] (quarter)

mit [m__t] (with) vierzig [ˈf__rt͡s__ç] (forty)
Riss [r__s] (crack) vier [f__ɾ] (four)
Poesie [poeˈz__] (poetry) vierzehn [ˈf__rt͡seːn] (fourteen)
wiegen [ˈv__ɡən] (to rock) sticht [ʃt__çt] (stabs)
liegt [l__kt] (lies) milder [ˈm__ldəɾ] (milder)
vielleicht [f__ˈla͡eçt] (perhaps) Kritik [kr__ˈt__k] (critic)
viel [f__l] (much) Epik [ˈeːp__k] (epic poetry)
Politik [pol__ˈt__k] (politics) Aktion [akˈt͡s__oːn] (action)
Familie [faˈm__l__ə] (family) sieh [z__] (look)
Harmonie [harmoˈn__] (harmony) siegen [ˈz__ɡən] (to win)
■ ■ 4.2 LONG AND CLOSED [eː] , LONG AND OPEN [Ɛː] ,

SHORT AND OPEN [Ɛ] , SCHWA [Ə]
[eː] ■ e + single consonant = [eː]
■ ee, eh = [eː]
e Pronounce [eː] in spellings of the The long and closed monophthong
letter e [eː] does not exist in spoken English
• before a single consonant letter: in a pure form without a diphthongal
Leben [ˈleːbən], wer [veːɾ], off-glide. English uses the diphthong
Weg [veːk], Gebet [ɡəˈbeːt] [e͡ɪ ] in words like haven and hey.
except in the words: Although the first element of the
des [dɛs] (of), es [ɛs] (it), diphthong somewhat resembles the
weg [vɛk] (away) German [eː] the off-glide [ɪ] has to
gen [ɡɛn] (toward) be carefully avoided. Also the initial
sound of the diphthong [e͡ɪ ] tends to
except in the prefixes:
be less closed in English than the
er-, ver-, zer-
German [eː].
• when e is followed by a
consonant plus l, n, or r in
lower front teeth. The blade of the
inflected words where a schwa
tongue is arched forward (but
has been eliminated:
slightly less than for [ɪ]), and the
gegen→begeg(e)nen→begegnen
sides of the tongue touch the upper
[bəˈɡeːɡnən]
molars. The lips are relaxed.
Regen→reg(e)nen→regnen
(Compare with the vowel chart in
[ˈreːɡnən]
Chapter 3.)
Segen→seg(e)nen→segnen
[ˈzeːɡnən] Form the long and closed [eː] by
saying the English word gate [ɡe͡ɪ t],
but extend the first sound of the
diphthong [e͡ɪ ] and eliminate the
off-glide as in [ɡeːːːːt], thus
pronouncing the German word geht
(goes).
ee Pronounce [eː] in spellings of the Enunciation Exercise 1: Start with
double letter ee in one element: the English word mail [me͡ɪ l]; then
Meer [meːɾ], Seele [ˈzeːlə], Schnee try to expand the first sound of the
[ʃneː] diphthong [e͡ɪ ] to something like
[meːːːːɪl]. Then repeat but this time
eliminate the diphthongal off-glide
42 ■ VOW E LS
eh Pronounce [eː] in spellings of the and arrive on the German word

letter combination eh: Mehl [meːl] (flour), with a pure
Ehre [ˈeːɾə], Sehnsucht [ˈzeːnzʊxt] closed and long [eː]. Switch rapidly
Weh [veː], stehlen [ˈʃteːlən] from [eː] to [l] to avoid any
diphthongal off-glide: [me͡ɪl →
meːːːːɪl → meːl].
[e] In spoken dialogue there are cases Enunciation Exercise 2: Compare

where [eː] loses its length [ː]. The the different sounds moving slowly
sound becomes short but keeps its through the sequence: mill, Mehl
closed quality, thus [e]. Pronounce (Germ. flour), Mel. Practice it also
[e] (short but closed): in reverse order.
• in word derivations where a [mɪl → meːl → mɛl]
normally long [eː] is not [mɛl → meːl → mɪl]
stressed:
Note: The difference in length
leben [ˈleːbən] → lebendig
between long and short vowels of
[leˈbɛndɪç]
the same quality is more evident in
• in unstressed syllables in some spoken German. In singing where
words of foreign origin: the length of a vowel is determined
Adelaide [adelaˈiːde] by the musical notation, the long
Aloe [ˈɑːloe] vowel is only recognizable by the
Amethyst [ameˈtʏst] decay of its intensity and how it
Ariadne [aˈɾi ̯adne] connects to the following
Beatrice [beaˈtriːs] consonant. The quality of the
Chloe [ˈkloːe] vowel has to remain pure,
Theater [teˈɑːtəɾ] independent of the length of the
Theorie [teǀoˈɾiː] sound. (See also under Vowel
[ɛ] ■ e + two consonants = [ɛ]

■ ä + two consonants = [ɛ]
e Pronounce [ɛ] in spellings of the The short and open monophthong
letter e [ɛ] exists in the English language in
• before two or more consonant words like heaven and hell.
letters in the same element:
hell [hɛl], Schwester [ˈʃvɛstəɾ]
Schmerz [ʃmɛrt͡s], Herz [hɛrt͡s]
tongue is arched forward (but
except when e is followed by a slightly less than for [eː]) and the
consonant plus l, n, or r in sides of the tongue touch the upper
inflected words where a schwa molars. The lips are relaxed.
has been eliminated: (Compare with the vowel chart in
Regen → reg(e)nen → regnen Chapter 3).
[ˈreːɡnən]
Form the short and open [ɛ] like the
except the following words: e in the English words pet or set.
Krebs [kreːp͡s] (crab)
Compare the following word pairs
stets [ʃteːt͡s] (always)
of similar sounding words in English
except before r + consonant in and German:
the following words:
Beschwerde [bəˈʃveːrdə] (complaint) hell - hell [hɛl] (bright)
Erde [ˈeːrdə] (earth) fell - Fell [fɛl] (fur)
Erz [eːrt͡s] (metal)
erst [eːrst] (first) bet - Bett [bɛt] (bed)
Herd [heːrt] (stove) Attention: Carefully avoid a too
Herde [ˈheːrdə] (herd) open timbre of the [ɛ] sound. There
Pferd [p͡feːrt] (horse) is a distinct difference between the
Schwert [ʃveːrt] (sword) [ɛ] as in the German word Bett [bɛt]
werden [ˈveːrdən] (to become) (bed) and the [æ] in the English
Wert [veːrt] (worth) word bat [bæt]. The sound [æ] does
but the prefix Erz- [ɛrt͡s] (arch-) not exist in German.
follows the rule:
Erzbischof [ˈɛrt͡sˌbɪʃɔf] (archbishop)
• before x (which functions as a
double consonant): Hexe [ˈhɛk͡sə]
• before a single consonant letter
in the following words only:
des [dɛs] (preposition: of the)
es [ɛs] (it)
weg [vɛk] (away) but: Weg [veːk]
(way)
44 ■ VOW E LS
e Pronounce [ɛ] in spellings of the

letter e
• in the prefixes ent-, er-, ver-, zer-:
entsagen [ɛntˈzɑːɡən] (to renounce)
erleben [ɛɾˈleːbən] (to experience)
verzagen [vɛɾˈ t͡sɑːɡən] (to dispair)
zerbrechen [t͡sɛɾˈbrɛçən] (to break)
Attention: The stressed separable
prefix her- is usually pronounced
with long and closed [eː], but short
and open when unstressed and
followed by another stressed prefix.
herkommen [ˈheːɾkɔmən] (to
come closer)
but: hervor [hɛɾˈfoːɾ] (out of)
ä(ae) Pronounce [ɛ] in spellings of the
letter ä, (ae)1
• before two or more consonant
letters in the same element:
Hände [ˈhɛndə], Gärtner [ˈɡɛrtnəɾ],
Blätter [ˈblɛtəɾ], hängen [ˈhɛŋən],
Bächlein [ˈbɛçla͡en], hässlich [ˈhɛslɪç]
except in the following words:
Gebärde [ɡəˈbɛːrdə] (gesture)
gemächlich [ɡəˈmɛːçlɪç] (leisurely)
Gemälde [ɡəˈmɛːldə] (painting)
Gespräch [ɡəˈʃprɛːç] (conversation)
nächst [nɛːçst] (next)
Rätsel [ˈrɛːt͡səl] (riddle)
Städte [ˈʃtɛːtə] (cities)
zärtlich [ˈt͡sɛːrtlɪç] (affectionate)
Attention: Some editions use ss in
place of ß, making it difficult to
determine the length of the
preceding vowel.
Spässe → Späße [ˈʃpɛːsə]
[ɛː] ■ ä + single consonant = [ɛː]

■ äh = [ɛː]
ä Pronounce [ɛː] in spellings of the The long and open monophthong
letter ä [ɛː] does not exist in its long form in
spoken English.
• before a single consonant letter:
Räder [ˈrɛːdəɾ], spät [ʃpɛːt]
• before a single consonant letter lower front teeth. The blade of the
and the diminutive suffixes -chen tongue is arched forward (but
or -lein: slightly less than for [eː]) and the
Mädchen [ˈmɛːtçən] (girl) sides of the tongue touch the upper
Fädchen [ˈfɛːtçən] (thread) molars. The lips are relaxed.
Näglein [ˈnɛːɡla͡en] (carnation) Compare with the vowel chart
(chapter 3).
• before an ß followed by a vowel
(intervocalic ß):
Form the long and open [ɛː] like the
Späße [ˈʃpɛːsə]
e found in the English words pet or
Attention: In all other set, but extended the vowel.
circumstances, (when ß is not
intervocalic) consult a Enunciation Exercise: Say the
pronouncing dictionary. (See also English word net. Then extend the
Chapter 14). vowel and end up with the German
word näht (sews):
• before r + consonant in the
[nɛt→nɛːːːːːt→nɛːt]
following words:
Gebärde [ɡəˈbɛːrdə] (gesture)
zärtlich [ˈt͡sɛːrtlɪç] (affectionate)
• in the following words:
Gemälde [ɡəˈmɛːldə] (painting)
Rätsel [ˈrɛːt͡səl] (riddle)
gemächlich [ɡəˈmɛːçlɪç] (leisurely)
Gespräch [ɡəˈʃprɛːç] (conversation)
nächst [nɛːçst] (next)
äh Pronounce [ɛː] in spellings of the letter
combination äh in one element:
gähnen [ˈɡɛːnən], wählen [ˈvɛːlən]
46 ■ VOW E LS
[ə] ■ e in final position = [ə]

■ be-, ge- = [bə], [ɡə]
■ e in word endings = [ə]
e In German, schwa [ə] is always a The native English speaker is
pronunciation of the letter e and familiar with the schwa for in
appears only in unstressed syllables English many unstressed syllables
of multi-syllabic words. Schwa [ə] are neutralized to [ə] as in
never appears in monosyllabic words. asparagus [əsˈpæɹəɡəs].
Pronounce [ə] in spellings of the In English the schwa can take all
unstressed letter e kinds of colorations depending on
• in unstressed final position: the position in which it is found and
Blume [ˈbluːmə], Ende [ˈɛndə] the vowel it replaces. In German [ə]
except in words of Greek origin: is used only to represent a
Chloe [ˈkloːe], Ariadne [aˈri ̯adne] pronunciation of the letter e. It is
similar to English because it changes
except in the following word where
color for the purpose of vowel
the final e is stressed: ade [aˈdeː]
harmonization.
(goodby)
• in the unstressed prefixes be- The German [ə] is never muted as in
and ge-: French, and the lips should never be
bedenken [bəˈdɛŋkən] as rounded as in the French schwa.
gefallen [ɡəˈfalən] It should harmonize with the
preceding vowel. For example, [ə]
• in verb endings -e, -en, -end, -est, -et, in lobe [ˈloːbə] will be slightly darker
-te, -ten, -test, -tet: and more rounded than the one in
blühe [ˈblyːə], blühen [ˈblyːən], liebe [ˈliːbə]. However, it should
blühend [ˈblyːənt], blühest [ [ˈblyːəst], never sound as dark as [ʌ] in custom.
blühet [ˈblyːət], blühte [ˈblyːtə],
blühten [ˈblyːtən], blühtest Enunciation Exercise: Slowly speak
[ˈblyːtəst], blühtet [ˈblyːtət]
through the following sequence of
words and feel how in each word
• in adjective endings: -e, -el, -em, your articulators adjust to a slightly
-en, -er, -es: different schwa [ə] as you
edle [ˈeːdlə], edel [ˈeːdəl], harmonize it with the preceding
edlem [ˈeːdləm], edlen [ˈeːdlən], vowels [iː], [eː], [ɑː], [oː]:
edler [ˈeːdləɾ], edles [ˈeːdləs]
liebe [ˈliːbə] (love)
• in the noun endings -e, -el, -en, lebe [ˈleːbə] (live)
-end, -er, -ern, -es: labe [ˈlɑːbə] (refresh)
Blume [ˈbluːmə], Flügel [ˈflyːɡəl], lobe [ˈloːbə] (praise)
Blumen [ˈbluːmən], Abend [ˈɑːbənt]
Kinder [ˈkɪndəɾ], Kindern
[ˈkɪndərn], Kindes [ˈkɪndəs]
Attention: The -end in Elend

and elend is not an ending and
is pronounced [ɛnt]:
Elend [ˈeːlɛnt] (misery), elend
[ˈeːlɛnt] (miserable)
48 ■ VOW E LS
Exercises for [eː], [e], [ɛː], [ɛ], and [ə]

EXERCISE 4.2.1 Medial [eː], [ɛː], and [ɛ]
Practice speaking these groups of word in the proposed sequence and in reverse
order (for example, Heer–Härchen–Herr, Herr–Härchen–Heer). Compare the long
and closed [eː], the long and open [ɛː], and the short and open [ɛ]. Listen carefully
to avoid any involuntary diphthongal off-glide. Your lips and jaw stay relaxed. The
only active articulator is the tongue that moves from the high position of [eː] to the
slightly lower position of [ɛː] or [ɛ]. Even though the tongue is relatively high, it
should always remain flexible.
Heer [heːɾ](army) – Härchen [ˈhɛːrçən](little – Herr [hɛr] (master)
hair)
beten [ˈbeːtən](to pray) – bäten [ˈbɛːtən](begged – betten [ˈbɛtən](to bed)
subj.)
Rede [ˈreːdə](speech) – Räder [ˈrɛːdɐ](wheels) – Retter [ˈrɛtɐ](rescuer)
Feder [ˈfeːdɐ](feather) – Väter [ˈfɛːtɐ](ancestors) – Vetter [ˈfɛtɐ](cousin)

wehren [ˈveːɾən](to – wären [ˈvɛːɾən](to last) – Wärter [ˈvɛrtɐ]
defend) (attendant)
Meer [meːɾ](sea) – Mär [mɛːɾ](old tale) – März [mɛrt͡s](March)
legen [ˈleːɡən](to lay) – lägen [ˈlɛːɡən](lied subj.) – lecken [ˈlɛkən](to leak)
Segen [ˈzeːɡən] – sägen [ˈzɛːɡən](to saw) – Säcke [ˈzɛkə](bags)
(blessing)
stehlen [ˈʃteːlən](to steal) – stählen [ˈʃtɛːlən](to – stellen [ˈʃtɛlən](to put)
harden)
Weg [veːk] (path) – wägen [ˈvɛːɡən](to – wecken [ˈvɛkən](to wake
weigh) up)
Fehde [ˈfeːdə](feud) – Fäden [ˈfɛːdən](threads) – fetter [ˈfɛtɐ](fatter)
fehlen [ˈfeːlən](to miss) – fählen [ˈfɛːlən](missed – fällen [ˈfɛlən](to fell)
subj.)
Beeren [ˈbeːɾən] – Bären [ˈbɛːɾən](bears) – Bertha [ˈbɛrta](girl’s
(berries) name)
stehts [ʃteːt͡s](always) – Städte [ˈʃtɛːtə](cities) – Stätte [ˈʃtɛtə](place)
Tee [teː] (tee) – Täler [ˈtɛːlɐ](valleys) – Teller [ˈtɛlɐ](plate)
Reh [reː] (deer) – rächen [ˈrɛːçən](to – rechnen [ˈrɛçnən](to
revenge) calculate)
EXERCISE 4.2.2 Initial [heː],[hɛ]and [ǀeː],[ǀɛ]

Practice the glottal Herde [ˈheːrdə] (flock) – Erde [ˈǀeːrdə] (earth)
long and closed [eː] heben [ˈheːbən] (to lift) – eben [ˈǀeːbən] (even, level)
and short and open
Heer [heːɐ] (army) – er [ǀeːɐ] (he)
[ɛ] by comparing the
breathy onset in –
herbe [ˈhɛrbə] (harsh) Erbe [ˈǀɛrbə] (heir)
words beginning on
he- with the balanced Hecke [ˈhɛkə] (hedge) – Ecke [ˈǀɛkə] (corner)
onset in words
beginning on initial Hecht [hɛçt] (pike fish) – echt [ǀɛçt] (real)
e-. (For help with the
helle [ˈhɛlə] (bright) – Elle [ˈǀɛlə] (cubit)
glottal separation [ǀ],
refer to Chapter 3.) –
Henkel [ˈhɛŋkəl] Enkel [ˈǀɛŋkəl]
(handle) (grandchild)
EXERCISE 4.2.3 Initial [ǀeː] and [ǀɛ]

Compare the long Ehre [ˈǀeːɾə] (honor) – Erbe [ˈǀɛrbə] (heir)
and closed [eː] with
the short and open Ekel [ˈǀeːkəl] (disgust) – Ecke [ˈǀɛkə] (corner)
[ɛ] in the initial
Elend [ˈǀeːlɛnt] (misery) – älter [ˈǀɛltɐ] (older)
sound of the
following word pairs. –
Erde [ˈǀeːrdə] (earth) Ernte [ˈǀɛrntə] (harvest)
Use a glottal
separation [ǀ] for Esel [ˈǀeːzəl] (donkey) – Espe [ˈǀɛspə] (aspen)
each initial vowel
sound, eben [ˈǀeːbən] (even, level) – Ebbe [ˈǀɛbə] (low tide)
but avoid the hard
Erz [ǀeːrt͡s] (metal) – Erzengel [ˈǀɛrt͡sǀɛŋəl]
glottal attack as well
as the breathy onset. (Archangel)
EXERCISE 4.2.4 Medial [iː] and [eː]

Compare the long lieben [ˈliːbən] (to love) – leben [ˈleːbən] (to live)
and closed [iː] with
the long and closed fielen [ˈfiːlən] (fell) – fehlen [ˈfeːlən] (to miss)
[eː] in the following
hier [hiːɾ] (here) – Heer [heːɾ] (army)
word pairs.
bieten [ˈbiːtən] (to offer) – beten [ˈbeːtən] (to pray)
hieben [ˈhiːbən] (they hit) – heben [ˈheːbən] (to lift)
50 ■ VOW E LS
siegen [ˈziːɡən] (to win) – Segen [ˈzeːɡən] (blessing)

liegen [ˈliːɡən] (to lie) – legen [ˈleːɡən] (to lay)
mir [miːɾ] (me) – Meer [meːɾ] (sea)
wir [viːɾ] (we) – wer [veːɾ] (who)
ihre [ˈiːɾə] (hers) – Ehre [ˈeːɾə] (honor)
ihr [iːɾ] (you) – er [eːɾ] (he)
EXERCISE 4.2.5 Applying the pronunciation rules for [eː],[e],[ɛː],[ɛ],[ə]

Speak the Regen [ˈr__ɡ__n] (rain) weben [ˈv__b__n] (to weave)
following
Fee [f__] (fairy) webst [v__p͡st] (you weave)
words and
apply the sehnen [ˈz__n__n] (to long for) Rädchen [ˈr__tç__n] (little wheel)
pronunciation träge [ˈtr__ɡ__] (sluggish) Näglein [ˈn__ɡla͡en] (carnation)
rules for [eː],
[e], [ɛː], [ɛ], Ähre [ˈ__ɾ__] (ear of corn) lässt [l__st] (leave)
and [ə]. As an
aid, we Sänger [ˈz__ŋ__ɾ] (singer) Leben [ˈl__b__n] (live)
provided an ewig [ˈ__vɪç] (eternal) lebendig [l__ˈb__ndɪç] (alive)
IPA
transcription
Becher [ˈb__ç__ɾ] (goblet) Stelle [ˈʃt__l__] (place)
for all the Täler [ˈt__l__ɾ] (valleys) Städte [ˈʃt__t__] (cities)
other sounds
säße [ˈz__s__] (he might hve sat) zärtlich [ˈt͡s__rtlɪç] (affectionate)
not covered in
this section. In grässlich [ˈɡr__slɪç] (horrible) hebe [ˈh__b__] (lift)
addition to
the stress Hexe [ˈh__k͡s__] (witch) Meer [m__ɾ] (sea)
marks [ˈ] in bewegen [b__ˈv__ɡ__n] (to move) Pferd [p͡f__rt] (horse)
IPA, we have
also bewegt [b__ˈv__kt] (moved) Theater [t__ˈɑːt__ɾ] (theater)
underlined the helles [ˈh__l__s] (bright) Gemälde [ɡ__ˈm__ld__] (painting)
stressed vowel
whenever den [d__n] (the) Messe [ˈm__s__] (mass)
word stress is
denn [d__n] (because) mäße [ˈm__s__] (measured subj.)
important in
determining er [__ɾ] (he) erwäge [__ɾˈv__ɡ__] (consider)
the correct es [__s] (it) säen [ˈz____n] (to sow)
sound.
verzehren [f__ɾˈt͡s__ɾ__n] Gespräch [ɡ__ˈʃpr__ç]
(to consume) (conversation)
erzählen [__ɾˈ t͡s__l__n] (to tell) Särge [ˈz__rɡ__] (coffins)

Lenz [l__nt͡s] (spring) sähe [ˈz____] (might see)
wäre [ˈv__ɾ__] (was subj.) stets [ʃt__t͡s] (always)
edel [ˈ__d__l] (noble) säst [z__st] (you sow)
zerbrechen [t͡s__ɾˈbr__ç__n] hämmert [ˈh__m__rt] (hammers)
(to break)
Schwert [ʃv__rt] (sword) erst [__rst] (first)

enden [ˈ__nd__n] (to finish) Stätte [ˈʃt__t__] (place)
Herd [h__rt] (hearth) Erz [__rt͡s] (metal)
wegnehmen [ˈv__kˌn__m__n] Erzbischof [ˈ__rt͡sˌbɪʃɔf]
(to take) (Archbishop)
52 ■ VOW E LS
■ ■ 4.3 LONG AND OPEN [Ɑː] , SHORT AND CLOSED [a]
[ɑː] ■ a + single consonant = [ɑː]
■ aa, ah = [ɑː]
a Pronounce [ɑː] in spellings of the Form the long and open
letter a monophthong [ɑː] like the a in
• before a single consonant letter: the English word father.
Knabe [ˈknɑːbə], fragen [ˈfrɑːɡən],
aber [ˈɑːbəɾ], Tag [tɑːk] The tip of the tongue touches
the lower front teeth. The
except in the following prefixes:
blade of the tongue is lower
ab- [ap] – Abwehren [ˈapveːɾən]
and flatter than it is for any
an- [an] – aneignen [ˈanǀa͡eɡnən]
other vowel, and the sides of
da- [da] – dabei [daˈba͡e]
the tongue do not touch the
except in unstressed monosyllabic upper molars. The lips are
words: relaxed. The jaw is slightly
ab [ap], am [am], an [an], lower than in any of the other
man [man], das [das], was [vas] vowels. (Compare with the
except in the following words: vowel chart in Chapter 3.)
Atlas [ˈatlas], Cymbal [ˈt͡sʏmbal],
Karneval [ˈkarneval], Attention: The English speaker
Satan [ˈzɑːtan], Wolfram [ˈvɔlfram] must be careful to avoid the
unintentional substitution with
[æ] in words that are spelled the
• before an ß followed by a vowel same but have a different

(intervocalic ß): meaning:
Straße [ˈʃtrɑːsə] Rat [rɑːt] (advice), not [ɹæt]
as in “rat” (rodent).
(See also Chapter 14.)
• when a is followed by a consonant
plus l, n, or r in inflected words
where a schwa has been eliminated:
Wagen → Wag(e)ner → Wagner
[ˈvɑːɡnəɾ]
aa Pronounce [ɑː] in spellings of the

double letter aa:
Saal [zɑːl], Haar [hɑːɾ]
ah Pronounce [ɑː] in spellings of the letter

combination ah:
• in one element:
Jahr [ʝɑːɾ], Bahn [bɑːn], fahl [fɑːl]
[a] ■ a + two consonants = [a]

a Pronounce [a] in spellings of the letter a The quality of short and closed
• before two or more consonant [a] most closely resembles the
letters: bright a in Italian or French
Halt [halt], Ratte [ˈratə], and exists in spoken English
hassen [ˈhasən], hart [hart] only as the first element of the
diphthong [a͡ɪ] in words like
except when a is followed by a
night and ice.
consonant plus l, n, or r in inflected
words where a schwa has been
The short [a] tends to be
eliminated:
slightly brighter than the long
[ɑː], although many German
[ˈvɑːɡnəɾ]
linguists do not make this
except before ch in the following differentiation.
words only:
Schmach [ʃmɑːx] (disgrace) The tip of the tongue
Sprache [ˈʃprɑːxə] (language) touches the lower front
gemach [ɡəˈmɑːx] (without hurry) teeth. The blade of the tongue
brach [brɑːx] (broke) is low, but slightly more
stach [ʃtɑːx] (pricked) forward than for its darker
nach [nɑːx] (after) counterpart [ɑː]. The sides of
the tongue do not touch the
except before r + consonant in the
upper molars. The lips are
following words only:
Bart [bɑːrt] (beard) relaxed. The jaw is slightly
Art [ɑːrt] (kind, sort, manner) lower than in any of the other
artig [ˈɑːrtɪç] (well-behaved) vowels. (Compare with the
zart [t͡sɑːrt] (tender, gentle) vowel chart in Chapter 3.)
Arzt [ɑːrt͡st] (physician)
Attention: The English speaker
except in the following words: must take care to avoid the
Jagd [ʝɑːkt] (hunt) unintentional substitution
Magd [mɑːkt] (maid) with [æ] in words that are
atmen [ˈɑːtmən] (breathing) spelled the same in English:
Abraham [ˈɑːbraham] (name) an [an] (on), not [æn]
Bratsche [ˈbrɑːt͡ʃə] (viola) Atlas [ˈatlas] (atlas), not
[ˈætləs]
54 ■ VOW E LS
Attention: Some editions use ss in Hand [hant] (hand), not

place of ß, making it difficult to [hænd]
determine the length of the mat [mat] (dull), not [mæt]
preceding vowel. Consult a (pad)
pronouncing dictionary whenever
the length of a vowel is in doubt:
Spass → Spaß [ʃpɑːs]
sass → saß [zɑːs]
Strasse → Straße [ˈʃtrɑːse]
• in the prefixes ab-, an-, da-:
Abwehren [ˈapveːɾən]
aneignen [ˈanǀa͡eɡnən]
dabei [daˈba͡e]
• in unstressed monosyllabic
words:
ab [ap], am [am], an [an],
man [man], das [das], was [vas]
Exercises for [ɑː] and [a]

EXERCISE 4.3.1 Medial [ɑː] and [a]
Practice speaking Bahn [bɑːn] (way) – Bann [ban] (ban)

these word pairs
Haken [ˈhɑːkən] (hook) – Hacken [ˈhakən] (hoes)
in the proposed
sequence and in –
Saat [zɑːt] (seed) satt [zat] (full)
reverse order (for
example, Bahn– Schaden [ˈʃɑːdən] (damage) – Schatten [ˈʃatən] (shadow)
Bann;
Bann–Bahn). lahm [lɑːm] (lame) – Lamm [lam] (lamb)
Compare the long
Made [ˈmɑːdə] (maggot) – Matte [ˈmatə] (mat)
and open [ɑː] with
the short and –
Wahl [vɑːl] (choice) Wall [val] (dam)
closed [a]. Your
lips and jaw stay kam [kɑːm] (came) – Kamm [kam] (comb)
relaxed. The only
active articulator is Staat [ʃtɑːt] (state) – Stadt [ʃtat] (city)
the tongue that –
moves from the Schal [ʃɑːl] (scarf) Schall [ʃal] (sound)
back position of Gram [ɡrɑːm] (grief) – Gramm [ɡram] (gram)
[ɑː] to the slightly
more forward fahl [fɑːl] (pale) – Fall [fal] (fall)
position of [a].
Remember that Kahn [kɑːn] (boat) – kann [kan] (able to)
the main –
difference is not
Maße [ˈmɑːsə] (measurements) Masse [ˈmasə] (mass)
the color but the Gase [ˈɡazə] (gases) – Gasse [ˈɡasə] (alleyway)
difference of
length.
EXERCISE 4.3.2 Medial [ɑː] and [ɛː]

Compare the long Wahlen [ˈvɑːlən] (elections) – wählen [ˈvɛːlən] (to choose)
and open [ɑː] with
the long open [ɛː] zahlen [ˈt͡sɑːlən] (to pay) – zählen [ˈt͡sɛːlən] (to count)
in medial position Bart [bɑːrt] (beard) – Bärte [ˈbɛːrtə] (beards)
of the following
words. Saal [zɑːl] (hall) – Säle [ˈzɛːlə] (halls)
kam [kɑːm] (came) – käme [ˈkɛːmə] (came subj.)
Haar [hɑːɾ] (hair) – Härchen [ˈhɛːrçən] (little hair)
Hase [ˈhɑːzə] (rabbit) – Häschen [ˈhɛːsçən] (little rabbit)
Hahn [hɑːn] (rooster) – Hähnchen [ˈhɛːnçən] (young
rooster)
56 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 4.3.3 Medial [a] and [ɛ]
Compare the short and hart [hart] (hard) – härter [ˈhɛrtəɾ] (harder)
closed [a] with the
short and open [ɛ] in Macht [maxt] (power) – mächtig [ˈmɛçtɪç] (powerful)
medial position of the
following words. Tanz [tant͡s] (dance) – Tänze [ˈtɛnt͡sə] (dances)
Nacht [naxt] (night) – Nächte [ˈnɛçtə] (nights)
hassen [ˈhasən] (to hate) – hässlich [ˈhɛslɪç] (ugly)
Bach [bax] (brook) – Bäche [ˈbɛçə] (brooks)
EXERCISE 4.3.4 Initial [ha] and [ǀa]
Practice the glottal halt [halt] (stop) – alt [ǀalt] (old)

short and closed [a] by Hast [hast] (hurry) – Ast [ǀast] (branch)
comparing the breathy
onset in words Halle [ˈhalə] (hall) – alle [ˈǀalə] (all)
beginning on ha- with
the balanced onset in hasche [ˈhaʃə] (catch) – Asche [ˈǀaʃə] (ashes)
words beginning on
initial a-. (For help with Harm [harm] (grief) – Arm [ǀarm] (arm)
the glottal separation
[ǀ], refer to Chapter 3.) Hall [hal] (echo) – All [ǀal] (space)
Halm [halm] (a straw) – Alm [ǀalm] (mountain meadow)
halb [halp] (half) – Alp [ǀalp] (alp)
EXERCISE 4.3.5 Initial [ǀɑː] and [ǀa]
Compare the long and Ahne [ˈǀɑːnə] (ancestor) – Anne [ˈǀanə] (female name)
open [ɑː] with the short
and closed [a] in initial Aale [ˈǀɑːlə] (eels) – alle [ˈǀalə] (all)
position of the
following word pairs. aber [ˈǀɑːbəɾ] (but) – ab [ǀap] (from)
Use a glottal separation
[ǀ] for each initial vowel amen [ˈǀɑːmɛn] (amen) – Amme [ˈǀamə] (nurse)
sound, but avoid the
hard glottal attack as Arie [ˈǀɑːɾi ̯ə] (aria) – Arm [ǀarm] (arm)
well as the breathy
onset. Atem [ˈǀɑːtəm] (breath) – Atlas [ˈǀatlas] (atlas)
Adel [ˈǀɑːdəl] (nobility) – Adelaide [ǀadelaˈiːdə]

(female name)
EXERCISE 4.3.6 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [ɑː] and [a]
Speak the Gabe [ˈɡ__bə] (gift) bald [b__lt] (soon)

following
words and Maße [ˈm__sə] (measures) Magd [m__kt] (maid)
apply the Wasser [ˈv__səɾ] (water) starr [ʃt__r] (rigid)
pronunciation
rules for [ɑː] Zahl [t͡s__l] (number) Bart [b__rt] (beard)
and [a]. (As Saal [z__l] (hall) Fahne [ˈf__nə] (flag)
an aid, we
provide an Land [l__nt] (land) Kampf [k__mp͡f ] (fight)
IPA
transcription lag [l__k] (lie) ab [__p] (from)
for all the Bach [b__x] (brook) am [__m] (at)
other sounds
not covered in Schmach [ʃm__x] (shame) Rasen [ˈr__zən] (lawn)
this section.) lachen [ˈl__xən] (to laugh) Rasse [ˈr__sə] (race)
Gemach [ɡəˈm__x] (chamber) Aal [__l] (eel)

hart [h__rt] (hard) kalt [k__lt] (cold)
Art [__rt] (art) Klage [ˈkl__ɡə] (lament)
zart [t͡s__rt] (tender) Wache [ˈv__xə] (guard)
Gasse [ˈɡ__sə] (alley) Sprache [ˈʃpr__xə] (language)
Tage [ˈt__ɡə] (days) brach [br__x] (broke)

Jagd [ʝ__kt] (hunt) sacht [z__xt] (gently)
Kraft [kr__ft] (strength) Ball [b__l] (ball)
jagst [ʝ__k͡st] (you hunt) andere [ˈ__ndəɾə] (other)
jagen [ˈʝ__ɡən] (to hunt) aber [ˈ__bəɾ] (but)
Flamme [ˈfl__mə] (flame) Glanz [ɡl__nt͡s] (shine)

Haar [h__ɾ] (hair) Sattel [ˈz__təl] (saddle)
Wagen [ˈv__ɡən] (wagon) lassen [ˈl__sən] (to leave)
Mann [m__n] (man) brach [br__x] (broke)
wach [v__x] (awake) davor [d__ˈfoːɾ] (before)
Paar [p__ɾ] (pair) Abart [ˈ__pǀ__rt] (variation)

stach [ʃt__x] (stung) ganz [ɡ__nt͡s] (whole)
Wald [v__lt] (forest) aneignen [ˈ__nǀa͡eknən]
(to take possession)
MONOPHTHONGS II: LIP

VOWELS
In this chapter we will discuss the monophthongs that are primarily formed by various
degrees of lip rounding, thus called lip vowels: [oː] similar to the long o in boat, but with-
out the diphthongal off-glide, [ɔ] as in bought, [uː] as in soon, [ʊ] as in put.
Lip Vowels
Letter Long Short

o [oː] Ofen [ˈoːfən] (oven) [ɔ] offen [ˈɔfən] (open)
u [uː] Grube [ˈɡruːbə] (mine) [ʊ] Gruppe [ˈɡrʊpə] (group)
As with other monophthongs, difficulties for the native English speaker result from the
tendency to add involuntary diphthongal off-glides to the pure monophthongs. Instead,
the vowel quality needs to remain unchanged for the entire duration of the syllable. Also
avoid the neutralization of unstressed vowels towards the schwa [ə].
■ 59
60 ■ VOW E LS
■ ■ 5.1 LONG AND CLOSED [oː] , SHORT AND OPEN [ɔ]
[oː] ■ final o =[oː]

■ o + single consonant = [oː]
■ oo, oh = [oː]
o Pronounce [oː] in spellings of the The pure long and closed
letter o monophthong [oː] does not exist in
• at the end of a word: spoken English. Instead English
so [zoː], wo [voː] uses the diphthong [o͡ʊ] in words
• before a single consonant letter: like boat and go home. Although in
Tor [toːɾ], Mode [ˈmoːdə], proper English the first element of
loben [ˈloːbən] the diphthong somewhat resembles
the German [oː], the off-glide [ʊ]
except in words of Greek has to be omitted. Also, the initial
origin ending with unstressed sound of the English diphthong [o͡ʊ]
-or and -os: tends to have less rounded lips and a
Doktor [ˈdɔktɔɾ] darker sound than the German [oː].
Marmor [ˈmarmɔɾ] Form the long and closed [oː] as if
Kosmos [ˈkɔsmɔs] you would say the English word
Lotos [ˈloːtɔs] coleslaw [ko͡ʊlslɔ], but without the
except in the following [ʊ] off-glide in the diphthong, thus
monosyllabic words: [kolslɔ]. The first syllable cole
ob [ɔp], von [fɔn], vom [fɔm] without the [ʊ] off-glide closely
resembles the German word Kohl
• before an ß followed by a [koːl] (cabbage).
vowel (intervocalic ß):
stoßen [ˈʃtoːsən]
lower front teeth. The back of the
Attention: In all other tongue is slightly arched upwards.
circumstances, (when ß is not The sides of the tongue do not
intervocalic) consult a touch the upper molars. The lips are
pronouncing dictionary. closely rounded and protruded (as
(See also Chapter 14). if one would drink from a straw).
Try to remember the following The jaw is relaxed, but slightly more
words: closed than for [ɔ]. (Compare with
groß [ɡroːs] (big, tall) the vowel chart in Chapter 3.)
bloß [bloːs] (bare, naked)
Schoß [ʃoːs] (womb)
oo Pronounce [oː] in spellings of the Enunciation Exercise 1: Start with
double letter oo: the English word coal [ko͡ʊl]; then try
• in one element: to greatly lenghten the first sound of
Moos [moːs], Moor [moːɾ] the diphthong and eliminate the off-
Monophthongs II: Lip Vowels ■ 61
oh Pronounce [oː] in spellings of the glide to something like [koːːːːl]; and

letter combination oh finally arrive at the German word
• in one element: Kohl [koːl] (cabbage), with a pure
Sohn [zoːn], wohl [voːl] closed and long [oː]. Switch rapidly
from [oː] to [l] so to avoid any
involuntary diphthongal off-glide:
[ko͡ʊl → koːːːːːʊl → koːːːːːl → koːl]
Enunciation Exercise 2: Compare the

different sounds moving slowly
through the following sequence:
“cool,” Kohl (cabbage), “call.” Practice
it also in reverse order:
[kuːl → koːl → kɔl]
[kɔl → koːl → kuːl]
[o] In spoken German there are cases Note: The difference in length
where [oː] loses its length [ː]. It between long and short vowels of
becomes short but keeps its the same quality is more evident in
closed quality, thus [o]. spoken German. In singing where
Pronounce [o] (short but closed) the length of a vowel is determined
in spellings of the letter o: by the musical notation, the long
• in compound words where a vowel is only recognizable by the
normally long [oː] loses its decay of its intensity and how the
stress: following consonant touches it. The
so [zoː] → so/oft [zoˈǀɔft] quality of the vowel has to remain
wo [voː] → wohin [voˈhɪn] pure, independent of the length of
the sound. (See also under Vowel
• in unstressed syllables in
words of foreign origin:
Sopran [zoˈprɑːn], Melodie
[meloˈdiː]
62 ■ VOW E LS
[ɔ] ■ o + two consonants = [ɔ]

o Pronounce [ɔ] in spellings of the The tip of the tongue touches the
letter o lower front teeth. The back of the
• before two or more tongue is slightly arched upwards,
consonant letters: but less than for the closed [oː].
voll [fɔl], Wonne [ˈvɔnə], Ross The sides of the tongue do not
[rɔs],
touch the upper molars. The lips are
hoffen [ˈhɔfən], Knospe slightly rounded. (Try to pull in the
[ˈknɔspə]
corners of the mouth while the
center of the lips stay
except before st in the only moderately involved). The jaw
following words: is loose and almost as low as for [a].
Kloster [ˈkloːstəɾ] (monastery) (Compare with the vowel chart in
Ostern [ˈoːstərn] (Easter) Chapter 3.)
prost [proːst] (cheers!)
The short and open monophthong
Trost [troːst] (consolation)
[ɔ] exists in proper English in words
except before ch in the like law and hall.
following word:
Form the short and open [ɔ] like the
hoch [hoːx] (high)
ou and au in the properly
but: Hochzeit [ˈhɔxt͡sa͡et]
pronounced English words bought
(marriage)
or taught.
except before two consonants
in the the following words:
Mond [moːnt] (moon)
Montag [ˈmoːntɑːk] (Monday)
Obst [oːp͡st] (fruit)
Philosoph [filoˈzoːf]
(philosopher)
Vogt [foːkt] (sheriff)
Attention: Some editions use ss
in place of ß making it difficult
to determine the length of the
preceding vowel. Consult a
pronouncing dictionary
whenever the length of a vowel
is in doubt:
stossen → stoßen [ˈʃtoːsən]
bloss → bloß [bloːs]
gross → groß [ɡroːs]
• in words of Greek origin

ending with unstressed -or
and -os:
Doktor [ˈdɔktɔɾ]
Marmor [ˈmarmɔɾ]
Kosmos [ˈkɔsmɔs]
Lotos [ˈloːtɔs]
• in the following
monosyllabic words:
ob [ɔp], von [fɔn], vom [fɔm]
64 ■ VOW E LS
Exercises for [oː], [o], and [ɔ]

EXERCISE 5.1.1 Medial [oː] and [ɔ]
Practice speaking Rose [ˈroːzə] (rose) – Rosse [ˈrɔsə] (horses)
these word pairs in
the proposed wohnen [ˈvoːnən] (to dwell) – Wonnen [ˈvɔnən] (delights)
sequence and in –
reverse order holt [hoːlt] (one fetches) hold [hɔlt] (lovely)
(for example, Rose– Schoß [ʃoːs] (lap) – schoss [ʃɔs] (shot)
Rosse; Rosse–Rose).
Compare the long Sohn [zoːn] (son) – Sonne [ˈzɔnə] (sun)
and closed [oː] with
Mode [ˈmoːdə] (fashion) – Motte [ˈmɔtə] (moth)
the short and open
[ɔ]. Listen carefully –
Sohlen [ˈzoːlən] (soles) sollen [ˈzɔlən] (should)
to avoid any
involuntary Moos [moːs] (moss) – Most [mɔst] (fruit juice)
diphthongal
off-glide. Carefully Moor [moːɾ] (moor) – Mord [mɔrt] (murder)
differentiate between
Trost [troːst] (consolation) – Tross [trɔs] (retinue)
the more rounded
[oː] and the slightly –
Tor [toːɾ] (gate) Torte [ˈtɔrtə] (tart)
less rounded [ɔ]. The
jaw has to remain Hof [hoːf] (yard) – Hoffnung [ˈhɔfnʊŋ] (hope)
relaxed even when it
doesn’t move. log [loːk] (lied) – lockt [lɔkt] (one lures)
EXERCISE 5.1.2 Medial [oː] and [ɑː]

Compare the Hose [ˈhoːzə] (trousers) – Hase [ˈhɑːzə] (hare)
long closed [oː] –
with the long
zogen [ˈt͡soːɡən] (pulled) zagen [ˈt͡sɑːɡən] (to hesitate)
and open [ɑː] in Rosen [ˈroːzən] (roses) – Rasen [ˈrɑːzən] (lawn)
medial position
of the following Boden [ˈboːdən] (ground) – baden [ˈbɑːdən] (to bathe)
words.
Not [noːt] (distress) – Naht [nɑːt] (seam)
Tod [toːt] (death) – Tat [tɑːt] (deed)
rot [roːt] (red) – Rat [rɑːt] (advice)
loben [ˈloːbən] (to praise) – laben [ˈlɑːbən] (refresh)
bot [boːt] (offer) – bat [bɑːt] (begged)
Kohl [koːl] (cabbage) – kahl [kɑːl] (bald)
EXERCISE 5.1.3 Medial [ɔ] and [a]

Compare the short voll [fɔl] (full) – Fall [fal] (incident)
and open [ɔ] with –
the short and closed
komm [kɔm] (come) Kamm [kam] (comb)
[a] in medial wollen [ˈvɔlən] (to want) – wallen [ˈvalən] (to flow)
position of the
following words. Most [mɔst] (fruit juice) – Mast [mast] (mast)
doch [dɔx] (yet) – Dach [dax] (roof)
Volk [fɔlk] (folk) – Falke [ˈfalkə] (falcon)
hold [hɔlt] (lovely) – Halt [halt] (hold)
konnte [ˈkɔntə] (was able) – kannte [ˈkantə] (knew)
Motte [ˈmɔtə] (moth) – Matte [ˈmatə] (mat)
Loch [lɔx] (hole) – lachen [ˈlaxən] (to laugh)
EXERCISE 5.1.4 Initial [hoː] and [ǀoː] and Initial [hɔ] and [ǀɔ]
Practice the glottal Hof [hoːf] (yard) – Ofen [ˈǀoːfən] (oven)
long and closed [oː] Hohn [hoːn] (scorn) – ohne [ˈǀoːnə] (without)
short and open [ɔ] by –
comparing the breathy Hosen [ˈhoːzən] (trousers) Ostern [ˈǀoːstərn] (Easter)
onset in words Horen [ˈhoːɾən] (hours) – Ohren [ˈǀoːɾən] (ears)
beginning on ho- with
the balanced onset in hoffen [ˈhɔfən] (to hope) – offen [ˈǀɔfən] (open)
words beginning on
Hort [hɔrt] (treasure) – Ort [ǀɔrt] (place)
initial o-. (For help with
the glottal separation –
Horden [ˈhɔrdən] (hordes) Orden [ˈǀɔrdən] (order)
[ǀ], refer to Chapter 3.)
EXERCISE 5.1.5 Initial [ǀoː] and [ǀɔ]

Compare the long and Ofen [ˈǀoːfən] (oven) – offen [ˈǀɔfən] (open)
closed [oː] with the
Ohr [ǀoːɾ] (ear) – Ort [ǀɔrt] (place)
short and open [ɔ] in
initial position of the –
oder [ˈǀoːdəɾ] (or) Otter [ˈǀɔtəɾ] (otter)
following word pairs.
Use a glottal Ostern [ˈǀoːstərn] (Easter) – Osten [ˈǀɔstən] (East)
separation [ǀ] for each
initial vowel sound, oben [ˈǀoːbən] (above) – ob [ˈǀɔp] (if)
but avoid the hard
as the breathy onset.
66 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 5.1.6 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [oː], [o], and [ɔ]
Speak the following words and apply the pronounciation rules for [oː], [o], and [ɔ]. As
an aid we provide an IPA transcription for all the other sounds not covered in this
section. In addition to the stress marks [ˈ] in IPA, we have also underlined the stressed
vowel whenever word stress is important in determining the correct sound.
wo [v__] (where) Lot [l__t] (plumb)
Not [n__t] (distress) Hohn [h__n] (scorn)
Moos [m__s] (moss) so [z__] (so)
Gott [ɡ__t] (God) soviel [z__ˈfiːl] (so much)
Lohn [l__n] (reward) Tor [t__ɾ] (gate)
stoßen [ˈʃt__sən] (to push) Norden [ˈn__rdən] (north)

Rosse [ˈr__sə] (horses) hohl [h__l] (hollow)
Rose [ˈr__zə] (rose) Hoffnung [ˈh__fnʊŋ] (hope)
groß [ɡr__s] (big) toben [ˈt__bən] (to rage)
Hosen [ˈh__zən] (trousers) Marmor [ˈmarm__ɾ] (marble stone)
Woge [ˈv__ɡə] (wave) tobst [t__p͡st] (rage)

ob [__p] (if) Nonne [ˈn__nə] (nun)
vor [f__ɾ] (before) froh [fr__] (happy)
von [f__n] (from) moosig [ˈm__zɪç] (mossy)
Frost [fr__st] (frost) Boden [ˈb__dən] (ground)
Trost [tr__st] (consolation) voll [f__l] (full)

Kloster [ˈkl__stəɾ] (convent) Osten [ˈ__stən] (East)
Most [m__st] (fruit juice) rot [r__t] (red)
Wolken [ˈv__lkən] (clouds) Morgen [ˈm__rɡən] (morning)
wohnen [ˈv__nən] (to dwell) kosten [ˈk__stən] (to taste)
loben [ˈl__bən] (to praise) Ostern [ˈ__stərn] (Easter)

lobst [l__p͡st] (you praise) vom [f__m] (from)
Boot [b__t] (boat) Obst [__p͡st] (fruits)
Ton [t__n] (tone) Kohle [ˈk__lə] (charcoal)
Mond [m__nt] (moon) Schloss [ʃl__s] (castle)
Horn [h__rn] (horn) bloß [bl__s] (just)

Sonne [ˈz__nə] (sun) golden [ˈɡ__ldən] (golden)
doch [d__x] (but) Chor [k__ɾ] (choir)
hoch [h__x] (high) wofür [v__ˈfyːɾ] (what for)
Hochzeit [ˈh__xt͡sa͡et] (wedding) Melodie [mel__ˈdiː] (melody)
■ ■ 5.2 LONG AND CLOSED [uː] , SHORT AND OPEN [ʊ]
[uː] ■ final u = [uː]

■ u + single consonant = [uː]
■ uh = [uː]
u Pronounce [uː] in spellings of the letter u Form the long and closed
• at the end of a word: monophthong [uː] like the u in
du [duː], zu [t͡suː], tabu [taˈbuː] the English word truth or the
• before a single consonant letter: oo in tool but with slightly more
Mut [muːt], Blume [ˈbluːmə], rounded and protruded lips.
tun [tuːn]
The tip of the tongue touches
except in the following prefixes: the lower front teeth. The back
um- [ˈʊm] – umziehen [ˈʊmt͡siːən] of the tongue is arched towards
un- [ˈʊn] – untreu [ˈʊntrɔ͡ø] the soft palate. The sides of the
except words of Latin origin that end tongue do not touch the upper
on -us and -um: molars. The lips are closely
Jesus [ˈʝeːzʊs], Jesum [ˈʝeːzʊm] rounded and protruded (as if
Agnus [ˈaɡnʊs] (Lat. lamb) one would drink from a straw).
The jaw is loose, but more
except in the following words: closed than for [oː]. (Compare
Rum [rʊm] (rum) with the vowel chart in
um [ʊm] (around) Chapter 3.)
zum [t͡sʊm] (to the)
purpur [ˈpʊrpʊr] (purple)
(intervocalic ß):
Buße [ˈbuːsə], Muße [ˈmuːsə]
68 ■ VOW E LS
Remember the following words:

Gruß [ɡruːs] (greeting)
Fuß [fuːs] (foot)
uh Pronounce [uː] in spellings of the letter
combination uh
• in one element:
Uhr [uːɾ], Ruhm [ruːm], Buhle [ˈbuːlə]
In spoken German there are cases where Note: The difference in length
[u] [uː] loses its length [ː]. It becomes short, between long and short vowels
but keeps its closed quality, thus of the same quality is more
pronounce [u] (short but closed) in evident in spoken German. In
spellings of the letter u: singing where the length of a
• in compound words or word vowel is determined by the
derivations where a long [uː] loses musical notation, the long
its stress: vowel is only recognizable by
zu [ˈt͡suː] → zu/sammen [t͡suˈzamən] the decay of its intensity and
Studie [ˈʃtuːdi ̯ə] →Student [ʃtuˈdɛnt] how the following consonant
touches it. The quality of the
• in unstressed syllables in words of
vowel has to remain pure,
foreign origin:
independent of the length of
Musik [muˈziːk], Kurier [kuˈɾiːɾ],
the sound. (See also under
Januar [ˈʝanuɑːɾ], Februar [ˈfeːbruɑːɾ]
Vowel Length in Chapter 3.)
[ʊ] ■ u + two consonants = [ʊ]

u Pronounce [ʊ] in spellings of the letter u Form the short and open
• before two or more consonant monophthong [ʊ] like the u in
letters: the English word put or the oo
Mund [mʊnt], gesund [ɡəˈzʊnt], in look, but with slightly more
Mutter [ˈmʊtəɾ], und [ʊnt], Kuss [kʊs] rounded and protruded lips.
except before ch in the following words: Attention: Avoid the involuntary
Buch [buːx] (book) substitution of [ʌ] for [ʊ]. The
Buche [ˈbuːxə] (beech tree) German word Lust (desire)
Fluch [fluːx] (curse) should be pronounced as [lʊst]
fluchen [ˈfluːxən] (to curse) and not as [lʌst], which sounds
Kuchen [ˈkuːxən] (cake) close to the German word Last
ruchlos [ˈruːxloːs] (wicked) [last], which means burden.
suchen [ˈzuːxən] (look for) The tip of the tongue touches
Tuch [tuːx] (cloth) the lower front teeth. The back
Wucherer [ˈvuːxəɾəɾ] (profiteer) of the tongue is arched toward
except before st in the following words: the soft palate, but slightly less
husten [ˈhuːstən] (cough) than for the closed [uː]. The
pusten [ˈpuːstən] (blow) sides of the tongue do not
Schuster [ˈʃuːstəɾ] (shoemaker) touch the upper molars. The
lips are closely rounded and
except in the following word:
protruded, but a little more lax
Geburt [ɡəˈbuːrt] (birth)
than for [uː]. The jaw is slightly
Attention: Some editions use ss in place lower than for [uː]. (Compare
of ß, making it difficult to determine the with the vowel chart in
length of the preceding vowel. Chapter 3.)
Musse → Muße [ˈmuːsə] (leisure)
Busse → Buße [ˈbuːsə] (repentance)
Fuss → Fuß [fuːs] (foot)
• in the following prefixes:
um- [ʊm], un- [ʊn]:
Umweg [ˈʊmveːk]
Ungeduld [ˈʊnɡədʊlt]
• in words of Latin origin ending in
-us and -um:
Jesus [ˈʝeːzʊs], Jesum [ˈʝeːzʊm],
Agnus [ˈaɡnʊs] (Lat. Lamb)
70 ■ VOW E LS
Exercises for [uː], [u], and [ʊ]

EXERCISE 5.2.1 Medial [uː] and [ʊ]
Practice speaking these Grube [ˈɡruːbə] (pit) – Gruppe [ˈɡrʊpə] (group)
word pairs in the
proposed sequence and Buhle [ˈbuːlə] (paramour) – Bulle [ˈbʊlə] (bull)
in reverse order (for – schulden [ˈʃʊldən] (to owe)
example, Grube–Gruppe, schulen [ˈʃuːlən] (to train)
Gruppe–Grube). Fuder [ˈfuːdəɾ] (wagonload) – Futter [ˈfʊtəɾ] (food)
Compare the long and
closed [uː] with the Zug [t͡suːk] (train) – Zucker [ˈt͡sʊkəɾ] (sugar)
short and open [ʊ].
Muse [ˈmuːzə] (muse) – muss [mʊs] (must)
Carefully differentiate
between the closely – Busse [ˈbʊsə] (busses)
Buße [ˈbuːsə] (penance)
rounded [uː] and the
slightly less rounded [ʊ]. Mut [muːt] (courage) – Mutter [ˈmʊtɐ] (mother)
Resist pushing the jaw
forward when Buch [buːx] (book) – Bucht [bʊxt] (bay)
protruding and
sucht [zuːxt] (one – Sucht [zʊxt] (addiction)
rounding the lips. Allow
your jaw and the back investigates)
of the tongue to remain
relaxed. spuken [ˈʃpuːkən] (to haunt) – spucken [ˈʃpʊkən] (to spit)
rußen [ˈruːsən] (to blacken) – Russen [ˈrʊsən] (Russians)
Krume [ˈkruːmə] (topsoil) – krumme [ˈkrʊmə]

(crooked)
EXERCISE 5.2.2 Medial and initial [uː] and [oː]
Practice as above. Gruß [ɡruːs] (greeting) – groß [ɡroːs] (big, tall)

Compare the long
closed [uː] with the long Huhn [huːn] (hen) – Hohn [hoːn] (scorn)
and closed [oː]. As you – Hof [hoːf] (court)
practice allow your jaw Huf [huːf] (hoof)
and the back of the Betrug [bəˈtruːk] (betrayal) – betrog [bəˈtroːk]
tongue to remain
(betrayed)
relaxed.
Uhren [ˈuːɾən] (clocks) – Ohren [ˈoːɾən] (ears)
lugen [ˈluːɡən] (to watch) – logen [ˈloːɡən] (lied)
Trug [truːk] (illusion) – Trog [troːk] (trough)
Flug [fluːk] (flight) – flog [floːk] (flew)

EXERCISE 5.2.3 Medial [ʊ] and [ɔ]

Practice as above. Russe [ˈrʊsə] (Russian) – Rosse [ˈrɔsə] (horses)
Compare the short and
open [ʊ] with the short Schluss [ʃlʊs] (end) – Schloss [ʃlɔs] (castle)
and open [ɔ]. As you –
practice, allow your jaw Furt [fʊrt] (ford) fort [fɔrt] (away)
and the back of the tongue Huld [hʊlt] (grace) – hold [hɔlt] (lovely)
to remain relaxed.
Schuss [ʃʊs] (shoot) – schoss [ʃɔs] (shot)
Fluss [flʊs] (river) – floss [flɔs] (flew)
Guss [ɡʊs] (cast) – goss [ɡɔs] (poured)
Genuss [ɡəˈnʊs] – genoss [ɡəˈnɔs]
(enjoyment) (enjoyed)
EXERCISE 5.2.4 Initial [huː], [hʊ], and [ǀuː]; [ǀʊ]
Practice the glottal Hut [huːt] (hat) – Ute [ˈǀuːtə] (proper name)
separation in initial long
and closed [uː] and short Hufe [ˈhuːfə] (hoofs) – Ufer [ˈǀuːfəɾ] (shore)
and open [ʊ] by
comparing the breathy
onset in words beginning Hund [hʊnt] (dog) – und [ǀʊnt] (and)
on hu- with the balanced
Hundert [ˈhʊndərt] – unter [ˈǀʊntəɾ] (under)
onset in words beginning
on initial u-. (For help with (hundred)
the glottal separation [ǀ],
Hummel [ˈhʊməl] – umher [ǀʊmˈheːɾ] (around)
refer to Chapter 3.)
(bumblebee)
Huld [hʊlt] (grace) – Ulme [ˈǀʊlmə] (elm tree)
EXERCISE 5.2.5 Initial [ǀuː] and [ǀʊ]
Compare the long and closed [uː] Uhr [ǀuːɾ] (clock) – Urne [ˈǀʊrnə] (urn)
with the short and open [ʊ] in the
initial sound of the following word Ute [ˈǀuːtə] (proper – Ulrich [ˈǀʊlrɪç]
pairs. Use a glottal separation [ǀ] for name) (proper name)
each initial vowel sound, but avoid
Ufer [ˈǀuːfəɾ] (shore) – Ulme [ˈǀʊlmə] (elm)
the hard glottal attack as well as the
breathy onset. As you practice, urtümlich – Urteil [ˈǀʊrta͡el]
allow your jaw and the back of the [ˈǀuːɾtyːmlɪç]
tongue to remain relaxed. (verdict)
(primeval)
72 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 5.2.6 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [uː], [u], and [ʊ]
Speak the du [d__] (you) Huhn [h__n] (hen)
following words
and apply the Blut [bl__t] (blood) Muße [ˈm__sə] (leisure)
pronunciation
rules for [uː], [u], Gruße [ˈɡr__sə] (greeting) Buch [b__x] (book)
and [ʊ]. As an aid Ruhe [ˈr__ə] (rest) zu [t͡s__] (closed)
we have provided
an IPA Mutter [ˈm__təɾ] (mother) zusammen [t͡s__ˈzamən]
transcription for (together)
all the sounds not
covered in this muss [m__s] (must) Bucht [b__xt] (bay)
section. In
addition to the genug [ɡəˈn__k] (enough) Zucker [ˈt͡s__kəɾ] (sugar)
stress marks [ˈ] in
IPA, we have also Buße [ˈb__sə] (penance) Truhe [ˈtr__ə] (chest)
underlined the Kuss [k__s] (kiss) Blume [ˈbl__mə] (flower)
stressed vowel
whenever word Fuß [f__s] (foot) unangenehm [ˈ__nǀanɡəneːm]
stress is (uncomfortable)
important in
determining the Glut [ɡl__t] (glow) Lust [l__st] (pleasure, joy)
correct sound.
Flucht [fl__xt] (escape) husten [ˈh__stən] (to cough)
Fluch [fl__x] (curse) rund [r__nt] (round)
fluchen [ˈfl__xən] (to curse) gut [ɡ__t] (good)
fluchte [ˈfl__xtə] (cursed) Geburt [ɡəˈb__rt] (birth)
Ruhm [r__m] (fame) Brunnen [ˈbr__nən] (fountain)

Stunde [ˈʃt__ndə] (hour) Buhle [ˈb__lə] (paramour)
Bruder [ˈbr__dəɾ] (brother) Musik [m__ˈziːk] (music)
um [__m] (around) Fluss [fl__s] (river)
Kunde [ˈk__ndə] (client) Dunst [d__nst] (haze)
tun [t__n] (to do) zum [t͡s__m] (to)

Schuster [ˈʃ__stəɾ] (shoemaker) Kluft [kl__ft] (chasm)
Ufer [ˈ__fəɾ] (shore) Fluten [ˈfl__tən] (flood)
umher [__mˈheːɾ] (around) Sturm [ʃt__rm] (storm)
suchen [ˈz__xən] (to search) Kuchen [ˈk__xən] (cake)
suchte [ˈz__xtə] (searched) Schlucht [ʃl__xt] (gorge)

Sucht [z__xt] (addiction) Flur [fl__ɾ] (hall)
Ruf [r__f] (call) duften [ˈd__ftən] (to smell)
Busch [b__ʃ] (bush) Rum [r__m] (rum)
bunt [b__nt] (colorful) Tuch [t__x] (cloth)
MONOPHTHONGS III:
MIXED VOWELS
In the previous chapter you learned about the tongue vowels, primarily formed by the
tongue, and lip vowels, primarily formed by the lips. A few monophthongs are formed by
using the tongue position of a tongue vowel in addition to the lip rounding of a lip vowel.
Therefore, those monophthongs are called mixed vowels. Like other monophthongs,
the mixed vowels keep their quality unchanged throughout the duration of the syllable.
Mixed vowels do not exist in English: The long, closed sound of [øː] results from the
combination of the tongue position of the long, closed [eː] and the lip rounding of long,
closed [oː]. The short, open sound of [œ] requires the tongue position of short, open [ɛ]
with the lip rounding of short, open [ɔ]. The long, closed sound of [yː] results from the com-
bination of the tongue position of long, closed [iː] and the lip rounding of long, closed [uː].
The short, open sound of [ʏ] requires the tongue position of [ɪ] with the lip rounding of [ʊ].
Tongue: Lips:
[eː] [øː] [oː]
[ɛ] [œ] [ɔ]
[iː] [yː] [uː]
[ɪ] [y] [ʊ]
In German, mixed vowels are represented in writing by what is called an umlaut (al-
tered sound), a vowel letter with the diacritical mark ( ¨ ) over it. An altered o be-
comes ö and is called an O-umlaut, and an altered u becomes ü and is called an U-umlaut.
In writing there is also an A-umlaut. We have covered ä in the previous chapter because it
does not have the characteristics of a mixed vowel but represents the tongue vowels [ɛ]
■ 75
76 ■ VOW E LS
and [ɛː]. When copying German texts, never omit the diacritical mark, since this might
change the meaning of the word, e.g., dösen (slumber) to Dosen (cans). If the keyboard
does not have the appropriate key, one may use the alternate spelling of oe for ö, ue for ü,
and ae for ä.
Letter Mixed Vowel Tongue of Lips of
[øː] lösen [ˈløːzən] [eː] lesen [ˈleːzən] [oː] losen [ˈloːzən]
ö (oe) [œ] möchte [ˈmœçtə] [ɛ] Mächte [ˈmɛçtə] [ɔ] mochte [ˈmɔxtə]
[yː] lügen [ˈlyːɡən] [iː] liegen [ˈliːɡən] [uː] lugen [ˈluːɡən]
ü (ue) [Y] Küste [ˈkystə] [ɪ] Kiste [ˈkistə] [ʊ] Kuss [ˈkʊs]
Mixed vowels follow the same general pronunciation rules as all other vowels (see
Chapter 3). Major enunciation difficulties come from the fact that most non-native
speakers are not used to the simultaneous action of rounded lips and a forward-arched
tongue. Often the lips and the tongue want to move in sequence rather than synchro-
nized, resulting in involuntary diphthongs: Fühlen becomes [ˈfi͡uːlən] or [ˈfu͡iːlən] rather
than [ˈfyːlən], and schön becomes [ʃo͡en] or [ʃe͡on] rather than [ʃøːn].
■ ■ 6.1 LONG AND CLOSED [øː] , SHORT AND OPEN [œ]
[øː] ■ ö+ single consonant = [øː]

■ öh = [øː]
■ eu in French words = [øː]
ö Pronounce [øː] in spellings of the The long and closed [øː] results from
letter ö the mixture of the tongue position for
• before a single consonant long and closed [eː] and the lip
letter: rounding for long and closed [oː]. It is
schön [ʃøːn], zöge [ˈt͡søːɡə], not among the sounds used in the
tönen [ˈtøːnən], flöten [ˈfløːtən] English language.
• before a single consonant letter The tip of the tongue touches the lower
and the diminutive suffixes front teeth. The blade of the tongue is
-chen and -lein: arched forward and the sides of the
Tönchen [ˈtøːnçən], Röslein tongue touch the upper molars. The
[ˈrøːsla͡en] lips are closely rounded and protruded
(as if one would drink from a straw).
efore an ß followed by a vowel
• b
(Compare with the vowel chart in
(intervocalic ß):
Chapter 3.)
Größe [ˈɡrøːsə], größer [ˈɡrøːsəɾ],
einflößen [ˈa͡enfløːsən], stöße [ˈʃtøːsə]
Monophthongs III: Mixed Vowels ■ 77
Attention: In all other circumstances To form the sound of [øː] let your
(when ß is not intervocalic), consult tongue assume the position of [eː].
a pronouncing dictionary. (See also Then say and continue sustaining [eː]
Chapter 14.) while you round the lips the way you
Try to remember the following would for [oː]. Take care that the blade
words: of the tongue stays arched and the jaw
entblößt [ɛntˈbløːst] (bare, exposed) does not drop while you round your
flößt [fløːst] (floats) lips to arrive on [øː]. For some it is
größte [ˈɡrøːstə] (tallest) easier to sustain a long closed [oː] and
stößt [ʃtøːst] (pushes) then arch the tongue and say [eː]
through the lips of [oː].
öh Pronounce [øː]in spellings of the Enunciation Exercises:
letter combination öh: Follow the above guidelines to initially
fröhlich [ˈfrøːlɪç], höher [ˈhøːəɾ], discover the sound of [øː]. Then
Höhle [ˈhøːlə], Söhne [ˈzøːnə] practice alternating between [eː] and
[øː] by rounding and relaxing your lips,
eu Pronounce [øː] in spellings of the
and between [oː] and [øː] by flattening
letter combination eu
and arching the blade of the tongue.
• in words of French origin only:
Deserteur [dezɛrˈtøːɾ], Friseur 1. Try the following sequences of
[friˈzøːɾ] sounds and notice the movements
of your tongue and lips:
Attention: In German words
a) [eː] → [øː] → [oː]
(unlike words of French
b) [oː] → [øː] → [eː]
origin) the combination eu is
pronounced as the diphthong [ɔ͡ø] 2. Try the following words in sequence
(see Chapter 7). and in reverse order:
Freude [ˈfrɔ͡ødə], Leute [ˈlɔ͡øtə], lesen → lösen → losen
deutsch [dɔ͡øt͡ʃ], heulen [ˈhɔ͡ølən] [ˈleːzən → ˈløːzən → ˈloːzən]
losen → lösen → lesen
[ˈloːzən → ˈløːzən → ˈleːzən]
Attention: The English speaker might

feel that the [øː] resembles the sound
[ɜ˞ ] as in earth or dearth. The German
sound, however, is pure and resembles
not the slightest coloration of r.
Tip:Sustain [øː] with closely rounded
lips and the tongue behind the lower
front teeth for the entire duration of
the sound and connect seamlessly with
the following consonant.
78 ■ VOW E LS
[œ] ■ ö+ two consonants = [œ]

ö Pronounce [œ] in spellings of the The short and open [œ] results from
letter ö the mixture of the tongue position
• before two or more consonant for short and open [ɛ] and the lip
letters: rounding for short and open [ɔ]. It is
Götter [ˈɡœtəɾ], können not among the sounds used in the
[ˈkœnən], English language but exists in French
Töchter [ˈtœçtəɾ], flöchte [ˈflœçtə] words like fleur [flœɾ] (flower).
except before st in the following The tip of the tongue touches the
words: lower front teeth. The blade of the
trösten [ˈtrøːstən] (console) tongue is arched forward, and the
rösten [ˈrøːstən] (roast) sides of the tongue touch the upper
molars. The lips are slightly rounded.
except before ch in all
(Try to pull in the corners of the
derivations of hoch [hoːx](high):
mouth while the center of the lips
höchst [høːçst] (highest)
stay only moderately involved.)
höchster [ˈhøːçstəɾ] (highest)
höchstens [ˈhøːçstəns] (at most) To form the sound of [œ] for the first
time, let your tongue assume the
Note:Some editions use ss in place position of [ɛ]. Then say and
of ß, making it difficult to continue sustaining [ɛ] while you
determine the length of the round the lips the way you would for
preceding vowel. In circumstances [ɔ]. Be careful that the blade of the
where there is doubt about the tongue stays arched and the jaw
length of the vowel, consult a doesn’t drop while you round your
pronouncing dictionary: lips to arrive on [œ]. For some it is
Grösser → Größer [ˈɡrøːsəɾ] easier to sustain an open [ɔ] and then
arch the tongue and say [ɛ] through
the lips of [ɔ].
Enunciation Exercises:
Follow the above guidelines to initially
discover the sound of [œ]. Then
practice alternating between [ɛ] and
[œ] by rounding and relaxing your lips
and between [ɔ] and [œ] by flattening
and arching the blade of the tongue.
1. Try the following sequence of
sounds and notice the movements
of your tongue and lips:
a) [ɛ] → [œ] → [ɔ]
b) [ɔ] → [œ] → [ɛ]
2. Try the following words in

sequence and in reverse order:
Mächte → möchte → mochte
[ˈmɛçtə → ˈmœçtə → ˈmɔxtə]
mochte → möchte → Mächte
[ˈmɔxtə → ˈmœçtə → ˈmɛçtə]
80 ■ VOW E LS
Exercises for [øː] and [œ]

EXERCISE 6.1.1 Medial [eː] and [øː]
Practice speaking these Hefe [ˈheːfə] (yeast) – Höfe [ˈhøːfə] (courts)
word pairs in the
Sehne [ˈzeːnə] (tendon) – Söhne [ˈzøːnə] (sons)
proposed sequence and
in reverse order (for – hört [høːrt] (listen)
Herd [heːrt] (stove)
example, Hefe–Höfe,
Höfe–Hefe). Rede [ˈreːdə] (speech) – Röte [ˈrøːtə] (redness)
closed [eː] with the long stehst [ʃteːst] (you stand) – stößt [ʃtøːst] (encounters)
and closed [øː]. Notice
the rounding and Lehne [ˈleːnə] (head rest) – Löhne [ˈløːnə] (wages)
protruding of your lips
Besen [ˈbeːzən] (broom) – bösen [ˈbøːzən] (mean)
when you alternate
from the tongue vowel lesen [ˈleːzən] (to read) – lösen [ˈløːzən] (to solve)
[eː] to the mixed vowel
[øː]. Do not allow your hebe [ˈheːbə] (lift) – höbe [ˈhøːbə] (would suspend)
tongue to drop while – böten [ˈbøːtən] (would offer)
you move the lips as beten [ˈbeːtən] (to pray)
this will result in [oː]
instead of [øː]. The
tongue should always
remain supple.
EXERCISE 6.1.2 Medial [ɛ] and [œ]

Practice as above. helle [ˈhɛlə] (bright) – Hölle [ˈhœlə] (hell)
Compare the short
and open [ɛ] with kennen [ˈkɛnən] (to know) – können [ˈkœnən] (to be able to)
the short and open – Wörter [ˈvœrtəɾ] (words)
Wärter [ˈvɛrtəɾ] (guard)
[œ]. Notice the
rounding and Kerbe [ˈkɛrbə] (notch) – Körbe [ˈkœrbə] (baskets)
protruding of your
Zelle [ˈt͡sɛlə] (cell) – Zölle [ˈt͡sœlə] (duties)
lips when you
alternate from the – völlig [ˈfœlɪç] (fully)
fällig [ˈfɛlɪç] (due)
tongue vowel [ɛ] to
the mixed vowels Recke [ˈrɛkə] (warrior) – Röcke [ˈrœkə] (skirts)
[œ]. Do not allow
your tongue to drop Mächte [ˈmɛçtə] (powers) – möchte [ˈmœçtə] (would like)
while you move the
fechten [ˈfɛçtən] (to fence) – föchten [ˈfœçtən] (would fence)
lips as this will result
in [ɔ] instead of [œ]. – körnig [ˈkœrnɪç] (grainy)
The tongue should
kernig [ˈkɛrnɪç] (pithy)
always remain
supple.
EXERCISE 6.1.3 Medial [oː] and [øː]

Practice as above. losen [ˈloːzən] (to draw lots) – lösen [ˈløːzən] (to solve)
Dosen [ˈdoːzən] (cans) – dösen [ˈdøːzən] (to doze)
closed [oː] with the
long and closed [øː]. –
Bogen [ˈboːɡən] (arch) Bögen [ˈbøːɡən] (arches)
Notice the movement
of your tongue when schon [ʃoːn] (already) – schön [ʃøːn] (beautiful)
you switch from the
rounded vowel [oː] to Ton [toːn] (tone) – Töne [ˈtøːnə] (tones)
the mixed vowel [øː].
Lohn [loːn] (wage) – Löhne [ˈløːnə] (wages)
Keep your lips rounded
while your tongue –
tot [toːt] (dead) töten [ˈtøːtən] (to kill)
moves. As you practice
allow your jaw and the Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl] (bird) – Vögel [ˈføːɡəl] (birds)
back of the tongue to
remain relaxed. groß [ɡroːs] (big) – Größe [ˈɡrøːsə] (size)
Moor [moːɾ] (moor) – Möhre [ˈmøːɾə] (carrot)
EXERCISE 6.1.4 Medial and initial [ɔ]and [œ]

Practice as above. Rock [rɔk] (skirt) – Röcke [ˈrœkə] (skirts)
Compare the short
Ross [rɔs] (horse) – Rösslein [ˈrœsla͡en] (little horse)
and open [ɔ] with the
short and open [œ]. – Höcker [ˈhœkəɾ] (hump)
Hocker [ˈhɔkəɾ] (stool)
Notice the movement
of your tongue when offen [ˈɔfən] (open) – öffnen [ˈœfnən] (to open)
you switch from the
rounded vowel [ɔ] to Schloss [ʃlɔs] (castle) – Schlösser [ˈʃlœsəɾ] (castles)
the mixed vowel [œ].
Wort [vɔrt] (word) – Wörter [ˈvœrtəɾ] (words)
Keep your lips
rounded while your – sönne [ˈzœnə] (would meditate)
Sonne [ˈzɔnə] (sun)
tongue moves. As you
practice allow your Gott [ɡɔt] (God) – Götter [ˈɡœtəɾ] (gods)
jaw and the back of
the tongue to remain Schopf [ʃɔp͡f] (tuft) – schöpfen [ˈʃœp͡fən] (to scoop)
relaxed.
Norden [ˈnɔrdən] (north) – nördlich [ˈnœrtlɪç] (northerly)
82 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 6.1.5 Medial [øː]and [œ]
Compare the Schöße [ˈʃøːsə] (laps) – schösse [ˈʃœsə] (would

long and closed
shoot)
[øː] with the
short and open Höhle [ˈhøːlə] (cave) – Hölle [ˈhœlə] (hell)
[œ]. Carefully
differentiate Söhne [ˈzøːnə] (sons) – sönne [ˈzœnə] (would
between the meditate)
closely rounded
[øː] and the Röslein [ˈrøːsla͡en] (little – Rösslein [ˈrœsla͡en] (little
slightly less rose) horse)
rounded [œ].
stören [ˈʃtøːɾən] (to – störrisch [ˈʃtœrɪʃ] (stubborn)
Allow the jaw to
remain relaxed. disturb)
flößen [ˈfløːsən] (to float) – flössen [ˈflœsən] (would
flow)
Möhre [ˈmøːɾə] (carrot) – Mörser [ˈmœrzəɾ] (mortar)
Goethe [ˈɡøːtə] (German – Götter [ˈɡœtəɾ] (gods)
poet)
Törchen [ˈtøːrçən] (little – Törtchen [ˈtœrtçən] (little
gate) cake)
blöken [ˈbløːkən] (to bleat) – Blöcke [ˈblœkə] (blocks)
gewöhnen [ɡəˈvøːnən] (to get – gewönnen [ɡəˈvœnən] (would
used to) win)
EXERCISE 6.1.6 Initial [høː]and [ǀøː]

Practice the glottal separation Höhlen [ˈhøːlən] – ölen [ˈǀøːlən] (to oil)
in initial long and closed [øː] (caves)
and short and open [œ] by
comparing the breathy onset Höschen [ˈhøːsçən] – Öschen [ˈǀøːsçən] (little
in words beginning on hö- with (panties) eyelet)
the balanced onset in words
beginning on initial ö-. (For hör [høːɾ] (listen) – Öhr [ǀøːɾ] (needle eye)
help with the glottal –
separation [ǀ], refer to Höfe [ˈhøːfə] Öfen [ˈǀøːfən] (stoves)
Chapter 3.) (manors)
EXERCISE 6.1.7 Initial [ǀøː]and [ǀœ]

Compare the long and Öse [ˈǀøːzə] (eyelet) – östlich [ˈǀœstliç] (easterly)
closed [øː] with the short
and open [œ] in the initial Öfen [ˈǀøːfən] (stoves) – öffnen [ˈǀœfnən] (to open)
sound of the following
word pairs. Use a glottal Öhrchen [ˈǀøːɾçən] (little ear) – Örtchen [ˈǀœrtçən] (toilet)
initial vowel sound, but
avoid the hard glottal
attack as well as the
breathy onset. As you
practice, allow your jaw
and the back of the
tongue to remain
relaxed.
EXERCISE 6.1.8 Medial and initial [øː]and [yː]

Compare the long and zöge [ˈt͡søːɡə] (would – Züge [ˈt͡syːɡə] (trains)
closed [øː] with the long pull)
and closed [yː]. Notice the
movement of your tongue löge [ˈløːɡə] (would lie) – Lüge [ˈlyːɡə] (lie)
and lips when you switch
Köhler [ˈkøːləɾ] – kühler [ˈkyːləɾ] (cooler)
from the slightly less
rounded closed [øː] to the (charcoal burner)
slightly more rounded –
closed [yː]. Öhrchen [ˈǀøːɾçən] Ührchen [ˈǀyːɾçən] (little
(little ear) watch)
Größe [ˈɡrøːsə] (size) – Grüße [ˈɡryːsə]
(greetings)
EXERCISE 6.1.9 Medial [œ]and [ʏ]

Compare the short and Böcke [ˈbœkə] (rams) – bücke [ˈbʏkə] (bend)
open [œ] with the short
Stöcke [ˈʃtœkə] (sticks) – Stücke [ˈʃtʏkə] (pieces)
and open [ʏ]. Notice the
movement of your tongue – Hülle [ˈhʏlə] (case)
Hölle [ˈhœlə] (hell)
and lips when you switch
from the slightly less flösse [ˈflœsə] (would flow) – Flüsse [ˈflʏsə] (rivers)
rounded open [œ] to the
slightly more rounded Möller [ˈmœləɾ] (ore) – Müller [ˈmʏləɾ] (miller)
open [ʏ].
Röcke [ˈrœkə] (skirts) – rücke [ˈrʏkə] (move over)
84 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 6.1.10 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [øː]and [œ]

Speak the schön [ʃ__n] (beautiful) Öl [ __l] (oil)
following Söhne [ˈz__nə] (sons) höchst [h__çst] (highest)
words and
apply the Töchter [ˈt__çtəɾ] (daughters) stöhnen [ˈʃt__nən] (groan)
pronunciation König [ˈk__nɪç] (king) Vögel [ˈf__ɡəl] (birds)
rules for [øː]
and [œ]. As an Blöße [ˈbl__sə] (nakedness) Dörfer [ˈd__rfəɾ] (villages)
aid we provide gösse [ˈɡ__sə] (would pour) Köpfchen [ˈk__p͡fçən] (small
an IPA head)
transcription
for all the röten [ˈr__tən] (to blush) stören [ˈʃt__ɾən] (to disturb)
sounds not
covered in this Köln [k__ln] (Cologne) störst [ʃt__rst] (you disturb)
section. In größer [ˈɡr__səɾ] (bigger) gönnen [ˈɡ__nən] (to grant)
addition to the
stress marks [ˈ] größte [ˈɡr__stə] (biggest) blöde [ˈbl__də] (stupid)
in IPA, we trösten [ˈtr__stən] (to comfort) dröhnen [ˈdr__nən] (to rumble)
have also
höchstens [ˈh__çstəns] (at most) Deserteur [dezɛrˈt__ɾ] (deserter)
underlined the
stressed vowel
whenever köstlich [ˈk__stlɪç] (delicious) hölzern [ˈh__lt͡sərn] (wooden)
word stress is möchte [ˈm__çtə] (would like) lösen [ˈl__zən] (to resolve)
important in
Höhn [h__n] (heights) löst [l__st] (resolves)
determining
the correct Friseur [friˈz__ɾ] (hairdresser) löschen [ˈl__ʃən] (extinguish)
sound. Göttin [ˈɡ__tɪn] (goddess) löscht [l__ʃt] (puts out)
Störche [ˈʃt__rçə] (storks) Löwe [ˈl__və] (lion)
tönen [ˈt__nən] (to sound) Knöchel [ˈkn__çəl] (ankle)

Stöße [ˈʃt__sə] (strokes) höchster [ˈh__çstəɾ] (highest)
Löhne [ˈl__nə] (wages) töten [ˈt__tən] (to kill)
öffnen [ˈ__fnən] (to open) Töpfe [ˈt__p͡fə] (pots)
östlich [ˈ__stlɪç] (easterly) mögen [ˈm__ɡən] (to like)
rösten [ˈr__stən] (to roast) flösse [ˈfl__sə] (would flow)
■ ■ 6.2 LONG AND CLOSED [Yː] , SHORT AND OPEN [ʏ]
[yː] ■ ü+ single consonant = [yː]

■ üh = [yː]
ü Pronounce [yː] in spellings of the The long and closed [yː] is formed
letter ü by placing the tongue in the position
• before a single consonant letter: for long and closed [iː] and by
Süden [ˈzyːdən], Blüten [ˈblyːtən], rounding the lips for long and closed
trübe [ˈtryːbə], Tür [tyːɾ] [uː]. It is not among the sounds
• before a single consonant letter used in the English language.
and the diminutive endings -chen
and -lein:
Blümchen [ˈblyːmçən]
tongue is arched forward closely to
Krüglein [ˈkryːkla͡en]
the alveolus (dental ridge), and the
sides of the tongue touch the upper
(intervocalic ß):
molars. The lips are closely rounded
Grüße [ˈɡryːsə], büßen [ˈbyːsən]
and protruded (as if one would
Attention: In all other circumstances
drink from a straw). (Compare with
(when ß is not intervocalic) consult
the vowel chart in Chapter 3.)
a pronouncing dictionary. (See also
Chapter 14.) To form the sound of [yː], let your
Remember the following word: tongue assume the position of [iː].
süß [zyːs] (sweet) Then say and continue sustaining
• when ü is followed by a consonant [iː] while you round the lips the way
plus l, n, or r in inflected words you would for [uː]. Be careful that
where a schwa has been the blade of the tongue stays arched
eliminated: and the jaw doesn’t drop while you
lügen → Lüg(e)ner → Lügner round your lips to arrive on [yː]. For
[ˈlyːɡnəɾ] some it is easier to sustain a long,
über → üb(e)rig → übrig [ˈyːbrɪç] closed [uː] and then arch the tongue
• in the suffix -tüm-: and say [iː] through the lips of [uː].
volkstümlich [ˈfɔlkstyːmlɪç]
üh Pronounce [yː] in spellings of the Attention: The non-native speaker
letter combination üh: is not used to the simultaneous
früh [fryː], Frühling [ˈfryːlɪŋ], action to rounded lips and a forward
Mühle [ˈmyːlə], fühlen [ˈfyːlən] arched tongue. There is the tendency
to moving the articulators in
sequence rather than together,
resulting in an involuntary diphthong:
the word Süden becomes [ˈzi͡uːdən] or
[ˈzu͡iːdən] rather than [ˈzyːdən].
86 ■ VOW E LS
y Pronounce [yː] in spellings of the Enunciation Exercises:

letter y Follow the above guidelines to
• stressed, before a single initially discover the sound of [yː].
consonant letter in words of Then practice alternating between
foreign origin: [iː] and [yː] by rounding and
Asyl [aˈzyːl], Elysium [eˈlyːziʊm], relaxing your lips, and between [uː]
Kyrie [ˈkyːɾiə], Typisch [ˈtyːpɪʃ], and [yː] by arching and flattening
Syrien [ˈsyːɾi ̯ən] the blade of the tongue.
except in spellings of the letter y in 1. Try the following sequence of
common names and nicknames sounds and notice the
where y is pronounced [i] (closed movement of your tongue and
and short): lips:
Willy [ˈvɪli], Mary [ˈmaɾi] a) [iː] → [yː] → [uː]
b) [uː] → [yː] → [iː]
liegen → lügen → lugen
[ˈliːɡən → ˈlyːɡən → ˈluːɡən]
lugen → lügen → ligen
[ˈluːɡən → ˈlyːɡən → ˈliːɡən]
[y] In spoken German there are cases Note: The difference in length
where [yː] loses its length [ː]. It between long and short vowels of
becomes short but keeps its closed the same quality is more evident in
quality, thus [y]. spoken German. In singing where
Pronounce [y] (short but closed) in the length of a vowel is determined
spellings of the letter y: by the musical notation, the long
• in unstressed syllables in words vowel is only recognizable by the
of foreign origin: decay of its intensity and by the way
Bür o [byˈɾoː], Labyr i nth [labyˈɾɪnt] it is touched by the following
Xyloph o n [k͡syloˈfoːn] consonant. The quality of the vowel
Z e phyr [ˈt͡seːfyɾ] has to remain pure, independent of
Zypr e sse [t͡syˈprɛsə] the length of the sound. (See also
Hy ä ne [hyˈɛːnə] under Vowel Length in Chapter 3.)
[ʏ] ■ ü + two consonants = [ʏ]

ü Pronounce [ʏ] in spellings of the The short and open [ʏ] is formed by
letter ü placing the tongue in the position of
• before two or more consonant short and open [ɪ] and the rounded
letters: lips of short and open [ʊ]. It is not
küssen [ˈkʏsən], pflücken [ˈp͡flʏkən], among the sounds used in the
flüstern [ˈflʏstərn], Küche [ˈkʏçə] English language.
except when ü is followed by a The tip of the tongue touches the lower
consonant plus l, n, or r in inflected front teeth. The blade of the tongue is
words where a schwa has been arched forward (but slightly less than
eliminated: for [iː]), and the sides of the tongue
lügen → Lüg(e)ner → Lügner [ˈlyːɡnəɾ] touch the upper molars. The lips are
über → üb(e)rig → übrig [ˈyːbrɪç] closely rounded and protruded but a bit
more relaxed than for [uː]. (Compare
except before st in the following
with the vowel chart in Chapter 3.)
words:
düster [ˈdyːstəɾ] (gloomy) To form the sound of [ʏ] for the first
Nüster [ˈnyːstəɾ] (nostril) time, let your tongue assume the
wüst [vyːst] (deserted) position of [ɪ]. Then say and continue
Wüste [ˈvyːstə] (desert, sustaining [ɪ] while you round the
wilderness) lips the way you would for [ʊ]. Watch
Bücher [ˈbyːçəɾ] (books) carefully that the blade of the tongue
Tücher [ˈtyːçəɾ] (cloths) stays arched and the jaw doesn’t drop
while you round your lips to arrive on
Note: Some editions use ss in place of
[ʏ]. For some it is easier to sustain an
ß, making it difficult to determine the
open [ʊ] and then arch the tongue
length of the preceding vowel.
and say [ɪ] through the lips of [ʊ].
Grüsse → Grüße [ˈɡryːsə]
88 ■ VOW E LS
y Pronounce [ʏ] in spellings of the Enunciation Exercises:

letter y Follow the above guidelines to
• before two or more consonants in initially discover the sound of [ʏ].
words of foreign origin: Then practice alternating between [ɪ]
Cymbal [ˈt͡sʏmbal], Nymphe and [ʏ] by rounding and relaxing
[ˈnʏmfə], Hymne [ˈhʏmnə], Myrte your lips and between [ʊ] and [ʏ] by
[ˈmʏrtə] arching and flattening the blade of
the tongue.
except the following word, where 1. Try the following sequence of
the letter y is pronounced short and sounds and notice the movement
closed [y]: of your tongue and lips:
Zypresse [t͡syˈprɛsə] a) [ɪ] → [ʏ] → [ʊ]
b) [ʊ] → [ʏ] → [ɪ]
Kiste → Küste → Kuss
[ˈkɪstə → ˈkʏstə → kʊs]
Kuss → Küste → Kiste
[kʊs → ˈkʏstə → ˈkɪstə]
Exercises for [yː] and [ʏ]

EXERCISE 6.2.1 Medial [iː] and [yː]
Practice speaking these Biene [ˈbiːnə] (bee) – Bühne [ˈbyːnə] (stage)
word pairs in the
–
proposed sequence and in Ziege [ˈt͡siːɡə] (goat) Züge [ˈt͡syːɡə] (trains)
reverse order (for –
Tier [tiːɾ] (animal) Tür [tyːɾ] (door)
example, Biene–Bühne,
Bühne–Biene). Compare Fliege [ˈfliːɡə] (fly) – Flüge [ˈflyːɡə] (flights)
the long and closed [iː]
with the long and closed sieden [ˈziːdən] (to – Süden [ˈzyːdən] (south)
[yː]. Notice the rounding boil)
and protruding of your
lips when you alternate liegen [ˈliːɡən] (to lie) – lügen [ˈlyːɡən] (to tell a lie)
from the tongue vowel [iː] –
to the mixed vowel [yː]. vier [fiːɾ] (four) für [fyːɾ] (for)
Do not allow your tongue –
to drop while you move Stiele [ˈʃtiːlə] (handles) Stühle [ˈʃtyːlə] (chairs)
the lips as this will result trieb [triːp] (chased) – trüb [tryːp] (dull)
in [uː] instead of [yː]. The
tongue should always Miete [ˈmiːtə] (rent) – Mythe [ˈmyːtə] (myth)
remain supple.
EXERCISE 6.2.2 Medial [ɪ] and [ʏ]

Practice as above. Kiste [ˈkɪstə] (box) – Küste [ˈkʏstə] (coast)
Compare the short and
Kissen [ˈkɪsən] (pillow) – küssen [ˈkʏsən] (to kiss)
open [ɪ] with the short
and open [ʏ]. Notice the –
Gericht [ˈɡəɾɪçt] (court) Gerücht [ɡəˈɾʏçt] (rumor)
rounding and protruding
of your lips when you Liste [ˈlɪstə] (list) – Lüste [ˈlʏstə] (desires)
alternate from the tongue
vowel [ɪ] to the mixed missen [ˈmɪsən] (to miss) – müssen [ˈmʏsən] (to
vowels [ʏ]. Do not allow have to)
your tongue to drop
while you move the lips ticken [ˈtɪkən] (to tick) – Tücken [ˈtʏkən] (malice)
as this will turn out as [ʊ] –
in place of [ʏ]. The
Minze [ˈmɪnt͡sə] (mint) Münze [ˈmʏnt͡sə] (coin)
tongue should always sticken [ˈʃtɪkən] (to – Stücke [ˈʃtʏkə] (pieces)
remain relaxed.
embroider)
Nisse [ˈnɪsə] (nit) – Nüsse [ˈnʏsə] (nuts)
Bitte [ˈbɪtə] (request) – Bütte [ˈbʏtə] (vat)
90 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 6.2.3 Medial [uː] and [yː]

Practice as above. Bruder [ˈbruːdəɾ] (brother) – Brüder [ˈbryːdəɾ] (brothers)
Compare the long
fuhr [fuːɾ] (drove) – für [fyːɾ] (for)
and closed [uː]
with the long and – Flüge [ˈflyːɡə] (flights)
Flug [fluːk] (flight)
closed [yː]. Notice
the movement of Fuß [fuːs] (foot) – Füße [ˈfyːsə] (feet)
your tongue when
Gruß [ɡruːs] (greeting) – Grüße [ˈɡryːsə] (greetings)
you switch from
the rounded – Stühle [ˈʃtyːlə] (chairs)
Stuhl [ʃtuːl] (chair)
vowel [uː] to the
mixed vowel [yː]. Hut [huːt] (hat) – Hüte [ˈhyːtə] (hats)
Your lips
should remain Tuch [tuːx] (sheet) – Tücher [ˈtyːçəɾ] (sheets)
rounded while
your tongue Buße [ˈbuːsə] (penance) – büßen [ˈbyːsən] (to atone)
moves. As you – fügen [ˈfyːɡən] (to submit to)
practice allow
Fugen [ˈfuːɡən] (joints)
your jaw and the Pfuhl [p͡fuːl] (puddle) – Pfühl [p͡fyːl] (old word for pillow)
back of the
tongue to remain
relaxed.
EXERCISE 6.2.4 Medial [ʊ] and [ʏ]
Practice as above. drucken [ˈdrʊkən] (to – drücken [ˈdrʏkən] (to press)

Compare the short and print)
open [ʊ] with the short
and open [ʏ]. Notice the junger [ˈʝʊŋəɾ] (young) – Jünger [ˈʝʏŋəɾ] (disciple)
movement of your tongue – müsste [ˈmʏstə] (would
when you switch from the musste [ˈmʊstə] (had to)
rounded vowel [ʊ] to the have to)
mixed vowel [ʏ]. Your lips – Zünder [ˈt͡sʏndəɾ] (igniter)
should remain rounded
Zunder [ˈt͡sʊndəɾ]
while your tongue moves. (tinder)
As you practice allow – Düfte [ˈdʏftə] (scents)
Duft [dʊft] (scent)
your jaw and the back of
the tongue to remain Gruft [ɡrʊft] (tomb) – Grüfte [ˈɡrʏftə] (tombs)
relaxed.
Kluft [klʊft] (abyss) – Klüfte [ˈklʏftə] (abysses)
Luft [lʊft] (air) – Lüfte [ˈlʏftə] (winds)
Kuss [kʊs] (kiss) – Küsse [ˈkʏsə] (kisses)
Schluss [ʃlʊs] (end) – Schlüssel [ˈʃlʏsəl] (key)

EXERCISE 6.2.5 Medial [yː] and [ʏ]

Compare the long Wüste [ˈvyːstə] (desert) – wüsste [ˈvʏstə] (would know)
and closed [yː] with
the short and open Bühne [ˈbyːnə] (stage) – bündig [ˈbʏndɪç] (precise)
[ʏ]. Carefully –
differentiate between fühlen [ˈfyːlən] (to feel) füllen [ˈfʏlən] (to fill)
the closely rounded Krüge [ˈkryːɡə] (jugs) – Krücke [ˈkrʏkə] (crutch)
[yː] and the slightly
less rounded [ʏ]. müßig [ˈmyːsɪç] (idle) – müssen [ˈmʏsən] (to have to)
Allow the jaw to –
remain relaxed. Tür [tyːɾ] (door) dürr [dʏr] (dry)
Düne [ˈdyːnə] (dune) – dünne [ˈdʏnə] (thin)
kühnste [ˈkyːnstə] (boldest) – Künste [ˈkʏnstə] (arts)
müder [ˈmyːdəɾ] (tired) – Mütter [ˈmʏtəɾ] (mothers)
Hüte [ˈhyːtə] (hats) – Hütte [ˈhʏtə] (hut)
Mühle [ˈmyːlə] (mill) – Müller [ˈmʏləɾ] (miller)
Züge [ˈt͡syːɡə] (trains) – zücken [ˈt͡sʏkən] (to pull out)
Lüge [ˈlyːɡə] (lie) – Lücke [ˈlʏkə] (gap)
pflügen [ˈp͡flyːɡən] (to plough) – pflücken [ˈp͡flʏkən] (to pick)
führen [ˈfyːɾən] (to guide) – fürchten [ˈfʏrçtən] (to fear)
rügen [ˈryːɡən] (to rebuke) – Rücken [ˈrʏkən] (back)
EXERCISE 6.2.6 Initial [hyː] and [ǀyː]
Practice the glottal hüben [ˈhyːbən] (on this – üben [ˈǀyːbən] (to practice)
separation in initial side)
long and closed [yː]
and short and open Hügel [ˈhyːɡəl] (hill) – Übel [ˈǀyːbəl] (evil)
[ʏ] by comparing the
Hühner [ˈhyːnəɾ] – über [ˈǀyːbəɾ] (over)
breathy onset in
words beginning on (chickens)
hü- with the
balanced onset in
words beginning on
initial ü-. (For help
with the glottal
separation [ǀ], refer
to Chapter 3.)
92 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 6.2.7 Initial [ǀyː] and [ǀʏ]

Compare the long übrig [ˈǀyːbrɪç] (left over) – üppig [ˈǀʏpɪç] (voluptuous)
and closed [yː] with
the short and open
[ʏ] in the initial sound
of the following word
pair. Use a glottal
initial vowel sound,
but avoid the hard
as the breathy onset.
As you practice allow
your jaw and the back
of the tongue to
remain relaxed.
EXERCISE 6.2.8 Medial [yː] and [øː]

Compare the long and Büßer [ˈbyːsəɾ] (penitent) – böser [ˈbøːzəɾ] (evil)
closed [yː] with the –
long and closed [øː]. Flüge [ˈflyːɡə] (flights) flöge [ˈfløːɡə] (would fly)
Lüge [ˈlyːɡə] (lie) – löge [ˈløːɡə] (would lie)
Düsen [ˈdyːzən] (jets) – dösen [ˈdøːzən] (to doze)
Züge [ˈt͡syːɡə] (trains) – zöge [ˈt͡søːɡə] (would
pull)
rühren [ˈryːɾən] (to stir) – Röhren [ˈrøːɾən] (tubes)
EXERCISE 6.2.9 Medial [ʏ] and [œ]

Compare the short pflücken [ˈp͡flʏkən] – Pflöcke [ˈp͡flœkə] (pegs)
and open [ʏ]with the (to pick)
short and open [œ].
bücken [ˈbʏkən] – Böcke [ˈbœkə] (rams)
(to bend)
Rücken [ˈrʏkən] (back) – Röcke [ˈrœkə] (skirts)
Stücke [ˈʃtʏkə] (pieces) – Stöcke [ˈʃtœkə] (sticks)
EXERCISE 6.2.10 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [yː], [y], and [ʏ]
Speak the Brüder [ˈbr__dəɾ] (brothers) für [f__ɾ] (for)

following
words and büßen [ˈb__sən] (to atone for) küssen [ˈk__sən] (to kiss)
apply the
Mühe [ˈm__ə] (trouble) Füße [ˈf__sə] (feet)
pronunciation
rules for [yː], füll [f__l] (fill) flüchtig [ˈfl__çtɪç] (quick)
[y], and [ʏ]. As
an aid we have Syrien [ˈs__ɾi ̯ən] (Syria) Tücher [ˈt__çəɾ] (sheets)
provided the
IPA Nymphe [ˈn__mfə] (nymph) pflücken [ˈp͡fl__kən] (to pick)
transcription
for all the Glück [ɡl__k] (luck) pflügen [ˈp͡fl__ɡən] (to plough)
sounds not
covered in this blühen [ˈbl__ən] (to bloom) üben [ˈ__bən] (to practice)
section. In müßig [ˈm__sɪç] (idle) übst [__p͡st] (you practice)
addition to the
stress marks [ˈ] müsste [ˈm__stə] (should) Bühne [ˈb__nə] (stage)
in IPA, we have
also underlined
the stressed süß [z__s] (sweet) Trümmer [ˈtr__məɾ] (debris)
vowel whenever schütteln [ˈʃ__təln] (to shake) darüber [ˈdaɾ__bəɾ] (over it)
word stress is
important in düster [ˈd__stəɾ] (dark) flüstern [ˈfl__stərn] (to whisper)
determining glüht [ɡl__t] (gleams) rühren [ˈr__ɾən] (to stir)
the correct
sound. grüßen [ˈɡr__sən] (to greet) Hymne [ˈh__mnə] (hymn)
grüßte [ˈɡr__stə] (greeted) Märtyrer [mɛrˈt__ɾəɾ] (martyr)

hüten [ˈh__tən] (guard) drücken [ˈdr__kən] (to press)
wüsste [ˈv__stə] (knew) Frühling [ˈfr__lɪŋ] (spring)
Wüste [ˈv__stə] (desert) wünschen [ˈv__nʃən] (to wish)
volkstümlich [fɔlksˈt__mlɪç] Sünder [ˈz__ndəɾ] (sinner)
(folksy)
Bücher [ˈb__çəɾ] (books) Stürme [ˈʃt__rmə] (storms)
schüchtern [ʃ__çtərn] (shy) wüst [v__st] (deserted)
kühl [k__l] (chilly) Lüge [ˈl__ɡə] (lie)
Elysium [eˈl__ziʊm] (elysium) Lücke [ˈl__kə] (gap)
Zypresse [t͡s__ˈprɛsə] (cypress) Stühle [ˈʃt__lə] (chairs)
Flügel [ˈfl__ɡəl] (wings) knüpfen [ˈkn__p͡fən] (to tie)

94 ■ VOW E LS
zurück [t͡suˈɾ__k] (back) führen [ˈf__ɾən] (to guide)

Mütze [ˈm__t͡sə] (cap) Asyl [aˈz__l] (asylum)
über [ˈ__bəɾ] (over) zünden [ˈt͡s__ndən] (to light)
Gefühl [ɡəˈf__l] (feeling) Süden [ˈz__dən] (south)
kümmern [ˈk__mərn] Xylofon [k͡s__loˈfoːn]
(to be concerned) (xylophone)
DIPHTHONGS
In the previous chapters you have familiarized yourself with the monophthongs that keep
their quality unchanged throughout the duration of the syllable. A vowel that changes its
quality from one vowel sound to another vowel sound throughout the duration of one
syllable is called a diphthong. The term diphthong is derived from Greek di meaning
two and phthongos meaning sound, thus “two-sound.”
For the native English speaker this is no novelty, since many English words contain
diphthongs of all kinds of variations. Compared to Standard American English, which
differentiates between ten diphthongs, German Lyric Diction recognizes only three. The
diphthong [a͡e] as in the word mein [ma͡en] is similar to that in the English word mine but
with an [e] off-glide instead of an [ɪ]. The diphthong [ɑ͡o] as in the word Haus [hɑ͡os] is
similar to that in the English word house but with an [o] off-glide instead of an [ʊ]. And,
the diphthong [ɔ͡ø] as in the word Beute [ˈbɔ͡øtə] is similar to that in the English word boy
but with an [ø] off-glide instead of an [ɪ].
Diphthong Spellings German Sample English Comparison

ei mein [ma͡en]
[a͡e] [a͡ɪ] mine [ma͡ɪn]
ai Hain [ha͡en]
[ɑ͡o] au Haus [hɑ͡os] [ɑ͡ʊ] house [hɑ͡os]
eu Beute [ˈbɔ͡øtə]
[ɔ͡ø] [ɔ͡ɪ] boy [bɔ͡ɪ]
äu Träume [ˈtrɔ͡ømə]
Whereas in English, diphthongs can be represented in writing by a single vowel letter

as in the word mine [ma͡ɪn], German requires all diphthongs to be spelled with two vowel
letters. The diphthong [a͡e] can be represented in spelling by the letter combinations ei
■ 95
96 ■ VOW E LS
and ai, [ɑ͡o] is represented in spelling by the letter combinations au, and [ɔ͡ø] can be
represented in spelling by the letter combinations eu and äu.
The challenge is not so much one of learning a new concept but rather one of refining
and adjusting what we already know to match the specific qualities of German. The first
element of the diphthong is the syllabic vowel, which has to be sustained as long as possi-
ble, followed by the short second element, the off-glide. In general, the off-glide in German
diphthongs comes later, and it is shorter than it is in spoken English.
Diphthongs ■ 97
■ ■ 7.1 DIPHTHONGS [a͡e] , [ɑ͡o] , AND [ɔ͡ø]
[a͡e] ■ ei, ai, ey, ay = [a͡e]

ei Pronounce [a͡e] in spellings of the Form the German diphthong [a͡e]
vowel letter combination ei similar to the English diphthong
• in the same element: [a͡ɪ] as in night but with an [e] off-
Eifersucht [ˈa͡efəɾzʊxt], glide instead of an [ɪ]. Also, the off-
mein [ma͡en], glide comes later and it is shorter
heimlich [ˈha͡emlɪç], then it is for the English diphthong.
weichen [ˈva͡eçən]
Attention: The vowel The tip of the tongue touches the
combination ie (different from ei) lower front teeth. For the initial,
is pronounced [iː], and never as syllabic portion, [a], the blade of
the diphthong [a͡e]: the tongue is relatively low, and the
rief [riːf] (called) sides of the tongue do not touch
but reif [ra͡ef] (ripe) the upper molars. The lips and jaw
trieb [triːp] (chased) are relaxed. For the off-glide [e] the
but treib [tra͡ep] (chase) blade of the tongue arches forward
Riese [ˈriːzə] (giant) (but slightly less than for [ɪ]) and
but Reise [ˈra͡ezə] (trip) the sides of the tongue touch the
Wiese [ˈviːzə] (meadow) upper molars. The lips and the jaw
but Weise [ˈva͡ezə] (manner) remain relaxed.
ai Pronounce [a͡e] in spellings of the Enunciation Exercise: Compare
vowel letter combination ai the following word pairs and pay
• in the same element: close attention to the difference
Hain [ha͡en], Mai [ma͡e] between the English and the
German off-glide:
ey Pronounce [a͡e] in spellings of the English: German:
vowel letter combination ey my [ma͡ɪ] Mai [ma͡e]
• in the same element in proper
mine [ma͡ɪn] mein [ma͡en]
names:
vine [va͡ɪn] Wein [va͡en]
Freyburg [ˈfra͡ebʊrk],
shine [ʃa͡ɪn] Schein [ʃa͡en]
Meyer [ˈma͡eəɾ]
ay Pronounce [a͡e] in spellings of the
vowel letter combination ay
• in the same element in proper
names:
Bayern [ˈba͡eərn],
Bayreuth [ba͡eˈɾɔ͡øt]
98 ■ VOW E LS
[ɑ͡o] ■ au = [ɑ͡o]
au Pronounce [ɑ͡o] in spellings of the Form the German diphthong [ɑ͡o]
vowel letter combination au similar to the English diphthong
• in the same element: [ɑ͡ʊ] as in now, but with the slightly
Auge [ˈɑ͡oɡə], Traum [trɑ͡om], more rounded off-glide [o] rather
schlau [ʃlɑ͡o], than of [ʊ]. Also, the off-glide
schauen [ˈʃɑ͡oən] comes later and it is shorter than it
is for the English diphthong.
lower incisors. For the initial,
syllabic portion, [ɑ], the blade of
the tongue is lower and flatter than
it is for any other vowel and the
sides of the tongue do not touch
the upper molars. The lips are
relaxed. The jaw is slightly lower
than in any of the other vowels. For
the off-glide [o] the back of the
tongue arches slightly, but the sides
of the tongue do not touch the
upper molars. The sides of the
mouth pull towards the center of
the mouth and come to a closely
rounded and protruded position.
The jaw is loose.
Enunciation Exercise: Compare

the following word pairs and pay
close attention to the difference
between the English and the
German off-glide:
English: German:
house [hɑ͡ʊs] Haus [hɑ͡os]
mouse [mɑ͡ʊs] Maus [mɑ͡os]
loud [lɑ͡ʊd] laut [lɑ͡ot]
Diphthongs ■ 99
[ɔ͡ø] ■ eu, äu = [ɔ͡ø]

eu Pronounce [ɔ͡ø] in spellings of the The tip of the tongue touches the
vowel letter combination eu lower front teeth. For the initial,
• in the same element: syllabic portion, [ɔ], the back of
Freude [ˈfrɔ͡ødə], Leute [ˈlɔ͡øtə],tongue is slightly arched, but less
deutsch [dɔ͡øtʃ], than for the closed [oː]. The sides of
heulen [ˈhɔ͡ølən] the tongue do not touch the upper
except in words of French origin molars. The lips are slightly
where eu is pronounced as [øː] rounded and protruded. The jaw is
(see chapter 6): loose and almost as low as for [ɑ].
Deserteur [dezɛrˈtøːɾ] (deserter) For the off-glide [ø] the arch of the
Friseur [friˈzøːɾ] (hairdresser) tongue move forward from the
back the tongue to the blade, and
Attention: When the letters e and u the sides of the tongue touch the
are parts of seperate elements, they upper molars. Simultaneously the
are pronounced separately: lips come to the closely rounded
be/urteilen [bəˈǀʊrta͡elən] and protruded position of [o].
be/urlauben [bəˈǀuːrlɑ͡obən] Form the German diphthong [ɔ͡ø]
similar to the English diphthong
äu Pronounce [ɔ͡ø] in spellings of the
[ɔ͡ɪ] as in boy, but with the mixed
vowel letter combination äu
vowel [ø], instead of [ɪ], as off-glide.
• in the same element:
Also, the off-glide comes later and
Säule [ˈzɔ͡ølə], Träume [ˈtrɔ͡ømə]
it is shorter than in the English
läuten [ˈlɔ͡øtən]
diphthong.
Enunciation Exercise: Compare

the following word pairs and pay
close attention to the difference
between the English and the
German
off-glide.
English: German:
boy [bɔ͡ɪ] Beute [ˈbɔ͡øtə]
joy [d͡ʒɔ͡ɪ] scheu [ʃɔ͡ø]
coy [kɔ͡ɪ] keusch [kɔ͡øʃ]
100 ■ VOW E LS
Exercises for [a͡e], [ɑ͡o], and [ɔ͡ø]

EXERCISE 7.1.1 Medial [a] and [a͡e]
Practice speaking dann [dan] (then) – dein [da͡en] (your)

these pairs of words in
the proposed
an [an] (at) – ein [a͡en] (an)
sequence and in sann [zan] (meditated) – sein [za͡en] (his)
reverse order (for
example, dann–dein, kann [kan] (can) – kein [ka͡en] (no)
dein–dann). Compare
the monophthong [a] Mann [man] (man) – mein [ma͡en] (my)
with the diphthong
Ball [bal] (ball) – Beil [ba͡el] (hatchet)
[a͡e]. Keep your jaw
relaxed as your tongue rann [ran] (ran) – rein [ra͡en] (pure)
arches for the [e] off-
glide. Be careful not to satt [zat] (fed up) – seit [za͡et] (since)
substitute English
diphthong [a͡ɪ] for the Schatten [ˈʃatən] (shadow) – scheiden [ˈʃa͡edən] (to
German diphthong separate)
[a͡e]. Allow your jaw
and the back of the
Matte [ˈmatə] (mat) – meide [ˈma͡ede] (avoid)
tongue to remain
relaxed.
EXERCISE 7.1.2 Medial [ɑː] and [ɑ͡o]
Practice as above. Maß [mɑːs] (measure) – Maus [mɑ͡os] (mouse)

Compare the
monophthong [ɑː] sagen [ˈzɑːɡən] (to say) – saugen [ˈzɑ͡oɡən] (to suck)
with the diphthong tagen [ˈtɑːɡən] (to meet) taugen [ˈtɑ͡oɡən] (to be
–
[ɑ͡o]. Keep your jaw
suitable)
relaxed as your
tongue arches for the Gras [ɡrɑːs] (grass) – Graus [ɡrɑ͡os] (horror)
[o] off-glide. Be
careful not to Damen [ˈdɑːmən] – Daumen [ˈdɑ͡omən]
substitute English (ladies) (thumb)
diphthong [a͡ʊ] for
the German las [lɑːs] (read) – Laus [lɑ͡os] (louse)
diphthong [ɑ͡o].
Hase [ˈhɑːzə] (hare) – Hause [ˈhɑ͡oze] (home)
Mahl [mɑːl] (meal) – Maul [mɑ͡ol] (mouth)
traben [ˈtrɑːbən] (to trot) – Trauben [ˈtrɑ͡obən]
(grapes)
fahl [fɑːl] (pale) – faul [fɑ͡ol] (lazy)
Zahn [t͡sɑːn] (tooth) – Zaun [t͡sɑ͡on] (fence)
Diphthongs ■ 101
EXERCISE 7.1.3 Medial [ɔ] and [ɔ͡ø]
Compare the Motte [ˈmɔtə] (moth) – Meute [ˈmɔ͡øtə] (mob)

monophthong [ɔ]
with the diphthong schoss [ʃɔs] (shot) – scheusslich [ˈʃɔ͡øslɪç]
[ɔ͡ø]. Keep your jaw (awful)
relaxed as your
tongue arches for schlossen [ˈʃlɔsən] (closed) – schleusen [ˈʃlɔ͡øzən] (to
the [ø] off-glide. Be funnel)
careful not to
Moll [mɔl] (minor) – Mäuler [ˈmɔ͡øləɾ]
substitute English
diphthong [ɔ͡ɪ] for (muzzles)
the German Rosse [ˈrɔsə] (horses) Reuse [ˈrɔ͡øzə] (fish trap)
–
diphthong [ɔ͡ø].
Nonne [ˈnɔnə] (nun) – neun [nɔ͡øn] (nine)
Frost [frɔst] (frost) – freust [frɔ͡øst] (you look

forward to)
Trommel [ˈtrɔməl] (drum) – Träume [ˈtrɔ͡ømə]
(dreams)
kochen [ˈkɔxən] (to cook) – keuchen [ˈkɔ͡øçən] (to
wheeze)
sollen [ˈzɔlən] (to be – Säulen [ˈzɔ͡ølən] (columns)
supposed to)
EXERCISE 7.1.4 Medial [a͡e] and [ɑ͡o]
Practice as above. Blei [bla͡e] (lead) – Blau [blɑ͡o] (blue)

Compare the
diphthongs [a͡e]
Reich [ra͡eç] (empire) – Rauch [rɑ͡ox] (smoke)
and [ɑ͡o]. Reihe [ˈra͡eə] (row) – raue [ˈrɑ͡oə] (rough)
Streich [ʃtra͡eç] (stroke) – Strauch [ʃtrɑ͡ox] (shrub)
Laich [la͡eç] (spawn) – Lauch [lɑ͡ox] (leek)
breit [bra͡et] (wide) – Braut [brɑ͡ot] (bride)
Leier [ˈla͡eəɾ] (lyre) – Lauer [ˈlɑ͡oəɾ] (wait)
Leib [la͡ep] (body) – Laub [lɑ͡op] (leaves)
Eis [a͡es] (ice) – aus [ɑ͡os] (from)
eigen [ˈa͡eɡən] (own) – Augen [ˈɑ͡oɡən] (eyes)
102 ■ VOW E LS
EXERCISE 7.1.5 Medial [ɑ͡o] and [ɔ͡ø]
Practice as above. Haus [hɑ͡os] (house) – Häuser [ˈhɔ͡øzəɾ] (houses)

Compare the
diphthongs [ɑ͡o] Maus [mɑ͡os] (mouse) – Mäuse [ˈmɔ͡øzə] (mice)
and [ɔ͡ø]. Hauch [hɑ͡ox] (breath) – häucheln [ˈhɔ͡øçəln] (to feign)
Maul [mɑ͡ol] (muzzle) – Mäuler [ˈmɔ͡øləɾ] (muzzles)
Baum [bɑ͡om] (tree) – Bäume [ˈbɔ͡ømə] (trees)
Traum [trɑ͡om] (dream) – Träume [ˈtrɔ͡ømə] (dreams)
traue [ˈtrɑ͡oə] (trust) – Treue [trɔ͡øə] (faithfulness)
Laute [ˈlɑ͡otə] (lute) – Leute [ˈlɔ͡øtə] (people)
schau [ʃɑ͡o] (watch) – scheu [ʃɔ͡ø] (shy)
tauschen [ˈtɑ͡oʃən] – täuschen [ˈtɔ͡øʃən] (fool)
(to exchange)
Braut [brɑ͡ot] (bride) – Bräutigam [ˈbrɔ͡øtɪɡam]
(bridegroom)
EXERCISE 7.1.6 Medial [ɔ͡ø] and [a͡e]
Compare the Reuse [ˈrɔ͡øze] (fish trap) – Reise [ˈra͡ezə] (journey)

diphthongs [ɔ͡ø]
and [a͡e].
neun [nɔ͡øn] (nine) – nein [na͡en] (no)
Scheune [ˈʃɔ͡ønə] (barn) – scheine [ˈʃa͡enə] (shine)
freuen [ˈfrɔ͡øən] (to be – freien [ˈfra͡eən] (to court)
happy)
Mäuse [ˈmɔ͡øzə] (mice) – Meise [ˈma͡ezə] (titmouse)
Eule [ˈɔ͡ølə] (owl) – Eile [ˈa͡elə] (hurry)
zeugen [ˈ t͡s ɔ͡øɡən] – zeigen [ˈ t͡sa͡eɡən] (to show)
(to testify)
Feuer [ˈfɔ͡øəɾ] (fire) – Feier [ˈfa͡eəɾ] (celebration)
Leute [ˈlɔ͡øtə] (people) – leiten [ˈla͡etən] (to lead)
Läuse [ˈlɔ͡øzə] (lice) – leise [ˈla͡ezə] (softly)
Diphthongs ■ 103
EXERCISE 7.1.7 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [a͡e], [ɑ͡o], and [ɔ͡ø]
Speak the following Weise [ˈv__zə] (manner) Ei [__] (egg)

words and apply the
pronunciation rules Waise [ˈv__zə] (orphan) Saite [ˈz__tə] (string)
for [a͡e], [ɑ͡o], and
Baum [b__m] (tree) Seite [ˈz__tə] (side)
[ɔ͡ø]. As an aid we
provide the IPA Kreuz [kr__t͡s] (cross) Raub [r__p] (robbery)
transcription for
all the sounds not Räume [ˈr__mə] (rooms) Räuber [ˈr__bəɾ] (robber)
covered in this
section. In addition kein [k__n] (no) feiern [ˈf__ərn] (to celebrate)
to the stress marks
[ˈ] in IPA, we have treu [tr__] (faithful) leise [ˈl__zə] (softly)
also underlined the
stressed vowel blau [bl__] (blue) Bayer [ˈb__ɐ] (Bavarian)
whenever word
scheu [ʃ__] (shy) Weite [ˈv__tə] (width)
stress is important
in determining the mein [m__n] (my) laut [l__t] (loud)
correct sound.
träumen [ˈtr__mən] (to dream) bei [b__] (at)
neigen [ˈn__ɡən] (to bow) Säulen [ˈz__lən] (columns)
heute [ˈh__tə] (today) Mauer [ˈm__əɾ] (wall)
Häute [ˈh__tə] (skins) Zweig [t͡sv__k] (branch)
Zauber [ˈt͡s__bəɾ] (magic) Traum [tr__m] (dream)
Mai [m__] (May) Schein [ʃ__n] (appearance)

Bayern [b__ərn] (Bayern) Bauer [ˈb__əɾ] (farmer)
frei [fr__] (free) Beute [ˈb__tə] (prey)
Haus [h__s] (house) meiden [ˈm__dən] (to avoid)
läuten [ˈl__tə] (to ring) Schleier [ˈʃl__əɾ] (veil)
Leute [ˈl__tə] (people) Haupt [h__pt] (head)

Laute [ˈl__tə] (lute) Feuer [ˈf__əɾ] (fire)
Leid [l__t] (sorrow) Traube [ˈtr__bə] (grape)
Wein [v__n] (vine) weinen [ˈv__nən] (to weep)
Freund [fr__nt] (friend) Freude [ˈfr__də] (joy)
104 ■ VOW E LS
Lauf [l__f] (course) Glaube [ˈɡl__bə] (believe)

Stein [ʃt__n] (stone) dein [d__n] (your)
Taube [ˈt__bə] (pigeon) Hain [h__n] (grove)
■
3
CONSONANTS
INTRODUCTION TO
CONSONANTS
Unlike a vowel sound that resonates in the vocal tract without any obstruction of the air-
flow above the vocal folds, a consonant is a sound that results from interference with
the breath stream in some manner in the resonance tract (vocal tract above the vocal
folds). The term consonant is derived from the Latin verb consonare, to sound with.
Consonants can be distinguished from each other by three major criteria: 1) voicing, 2)
place of articulation, and 3) manner of articulation.
■ ■ VOICING
Voicing is the classification used in phonetics to describe the consonants that are pro-
duced with vocal fold vibration. By placing the fingers on the larynx and saying an ex-
tended z as in “zoo,” one can feel the vibration of the folds similar to a vowel sound. These
consonants are called voiced. In contrast, however, if you say an extended s, no vibration
can be felt for the entire duration of the consonant. Such a consonant is called voiceless
or unvoiced.
■ ■ PLACES OF ARTICULATION
The place of articulation refers to the location in the resonance tract where the airflow is
obstructed:
■■ bilabial – between the upper and lower lips

■■ labiodental – between the lower lip and the upper front teeth
■ 107
108 ■ C ONS ON A N T S
■■ dental – between the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth
■■ alveolar – between the tongue and the dental ridge (alveolus)
■■ pre-palatal – between tongue and the area just behind the gum ridge
■■ palatal – between the tongue and the hard palate
■■ velar – between the tongue and the soft palate (velum)
■■ uvular – between the tongue and the uvula
■■ glottal – between the vocal folds (glottis)
Hard Palate
Teeth Ridge (Alveolus) Nasal Cavity
Soft Palate (Velum)
Upper Front Teeth (Incisors)
Uvula
Upper Lip
2 3 4
1 5
Lower Lip
Lower Front Teeth (Incisors) Tongue
1 Tip
Jaw 2 Blade
Windpipe (Trachea) 3 Front
4 Center
5 Back
Vocal Folds (Larynx)
Esophagus
■ ■ MANNER OF ARTICULATION
The manner of articulation refers to the method by which the airflow is interrupted, di-
verted or stopped:
■■ fricative – the airflow is directed through a narrow path between the articula-
tors that causes air turbulence. The friction of the air is audible as a speech sound.
■■ plosive, also called stop or stop-plosive – the airflow is stopped by the articu-
lators from passing through the mouth or nose and then released suddenly.
■■ nasal – the airflow is restrained from passing through the oral cavity and redi-
rected through the nose by the dropped soft palate.
■■ lateral – the airflow escapes laterally (sideways) around the tip of the tongue,
which blocks the central pathway.
Introduction to Consonants ■ 109
■■ trill – the tip of the tongue is held against the alveolus and the air that is forced
between them causes the tongue to trill.
■■ affricate – a combination sound of a plosive consonant followed immediately
by a fricative consonant creating the impression of a single sound.
Consonant Chart
Alveolar
Bilabial
Glottal
Palatal
palatal
Dental
Uvular
Labio-
dental
Velar
Pre-
Fricative Voiced [v] [z] [ʒ] [ʝ]
Unvoiced [f] [s] [ʃ] [ç] [x] [h]
Plosive/ Voiced [b] [d] [ɡ]
Stop Unvoiced [p] [t] [k] [ǀ]
Nasal Voiced [m] [n] [ŋ]
Lateral Voiced [l]
Trill Voiced [r] [R]
[ɾ]
Exclusive of the affricates, which are merely combination sounds of a plosive and a
fricative consonant, the native English speaker is already familiar with seventeen conso-
nant sounds out of twenty-four that exist in the German language. In nine of the seven-
teen consonant sounds that have an equivalent in English, the IPA symbol is identical
with the letter and they are pronounced in German exactly as they would be in English.
Pronunciation rules for these sounds are therefore simple.
IPA Letter English Examples German Examples

[b] b boy, embrace Bach [bax], Laube [ˈlɑ͡obə]
[p] p Peter, important Peter [ˈpeːtɐ], Komponist [kɔmpoˈnɪst]
[d] d dawn, indulge Dach [dax], Stunde [ˈʃtʊndə]
[t] t table, betrayal Tag [tɑk], Lüfte [ˈlʏftə]
[ɡ] g garden, regret Garten [ˈɡartən], ligen [ˈliːɡən]
[k] k king, like König [ˈkøːnɪç], Wolke [ˈvɔlkə]
[h] h house, rehearse Haus [hɑ͡os], unheimlich [ˈʊnha͡emlɪç]
[m] m murmur, lament Morgen [ˈmɔrɡən], Blume [ˈbluːmə]
[n] n night, sand Nacht [naxt], Bine [ˈbiːnə]
The following seven consonant sounds also exist in the English language; however,
they may be represented in German spelling by a different letter or a letter combina-
tion, and they may use an IPA symbol that differs from the regular letter. Some German
letters represent more than one sound and therefore need more extensive pronuncia-
tion rules. The unvoiced labiodental fricative [f] as in fish may be represented in German
by the letters f and v, and the voiced labiodental fricative [v] as in voice may be repre-
sented in German spelling by the letters v or w. The unvoiced [s] as in song and the
voiced [z] as in zoo are both represented in German spelling by the letter s. The un-
voiced pre-palatal fricative [ʃ] as in hush is represented in spelling by the letter combi-
nation sch, and the voiced pre-palatal fricative [ʒ] as in vision can be represented in
German spelling by the letters g or j in words of French origin. The letter combination
ng is pronounced identically in both languages; however, in IPA the sound is a single
symbol [ŋ].
IPA English Example German Spelling German Example

f Fenster [ˈfɛnstɐ] (window)
[f] fish
v Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl] (bird)
v Vulkan [vulˈkɑːn] (volcano)
[v] voice
w Wasser [ˈvasɐ] (water)
[s] song Haus [hɑ͡os] (house)
s
[z] zoo Sonne [ˈzɔnə] (sun)
[ʃ] hush sch Schuh [ʃuː] (shoe)
g Genie [ʒeˈniː] (genius)
[ʒ] vision
j Jalousie [ʒaluˈziː] (venetian blind)
[ŋ] song ng Gesang [ɡəˈzaŋ] (singing)
The seven sounds that do not normally exist in the English language are the voiced
palatal fricative [ʝ], which is similar to the y in the English words yes and you, but articu-
lated with greater intensity; the unvoiced palatal fricative [ç] and the unvoiced velar fric-
ative [x] (which exists in the Scottish word for lake, loch); the voiced alveolar trill [r], the
voiced alveolar one-tap trill [ɾ], and the uvular trill [R], which is never used in singing, but
may be used optionally in spoken dialogue. Although in English we use the same IPA
symbol for the voiced alveolar lateral [l], the German sound is distinctly different and
needs to be treated with care (see Chapter 12).
Introduction to Consonants ■ 111
IPA Letter German Example

[ʝ] j Jäger [ˈʝɛːɡɐ] (hunter)
[ç] Licht [lɪçt] (light)
ch
[x] Bach [bax] (brook)
[r] Ruh [ruː] (peace)
[ɾ] r Haar [hɑːɾ] (hair)
[R] Ruh [Ruː] (peace)
[l] l Leben [ˈleːbən] (life)
The glottal stop or glottal separation, as we call it in this book, [ǀ], is idiomatic for both
English and German. Because the glottal separation never functions as a consonant
sound, but is used only to separate an initial vowel from the final consonant of a preceding
word or element, we have included a discussion in the Introduction to Vowels (Chapter 3).
However, due to its place and manner of articulation, the glottal separation will also be
treated in this section.
■ ■ CONSONANT LENGTH
High German does not double the length of double consonants unless two like conso-
nants appear adjacently in separate elements. Double consonants, which appear in the
same element, are pronounced just like single consonants. The difference in pronuncia-
tion between Ofen (stove) and offen (open) or ihnen (you) and innen (inside) rests not in
the length of the consonant sound but in the vowel sound preceding it and the hard or
soft connection of the following consonant. A single consonant follows the preceding
long vowel after decay [ː], while a double consonant abruptly brings the preceding short
vowel to an end. All this is not to say that the consonant sound cannot be lengthened for
clarity or emphasis. However, to lengthen all double consonants creates a most peculiar
and non-German sound. Sometimes, in order to make the abrupt and strong connection
to the preceding vowel clear, which is necessary for the pronunciation of the short vowel,
there is a tendency, but not a necessity, to start the consonant sound early. Having done
so, the singer stays on the consonant until the next syllable can begin. This causes a slight
lengthening of the the consonant sound, which is not needed for comprehension and is
in opposition to the pronunciation rule but rather a direct result of having started the
consonant early. Compare the words in the following table, taking care to pronounce the
double and single consonants with equal length while the long and short vowels create
the difference in meaning.
Letter IPA Double Consonant Single Consonant

bb [b] Ebbe [ˈɛbə] (low tide) eben [ˈeːbən] (level)
pp [p] Kappe [ˈkapə] (cap) kapern [ˈkɑːpərn] (to capture)
dd [d] Pudding [ˈpʊdɪŋ] (pudding) Pudel [ˈpuːdəl] (poodle)
tt [t] Hütte [ˈhʏtə] (hut) Hüte [ˈhyːtə] (hats)
gg [ɡ] Flagge [ˈflaɡə] (flag) Wagen [ˈvɑːɡən] (carriage)
ck/(kk)1 [k] hacken / (hak-ken) [ˈhakən] Haken [ˈhɑːkən] (hook)
(to chop)
ll [l] füllen [ˈfʏlən] (to fill) fühlen [ˈfyːlən] (to feel)
mm [m] Lamm [lam] (lamb) lahm [lɑːm] (lame)
nn [n] Bann [ban] (banishment) Bahn [bɑːn] (way)
ff [f] offen [ˈɔfən] (open) Ofen [ˈoːfən] (stove)
ss [s] Masse [ˈmasə] (mass) Maße [ˈmɑːsə] (measure)
There are instances, however, where lengthening of the consonant should be em-
ployed: in compound words (and there are many in German) and in other words where
consecutive consonants of the same quality belong to two separate elements, such as in
the word mit/tanzen [ˈmɪt͡tant͡sən] or auf/führen [ˈɑ͡of͡fyːɾən]. The consonants should be
merged and prolonged enough to indicate both sounds, but the consonant should never
be pronounced twice. For clarity a breath impulse may be applied to stress the beginning
of the second element. Triple consonants2 only appear in compound words and should
be pronounced prolonged, but no longer than double consonants: fett/triefend [ˈfɛt͡triːfənt].
FRICATIVES
A fricative is a consonant produced by the articulators obstructing the airflow in such a way
that it causes frictional sound. Fricative consonants are labeled by the part of the mouth
that is used to articulate them and whether they are voiced or unvoiced. Each position of
articulation (except the velar fricative [x] and the glottal fricative [h]) can result in a pair of
like consonants, called cognates, which differ only in that one is voiced and the other un-
voiced. Thus, we differentiate between the following four cognates: the labiodental
fricatives, articulated by friction between the lower lip and the front teeth, [v] voiced
and [f] unvoiced; the alveolar fricatives, articulated by friction between the blade of
the tongue and the alveolus (dental ridge), [z] voiced and [s] unvoiced; the pre-palatal
fricatives, articulated by friction between the tip of the tongue and the front of the
palate, [ʒ] voiced and [ʃ] unvoiced; and the palatal fricatives, articulated by friction
between the center of the tongue and the hard palate, [ʝ] voiced and [ç] unvoiced. In addi-
tion to those four cognates, there are two fricatives that are both u nvoiced and do not have
a voiced cognate. They are the unvoiced velar fricative [x], which is articulated by the
back of the tongue and the soft palate (velum), and the unvoiced glottal fricative [h],
which is articulated by friction between the slightly separated vocal folds (glottis).
Unvoiced Voiced
Labiodental [f] f as in fail [v] v as in veil
Alveolar [s] s as in sue [z] z as in zoo
Pre-Palatal [ʃ] sh as in she [ʒ] s as in vision
Palatal [ç] as in humid with lengthened h [ʝ] as in you with an intense y
Velar [x] loch (Scottish) –
Glottal [h] h as in house –
■ 113
Most German fricatives have an equivalent sound in English. The only fricatives
not usually used in English are the voiced palatal fricative [ʝ], which is similar to the y in
the English word yes but articulated with greater intensity; the voiceless palatal fricative
[ç], often called “ich-Laut” (ich-sound); and the voiceless velar fricative [x], often called
“ach-Laut” (ach-sound). All three sounds will be introduced in detail in the following
sections.
Although the glottal separation [ǀ] is technically a plosive consonant, we felt that due
to its point of articulation, it would be most appropriately covered next to the glottal fric-
ative [h] (Chapter 9). However, since the glottal separation is used only in relation to
vowels, we have also included a full discussion on vowel onset and glottal separation at
the beginning of the section on vowels (Chapter 3).
In the following chapters you will find guidelines for the IPA transcription in the
Pronunciation column on the left side of the page as well as descriptions of the sounds
and instructions on how to form them correctly in the Enunciation column on the right
side of the page.
Fricatives ■ 115
■ ■ 9.1 LABIODENTAL FRICATIVE [f] AND [v]
[f] ■ f, ff and ph = [f]

■ v in German words = [f]
■ v in all final positions = [f]
f Pronounce [f] (unvoiced) in
spellings of the letter f
• in all positions (initial, medial,
final):
fern [fɛrn], Ofen [ˈoːfən], Lauf
͡ f]
[lɑo
Labiodental Fricatives [f ]
(unvoiced), [v] (voiced)
ff There is no difference in the Form the unvoiced labiodental
length of single f and double ff. fricative [f] like the letter f in the
Pronounce [f] in all spellings of ff English word four.
• in one element: The inside of the lower lip slightly
offen [ˈɔfən], straff [ʃtraf] touches the upper front teeth. The
Attention: when ff is part of two air passing through the narrow space
separate elements pronounce it between teeth and lip creates a
prolonged [ff͡ ]: fricative sound.
auf/führen [ˈɑo͡ fˌ͡fyːɾən] Attention: The double consonant ff
Note: fff is also pronounced should not be sounded twice. In
prolonged [f͡f]: cases where two consecutive fs
Schifffahrt [ˈʃɪfˌ͡fɑːrt] belong to two separate elements and
(see Consonant Length, Chapter 8) must be pronounced prolonged [f͡f],
a breath impulse may be applied to
ph The combination ph appears in words
the second f for better clarity and to
of Greek origin. Pronounce [f]in all
stress the beginning of the new
spellings of the letter combination ph
element:
• in one element:
Auf/fahrt [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡fɑːrt]
Phonetik [foˈneːtɪk],
Ophelia [oˈfeːlia̯ ]
v Pronounce [f] in spellings of the
letter v
• in all final positions:
naiv [naˈiːf], intensiv [ɪntɛnˈziːf]
• initial and medial in words of
German origin only:
Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl], davon [daˈfɔn],
Frevel [ˈfreːfəl]
[v] ■ v in foreign words = [v]

(except when final)
■ w = [v]
v Pronounce [v] (voiced) in spellings Form the voiced labiodental fricative
of the letter v [v] the same as the initial v in the
• in words of Latin origin only. English word veil or vanity.
Remember the following:
Vase [ˈvɑːzə] (vase) The inside of the lower lip slightly
Viola [vi̯ˈoːla] (viola) touches the upper front teeth. The air
Violen [vi̯ˈoːlən] (violets) passing through the narrow space
Violine [vio̯ ˈliːnə] (violin) between teeth and lip creates a
violett [vio̯ ˈlɛt] (purple) fricative sound. Voicing is added by
Vulkan [vʊlˈkɑːn] (volcano) the vibrating vocal folds. (See page
106 for an anatomical illustration.)
except when in final position, where
v is pronounced as [f]: Tip: To form the voiced labiodental
naiv [naˈiːf], intensiv [ɪntɛnˈziːf], votiv fricative [v] you may also pronounce
[voˈtiːf] an unvoiced labiodental fricative [f]
and add voicing.
w Pronounce [v] (voiced) in all
Attention: In the case where the
spellings of the letter w:
voiceless fricative [f], is immediately
• in all positions:
followed by the voiced fricative [v],
Wasser [ˈvasɐ], schweigen [ˈʃva͡eɡən]
pronounce the first sound unvoiced
except in Flotow [ˈfloːto], where and voice the second without
the w is silent. interruption. For better clarity a
slight breath impulse may be
employed.
aufwachen [ˈɑ͡ofˌvaxən]
Fricatives ■ 117
Exercises for [f] and [v]

EXERCISE 9.1.1 Initial [f ] and [v]
Practice speaking fischen [ˈfɪʃən] (to fish) – wischen [ˈvɪʃən] (to wipe)
these word pairs in
finden [ˈfɪndən] (to find) – winden [ˈvɪndən] (to wind)
the proposed
sequence and in –
Feld [fɛlt] (field) Welt [vɛlt] (world)
reverse order. (for
example, fischen– feste [ˈfɛstə] (firm) – Weste [ˈvɛstə] (waistcoat)
wischen; wischen–
fischen. Compare Fach [fax] (field, – wach [vax] (awake)
the unvoiced labio- specialty)
dental fricative [f]
–
with the voiced fahren [ˈfɑːɾən] (to drive) waren [ˈvɑːɾən] (they were)
labiodental fricative
Fall [fal] (fall) – Wall [val] (bulwark)
[v]. Notice how the
position of fort [fɔrt] (away) – Wort [vɔrt] (word)
articulators remains
the same in the Funde [ˈfʊndə] (findings) – Wunde [ˈvʊndə] (wound)
voiced and the
unvoiced sound. fühlen [ˈfyːlən] (to feel) – wühlen [ˈvyːlən] (to dig)
fein [fa͡en] (delicate) – Wein [va͡en] (wine)
Phase[ˈfɑːzə] (phase) – Vase [ˈvɑːzə] (vase)
EXERCISE 9.1.2 f [f ] Versus ff [f ]
Compare these schief [ʃiːf] (crooked) – Schiff [ʃɪf] (ship)

word pairs with
Schafe [ˈʃɑːfə] (sheep) – schaffen [ˈʃafən] (to work)
single and double
consonants. Notice –
Schlaf [ʃlɑːf] (sleep) schlaff [ʃlaf] (limp)
that the double
consonant sounds Strafe [ˈʃtrɑːfə] – straffe [ˈʃtrafə] (tight)
the same (punishment)
as the single
consonant, but the Ofen [ˈoːfən] (oven) – offen [ˈɔfən] (open)
vowel before the [f]
Hofe [ˈhoːfə] (court) – hoffe [ˈhɔfə] (to hope)
changes from long
(before f ) to short –
rufen [ˈruːfən] (to call) Rüffel [ˈrʏfəl] (reprimand)
(before ff ).
EXERCISE 9.1.3 [f ] and [f͡f ]

Compare the following Auftrag [ˈɑ͡oftrɑːk] – Auffahrt [ˈɑ͡of͡fɑːɾt]
word pairs; one with (order) (driveway)
single consonant f or
double consonant ff, Tiefsinn [ˈtiːfzɪn] – Tiefflug [ˈtiːf͡fluːk] (low-
pronounced as [f] and (profundity) level flight)
the other with two
strafen [ˈʃtrɑːfən] – straffällig [ˈʃtrɑːfˌ͡fɛlɪç]
consecutive f’s in
separate elements (to punish) (guilty)
pronounced as [f͡f]. –
Practice [f͡f] with a slight kaufen [ˈkɑ͡ofən] Kaufvertrag [ˈkɑ͡of͡fɛɐˌtrɑːk]
breath impulse on the (to buy) (contract for sale)
second f for better –
clarity and to stress the
aufladen [ˈɑ͡oflɑːdən] auffallen [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡falən] (to
beginning of the new (to load) stand out)
element. –
Laufzeit [ˈlɑ͡oft͡sa͡et] Lauffeuer [ˈlɑ͡ofˌ͡fɔ͡øɐ]
(term) (brush fire)
aufwühlen [ˈɑ͡ofvyːlən] – aufführen [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡fyːɾən] (to
(to dig up) perform)
Schiffbau [ˈʃɪfbɑ͡o] – Schifffahrt [ʃɪf͡fɑːrt]
(shipbuilding) (navigation)
EXERCISE 9.1.4 [f͡f ] and [fv]

The immediate aufführen [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡fyːɾən] – aufwühlen [ˈɑ͡ofˌvyːlən]
succession of voiceless (to perform) (to dig up)
and voiced cognates
can be challenging. auffahren [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡fɑːɾən] – aufwarten [ˈɑ͡ofˌvartən]
Compare the following (to ascend) (to serve)
word pairs with [f͡f] and
auffangen [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡faŋən] – aufwachen [ˈɑ͡ofˌvaxən]
[fv] combinations, and
practice the seamless (to catch) (to wake up)
succession of the –
voiceless [f] and the Auffahrt [ˈɑ͡of͡fɑːrt] Aufwand [ˈɑ͡ofvant]
voiced [v]. The voiced (driveway) (expenditure)
friction for [v] should –
follow the voiceless
auffinden [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡fɪndən] aufwinden [ˈɑ͡ofˌvɪndən]
friction of [f] without (to find) (to hoist)
interruption of the –
auffliegen [ˈɑ͡ofˌ͡fliːɡən] aufwiegen [ˈɑ͡ofˌviːɡən]
airflow. For better
clarity employ a slight (to fly up) (to compensate)
breath impulse on the
second fricative.
Fricatives ■ 119
EXERCISE 9.1.5 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [f] and [v]
Speak the Fenster [ˈ__ɛnstɐ] (window) Hafen [ˈhɑː__ən] (port)

following words
and apply the Lauf [lɑ͡o__] (run) fiel [__iːl] (fell)
pronunciation
Hilfe [ˈhɪl__ə] (help) viel [__iːl] (much)
rules for [f] and
[v]. As an aid Schiff [ʃɪ__] (ship) wild [__ɪlt] (wild)
we have
provided an IPA voll [__ɔl] (full) schwer [ʃ__eːɾ] (heavy)
transcription
for all the other wohl [__oːl] (well) treffen [ˈtrɛ__ən] (to meet)
sounds not
covered in this Pharao [ˈ__ɑːɾao] (Pharaoh) Ophelia [oˈ__eːli ̯a] (Ophelia)
section.
Möwe [ˈmøː__ə] (seagull) weiss [__a͡es] (white)
davon [daˈ__ɔn] (away) Wiege [ˈ__iːɡə] (cradle)
naiv [naˈiː__] (naive) schweigen [ˈʃ__a͡eɡən] (to
be quiet)
Wiese [ˈ__iːzə] (meadow) tief [tiː__] (deep)

Fass [__as] (barrel) sanft [zan__t] (gently)
hoffen [ˈhɔ__ən] (to hope) straff [ʃtra__] (tight)
Wehmut [ˈ__eːmuːt] (melancholy) Volk [__ɔlk] (folk)
Luft [lʊ__t] (air) Violine [__i ̯oˈliːnə] (violin)
Pharisäer [__aɾiˈzɛːəɾ] (Pharisee) Welt [__ɛlt] (world)

Schlaf [ʃlɑː__] (sleep) vier [__iːɐ] (four)
Wald [__alt] (forest) fragen [ˈ__rɑːɡən] (to ask)
Vulkan [__ʊlˈkɑːn] (volcano) Wagen [ˈ__ɑːɡən] (wagon)
Vogel [ˈ__oːɡəl] (bird) Viola [ˈ__i ̯oːla] (viola)
violett [__i ̯oˈlɛt] (violet) intensiv [ɪntɛnˈziː__]

(intensive)
Vater [ˈ__ɑːtɐ] (father) Feld [__ɛlt] (field)
wenden [ˈ__ɛndən] (to turn) Wunder [ˈ__ʊndɐ] (miracle)
Flügel [ˈ__lyːɡəl] (wing) fetter [ˈ__ɛtɐ] (fatter)
Wolke [ˈ__ɔlkə] (cloud) Vetter [ˈ__ɛtɐ] (cousin)
■ ■ 9.2 ALVEOLAR FRICATIVE [s] AND [z]
[s] ■ medial s + consonant = [s]
■ final s = [s]
■ ss, ß = [s]
s Pronounce [s] in spellings of the letter s
• medial before a consonant:
Last [last], Espe [ˈɛspə]
except before l, n, r in inflected

forms where a schwa has been
Alveolar Fricatives [s] (unvoiced), [z]
eliminated:
(voiced)
unser → uns(e)re → unsre [ˈʊnzrə]
winseln→wins(e)le→winsle [ˈvɪnzlə] Form the voiceless alveolar fricative
• final in a word or element: [s] like the letter s in the English
Eis [a͡es], eis/kalt [ˈa͡eskalt], word song.
Haus [hɑ͡os], Haus/rat [ˈhɑ͡osrɑːt], Note: Because of its hissing sound
Häus/chen [ˈhɔ͡øsçən], voiceless alveolar fricative, [s] is
lös/lich [ˈløːslɪç], lös/bar sometimes referred to as sibilant.
[ˈløːsbɑːɾ], Rös/lein [ˈrøːsla͡en]
The blade of the tongue approximates
ss There is no difference in the length of the alveolus (teeth ridge) while the
single s and double ss. Pronounce [s]
tip of the tongue rests behind the
in all spellings of ss
lower front teeth. The sides of the
• in one element:
tongue touch the upper molars and a
Wasser [ˈvasɐ], müssen [ˈmʏsən]
groove forms along the center of the
Attention: When the double tongue. The air passing through the
consonant ss appears as part of narrow passage between the blade of
two elements, then the first s is the tongue and the alveolus creates a
pronounced as unvoiced [s] and fricative sound.
the second s is pronounced
Attention: The double consonant ss
according to the applicable rule in
should not be sounded twice. In the
the new element:
case where an unvoiced s [s] and a
Aus/sicht [ˈɑ͡oszɪçt]
voiced s [z] are pronounced
aus/stehen [ˈɑ͡osˌʃteːən]
sequentially, pronounce the first
aus/sprechen [ˈɑ͡osˌʃprɛçən]
sound unvoiced and voice the second
ß Pronounce [s] in spellings of ß without interruption:
• Always (no exceptions): aus/suchen [ˈɑ͡osˌzuːxən]
groß [ɡroːs], Maße.[ˈmɑːsə],
(See also section on Eszett
ß in Chapter 14.)
Fricatives ■ 121
[z] ■ prevocalic s = [z]

■ s + (e)l, (e)n, (e)r = [z]
s Pronounce [z] in spellings of the Form the voiced alveolar fricative [z] like
letter s the z in the English word zebra or zoo.
• in prevocalic position:
Tip: You might also go from the
Nase [ˈnɑːzə], eisig [ˈa͡ezɪç],
unvoiced s [s] and add voice resulting
sorg/sam [ˈzɔrkzɑːm]
in the enunciation of voiced s [z].
Attention: the letter combinations
The blade of the tongue touches the
bs, ps, and ts are pronounced as
alveolus (teeth ridge) while the tip of
the affricates [p͡s] and [t͡s] even
the tongue rests behind the lower
when the s is prevocalic.
front teeth. The sides of the tongue
(Compare with Chapter 13.)
touch the upper molars and a groove
Erbse [ˈɛrp͡sə], Krebse [ˈkreːp͡sə],
forms along the center of the tongue.
Psalm [p͡salm], Rätsel [ˈrɛːt͡səl]
The air passing through the narrow
• before l, n, or r in inflected passage between the blade of the
forms where a schwa has been tongue and the alveolus creates a
eliminated: fricative sound. Voicing is added by
unser → uns(e)re → unsre [ˈʊnzrə] the vibrating vocal folds. (See page
winseln → wins(e)le → winsle 112 for an anatomical illustration.)
[ˈvɪnzlə]
Exercises for [s] and [z] (see also Exercises 9.3.2–9.3.5)

EXERCISE 9.2.1 Initial [s] and [z]
Practice speaking Risse [ˈrɪsə] (cracks) – Riese [ˈriːzə] (giant)
these word pairs in
the proposed wissen [ˈvɪsən] (to know) Wiesen [ˈviːzən] (meadows)
sequence and in –
wessen [ˈvɛsən] (whose) Wesen [ˈveːzən] (being)
reverse order (for
example, Risse–Riese; Gasse [ˈɡasə] (alley) – Gase [ˈɡɑːzə] (gases)
Riese–Risse).
Compare the Wasser [ˈvasɐ] (water) – Vase [ˈvɑːzə] (vase)
unvoiced alveolar –
fricative [s] with the hassen [ˈhasən] (to hate) Hasen [ˈhɑːzən] (hare)
voiced alveolar Rosse [ˈrɔsə] (horses) – Rose [ˈroːzə] (rose)
fricative [z]. Notice
how the position of Muße [ˈmuːsə] (leisure) – Muse [ˈmuːzə] (muse)
articulators remains
the same in the reißen [ˈra͡esən] (to tear) – reisen [ˈra͡ezən] (to travel)
voiced and the –
unvoiced sound.
weiße [ˈva͡esə] (white) Weise [ˈva͡ezə] (manner)
Graus [ɡrɑ͡os] (horror) – grausen [ˈɡrɑ͡ozən] (to terrify)
Häuschen [ˈhɔ͡øsçən] – Häuser [ˈhɔ͡øzɐ] (houses)
(little house)
EXERCISE 9.2.2 [s] in Single Consonants s and ß Versus Double Consonantss

Compare these word bis [bɪs] (until) – Biss [bɪs] (bite)
pairs with single and –
double consonants.
das [das] (the) dass [das] (that)
Notice that the double es [ɛs] (it) – essen [ˈɛsən] (to eat)
consonant sounds the
same as the single Floß [floːs] (raft) – floss [flɔs] (flowed)
consonant.
Gas [ɡɑːs] (gas) – Gasse [ˈɡasə] (alley)
ist [ɪst] (is) – isst [ɪst] (eats)
las [lɑːs] (read) – lassen [ˈlasən] (to allow)
Maße [ˈmɑːsə] – Masse [ˈmasə] (mass)
(measurements)
Schoß [ʃoːs] (lap) – schoss [ʃɔs] (shot)
Fricatives ■ 123
EXERCISE 9.2.3 Prevocalic [z] in Initial and Medial Position

Compare these word Sie [ziː] (she) – Wiesen [ˈviːzən]
pairs with prevocalic s, (meadows)
[z] in initial and
medial position. See [zeː] (lake) – Esel [ˈeːzəl] (donkey)
Saal [zɑːl] (hall) – blasen [ˈblɑːzən] (to blow)
Sohn [zoːn] (son) – Hose [ˈhoːzə] (trousers)
suchen [ˈzuːxən] (to search) – Busen [ˈbuːzən] (bosom)
Söhne [ˈzøːnə] (sons) – lösen [ˈløːzən] (to solve)
Seide [ˈza͡edə] (silk) – Eisen [ˈa͡ezen] (iron)
Säule [ˈzɔ͡ølə] (column) – Häuser [ˈhɔ͡øzɐ] (houses)
saugen [ˈzɑ͡oɡən] (to suck) – hausen [ˈhɑ͡ozən] (to
live in)
■ ■ 9.3 PRE-PALATAL FRICATIVE [ʃ] AND [Ʒ]
[ʃ] ■ sch in one element = [ʃ]

■ initial st = [ʃ] + [t]
■ initial sp = [ʃ] + [p]
sch Pronounce [ʃ] in spellings of sch
• when in the same element
schön [ʃøːn], rau/schen [ˈrɑ͡oʃən],
rasch [raʃ]
Attention: In sch combinations where
s is followed by the diminutive suffix Alveolar Fricatives [ʃ] (unvoiced)
-chen [çən], the s is pronounced [s] Form the voiceless pre-palatal
and ch is pronounced [ç]: fricative [ʃ] like the initial sound of
Häus/chen [ˈhɔ͡øsçən] the English word, she or sugar.
Mäus/chen [ˈmɔ͡øsçən]
Note: The diminutive ending can only section between the alveolus and
be attached to nouns. Nouns can be the hard palate (“pre-palate”). The
easily recognized in German due to sides of the tongue touch the upper
their capital initial letter. molars and a groove forms along the
center of the tongue. The air passing
through the narrow passage between
the tip of the tongue and the pre-
palatal section creates a fricative
sound. The lips are slightly
protruded.
st- Pronounce [ʃ] + [t] in spellings of st-
• initial to a word or an element:
Straße [ˈʃtrɑːsə], ge/stochen
[ɡəˈʃtɔxən]
except in the superlative suffix -st-,
where it is pronounced [s] + [t]:
reif/ste [ˈra͡efstə]
Attention: In all other situations, that

is: when st is not initial to a word or
element, and when st is divided
between two elements, it is
pronounced [s] + [t]:
Kunst [kʊnst], liest [liːst],
aus/tönen [ˈɑ͡ostøːnən]
Fricatives ■ 125
sp- Pronounce [ʃ] + [p] in spellings of sp-

• initial to a word or an element:
sprechen [ˈʃprɛçən], spät [ʃpɛːt],
Aus/sprache [ˈɑ͡osʃprɑːxə]
Attention: In all other situations, that
is: when sp is not initial to a word or
element, and when sp is divided
between two elements, it is
pronounced [s] + [p]:
lispeln [ˈlɪspəln]
aus/plaudern [ˈɑ͡osplɑ͡odərn]
ch- Pronounce [ʃ] in spellings of ch
• initial in a few words of French
origin:
Chef [ʃɛf] (boss)
Chanson [ʃɑ̃ˈsõ] (song)
[ʒ] ■ j in French words = [ʒ]

■ g in French words = [ʒ]
j Pronounce [ʒ] in spellings of j Form the voiced pre-palatal fricative
• in words of French origin only. [ʒ] like the intervocalic s in the
Remember the following English words vision or pleasure.
examples: Jackett [ʒaˈkɛt] (jacket)
but: Jacke [ˈʝakə] (jacket) Tip: You might also go from the
Jalousie [ʒaluˈziː] (Venetian blinds) unvoiced pre-palatal fricative [ʃ]
Journal [ʒʊrˈnɑːl] (journal) and add voice resulting in the
Journalist [ʒʊrnaˈlɪst] (journalist) pronunciation of the voiced pre-
Jury [ʒyˈɾi] (jury) palatal fricative [ʒ].
g Pronounce [ʒ] in spellings of g
The tip of the tongue approximates
• in some words of French origin. the section between the alveolus
Remember the following: and the hard palate (“pre-palate”).
arrangieren [aɾɑ̃ˈʒiːɾən] (arrange) The sides of the tongue touch the
Genie [ʒeˈniː] (genius) upper molars and a groove forms
genieren [ʒeˈniːɾən] (disturb, along the center of the tongue. The
bother) air passing through the narrow
ungeniert [ˈʊnʒeniːrt] (unbothered) passage between the tip of the
Loge [ˈloːʒə] (theater box) tongue and the pre-palatal section
logieren [loˈʒiːɾən] (to lodge) creates a fricative sound. The vocal
Orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒə] (orange) folds vibrate.
Regie [reˈʒiː] (direction)
(See page 115 for an anatomical
but: illustration.)
Elegie [eleˈɡiː] (elegy)
genial [ɡeˈni ̯ɑːl] (ingenious)
Genien [ˈɡeːni ̯ən] (guardian
spirits)
Fricatives ■ 127
Exercises for [ʃ] and [ʒ]

EXERCISE 9.3.1 Initial [ʃ] and [ʒ]
Practice speaking these schief [ʃiːf] (crooked) – Regie [reˈʒiː] (stage

word pairs in the direction)
proposed sequence and in
reverse order. Compare schenken [ˈʃɛŋkən] (to give) – Genie [ʒeˈniː] (genius)
the unvoiced pre-palatal –
fricative [ʃ] with the voiced Schaden [ˈʃɑːdən] (harm) Jalousie [ʒaluˈziː]
alveolar fricative [ʒ]. (Venetian blinds)
Notice how the position
of articulators remain the Schuhe [ˈʃuːə] (shoes) – Journal [ʒʊrˈnɑːl]
same in the voiced and the (journal)
unvoiced sound.
Schüler [ˈʃyːlɐ] (student) – Jury [ʒyˈɾi] (jury)
haschen [ˈhaʃən] (to snatch) – Gage [ˈɡɑːʒə] (salary)
Brosche [ˈbrɔʃə] (brooch) – Loge [ˈloːʒə] (theater
box)
EXERCISE 9.3.2 [st] and [ʃt]
Practice the List [lɪst] (cunning) – Stil [ʃtiːl] (style)

combination st,
and compare the Westen [ˈvɛstən] (west) – stechen [ˈʃtɛçən] (to sting)
pronunciation [st]
Last [last] (load) – Stadt [ʃtat] (city)
in medial and final
position with the –
Trost [troːst] (comfort) Stoß [ʃtoːs] (blow)
pronunciation [ʃt]
in initial position. husten [ˈhu:stən] (to cough) – Stuhl [ʃtuːl] (chair)
trösten [ˈtrøːstən] (to – stören [ˈʃtøːɾən] (to disturb)
comfort)
Wüste [ˈvyːstə] (desert) – Stühle [ˈʃtyːlə] (chairs)
Geist [ɡa͡est] (spirit) – Stein [ʃta͡en] (stone)
grauste [ˈɡrɑ͡ostə] (terrified) – staunen [ʃtɑ͡onən] (to be
amazed)
treuste [ˈtrɔ͡østə] (most – streuen [ˈʃtrɔ͡øən] (to
faithful) scatter)
EXERCISE 9.3.3 [sp] and [ʃp]

Practice the lispeln [ˈlɪspəln] (to lisp) – spielen [ˈʃpiːlən] (to
combination sp, and play)
compare the
pronunciation [sp] in Wespe [ˈvɛspə] (wasp) – Specht [ʃpɛçt]
medial and final (woodpecker)
position with the
raspeln [ˈraspəln] (to grate) – spalten [ˈʃpaltən]
pronunciation [ʃp] in
initial position. (to split)
Knospe [ˈknɔspə] (bud) – Spott [ʃpɔt]

(mockery)
knuspern [ˈknʊspərn] (to – sputen [ˈʃpuːtən] (to
nibble) hurry)
Knöspchen [ˈknœspçən] – Spötter [ˈʃpœtɐ]
(little bud) (mocker)
EXERCISE 9.3.4 [ʃ] and [sç]
In this exercise waschen [ˈvaʃən] (to wash) – Väschen [ˈvɛːsçən] (little

compare verbs ending vase)
on -schen [ʃən] to
similar sounding naschen [ˈnaʃən] (to – Näschen [ˈnɛːsçən] (little
nouns with a stem nibble) nose)
ending on -s- followed
by the diminutive haschen [ˈhaʃən] (to catch) – Häschen [ˈhɛːsçən] (little
ending -chen, [sçən]. hare)
lauschen [ˈlɑ͡oʃən] (to – Läuschen [ˈlɔ͡øsçən]
listen) (little louse)
löschen [ˈlœʃən] (to – Löschen [ˈløːsçən]
extinguish) (lottery ticket)
Taschen [ˈtaʃən] (bags, – Tässchen [ˈtɛsçən] (little
pockets) cup)
Fricatives ■ 129
EXERCISE 9.3.5 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [s], [z],[ʃ], and [ʒ]
Speak the Last [la__t] (load) unsre [ˈʊn__rə] (ours)

following words
and apply the See [__eː] (lake) Rast [ra__t] (rest)
pronunciation
Haus [hɑ͡o__] (house) Sänger [ˈ__ɛŋɐ] (singer)
rules for [s], [z],
[ʃ], and [ʒ]. As an still [__tɪl] (quiet) Genie [__eˈniː] (genius)
aid we have
provided an IPA Fuß [fuː__] (foot) nass [na__] (wet)
transcription for
all the other stolz [__tɔlt͡s] (proud) naschen [ˈna__ən] (nibble)
sounds not
covered in this schwarz [__vɑːrt͡s] (black) Stein [__ta͡en] (stone)
section.
Spiegel [ˈ__piːɡəl] (mirror) Spur [__puːɐ] (track)
Loge [ˈloː__ə] (theater box) Chanson [__ɑ̃ˈsõ] (song)
Bursche [ˈbʊr__ə] (lad) frisch [frɪ__] (fresh)
rauschen [ˈra͡o__ən] (to rush) Schritt [__rɪt] (step)
Lust [lʊ__t] (delight) Jackett [__aˈkɛt] (jacket)
Sturm [__tʊrm] (storm) Röslein [ˈrøː__la͡en] (little rose)
lispeln [ˈlɪ__pəln] (to lisp) Kuss [kʊ__] (kiss)
Mäuschen [ˈmɔ͡ø__çən] sausen [ˈ__ɑ͡o__ən] (to rush)
(little mouse)
spielen [ˈ__piːlən] (to play) Maß [mɑː__] (measure)

Busch [bʊ__] (shrub) Krebse [ˈkreːp͡__ə] (crayfish)
Sorgen [ˈ__ɔrɡən] (sorrows) Stern [__tɛrn] (star)
Gans [ɡan__] (goose) Spuk [__puːk] (spook)
Trost [troː__t] (comfort) streiten [ˈ__tra͡etən] (to quarrel)
Straße [ˈ__trɑː__ə] (street) größte [ˈɡrøː__tə] (tallest)

Schuhe [ˈ__uːə] (shoes) reisen [ˈra͡e__ən] (to travel)
Spanien [ˈ__pɑːni ̯ən] (Spain) reißen [ˈra͡e__ən] (to tear)
Knospe [ˈknɔ__pə] (bud) Seele [ˈ__eːlə] (soul)
Fass [fa__] (barrel) austauschen [ˈɑ͡o__ˌtɑ͡o__ən]
(exchange)
■ ■9 .4 PALATAL FRICATIVE [ʝ] , [Ç] , AND

VELAR FRICATIVE [X]
[ ʝ] ■ j = [ ʝ]
j Pronounce [ʝ] in almost all spellings
of the letter j:
jede [ˈʝeːdə], Jäger [ˈʝɛːɡɐ],
Jahr [ ʝɑːɾ], Just [ ʝʊst],
Jüngling [ˈʝʏŋlɪŋ],
Major [maˈʝoːɾ], Majestät [maʝɛˈstɛːt]
Palatal Fricatives [ʝ] (voiced), [ç]

(unvoiced)
Note: The only exceptions in which j For both sounds, the voiced pre-palatal
is not pronounced [ ʝ] are in words of fricative [ʝ] and the unvoiced pre-palatal
French origin in which initial j is fricative [ç], the center of the tongue
pronounced with the voiced pre- reaches for the hard palate as if saying ee [i]
palatal fricative [ʒ]: Jalousie [ʒaluˈziː], in the word bee. The remaining passage
Journal [ʒʊrˈnɑːl], between tongue and palate is slightly
Jury [ʒyˈɾi] narrower, which causes the passing air to
(See Chapter 14 for a complete list.) create friction. Voicing is added for [ ʝ]
only.
Form the voiced palatal fricative [ ʝ] like
the English letter y in the words yes or you,
but with greater intensity to create a light
fricative sound.
Enunciation Exercise: Compare the English
and German sounds by alternating between
the following words:
yarn – ja [ ʝɑː] (yes)
yes – jeder [ˈʝeːdɐ] (everybody)
year – Jahr [ ʝɑːɾ] (year)
yogi – Joch [ ʝɔx] (yoke)
youth – Jugend [ˈʝuːɡənt] (youth)
Fricatives ■ 131
[ç] ■ ch = [ç]
■ except after a, o, u, au
ch Pronounce [ç] in spellings of ch Form the voiceless lingual-palatal fricative
• after consonants: [ç], generally referred as “ich-Laut” (“ich-
Milch [mɪlç], fürchten [ˈfʏrçtən] sound”), like [ ʝ], but unvoiced as in the
• after all vowels (including initial sound of a whispered yes.
umlauts and diphthongs) other The German [ç] is comparable to the
then a, o, u, au (back vowels): initial sound of the English words human,
When ch is preceded by a front humid and humor when spoken with great
vowel (i, e), an umlaut (ä, ö, ü), or intensity.
the diphthongs ei, ai, eu, äu, it is
pronounced as [ç]: Tip: Without phonation place tongue in
Licht [lɪçt], schlecht [ʃlɛçt], the position of ee [i] and say h [h].
Bächlein [ˈbɛçlae͡ n], möchte The palatal fricative [ç] and the velar
[ˈmœçtə], flüchten [ˈflʏçtən], weich fricative [x] are both represented in
[vae͡ ç], German spelling by the same letter
Laich [lae͡ ç], feucht [fɔø͡ çt], combination, ch. The two phones do not
Bäuchlein [ˈbɔø͡ çlae͡ n] define the meaning of the word.
Note: The combination ch is always
pronounced as one sound.
ch- Pronounce [ç] in spellings of ch The point of articulation (palatal versus
• initial in some words of foreign uvular) is the result of pure convenience of
origin: the tongue, which is arched closer towards
Cherub [ˈçeːɾʊp], China [ˈçiːna], the uvula for back vowels and closer to the
Chrysothemis [çryˈzoːtemɪs] palate for front vowels. Thus ch following a
Note: See also under [ʃ] and [k] back vowel facilitates the enunciataion of
for other pronunciations of initial the “ach-Laut,” while ch following a front
ch-. vowel or a consonant facilitates the
enunciation of the “ich-Laut.”
-chen The diminutive suffix -chen is always However the careful distinction between [ç]
pronounced [çən]: and [x] is an essential element of ideomatic
Lieb/chen [ˈliːpçən], Mäd/chen German, and the correct use will greatly
[ˈmɛːtçən]
facilitate a smooth and comfortable
Note: The diminutive ending -chen enunciation of the phoneme.
can only be attached to nouns (in Attention: [ʃ] is a completely different
German easily recognizable by the sound from [ç] and should never replace
capital initial letter). [ç]: ich [ɪç], not [ɪʃ].
-ig Pronounce the ending -ig as [ɪç]

• at the end (and only at the end)
of a word or element:
König [ˈkøːnɪç],
but Könige [ˈkøːnɪɡə],
wenig [ˈveːnɪç],
but wenige [ˈveːnɪɡə]
except in the final combination
-eig, which contains the diphthong
[ae͡ ] plus the letter g and is
pronounced [ae͡ k]:
Zweig [t͡sva͡ek] (branch)
feig [fa͡ek] (cowardly)
• before a consonant, but not
before a vowel:
beleidigt [bəˈlae͡ dɪçt]
but beleidigen [bəˈlae͡ dɪɡən]
ängstigt [ˈɛŋstɪçt]
but ängstigen [ˈɛŋstɪɡən]
except before the suffix
-lich where -ig is pronounced [ɪk]:
könig/lich [ˈkøːnɪklɪç]
minnig/lich [ˈmɪnɪklɪç]
wonnig/lich [ˈvɔnɪklɪç]
except in the word
König/reich [ˈkøːnɪkra͡eç]
Fricatives ■ 133
[x] ■ ch after a, o, u, au = [x]

ch Pronounce [x] in spellings of the
letter combination ch
• after the vowels a, o, u (back
vowels) and the diphthong au:
Bach [bax]
but Bächlein [ˈbɛçlae͡ n]
Tochter [tɔxtɐ]
but Töchterlein [ˈtœçtɐlae͡ n]
Velar Fricative [x]
Buch [buːx]
but Bücher [ˈby:çɐ] Form the voiceless velar fricative [x],
Bauch [bɑo͡ x] generally referred as the “ach-Laut” (ach-
but Bäuchlein [ˈbɔø͡ çlae͡ n] sound) by placing the tongue in the
Attention: Remember, that before position of uvular plosive [k] and aspirate
all other vowels than the four it heavily with [h].
listed above ch is pronounced [ç]. The back of the tongue reaches for the
velar soft palate. The air passing through
-chs Pronounce ch before s according to
the narrow passage between soft palate
the above rules as [ç] or [x]
(velum) and back of the tongue creates
• when s is a component of a
friction.
separate element such as a
Attention: Although the point of
ºº Compound word: nach/sehen
articulation is similar one should never
[ˈnɑːxˌzeːən] nach+sehen (go and
substitute the velar plosive [k] for the velar
see); wach/sam [ˈvaxzɑːm]
fricative [x]. Carefully avoid any plosion to
ºº Verb ending -st: wach/st
initiate the sound.
[vaxst]→ wach/en (verb stem
Nacht [naxt] (night), not nackt [nakt]
+ ending)
(naked).
ºº Mode suffixes -s: Bach/s [baxs]
(noun + Genitiv suffix, -s)
ºº Superlative suffix, -st- and its
derivatives:
höch/ste [ˈhøːçstə],
höch/ster [høːçstɐ],
höch/stens[ˈhøːçstəns],
würdich/ste [ˈvʏrdɪçstə]
Attention: The combination -chs in one
element is always pronounced as [ks͡ ]
(see Chapter 14 for a complete list):
Fuchs [fʊks͡ ]
wachsen [ˈvaks͡ en]
wächst [vɛks͡ t]
Exercises for [ ʝ], [ç], and [x]

EXERCISE 9.4.1 Initial [ ʝ] and [ç]
Compare the Jiddisch [ˈʝɪdɪʃ] (Yiddish) – China [ˈçiːna] (China)

voiced palatal
jemand [ˈʝeːmant] – Chemie [çeˈmiː]
fricative [ʝ] with the
unvoiced palatal (someone) (chemistry)
fricative [ç]. Notice –
how the position of jeder [ˈʝeːdɐ] (every) Cherub [ˈçeːɾʊp] (cherub)
articulators jetzt [ ʝɛt͡st] (now) – echt [ɛçt] (real)
remains the same
in the voiced and Jahr [ ʝɑːɾ] (year) – Charon [ˈçɑːɾɔn] (Charon)
the unvoiced
Jörg [ ʝœrk] (man’s name) – Töchter [ˈtœçtɐ]
sound.
(daughters)
Jüngling [ˈʝʏŋlɪŋ] (youth) – tüchtig [ˈtʏçtɪç] (efficient)
EXERCISE 9.4.2 Medial and Final [ç] and [x]
In the following ich [ɪç] (I) – ach [ax] (oh)

word pairs
dich [dɪç] (you) – Dach [dax] (roof)
compare the
unvoiced palatal –
Licht [lɪçt] (light) lacht [laxt] (laughs)
fricative [ç] (“ich-
Laut”) with the weichen [ˈva͡eçən] (yield) – Wochen [ˈvɔxə] (weeks)
unvoiced uvular
fricative [x] (“ach- dicht [dɪçt] (tight) – Docht [dɔxt] (wick)
Laut”). Notice –
how the tongue is Wicht [vɪçt] (scoundrel) Wucht [vʊxt] (force)
in close proximity Sicht [zɪçt] (view) – Sucht [zʊxt] (addiction)
to the palate after
a front vowel and Bäche [ˈbɛçə] (rivers) – Bach [bax] (river)
therefore naturally
migrates towards Dächer [ˈdɛçɐ] (roofs) – Dach [dax] (roof)
the enunciation of –
the “ich-Laut,”
fechten [ˈfɛçtən] (to fence) fochten [ˈfɔxtən] (fenced)
while the Köche [ˈkœçə] (cooks) – Koch [kɔx] (cook)
proximity of the
tongue to the Löcher [ˈlœçɐ] (holes) – Loch [lɔx] (hole)
uvula after a back
Töchter [ˈtœçtɐ] (daughters) – Tochter [ˈtɔxtɐ] (daughter)
vowel facilitates
the enunciation of –
Bücher [ˈbyːçɐ] (books) Buch [buːx] (book)
the “ach-Laut.”
Fricatives ■ 135
Tücher [ˈtyːçɐ] (towels) – Tuch [tuːx] (towel)

Früchte [ˈfrʏçtə] (fruits) – Frucht [frʊxt] (fruit)
Reich [ra͡eç] (empire) – Rauch [rɑ͡ox] (smoke)
Teiche [ˈta͡eçə] (ponds) – tauche [ˈtɑ͡oxə] (dive)
Bäuchlein [ˈbɔ͡øçla͡en] – Bauch [bɑ͡ox] (belly)
(tummy)
feucht [fɔ͡øçt] (moist) – faucht [fɑ͡oxt] (hisses)
Sträucher [ˈʃtrɔ͡øçɐ] – Strauch [ʃtrɑ͡ox] (shrub)
(shrubs)
EXERCISE 9.4.3 Final [ç] and [k]
Compare the dich [dɪç] (you) – dick [dɪk] (thick)

palatal fricative
sticht [ʃtɪçt] (stings) – stickt [ʃtɪkt] (embroiders)
[ç] with the velar
plosive [k]. Notice –
stechen [ˈʃtɛçən] (to sting) stecken [ˈʃtɛkən] (to pin)
the motion of the
tongue. streichen [ˈʃtra͡eçən] (to – streiken [ˈʃtra͡ekən] (to
paint) strike)
Brüche [ˈbrʏçə] (fractures) – Brücke [ˈbrʏkə] (bridge)
Küchen [ˈkʏçən] (kitchens) – Kücken [ˈkʏkən] (chicks)
EXERCISE 9.4.4 Medial and Final [x] and [k]
Compare the velar Nacht [naxt] (night) – nackt [nakt] (naked)

fricative [x] with
Pacht [paxt] (lease) – Pakt [pakt] (pact)
the velar plosive
[k]. Notice the –
doch [dɔx] (but) Dock [dɔk] (dock)
proximity of the
tongue to the Schlucht [ʃlʊxt] (canyon) – schluckt [ʃlʊkt] (swallow)
uvula in both
sounds. Also poche [ˈpɔxə] (knock) – Pocke [ˈpɔkə] (pock)
notice how the –
meaning of the roch [rɔx] (smelled) Rock [rɔk] (skirt)
words changes
depending on the
sound.
EXERCISE 9.4.5 Medial [ç] and [ʃ]
Compare the Fichte [ˈfɪçtə] (spruce) – fischte [ˈfɪʃtə] (fished)

palatal fricative [ç]
Wicht [ˈvɪçt] (scoundrel) – wischt [vɪʃt] (wipes)
with the pre-
palatal fricative –
wichen [ˈvɪçən] (yielded) wischen [ˈvɪʃən] (to wipe)
[ʃ]. Notice the
distinctly different Licht [lɪçt] (light) – lischt [lɪʃt] (goes out)
point of
articulation for [ç] Gicht [ˈɡɪçt] (gout) – Gischt [ɡɪʃt] (spray)
and [ʃ] in the –
following word mich [mɪç] (me) misch [mɪʃ] (mix)
pairs. Also notice brechen [ˈbrɛçən] (to break) – Breschen [ˈbrɛʃən] (breaches)
how the meaning
of the words Löcher [ˈlœçɐ] (holes) – Löscher [ˈlœʃɐ]
changes (extinguisher)
depending on the
sound. Kirche [ˈkɪrçə] (church) – Kirsche [ˈkɪrʃə] (cherry)
EXERCISE 9.4.6 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [ ʝ], [ç], and [x]
Speak the Dichter [ˈdɪ__tɐ] (poet) Laich [la͡e__] (spawn)

following words
and apply the Dach [da__] (roof) Majestät [ma__ɛˈstɛːt] (majesty)
pronunciation
Woche [ˈvɔ__ə] (week) Macht [ma__t] (power)
rules for [ ʝ], [ç],
and [x]. fechten [fɛ__tən] (to fence) doch [dɔ__] (but)
As an aid we have
provided an IPA lebendig [leˈbɛndɪ__] (lively) Nachsicht [ˈnɑː__zɪ__t] (tolerance)
transcription for
all the other fürchten [ˈfʏr__tən] (to fear) freilich [ˈfra͡elɪ__] (certainly)
sounds not König [ˈkøːnɪ__] (king) Milch [mɪl__] (milk)
covered in this
section. Jagd [__ɑːkt] (hunt) Pech [pɛ__] (pitch)
Bucht [bʊ__t] (bay) Frucht [frʊ__t] (fruit)
Königreich [ˈkøːnɪ__ra͡e__] wachst [va__st] (wake)
(empire)
jammern [ˈ__amərn] (to lament) tüchtig [ˈtʏ__tɪ__] (able)
wenig [ˈveːnɪ__] (few) Sucht [zʊ__t] (addiction)
lächeln [ˈlɛ__əln] (smile) königlich [ˈkøːnɪ__lɪ__] (royal)
sich [zɪ__] (oneself) Nacht [na__t] (night)
Fricatives ■ 137
Töchterlein [ˈtœ__tɐla͡en] China [ˈ__iːna] (China)

(daughter)
Bäuchlein [ˈbɔ͡ø__la͡en] höchste [ˈhøː__stə] (highest)
(tummy)
beichten [ˈba͡e__tən] (to Juli [ˈ__uːli] ( July)
confess)
Liebchen [ˈliːp__ən] reichen [ˈra͡e__ən] (to reach)
(sweetheart)
leuchten [ˈlɔ͡ø__tən] (to shine) Hauch [hɑ͡o__] (breath)
flüchten [ˈflʏ__tən] (to take wachsam [ˈva__zɑːm] (alert)
refuge)
■ ■ 9.5 GLOTTAL FRICATIVE [h]
[h] ■ h is silent except when
initial
■ initial h = [h]
h Pronounce [h] in spellings of the The tongue and the lips are already in
letter h the position for the vowel sound
• initial in a word or element following the [h]. The glottis releases a
only: small amount of air between the open
Haus [hɑ͡os], and non-vibrating vocal folds which
Rat/haus [ˈrɑːthɑ͡os] creates a soft, unvoiced fricative sound.
In all other circumstances h is Form the voiceless glottal fricative [h]
silent and serves only the purpose of like the h in the English word, house.
making the preceding vowel long.
Thus, do not aspirate h after vowels Enunciation Exercise: Say the
• at the end of an element: following words and notice how the
Stroh [ʃtroː], flehen [ˈfleːən] articulators (lips and tongue) change
• before a consonant: according to the vowel following the
[h]:
geht [ɡeːt], mühsam [ˈmyːzɑːm]
hier [hiːɾ]
hin [hɪn]
Note: The letter h after a consonant is her [heːɾ]
usually the initial of a new element: Herr [hɛr]
er/haben [ɛɐˈhɑːbən], Härchen [ˈhɛːrçən]
ein/her [ɑ͡enˈheːɾ] Hast [hast]
Hahn [hɑːn]
Hohn [hoːn]
except in words with Holz [hɔlt͡s]
combinations th, ph and sch: Huhn [huːn]
katholisch [kaˈtoːlɪʃ] Hund [hʊnt]
alphabetisch [alfaˈbeːtɪʃ] Hühner [ˈhyːnɐ]
schön [ʃøːn] Hüfte [ˈhʏftə]
hören [ˈhøːɾən]
except in the following words
Hörner [ˈhœrnɐ]
after r:
Rhein [ra͡en]
Rhythmik [ˈrytmɪk]
rhythmɪsch [ˈrytmɪʃ]
Rhythmus [ˈrytmʊs]
Fricatives ■ 139
When h appears between two vowels

it can be a problem, because the rule
is not always apparent. Without
proficiency in the German language
it might be difficult to determine
whether the h is final or initial to an
element and therefore, unclear
whether to pronounce gehen [ˈɡeːən]
or wrong [ɡəˈheːn] and gehenkt
[ɡəˈhɛŋkt] or wrong . In
circumstances where there is doubt
we recommend that you consult a
pronouncing dictionary. Remember
the following:
wohin [voˈhɪn]
woher [voˈheːɐ]
dahin [daˈhɪn]
daher [daˈheːɾ]
behende [bəˈhɛndə]
geheim [ɡəˈhae͡ m]
geheuer [ɡəˈhɔ͡øɐ]
Oheim [ˈoːha͡em]
but:
gehen [ˈɡeːən]
stehen [ˈʃteːən],
flehen [ˈfleːən]
Ehe [ˈeːə]
Reihe [ˈrae͡ ə]
Weihe [ˈvae͡ ə]
weihen [ˈvae͡ ən]
■ ■ 9.6 GLOTTAL SEPARATION [ǀ]
[ǀ] ■ before any initial vowel

Begin a vowel with a glottal German speakers initiate each word or
separation [ǀ] when the vowel element beginning with a vowel in the
appears manner that English speakers do when
• initial to a word: they say something explicitly, for
in [ǀɪn], er [ǀeːɾ], aber [ˈǀabɐ], example: “What on earth is this!”
oben [ˈǀoːbən], unten [ˈǀʊntən]
To find the right intensity for a vowel
Note: In IPA you do not need to onset practice the following sequence: At
indicate the glottal separation at first bring your vocal folds together as if
the beginning of a phrase you were going to cough and let the air
because after a new breath a pop when you speak the word air. This is
glottal separation is naturally too hard an attack. A repetitive use of
employed. (In this book glottal such a hard onset can be abusive to the
separations are usually not voice. Next, repeat the above sample but
indicated at the beginning of anticipate the onset with the glottal
single word examples.) fricative h, resulting in the word hair. This
breathy onset is too soft. Now try to find
• initial to a component of a
an onset somewhere in between the two,
compound word:
the hard attack and the breathy onset. If
Wald/einsamkeit
one can neither hear a popping sound
[ˈvaltǀa͡enzɑːmka͡et],
nor the sound of h it is just right: We call
Todes/ahnung [ˈtoːdəsǀɑːnʊŋ]
this balanced onset, glottal separation.
• initial to an element Initiation Exercise: Alternate between
following a prefix: the following words, one beginning with
ur/alt [uːɾǀalt], a breathy onset on h the other with a
un/angenehm [ˈʊnǀanɡəneːm] glottal separation before the vowel:
hier [hiːɾ] – ihr [ǀiːɾ]
hin [hɪn] – in [ǀɪn]
her [heːɾ] – er [ǀeːɾ]
Hecht [hɛçt] – echt [ǀɛçt]
halt [halt] – alt [ǀalt]
Hort [hɔrt] – Ort [ǀɔrt]
Hund [hʊnt] – und [ǀʊnt]
Note: Depending on the situation, and
the intensity of speech, an onset can vary
in its strength. However the firm glottal
attack should be always avoided in
singing. (See also Chapter 3.)
Fricatives ■ 141
except when the prefixes her-,

hin-, dar- and vor- are
followed by another prefix, in
which case the glottal is
forbidden and the final
consonant of the first prefix is
linked to the initial vowel of
the following prefix:
her/über [hɛˈɾyːbɐ]
hin/ab [hɪˈnap]
dar/auf [daˈɾɑ͡of]
vor/über [foˈɾyːbɐ]
Attention: Suffixes and
inflectional endings are not
separated from the preceding
element by a glottal separation.
Üb/ung [ˈyːbʊŋ],
leb/en [ˈleːbən]
Exercises for [h] and [ǀ]

EXERCISE 9.6.1 [h] and [ǀ]
Practice speaking hier [hiːɾ](here) – ihr [ǀiːɾ] (her)
these word pairs,
first in the Hirte [ˈhɪrtə] (shepherd) – irrte [ˈǀɪrtə] (erred)
proposed
Herde [ˈheːrdə] (flock) – Erde [ˈǀeːrdə] (earth)
sequence and then
in reverse order. –
Hecke [ˈhɛkə] (hedge) Ecke [ˈǀɛkə] (corner)
Compare the
glottal fricative [h] Hader [ˈhɑːdɐ] (quarrel) – Ader [ˈǀɑːdɐ] (vein)
(similar to the
breathy onset) hasche [ˈhaʃə] (grasp at) – Asche [ˈǀaʃə] (ashes)
with the glottal
Hof [hoːf] (yard, farm, court) – Ofen [ˈǀoːfən] (oven)
separation [ǀ]. The
glottal separation –
Hort [hɔrt] (treasure) Ort [ǀɔrt] (place)
should be
enunciated with a Hut [huːt] (hat) – Ute [ˈǀuːtə] (girls name)
balanced onset.
Avoid the glottal Hund [hʊnt] (dog) – und [ǀʊnt] (and)
attack at all times.
Höhlen [ˈhøːlən] (caves) – ölen [ˈǀøːlən] (to oil)
hüben [ˈhyːbən] (on this side) – üben [ˈǀyːbən] (to practice)
heilen [ˈha͡elən] (to cure) – eilen [ˈǀa͡elən] (to hurry)

Haus [hɑ͡os] (house) – aus [ˈǀɑ͡os] (out)
heulen [ˈhɔ͡ølən] (to howl) – Eulen [ˈǀɔ͡ølən] (owls)
Fricatives ■ 143
EXERCISE 9.6.2 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [h]
Speak the Hof [__oːf] (yard, farm, court) Himmel [ˈ__ɪməl] (heaven)
following words
and apply the Floh [floː__] (flea) wohin [voˈ__ɪn] (where to)
pronunciation
fleht [fleː__t] (begs) Ehe [ˈeː__ə] (marriage)
rules for [h] in
determining umher [ʊmˈ__eːɾ] (around) Hosen [ˈ__oːzən] (trousers)
whether the h is
sounded or silent. Kindheit [ˈkɪnt__a͡et] Ruh [ruː__] (rest)
For your (childhood)
convenience we
provided an IPA heben [ˈ__eːbən] (to lift) anhalten [ˈan__altən] (stop)
transcription for
all the other Kahn [kɑː__n] (boat) ihn [iː__n] (him)
sounds not
nah [nɑː__] (near) Stroh [ʃtroː__] (straw)
covered in this
section. Insert the verhehlen [fɛɐˈ__eː__lən] (hide) geheim [ɡəˈ__a͡em] (secretly)
[h] in the gap
when applicable. Bahn [bɑː__n] (track, course) stehen [ˈʃteː__ən] (stand)
Leave blank when
the h is silent. Give sah [zɑː__] (saw) geht [ɡeː__t] (goes)
the reason why h is
sounded or why it Friedhof [ˈfriːt__oːf ] (cemetery) vorher [ˈfoːɐ__eːɐ] (before)
is silent.
Mühle [ˈmyː__lə] (mill) froher [ˈfroː__əɾ] (happy)
Gerichtshof [ɡəˈrɪçts__oːf] Stroh [ʃtroː__] (straw)
(court of justice)
EXERCISE 9.6.3 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [ǀ]
Speak the Abend [ˈ__ɑːbənt] (evening) darein [daˈɾ__a͡en] (in it)

following
words, apply hinunter [hɪˈn__ʊntɐ] (down to) herauf [hɛˈɾ__ɑ͡of] (up here)
the glottal
vorüber [foˈɾ__yːbɐ] (over) Erde [ˈ__eːrdə] (earth)
separation [ǀ]
when Tonart [ˈtoːn__art] (tonality) Königin [ˈkøːnɪɡ__ɪn] (queen)
applicable and
give the reason abändern [ˈ__ap__ɛndərn] (change) beobachten [bəˈ__oːbaxtən]
for its (to watch)
application. As
an aid we have hinauf [ˈhɪˈn__ɑ͡of] (up) ihr [__iːɾ] (you)
provided an
IPA daraus [daˈɾ__ɑ͡os] (from) fortan [ˈfɔrt__an] (from now
transcription on)
for all the
other sounds überall [ˈ__yːbɐ__al] (everywhere) darauf [dɑːˈɾ__ɑ͡of] (on it)
not covered in
this section. herab [hɛˈɾ__ap] (down) unartig [ˈ__ʊn__artɪç]
(naughty)
auferstehen [ˈ__ɑ͡of__ɛɐʃteːən] missachten [mɪsˈ__axtən]
(resurrect) (ignore)
einsam [ˈ__a͡enzɑːm] (lonely) zuerst [t͡suˈ__eːrst] (at first)

voran [foˈɾ__an] (in front) vereint [fɛɐˈ__a͡ent] (unified)
Monat [ˈmoːn__ɑːt] (month) jahrein [ ʝɑːɾˈ__a͡en] (year in)
vererben [fɛɐˈ__ɛrbən] (inherit) uralt [ˈ__uːɾ__alt] (ancient)
Abendessen [ˈ__ɑːbənt__ɛsən] ausatmen [ˈ__ɑ͡os__ɑːtmən]
(dinner) (exhale)
■ ■ CH A P T ER 10
PLOSIVES
A s the name implies, a plosive, or sometimes called stop or stop-plosive, is a conso-

nant produced when the articulators stop the airflow from passing through the vocal tract
and subsequently release it in a plosive sound. Plosive consonants are classified by the
place of articulation and by whether the release is voiced or unvoiced. Each place of artic-
ulation can produce a pair of consonants, called cognates, which are alike, except that one
is voiced and the other is unvoiced. Thus we differentiate between the following three
cognates: the voiced and unvoiced bilabial plosives that are articulated by a stop and plo-
sive release of air between the upper and lower lips; the voiced and unvoiced alveolar
plosives that are articulated by the stop and plosive release of air between the tip of the
tongue and the upper dental ridge (alveolus); and the voiced and unvoiced velar plosives
that are articulated by a the stop and plosive release of the air between the back of the
tongue and the soft palate (velum).
Unvoiced Voiced
Bilabial [p] as in pelt Platz [plat͡s] [b] as in belt Burg [bʊrk]
Alveolar [t] as in tear Tag [tɑːk] [d] as in dear Dach [dax]
Velar [k] as in kilt König [ˈkøːnɪç] [ɡ] as in guilt Garten [ˈɡartən]
■ ■ ASPIRATION
Unvoiced plosives are usually aspirated, [pʰ], [tʰ], [kʰ]. The phonetic symbol for aspira-
tion is the superscript h, [ʰ], but most IPA transcriptions for German do assume that as-
piration is employed for the unvoiced plosives without specific indication. In this book
we will use the superscript h, [ʰ], to indicate aspiration when special clarification is
needed, but usually we will not include the symbol in our IPA transcription, assuming
■ 145
that the reader is aware of the correct enunciation of the sound. You will find detailed
rules for aspiration in the Enunciation column on the right side of the following pages.
■ ■ DEVOICING
As explained above, plosives are divided in two categories, voiced and unvoiced. The
letters b, d, and g are pronounced voiced [b], [d], and [ɡ] in initial and medial position,
but devoiced (lenes), [p], [t], [k] in final positition of a word or word stem followed by
a consonant. When a devoiced plosive is followed by an element beginning with a voiced
consonant, such as in lieb/lich or by another word beginning with a vowel, as in hab’ ich,
they are aspirated less. You will find detailed rules for voiced and unvoiced plosives in the
Pronunciation column on the left side of the page.
■ ■ 10.1 BILABIAL PLOSIVES [p] AND [b]
[p] ■ p and pp = [p]

■ medial b + consonant = [p]
■ final -b = [p]
p Pronounce [p] in all spellings of the
pp letter p and the double consonant pp:
Platz [plat͡s], Knospe [ˈknɔspə],
stolpern [ˈʃtɔlpərn], Treppe [ˈtrɛpə]
Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b]

b Pronounce [p] in spellings of the
letter b Form the voiceless bilabial plosive
[p] like p in the English word place.
trübt [tryːpt], liebt [liːpt] The lips come together and air
except before l, n, r in inflected pressure builds up behind them. The
forms where a schwa has been lips part with a plosive release of air.
eliminated from the word stem: Usually [p] is aspirated [pʰ]:
übel → üb(e)ler → übler [ˈyːbləɾ] lieb [liːpʰ]
über → üb(e)rig → übrig [ˈyːbrɪç]
However, when the devoiced b
eben → eb(e)nen → ebnen [ˈeːbnən]
precedes a suffix with a voiced initial
except in the combination ph in consonant, such as -lich, -nis, -sal the
the same element: plosive is not aspirated and its
Prophet [proˈfeːt] enunciation is slightly softer:
Plosives ■ 147
• final in a word (including lieblich [ˈliːplɪç] not [ˈliːpʰlɪç],

compound words): Erlebnis [ɛɐˈleːpnɪs] not [ɛɐˈleːpʰnɪs],
lieb [liːp], Lob [ˈloːp], Trübsal [ˈtryːpzɑːl] not [ˈtryːpʰzɑːl]
Lieb/haber [ˈliːpˌhabɐ],
Lob/rede [ˈloːpˌreːdə] Aspiration of a devoiced plosive
may also be slightly softened when
Note: The above rule also applies a truncated word is followed by a
when b becomes final due to word beginning with a vowel:
truncation: lieb’ ich [liːp ǀɪç] not [liːpʰ ǀɪç]
Liebe [ˈliːbə] → Lieb’ [liːp]
lebe [ˈleːbə] → leb’ [leːp]
• final in a word stem followed by
a consonant:
lieb/kosen [liːpˈkoːzən],
Knäb/lein [ˈknɛːpla͡en],
Lieb/chen [ˈliːpçən],
Trüb/sal [ˈtryːpzɑːl]
Attention: The combinations pf, and
ps in one element are always
pronounced as the affricates [p͡f ] and
[p͡s] (see Chapter 13 for a full
discussion of affricates):
Pferd [p͡feːrt], Psalm [p͡salm]
bp The combination bp occurs only at To prolong [p͡p], implode (without
the junction in compound words. sound) the first plosive and extend
Pronounce it as a prolonged p [p͡p]. the stoppage until you release it on
lob/preisen [ˈloːp͡ˌpra͡ezən] the second plosive:
ab/passen [ˈap͡ˌpasən]
[b] ■ initial b = [b]

■ medial b + vowel = [b]
■ b + (e)l, (e)n, (e)r = [b]
b Pronounce [b] in spellings of the Form the voiced bilabial plosive [b]
letter b like b in the English word boy.
• initial to a word or element:
The lips come together and air
Burg [bʊrk], ver/borgen
pressure builds up behind them. The
[fɛɐˈbɔrɡən], blau [blɑ͡o], braun
lips part with a plosive release of air.
[brɑ͡on]
The vocal folds vibrate
simultaneously. (See anatomical
illustration on page 136.)
• medial before a vowel: Avoid the addition of a shadow
Leben [ˈleːbən], lieben [ˈliːbən] schwa between b and a voiced
consonant. Thus, enunciate
• preceding l, n, or r in inflicted
blau [blɑ͡o] not [bᵊˈlɑ͡o]
and braun [brɑ͡on] not [bᵊˈɾɑ͡on]
eliminated from the word stem:
übel → üb(e)ler → übler [ˈyːbləɾ]
über → üb(e)rig → übrig [[ˈyːbrɪç]
eben → eb(e)nen → ebnen [[ˈeːbnən]
bb There is no difference between
the pronunciation of single b and
double bb. Pronounce [b] in all
spellings of bb
• in one element:
Ebbe [ˈɛbə]
Attention: When two consecutive b’s, To prolong [p͡b], implode (without
bb, belong to two separate elements it sound) the first plosive and extend
is pronounced as prolonged [p͡b]. (See the stoppage until you release it on
also section on Consonant Length in the second plosive:
Chapter 8): ab/bauen [ˈap͡bɑ͡oən]
ab/bitten [ˈap͡bɪtən]
Plosives ■ 149
Exercises for [p] and [b]

EXERCISE 10.1.1 Initial [p] and [b]
Practice speaking Pinie [ˈpiːni ̯ə] (pine tree) – Biene [ˈbiːnə] (bee)
these word pairs,
first in the
Pinne [ˈpɪnǝ] (tiller) – binden [ˈbɪndən] (to bind)
proposed Peter [ˈpeːtɐ] (man’s name) – beten [ˈbeːtən] (to pray)
sequence and
then in reverse Pech [pɛç] (pitch) – Becher [ˈbɛçɐ] (cup)
order. Compare Paare [ˈpɑːɾə] (couples) Bahre [ˈbɑːɾə] (bier)
–
the unvoiced
bilabial plosive [p]
with the voiced
bilabial plosive [b]
in initial position.
Notice how the packen [ˈpakən] (to pack) – backen [ˈbakən] (to bake)
position of the
articulators Poren [ˈpoːɾən] (pores) – bohren [ˈboːɾən] (to drill)
remains the same Pocken [ˈpɔkən] (smallpox) bocken [ˈbɔkən] (to buck)
–
in the voiced and
the unvoiced Pute [ˈpuːtə] (turkey) – Bude [ˈbuːdə] (booth)
sound. Make sure
Pudding [ˈpʊdɪŋ] (pudding) – Butter [ˈbʊtɐ] (butter)
that [p] is
aspirated and Pein [pa͡en] (anguish) – Bein [ba͡en] (leg)
avoid any
aspiration in [b]. platt [plat] (flat) – Blatt [blat] (leaf)
Preis [pra͡es] (price) – Brei [bra͡e] (porridge)
EXERCISE 10.1.2 Medial [p] and [b]
Compare the Lippe [ˈlɪpə] (lip) – Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love)

unvoiced bilabial –
Gepäck [ɡəˈpɛk] (baggage) Gebäck [ɡəˈbɛk] (pastries)
plosive [p] with
the voiced bilabial Steppe [ˈʃtɛpə] (steppe) – Stäbe [ˈʃtɛːbə] (rods)
plosive [b] in
medial position.
Rappe [ˈrapə] (black horse) – Rabe [ˈrɑːbə] (raven)
Knappe [ˈknapə] (squire) – Knabe [ˈknɑːbə] (boy)
Lappen [ˈlapən] (cloth) – laben [ˈlɑːbən] (refresh)
Schoppen [ˈʃɔpən] (carafe) – schoben [ˈʃoːbən] (pushed)
stoppen [ˈʃtɔpən] (to stop) – stoben [ˈʃtoːbən] (dispersed)
Gruppe [ˈɡrʊpə] (group) – Grube [ˈɡruːbə] (pit)
Raupen [ˈrɑ͡opən] (larvae) – rauben [ˈrɑ͡obən] (to rob)
EXERCISE 10.1.3 Devoiced [p] Versus Voiced [b]
Compare the Lieb’ [liːp] (love) – Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love)

devoiced final b,
pronounced [p],
leb’ [leːp] (live) – lebe [ˈleːbə] (live)
with the voiced Grab [ɡrɑːp] (grave) – Graben [ˈɡrɑːbən] (trenches)
bilabial plosive
[b]. Notice how b
Lob [loːp] (praise) – loben [ˈloːbən] (to praise)
in final position Bub [buːp] (boy) – Buben [ˈbuːbən] (boys)
always sounds
devoiced; even in
trüb [tryːp] (dull) – trüben [ˈtryːbən] (to dim)
words where b is treib’ [tra͡ep] (drive) – treibe [ˈtra͡ebə] (drive)
final due to
truncation.
Staub [ʃtɑ͡op] (dust) – stauben [ˈʃtɑ͡obən] (to make dust)
EXERCISE 10.1.4 Prolonged [p͡b] and [p]
Practice the abbrechen [ˈap͡ˌbrɛçən] – abrechnen [ˈapˌrɛçnən] (to settle

prolonged bilabial (to stop) account)
plosive [p͡b] in the
following words abbringen [ˈap͡ˌbriŋən] – abringen [ˈapˌrɪŋən] (to wrest
and compare it (to dissuade) from)
with [p]. abblassen [ˈap͡ˌblazən] ablassen [ˈapˌlasən] (to drain)
–
To prologue [p͡b]
(call off)
implode (without
sound) the first
plosive and extend
the stoppage until
you release on the
second voiced
plosive.
EXERCISE 10.1.5 Prolonged [p͡b] and [b]
Practice the ob bald [ɔp ͡balt] –

prolonged bilabial (whether soon) oh bald [oː balt] (oh soon!)
plosive [p͡b] and
compare it with [b] ob blau [ɔp ͡blɑ͡o] –
in the following (whether blue) oh blau [oː blɑ͡o] (oh, blue?)
word ob Blumen [ɔp ͡ˈbluːmən] – oh Blumen [oː ˈbluːmən] (oh,
combinations.
(whether flowers) flowers?)
ab Bonn [ap ͡bɔn] – ah Bonn [ɑː bɔn] (ah, Bonn?)
(from Bonn)
Plosives ■ 151
EXERCISE 10.1.6 Prolonged [p͡p] and [p]
Practice the ab Paris [ap ͡paˈɾiːs] (from – ah Paris [ɑː paˈɾiːs]

prolonged Paris) (ah, Paris?)
bilabial plosive
[p͡p] and ob Peter [ɔp ͡ˈpeːtɐ] (whether – oh Peter [oː ˈpeːtɐ]
compare it with Peter) (oh Peter!)
[p] in the
abplagen [ˈap͡ˌplɑːɡən] (to – Ablagen [ˈapˌlɑːɡən]
following words
struggle) (shelves)
and word
combinations.
EXERCISE 10.1.7 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [p] and [b]
Speak the Peter [ˈ__eːtɐ] (boy’s name) Bach [__ax] (brook)

following words
Blüte [ˈ__lyːtə] (blossom) Glaube [ˈɡlɑ͡o__ə] (faith)
and apply the
pronunciation Knospe [ˈknɔs__ə] (bud) Pause [ˈ__ɑ͡ozə] (pause)
rules for [p] and
[b]. As an aid we
Lob [loː__] (praise) Grab [ɡrɑː__] (grave)
have provided Gaben [ˈɡɑː__ən] (gifts) Spiel [ʃ__iːl] (game)
an IPA
transcription for gabst [ɡɑː__st] (gave) treibt [tra͡e__t] (one drives)
all the other
sounds not Treppe [ˈtrɛ__ə] (stair) eben [ˈeː__ən] (just)
covered in this Büsche [ˈ__ʏʃə] (shrubs) ebnen [ˈeː__nən] (to level)
section.
Pein [__a͡en] (anguish) Krippe [ˈkrɪ__ə] (crib)
Taube [ˈtɑ͡o__ə] (dove) Preis [__ra͡es] (price)
Täubchen [ˈtɔ͡ø__çən] (little dove) übt [yː__t] (one practices)

Lippen [ˈlɪ__ən] (lips) darüber [daˈɾyː__ɐ] (above)
Weibchen [ˈva͡e__çən] (woman) Stab [ʃtɑː__] (rod)
Brunnen [ˈ__rʊnən] (fountain) Buch [__uːx] (book)
Lieb’ [liː__] (love) loben [ˈloː__ən] (to praise)
übel [ˈyː__əl] (miserable) Rappen [ˈra__ən] (black horse)
übler [ˈyː__ləɾ] (worse) aber [ˈɑː__ɐ] (but)
Ebbe [ˈɛ__ə] (ebb) Abt [a__t] (abbot)
über [ˈyː__ɐ] (over) Predigt [ˈ__reːdɪçt] (sermon)
abbringen [ˈa___rɪŋən] (to dissuade) Leib [la͡e__] (body)
betrübt [bəˈtryː__t] (sad) Base [ˈ__ɑːzə] (cousin)

Gerippe [ˈɡrɪ__ə] (skeleton) knapp [kna__] (close)
ab [a__] (from) stolpern [ˈʃtɔl__ərn] (stumble)
Staub [ʃtɑ͡o__] (dust) liebt [liː__t] (one loves)
Platz [__lat͡s] (space) anbringen [ˈan__rɪŋən] (install)
Verborgenheit [fɛɐˈ__ɔrɡənha͡et] Lobpreisen [ˈloː___ra͡ezən]
(seclusion) (to praise)
Plosives ■ 153
■ ■ 10.2 ALVEOLAR PLOSIVES [t] AND [d]
[t] ■ t, tt, dt = [t]

■ medial -d- + consonant = [t]
■ final -d = [t]
t Pronounce [t] in all spellings of the
letter t:
Tat [tɑːt], beten [ˈbeːtən]
d Pronounce [t] in spellings of the letter d
Widmung [ˈvɪtmʊŋ], lädst [lɛːtst] Alveolar Plosives [t] and [d]
except before l, n, r in inflected Form the voiceless alveolar

forms where a schwa has been plosive [t] like the t in the English
eliminated from the word stem: word time.
edel → ed(e)ler → edler [ˈeːdləɾ] The tip of the tongue touches
golden → gold(e)ne → goldne [ˈɡɔldnə] the dental ridge (alveolus) and
wandern → Wand(e)rer → Wandrer air pressure builds up behind the
[ˈvandrəɾ] tongue. The tip of the tongue
Handel → Hand(e)lung → Handlung springs down with a plosive
[ˈhandlʊŋ] release of air.
• final in a word (including Usually [t] is aspirated [tʰ]:
compound words): tod [tʰoːtʰ]
Lied [liːt], und [ʊnt] However, when the devoiced d
Abend/licht [ˈɑːbəntlɪçt] precedes a suffix with a voiced
Wald/rebe [ˈvaltreːbə] initial consonant, such as -lich, -nis,
Note: The above rule also applies when d the plosive is not aspirated and its
becomes final due to truncation: enunciation is slightly softer:
Gnade [ˈɡnɑːdə] → Gnad’ [ɡnɑːt] Feindlich [feintlɪç] not [feintʰlɪç]
Bildnis [bɪltnɪs] not [bɪltʰnɪs]
• final in a word stem followed by Aspiration of devoiced
a consonant: consonants may also be slightly
Bild/nis [ˈbɪltnɪs], end/lich [ˈɛntlɪç], softened when a truncated word
Gewänd/lein [ɡəˈvɛntla͡en] is followed by a word beginning
with a vowel:
Gnad’ und [ɡnɑːt ǀʊnt] not
[ɡnɑːtʰ ǀʊnt]
dt Pronounce [t] in spellings of the Attention: Two consecutive like

tt double consonants dt and tt consonants are not sounded
• when both consonants are part of twice.
the same element: Tip: To prolong tt, dt as in [t͡t]
Stadt [ʃtat], Ratte [ˈratə], retten [ˈrɛtən] implode (without sound) the
Attention: When two consecutive t’s, first plosive and extend the
tt, belong to two separate elements it stoppage until you release
is pronounced as prolonged [t͡t]. (explode) it on the second
Hand/tuch [ˈhant͡tuːx] plosive:
Geld/truhe [ˈɡɛlt͡truːə] Bet/tag [ˈbeːt͡tɑːk],
Bet/tag [ˈbeːt͡tɑːk] Hand/tuch [ˈhant͡tuːx]
Note: dtt and ttt is also pronounced

prolonged [t͡t]:
Stadttheater [ˈʃtat͡teɑːtɐ]
Betttuch [bɛt͡tuːx]
(See also section on Consonant Length
in Chapter 8.)
th Pronounce [t] in spellings of the

consonant combination th
• when both consonants are part of
the same element:
Theater [teˈɑːtɐ], katholisch [kaˈtoːlɪʃ]
Note: In German th is never
pronounced as [ð] or [θ] as in the
English words the [ðə] or throw [θɹo͡ʊ]
Also, the combination tsch in one
element is always pronounced as the
affricate [t͡ʃ]: rutschen [ˈrʊt͡ʃən].
The combination tz in one element is
pronounced as the affricate [t͡s]:
schwatzen [ˈʃvat͡sən].
The combination ti followed by another

vowel appears only in a few words of
Latin origin and is pronounced as [t͡s]
(see Chapter 13): Nation [naˈt͡si ̯oːn].
Plosives ■ 155
[d] ■ initial d = [d]
■ medial d + vowel = [d]
■ d + (e)l, (e)n, (e)r = [d]
d Pronounce [d] in spellings of the letter d Form the voiced alveolar plosive
[d] like the d in the English word
• initial to a word or element:
day or dime.
Dach [dax], ver/drängen [fɛɐˈdrɛŋən]
• medial before a vowel:
dental ridge (alveolus) and air
re/den [ˈreːdən], wandeln [ˈvandəln]
pressure builds up behind the
• preceding l, n, or r in inflected tongue. The tip of the tongue
forms where a schwa has been releases with a plosive release of
eliminated from the word stem: air. The vocal folds vibrate
edel → ed(e)ler → edler [ˈeːdləɾ] simultaneously. (See anatomical
golden → gold(e)ne → goldne illustration on page 142.)
[ˈɡɔldnə]
Avoid the addition of a shadow
wandern → Wand(e)rer → Wandrer schwa between d and a voiced
[ˈvandrəɾ]
consonant. Thus enunciate
Handel → Hand(e)lung → Handlung drängen [ˈdrɛŋən] not [dᵊˈɾɛŋən].
[ˈhandlʊŋ]
Wandel → Wand(e)lung → Wandlung
[ˈvandlʊŋ]

dd There is no difference in the
pronunciation of single d and double dd.
Pronounce [d] in all spellings of dd
• in one element:
Widder [ˈvɪdɐ]
Attention: When two consecutive d’s, To prolong dd as in [t͡d] implode
dd, belong to two separate elements it is (without sound) the first plosive
pronounced as prolonged [t͡d]. (See and extend the stoppage until
also section on Consonant Length in you release (explode) it on the
Chapter 8): second plosive:
Sand/düne [ˈzantˌ͡dyːnə], Rad/dampfer [ˈrɑːtˌ͡damp͡fɐ]
Abend/dämmerung [ˈɑːbəntˌ͡dɛməɾʊŋ]
Exercises for [t] and [d]

EXERCISE 10.2.1 Initial [t] and [d]
Practice speaking Tier [tiːɐ] (animal) – dir [diːɐ] (you)

these word pairs,
Teer [teːɐ] (tar) – der [deːɐ] (the)
first in the proposed
sequence and then Taille [ˈtalʝə] (waist) – Dahlie [ˈdɑːli ̯ə] (dahlia)
in reverse order.
Compare the
tosen [ˈtoːzən] (roar) – Dosen [ˈdoːzən] (cans)
unvoiced alveolar Tour [tuːɐ] (tour) – Dur [duːɐ] (major tonality)
plosive [t] with the
voiced alveolor
trüben [ˈtryːbən] (to dim) – drüben [ˈdryːbən] (over there)
plosive [d] in initial Teich [ta͡eç] (pond) – Deich [da͡eç] (dike)
position. Notice
how the position of tauen [ˈtɑ͡oən] (to melt) – dauern [ˈdɑ͡oərn] (to last)
the articulators
remains the same in
the voiced and the
unvoiced sound.
Make sure that [t] is
aspirated and avoid
any aspiration in [d].
EXERCISE 10.2.2 Medial [t] and [d]
Compare the Liter [ˈliːtɐ] (liter) – Lieder [ˈliːdɐ] (songs)

unvoiced alveolar
rette [ˈrɛtə] (save) – Rede [ˈreːdə] (speech)
plosive [t] with the
voiced alveolar Väter [ˈfɛːtɐ] (fathers) – Feder [ˈfeːdɐ] (feather)
plosive [d] in medial
position. Schatten [ˈʃatən] – schaden [ˈʃɑːdən] (damage)
(shadows)
Boten [ˈboːtən] (messengers) – Boden [ˈboːdən] (ground)
Futter [ˈfʊtɐ] (feed) – Fuder [ˈfuːdɐ] (cartload)
Weite [ˈva͡etə] (width, – Weide [ˈva͡edə] (pasture)
distance)
heiter [ˈha͡etɐ] (cheerful) – Heide [ˈha͡edə] (heath)
Plosives ■ 157
EXERCISE 10.2.3 Devoiced [t] Versus Voiced [d]
Compare the Schmied [ʃmiːt] – Schmiede [ˈʃmiːdə] (black smiths)

devoiced final d, (blacksmith)
pronounced [t],
with the voiced schied [ʃiːt] (departed) – schieden [ˈʃiːdən] (departed)
alveolar plosive Bad [bɑːt] (bath) – baden [ˈbɑːdən] (to bath)
[d]. Notice how d
in final position Tod [toːt] (death) – Tode [ˈtoːdə] (death)
always sounds müd’ [myːt] (tired) – müde [ˈmyːdə] (tired)
devoiced; even in
words where d is Leid [la͡et] (sorrow) – leiden [ˈla͡edən] (to suffer)
final due to Herd [heːrt] (stove) – Herde [ˈheːrdə] (flock)
truncation.
Gold [ɡɔlt] (gold) – Golde [ˈɡɔldə] (gold)
Land [lant] (land) – Lande [ˈlandə] (land)
EXERCISE 10.2.4 Prolonged [t͡d] and [t]; Prolonged [t͡d] and [d]
Practice the und der [ʊnt ͡deːɐ] – unter [ˈʊntɐ] (under)

prolonged alveolar (and the…)
plosive [t͡d] in the
following words und dir [ʊnt ͡diːɐ] – Untier [ˈʊntiːɐ] (monster)
and compare it (and you…)
with the unvoiced Bettdecke [ˈbɛt͡dɛkə] bedecke [bəˈdɛkə] (cover)
–
[t] and voiced [d].
(bed spread)
To prologue [t͡d]
implode (without Raddampfer [ˈrɑːt͡damp͡fɐ] – Radar [ˈrɑːdɑːɾ] (radar)
sound) the first (paddle steamer)
plosive and extend
the stoppage until
you release
(explode) on the
second voiced
plosive.
EXERCISE 10.2.5 Prolonged [t͡t] and [t͡d]
Practice the Stadtteil [ˈʃtat͡ta͡el] – Stadtdirektor [ˈʃtat͡direktɔɐ]

prolonged alveolar (district) (town commissioner)
plosive [t͡t] and
Betttuch [ˈbɛt͡tuːx] – Bettdecke [ˈbɛt͡dɛkə] (bed
compare it with the
prolonged [t͡d]. (bed sheet) spread)
Notice the Abendtoilette – Abenddämmerung
difference in the
[ˈɑːbənt͡twaˌlɛtə] [ˈɑːbənt͡ˌdɛməɾʊŋ] (twilight)
release of the
plosive. (evening dress)
EXERCISE 10.2.6 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [t] and [d]
Speak the following Tal [__ɑː l] (valley) Dank [__aŋk] (gratitude)

words and apply the
Dorf [__ɔrf] (village) Winter [ˈvɪn__ɐ] (winter)
pronunciation rules
for [t] and [d]. As an Bote [ˈboː__ə] (messenger) Taube [ˈ__ɑ͡obə] (dove)
aid we have
provided an IPA
baden [ˈboː__ən] (to bath) Ritter [ˈrɪ__ɐ] (knight)
transcription for all Waldrand [val__ran__] erdulden [ɛɐˈ__ʊl__ən]
the other sounds (edge of the forest) (to endure)
not covered in this
section. Wetter [ˈvɛ__ɐ] (weather) weit [va͡e__] (far)
Lied [liː__] (song) Schuld [ʃʊl__] (blame, sin)
Theater [__eˈɑː__ɐ] (theater) Tropfen [ˈ__rɔp͡fən] (drops)
heiter [ˈha͡e__ɐ] (cheerful) Bitte [bɪ__ə] (request)
Händchen [ˈhɛn__çən] Hemdlein [ˈhɛm__la͡en]
(little hand) (little shirt)
Zeit [t͡sa͡e__] (time) goldne [ˈɡɔl__nə] (golden)
Tritt [__rɪ__] (kick) golden [ˈɡɔl__ən] (golden)
Widder [ˈvɪ__ɐ] (Aries) Garten [ˈɡar__ən] (garden)
Stadt [ʃta__] (city) rot [roː__] (red)
Feld [fɛl__] (field) Gesundheit [ɡəˈzʊn__ha͡e__]
(health)
laden [ˈlɑː__ən] (to load) Held [hɛl__] (hero)
Wanderer [ˈvan__əɾɐ] und [ʊn__] (and)
(wanderer)
Plosives ■ 159
Wandrer [ˈvan__rəɾ] dunkel [ˈ__ʊŋkəl] (dark)

(wanderer)
Handschue [ˈhan__ˌʃuːə] neidisch [ˈna͡e__ɪʃ] (envious)
(gloves)
verderben [fɛɐˈ__ɛrbən] (to feindselig [ˈfa͡en__ˌzeːlɪç]
destroy) (hostile)
Bade [ˈbɑː__ə] (bath) Turm [__ʊrm] (tower)
Städtchen [ˈʃtɛ__çən] (town) Bildnis [ˈbɪl__nɪs] (portrait)
kindisch [ˈkɪn__ɪʃ] (childish) Ort [ɔr__] (place)
bald [bal__] (soon) Wald [val__] (forest)
Abenddämmerung Geldtruhe [ˈɡɛl___ruːə]
[ˈɑːbən___ɛməɾʊŋ] (twilight) (money chest)
■ ■ 10.3 VELAR PLOSIVES [k] AND [ɡ]
[k] ■ k, kk, ck = [k]

■ medial g + consonant = [k]
■ final -g = [k]
k Pronounce [k] in all spellings of
the letter k
König [ˈkøːɪç], Haken [ˈhɑːken],
Spuk [ʃpuːk]
Attention: In German k is never
silent as in English words with Velar Plosives [k] and [g]
initial kn as in know [nɔʊ], but it is Form the voiceless velar plosive [k]
always pronounced [k]: like k in the English word king.
Knospe [ˈknɔspə], Knabe [ˈknɑːbə].
kk The double consonant kk and the The back of the tongue touches the
ck consonant combination ck are soft palate (velum) and air pressure
pronounced like a single k [k]: builds up behind the stoppage. The
Akkord [aˈkɔrt], glücklich [ˈɡlʏklɪç] back of the tongue springs down with
a plosive release of air.
Note: According to the old rules Usually [k] is aspirated [kʰ]:

for word division ck was divided as krank [kʰraŋkʰ]
k-k. The new Duden1 keeps ck
However, when the devoiced g
together. You will find the old
precedes a suffix with a voiced initial
division in many scores.
consonant, such as -lich, -nis, -sal, the
Attention: The combination ckk plosive is not aspirated and its
appears in the junction of enunciation is slightly softer.
compound words and is Wagnis [ˈvɑːknɪs] not [ˈvɑːkʰnɪs]
pronounced as prolonged [k͡k]. fraglich [ˈfrɑːklɪç] not [ˈfrɑːkʰlɪç]
(See also section on Consonant
Aspiration of devoiced consonants
Length in Chapter 8):
may also be slightly softened when a
zurück/kehren [t͡suˈɾʏk͡ˌkeːɾən]
truncated word is followed by a word
beginning with a vowel:
flieg’ ich [fliːk ǀɪç] not [fliːkʰ ǀɪç]
Plosives ■ 161
ch Pronounce [k] in spellings of the

consonant combination ch
• in words of Greek origin only:
Charakter [kaˈɾaktɐ], Chor
[koːɐ], Christ [krɪst], Orchester
[ɔrˈkɛstɐ],
Melancholie [melaŋkoˈliː]
except initial in some nouns
and names of Greek origin when
ch is pronounced [ç]:
Charon [ˈçɑːɾɔn] (ancient Greek
name)
Chrysothemis [çryˈzoːtemɪs]
(ancient Greek name)
g Pronounce [k] in spellings of the Attention: Two consecutive like

letter g consonants are not sounded twice.
• medial before a consonant: To prolong ckk as in [k͡k], implode
trägt [trɛːkt], legte [ˈleːktə] (without sound) the first plosive and
extend the stoppage until you release
it on the second plosive: Rück/kehr
[ˈrʏk͡keːɐ]
except before l, n, r in inflected

eliminated from the word stem:
eigen → Eig(e)ner → Eigner
[ˈa͡eɡnɐ]
Regen → reg(e)nen → regnen
[ˈreːɡnən]
Wagen→Wag(e)ner→Wagner
[ˈvɑːɡnɐ]
Vogel→Vög(e)lein→Vöglein
[ˈføːɡla͡en]
except in the following words of

Latin origin:
Agnes [aɡnɛs], Agnus [aɡnʊs]
• final in a word (including
compound words):
Weg [veːk], Weg/rand [ˈveːkrant]
Note: The above rule also
applies when g becomes final
due to truncation:
fliege [ˈfliːɡə] → flieg’ [fliːk]
• final in a word stem followed

by a consonant:
Feig/ling [ˈfa͡eklɪŋ], kläglich
[ˈklɛːklɪç], reg/los [ˈreːkloːs],
Wag/nis [ˈvɑːknɪs]
except when the g is part of the
combination ng that is
pronounced [ŋ].
sing [zɪŋ], singt [zɪŋt], hängt
[hɛŋt]
except in the suffix combination

-ig which is pronounced [ɪç]:
König [ˈkøːnɪç], wenig [ˈveːnɪç]
Plosives ■ 163
[ɡ] ■ initial g = [ɡ]

■ medial g + vowel = [ɡ]
■ g + (e)l, (e)n, (e)r = [ɡ]
g Pronounce [ɡ] in spellings of the The back of the tongue touches the
letter g soft palate (velum) and air pressure
• initial to a word or element: builds up behind the stoppage. The
Garten [ˈɡartən], Glanz [ɡlant͡s], back of the tongue lowers with a
Gnom [ɡnoːm], grau [ɡra͡o], plosive release of air. The vocal folds
Monden/glanz [ˈmoːndənˌɡlant͡s] vibrate simultaneously (see graph on
page 148).
Wagen [ˈvɑːɡən], Regen [ˈreːɡən], Form the voiced velar plosive [ɡ]
eigen [ˈa͡eɡən] like the English word good.
• preceding l, n, or r in inflected Avoid the addition of a schwa between
forms where a schwa has been g and a voiced consonant. Thus,
eliminated from the word stem: enunciate:
eigen → Eig(e)ner → Eigner grau [ɡrɑ͡o] not [ɡᵊˈɾɑ͡o]
[ˈa͡eɡnɐ] regnen [ˈreːɡnən] not [ˈreːɡᵊnən]
Regen → reg(e)nen → regnen
[ˈreːɡnən]
[ˈvɑːɡnɐ]
Vogel → Vög(e)lein → Vöglein
[ˈføːɡla͡en]

Attention: The letter combination
ng in one element is always
pronounced [ŋ]:
singen [ˈzɪŋən]
gg There is no difference in the To prolong gg as in [k͡ɡ], implode
pronunciation of single g and (without sound) the first plosive and
double gg. Pronounce [ɡ] in all extend the stoppage until you release
spellings of gg it on the second plosive:
• in one element: weg/gehen [ˈvɛk͡ɡeːən]
Flagge [ˈflaɡə], Egge [ˈɛɡə]
Attention: When two consecutive
g’s, gg, belong to two separate
elements it is pronounced as
prolonged [k͡ɡ]. (See also section on
Consonant Length in Chapter 8.)
weg/geben [ˈvɛk͡ˌɡeːbən]
-ig Pronounce [ɪɡ] in the

combination -ig
• before a vowel, but remember
to pronounce -ig as [ɪç] before a
consonant or final in a word or
element:
Könige [ˈkøːnɪɡə] but König
[ˈkøːnɪç]
wenige [ˈveːnɪɡə] but wenig
[ˈveːnɪç]
beleidigen [bəˈla͡edɪɡən] but
beleidigt
[bəˈla͡edɪçt]
Note: Remember if final -ig is

followed by the suffix -lich and in
the compound word Königreich it is
pronounced [ɪk]:
königlich [ˈkøːnɪklɪç]
Königreich [ˈkøːnɪkra͡eç]
Plosives ■ 165
Exercises for [k] and [ɡ]

EXERCISE 10.3.1 Initial [k] and [ɡ]
Practice speaking Kiesel [ˈkiːzəl] (pebble) – gießen [ˈɡiːsən] (to pour)

these word pairs,
kerben [ˈkɛrbən] (to notch) – gerben [ˈɡɛrbən] (tan leather)
first in the
proposed Kabel [ˈkɑːbəl] (cable) – Gabel [ˈɡɑːbəl] (fork)
sequence and
then in reverse
Kasse [ˈkasə] (cash register) – Gasse [ˈɡasə] (alley)
order. Compare Karten [ˈkartən] (cards) – Garten [ˈɡartən] (garden)
the unvoiced
velar plosive [k] Kuss [kʊs] (kiss) – Guss [ɡʊs] (cast, as in cast iron)
with the voiced Kunst [kʊnst] (art) – Gunst [ɡʊnst] (favor)
velar plosive [ɡ]
in initial position. können [ˈkœnən] (to be able) – gönnen [ˈɡœnən] (to grant)
Notice how the
künstlich [ˈkʏnstlɪç] (artificial) – günstig [ˈɡʏnstɪç] (favorable)
position of
articulators Kram [krɑːm] (junk) – Gram [ɡrɑːm] (sorrow)
remains the same
Kreis [kra͡es] (circle) – Greis [ɡra͡es] (very old man)
in the voiced and
the unvoiced Kraut [krɑ͡ot] (herb) – graut [ɡrɑ͡ot] (dawns)
sound. Make
Kruppe [ˈkrʊpe] (croup) – Gruppe [ˈɡrʊpə] (group)
sure that [k] is
aspirated and Knabe [ˈknɑːbə] (boy) – Gnade [ˈɡnɑːde] (grace)
avoid any
aspiration in [ɡ].
EXERCISE 10.3.2 Medial [k] and [ɡ]
Compare the flicken [ˈflɪkən] (to mend) – fliegen [ˈfliːɡən] (to fly)
unvoiced velar
plosive [k] with
recken [ˈrɛkən] (stretch) – Regen [ˈreːɡən] (rain)
the voiced velar Hecken [ˈhɛkən] (hedges) – hegen [ˈheːɡən] (to nurture)
plosive [ɡ] in
medial position. Ecke [ˈɛkə] (corner) – Egge [ˈɛɡə] (harrow)
wackeln [ˈvakəln] (wiggle) – wagen [ˈvɑːɡən] (to risk)
Balken [ˈbalkən] (beam) – balgen [ˈbalɡən] (to tussle)
locken [ˈlɔkən] (to lure) – logen [ˈloːɡən] (lied)
bocken [ˈbɔkən] (to buck) – Bogen [ˈboːɡən] (bow)
Socken [ˈzɔkən] (socks) – sogen [ˈsoːɡən] (absorbed)
Brücke [ˈbrʏkə] (bridge) – Brügge [ˈbrʏɡə] (city in the
Belgium)
EXERCISE 10.3.3 Devoiced [k] Versus Voiced [ɡ]
Compare the Sieg [ziːk] (victory) – siegen [ˈziːɡən] (to win)

devoiced final g,
flieg’ [fliːk] (fly) – fliege [ˈfliːɡə] (fly)
pronounced [k],
with the voiced lieg’ [liːk] (lie) – liege [liːɡə] (lie)
velar plosive [ɡ].
Notice how g in
Steg [ʃteːk] (footbridge) – Stege [ˈʃteːɡə]
final position (footbridges)
always sounds Berg [bɛrk] (mountain) – Berge [ˈbɛrɡə]
devoiced; even in (mountains)
words where g is
final due to sag’ [zɑːk] (say) – Sage [ˈzɑːɡə] (saga)
truncation. Tag [tɑːk] (day) – Tage [ˈtɑːɡə] (days)
bog [boːk] (bent) – Bogen [ˈboːɡən] (bow)
trug [truːk] (wore) – trugen [ˈtruːɡən] (wore)
Burg [bʊrk] (castle) – Burgen [ˈbʊrɡən] (castles)
Aug’ [ɑ͡ok] (eye) – Auge [ˈɑ͡oɡə] (eye)
EXERCISE 10.3.4 Prolonged [k͡k] and [k͡ɡ]
Practice the Bergkette [ˈbɛrk͡ˌkɛtə] – Berggipfel [ˈbɛrk͡ˌɡɪp͡fəl]

prolonged velar (mountain chain) (mountain top)
plosive [k͡k] and
compare it with Burggraben [ˈbʊrk͡ˌɡrɑːbən] – Burgkapelle [ˈbʊrk͡kaˌpɛlə]
the prolonged (castle chapel) (moat)
[k͡ɡ]. Notice the
difference in the Flugkapitän [ˈfluːk͡kapɪˌtɛːn] – Fluggesellschaft
release of the (pilot) [ˈfluːk͡ɡəˌzɛlʃaft] (airline)
plosive.
Tragkraft [ˈtrɑːk͡kraft] – Truggebilde [ˈtruːk͡ɡəˌbɪldə]
(load capacity) (hallucination)
Wegkreuzung – Weggabelung
[ˈveːk͡ˌkrɔ͡øt͡sʊŋ] [ˌveːk͡ˌɡɑːbəlʊŋ] (fork in a
(crossroads) road)
wegkundig [ˈveːk͡ˌkʊndɪç] – Weggeld [ˈveːk͡ɡɛlt] (road toll)
(familiar with the paths )
wegkehren [ˈvɛk͡ˌkeːɾən] (to – weggehen [ˈvɛk͡ˌɡeːən]
look away) (to go away)
wegkriegen [ˈvɛk͡ˌkriːɡən] (to – weggeben [ˈvɛk͡ˌɡeːbən]
get rid of something) (to give away)
Plosives ■ 167
EXERCISE 10.3.5 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [k] and [ɡ]
Speak the Gold [__ɔlt] (gold) Geselle [__əˈzɛlə]

following words (companion)
and apply the
pronunciation Kind [__ɪnt] (child) kalt [__alt] (cold)
rules for [k] and trinken [ˈtrɪŋ__ən] (to drink) glatt [__lat] (slippery)
[ɡ]. As an aid we
have provided an Berg [bɛr__] (mountain) eigen [ˈa͡e__ən] (own)
IPA transcription Akkord [aˈ__ɔrt] (chord) Eigner [ˈa͡e__nɐ] (owner)
for all the other
sounds not wecken [ˈvɛ__ən] (to wake up) eignen [ˈa͡e__nən] (own)
covered in this
Flagge [ˈfla__ə] (flag) Schenke [ˈʃɛŋ__ə] (tavern)
section.
Sieg [ziː__] (victory) Decke [ˈdɛ__ə] (blanket)
glücklich [ˈ__lʏ__lɪç] (happy) Krone [ˈ__roːnə] (crown)
weggehen [ˈvɛ___eːən] (to go zurückkehren [t͡suˈrʏ___eːɾən]
away) (to return)
Knospe [ˈ__nɔspə] (bud) lenken [ˈlɛŋ__ən] (to steer)
Chor [__oːɾ] (choir) Zwerg [t͡svɛr__] (dwarf)
Wagen [ˈvɑː__ən] (wagon) Ecke [ˈɛ__ə] (corner)
Wagner [ˈvɑː__nɐ] (wainwright) Woge [ˈvoː__ə] (wave)
Tag [tɑː__] (day) grün [__ryːn] (green)
Gnom [__noːm] (gnome) tragen [ˈtrɑː__ən] (to carry)
wenige [ˈveːnɪ__ə] (a few) zagen [ˈt͡sɑː__ən] (hesitate)
Bogen [ˈboː__ən] (bow) klein [__la͡en] (small)
Knabe [ˈ__nɑːbə] (boy) Weg [veː__] (path)
weggeben [ˈvɛ___eːbən] Melancholie [melaŋ__oˈliː]
(to give away) (melancholy)
winken [ˈvɪŋ__ən] (to wave) Könige [ˈ__øːnɪ__ə] (kings)
backen [ˈba__ən] (to bake) Gnade [ˈ__nɑːdə] (grace)
Chronos [ˈ__roːnɔs] (Chronos) sagen [ˈzɑː__ən] (to say)
Egge [ˈɛ__ə] (harrow) Mondenglanz [ˈmoːndən__
lant͡s]
(moon shine)
■ ■ CH A P T ER 11
NASALS
For most sounds the soft palate closes off the nasal cavity, allowing the airflow to escape
only through the mouth. Nasal consonants, however, have their name and distinctive
quality from the lowered soft palate, which allows the sound to travel through the nasal
cavity. They are further distinguished by the way the air is blocked from passing through
the oral cavity. For the bilabial nasal [m] as in morning, the lips come together; for the al-
veolar nasal [n] as in night, the tongue touches the upper dental ridge (alveolus); and for
the velar nasal [ŋ] as ng in song, the tongue touches the soft palate (velum).
Letter IPA English Examples German Examples

Bilabial m [m] murmur, lament Morgen [ˈmɔrɡən], Blume [ˈbluːmə]
Alveolar n [n] night, sand Nacht [naxt], Biene [ˈbiːnə]
Velar ng [ŋ] singing singen [ˈzɪŋən]
In most cases nasals are pronounced in German exactly as they are in English. However,
keep in mind that ng in one element of simple (non-compound) words of German origin
is always pronounced with only one sound, [ŋ] as ng in singing, and never with two. Thus,
the German word Finger, which is identical in meaning and spelling with the English
word finger, should be pronounced as [ˈfɪŋɐ] and not as it would be in English, [ˈfɪŋɡəɹ].
You will find guidelines for the IPA transcription in the Pronunciation column.
Descriptions of the sounds and help with enunciation can be found in the Enunciation
column.
■ 169
■ ■ 11.1 BILABIAL NASAL [m]
[m] ■ m = [m]
■ mm = [m]
m Pronounce [m] in all
spellings of the letter m:
Morgen [ˈmɔrɡən],
am [am],
murmeln [ˈmʊrməln]
Bilabial Nasal [m]
mm There is no difference in Form the voiced, bilabial nasal [m] like m in

the pronunciation of a the English word morning or May.
single m and double mm
The lowered soft palate (velum) allows the
in the same element.
sound to pass through the nasal cavity while
Pronounce [m] in all
the lips come together and prohibit the air
spellings of mm
from escaping through the mouth. The vocal
• in one element:
folds vibrate at the same time. The tongue rests
immer [ˈɪmɐ], Sommer
behind the lower front teeth.
[ˈzɔmɐ]
The double consonant mm should not be
Attention: When two
sounded twice. In cases where two consecutive
consecutive m’s, mm,
m’s belong to two separate elements and for
belong to two separate
that reason must be pronounced prolonged as
elements it is pronounced
a [m͡m], a breath impulse may be applied to the
as prolonged [m͡m]. (See
second m for better clarity and to stress the
also section on Consonant
beginning of the new element: um/mauern
[ʊm͡ˈmɑ͡oəɾn]
um/mauern [ʊm͡ˈmɑ͡oəɾn]
am Morgen [am ͡ˈmɔrɡən] Furthermore, avoid the addition of a shadow
schwa before m when preceded by n, l or r:
Unmut [ʊnmuːt] not [ʊnᵊmuːt]
Alm [alm] not [alᵊm]
warm [varm] not [vaɾᵊm]
Tip: Form your lips to [m] while your
tongue is still in the process of saying the
preceding n or l, r.
Nasals ■ 171
■ ■ 11.2 ALVEOLAR NASAL [n]
[n] ■ n = [n]
■ nn = [n]
n Pronounce [n] in all spellings of
the letter n:
Nacht [naxt], Kahn [kɑːn],
Kanone [kaˈnoːnə]
Alveolar Nasal [n]
nn There is no difference in the Form the alveolar nasal [n] like n in the
pronunciation of single n and English word night or Nancy.
double nn. Pronounce [n] in all
The lowered soft palate (velum) allows
spellings of nn
the sound to pass through the nasal
• in one element:
cavity while the tip of the tongue
kennen [ˈkɛnən], Wonne [ˈvɔnə]
touches the alveolus and prohibits the
Attention: When two consecutive air from escaping through the mouth.
n’s belong to two separate elements, The vocal folds vibrate simultaneously.
then nn is prolonged [n͡n]. Pay
In cases where two consecutive n’s
special attention in words with a
belong to two separate elements and
prefix ending on n. (See also section
for that reason must be pronounced
on Consonant Length in Chapter 8.)
prolonged as a [n͡n], a breath impulse
hin/nehmen [ˈhɪn͡ˌneːmən]
may be applied to the second n for
an/nehmen [ˈan͡ˌneːmən]
better clarity and to stress the
un/natürlich [ˈʊn͡naˌtyːrlɪç]
beginning of the new element:
von Norden [fɔn ͡ˈnɔrdən]
Hin/nahme [ˈhɪn͡ˌnɑːmə]
Attention: Unlike Italian, avoid
replacing [n] with [m] before [f]:
sanft [zanft] not [zamft].
Also, be careful to not replace [n] with
[ŋ] before [ɡ] or [k] when the two
sounds do not belong to the same
element:
un/getreu [ˈʊnɡəˌtrɔ͡ø] not [ˈʊŋɡəˌtrɔ͡ø]
un/klar [ˈʊnklɑːɾ] not [ˈʊŋklɑːɾ]
Furthermore, avoid the addition of a

schwa before n when preceded by a
vowel or r:
mein [ma͡en] not [ma͡eən]
gern [ɡɛrn] not [ɡɛrən]
Tip: Move the tip of the tongue to the
alveolus to say [n] while the rest of the
articulators are still in the process of
saying the preceding vowel or r.
Nasals ■ 173
■ ■ 11.3 VELAR NASAL [Ŋ]
[ŋ] ■ ng = [ŋ]
■ n + k = [ŋ]+ [k]
■ n + x = [ŋ]+ [k͡s]
ng Pronounce [ŋ] in spellings of the letter
combination ng in one element:
• in one element:
Klang [klaŋ], singen [ˈzɪŋən],
Finger [ˈfɪŋɐ]
except in the following words: Velar Nasal [ŋ]
Fandango [fanˈdaŋɡo] The lowered soft palate (velum)
Fango [ˈfaŋɡo] allows the sound to pass
Mango [ˈmaŋɡo] through the nasal cavity while
Tango [ˈtaŋɡo ] the center of the tongue touches
Attention: When the letter combination the soft palate and prohibits the
ng is part of two separate elements, then n air from escaping through the
and g are pronounced separately as mouth. The vocal folds vibrate
two sounds [n] and [ɡ]. simultaneously. The tongue rests
an/genehm [ˈanɡəˌneːm] behind the lower front teeth.
hin/gehen [ˈhɪnˌɡeːən]
nk When the letter n occurs before the letter k Form the velar nasal [ŋ] like the
in one element, then pronounce n as [ŋ] ng in the English word song.
and k as [k]. Pronounce [ŋ] + [k] in
spellings of the letter combination nk
• in one element:
schlank [ʃlaŋk], Funken [ˈfʊŋkən],
dunkel [ˈdʊŋkəl]
Attention: When the letter combination
nk comprises a portion of two elements,
then n and k are pronounced separately as
[n]+[k] and not as [ŋ]+[k]:
An/kunft [ˈankʊnft], un/klar [ˈʊnklɑːɾ]
But remember: Melancholie [melaŋkoˈliː]
nx The same also applies to the combination Attention: In simple words of
n before x in words of foreign origin, German origin ng is represented by
where n is pronounced as [ŋ] and x as [k͡s]. only one sound, [ŋ] as in singen
Pronounce [ŋ] + [k͡s] in spellings of nx: [ˈzɪŋən] and never by two as in the
Sphinx [sfɪŋk͡s] English word finger [ˈfɪŋɡəɹ].
Exercises for [m], [n], and [ŋ]

EXERCISE 11.3.1 Initial, Medial, and Final [m]
Practice speaking these groups of words, both, in the proposed sequence and in
reverse order and observe how m in initial, medial and final position is the same.
Also notice how the single letter m, which follows a long vowel, sounds the same as
the double letter mm, which follows a short vowel.
mir [miːɐ] (me) – niemand [ˈniːmant] – ihm [iːm] (him)

(nobody)
mit [mɪt] (with) – immer [ˈɪmɐ] (always) – im [ɪm] (in)
Mehl [meːl] (flour) – nehmen [ˈneːmən] – Lehm [leːm] (clay)
(to take)
Mensch [mɛnʃ] (human) – kämmen [ˈkɛmən] (to – kämm’ [kɛm]
comb) (I comb)
Mantel [ˈmantəl] (coat) – stammen [ˈʃtamən] – am [am] (at)
(to come from)
Mahl [mɑːl] (meal) – Name [ˈnɑːmə] (name) – zahm [t͡sɑːm] (tame)
Mode [ˈmoːdə] (fashion) – Omen [ˈoːmən] (omen) – Dom [doːm] (cathedral)
Moll [mɔl] (minor) – Trommel [ˈtrɔməl] (drum) – fromm [frɔm] (religious)
Muse [ˈmuzə] (muse) – Krume [ˈkruːmə] – Ruhm [ruːm] (fame)
(crumb)
muss [mʊs] (must) – Kummer [ˈkʊmɐ] – um [ʊm] (about,
(sorrow) around)
Mythos [ˈmyːtɔs] (myth) – Krümel [ˈkryːməl] – Ungestüm
(crumb) [ˈʊnɡeˌʃtyːm]
(impetuous)
Nasals ■ 175
EXERCISE 11.3.2 [mt] Combinations
Practice these words with [mt] Samt [zamt] (velvet)

combinations. Pay special attention stimmt [ʃtɪmt] (correct)
to a smooth connection between [m]
Hemd [hɛmt] (shirt)
and [t], and avoid releasing [m] with
a bilabial plosion [p]; thus Samt is kommt [kɔmt] (comes)
pronounced [zamt] and not [zamᵖt]. brummt [brʊmt] (growls)
summt [zʊmt] (buzzes)
träumt [trɔ͡ømt] (dreams)
schäumt [ʃɔ͡ømt] (foams)
zäumt [t͡s ɔ͡ømt] (bridles)
EXERCISE 11.3.3 Prolonged [m͡m]

Practice these words with prolongued dem Mann [deːm ͡man] (to the man)
[m͡m]. Smoothly connect the two im Mai [ɪm ͡ma͡e] (in May)
words or elements without allowing
m to sound twice. Apply a slight im Monat [ɪm ͡ˈmoːnɑːt] (in the month)
breath impulse to the second m in im Mond [ɪm ͡moːnt] (in the moon)
order to emphasize the new syllable.
im Mund [ɪm ͡mʊnt] (in the mouth)
im Maul [ɪm ͡mɑ͡ol] (in the muzzle)
am Morgen [am ͡ˈmɔrɡən] (in the morning)
am Mittag [am ͡ˈmɪtɑːk] (at noon)
um Mitternacht [ʊm ͡ˈmɪtɐnaxt] (at midnight)
ummauern [ʊmˈ͡mɑ͡oəɾn] (to wall in)
EXERCISE 11.3.4 Initial, Medial, and Final [n]

Practice speaking these groups of words, both, in the proposed sequence and in
reverse order and observe how n in initial, medial and final position is the same. Also
notice how the single letter n, which follows a long vowel, sounds the same as the
double letter nn, which follows a short vowel.
nie [niː] (never) – Linie [ˈliːni ̯ə] (line) – zieh’n [ t͡siːn] (to pull)
nimm [nɪm] (take) – hinnen [ˈhɪnən] – hin [hɪn] (down)
(hence)
nehmen [ˈneːmən] – lehnen [ˈleːnən] – seh’n [zeːn] (to see)
(to take) (lean)
necken [ˈnɛkən] – Sennin [ˈzɛnɪn] – denn [dɛn] (than)
(to tease) (shepherdess)
Narr [nar] (fool) – Tanne [ˈtanə] (fir) – Bann [ban] (magic spell)
Naht [nɑːt] (seam) – bahnt [bɑːnt] (makes – Wahn [vɑːn]
one’s way) (delusion)
Not [noːt] (distress) – schonen [ˈʃoːnən] – Ton [toːn] (sound)
(to spare)
Nord [nɔrt] (north) – Wonne [ˈvɔnə] – Bonn [bɔn] (city in
(delight) Germany)
nur [nuːɾ] (only) – Rune [ˈruːnə] (rune) – tun [tuːn] (to do)
Nuss [nʊs] (nut) – Wunde [ˈvʊndə] (wound) – nun [nuːn] (now)
Nasals ■ 177
EXERCISE 11.3.5 [nf] Combinations
Speak the following words with [nf] Anfang [ˈanfaŋ] (beginning)

combinations. Pay special attention to a
smooth connection of the two sounds sanft [zanft] (gently)
and avoid replacing [n] with [m] before Zukunft [ˈt͡suːkʊnft] (future)
[f].
Zunft [t͡sʊnft] (guild)
Sänfte [ˈzɛnftə] (palanquin)
künftig [ˈkʏnftɪç] (future)
EXERCISE 11.3.6 [nm] Combinations
Practice the following words with [nm] Unmut [ˈʊnmuːt] (displeasure)

combinations. Pay special attention to a unmöglich [ˈʊnˌmøːklɪç] (impossible)
smooth connection of the two nasal
sounds and do not allow a shadow anmessen [ˈanˌmɛsən] (to measure)
schwa to get in between them. Thus the anmutig [ˈanˌmuːtɪç] (graceful)
word Unmut should be pronounced:
[ʊnmuːt] not [ʊnᵊmuːt] anmerken [ˈanˌmɛrkən] (to note)
einmal [ˈa͡enmal] (once)
unmerklich [ˈʊnˌmɛrklɪç] (imperceptible)
den Mond [den moːnt] (the moon)
den Mund [den mʊnt] (the mouth)
den Meister [den ˈma͡estɐ] (the master)
ein Müller [a͡en ˈmʏlɐ] (a miller)
ein Mädchen [a͡en ˈmɛːtçən] (a girl)
EXERCISE 11.3.7 Prolonged [n͡n]

Practice these words with prolonged annähern [ˈan͡nɛːɐn] (to approach)
[n͡n]. Smoothly connect the two words unnötig [ˈʊn͡nøːtɪç] (unnecessary)
or elements without allowing the n to
sound twice. Apply a slight breath unnatürlich [ʊn͡naˈtyːɐlɪç] (unnatural)
impulse to the second n in order to unnahbar [ˈʊn͡nɑːbɑːɾ] (unapproachable)
emphasize the new syllable when
applicable. in Not [ɪn͡ noːt] (in distress)
von niemand [fɔn ͡ˈniːmant] (by none)
EXERCISE 11.3.8 Medial and Final [ŋ]

Practice speaking ringen [ˈrɪŋən] (to wrestle) – Ring [rɪŋ] (ring)
these word pairs,
both, in the Engel [ˈɛŋəl] (angel) – eng [ɛŋ] (narrow)
proposed
bangen [ˈbaŋən] (to fear) – bang [baŋ] (fearfully)
sequence and in
reverse order and –
Junge [ˈʝʊŋə] (boy) jung [ʝʊŋ] (young)
observe how ng
in medial and
final position
sounds the same.
EXERCISE 11.3.9 [ŋ] Versus [ŋk]

Practice the singen [ˈzɪŋən] (to sing) – sinken [ˈzɪŋkən] (to sink)
difference in drängen [ˈdrɛŋən] (to urge) – tränken [ˈtrɛŋkən] (to water)
pronunciation of
[ŋ] and [ŋk] in Wangen [ˈvaŋən] (cheeks) – wanken [ˈvaŋkən] (to waver)
these word pairs junger [ˈʝʊŋɐ] (young) – Junker [ˈʝʊŋkɐ] (young
with medial ng nobleman)
and nk.
Schlange [ˈʃlaŋə] (snake) – schlanke [ˈʃlaŋkə] (slim)
versengen [fɛɐˈzɛŋən] (to scorch) – versenken [fɛɐˈzɛŋkən] (to sink)
prangen [ˈpraŋən] (to flaunt) – Pranken [ˈpraŋkən] (paws)
Zangen [ˈ t͡saŋən] (pliers) – zanken [ˈt͡saŋkən] (to quarrel)
bang [baŋ] ( fearfully) – Bank [baŋk] (bank)
hängen [ˈhɛŋən] (to hang) – henken [hɛŋkən] (to execute
by hanging)
EXERCISE 11.3.10 [ŋt] Versus [ ŋkt]

In this exercise singt [zɪŋt] (sings) – sinkt [zɪŋkt] (sinks)
compare the drängt [drɛŋt] (urges) – tränkt [trɛŋkt] (waters)
consonant
clusters ngt and drangt [draŋt] (penetrated) – trankt [traŋkt] (drank)
nkt. As you can dringt [drɪŋt] (penetrates) – trinkt [trɪŋkt] (drink)
see in these word
pairs the hängt [hɛŋt] (hangs) – henkt [hɛŋkt] (executes by
difference of one hanging)
sound (i.e., [ŋt]
versus [ŋkt])
completely
changes the
meaning.
Nasals ■ 179
EXERCISE 11.3.11 [ŋ] Versus [nɡ]

This exercise Angel [ˈaŋəl] (fishing rod) – angenehm [ˈanɡəneːm]
demonstrates the (pleasant)
difference of ng in
Angst [aŋst] (fear) – Angesicht [ˈanɡəzɪçt] (view)
one element
versus n followed Drang [draŋ] (urge) – angreiffen [ˈanˌɡra͡͡efən] (to
by g in separate attack)
elements (e.g.,
Schlange [ˈʃlaŋə] (snake) – Angebot [ˈanɡəboːt] (offer)
prefixes an- and
un- followed Wange [ˈvaŋə] (cheek) – angetan [ˈanɡəɑːn] (done)
by a element
Hunger [ˈhʊŋɐ] (hunger) – ungern [ˈʊnɡɛrn] (reluctantly)
starting with g).
When n and g are geklungen [ɡəˈklʊŋən] – ungleich [ˈʊnɡla͡eç] (uneven)
not part of the (sounded)
same element,
umschlungen [ʊmˈʃlʊŋən] – ungünstig [ˈʊnˌɡʏnstɪç]
avoid substituting
[ŋ] for [n].
(entwined) (unfavorable)
gelungen [ɡəˈlʊŋən] – unglaublich [ˈʊnˌɡlɑ͡oplɪç]
(successful) (unbeleavable)
gesungen [ɡəˈzʊŋən] – ungemütlich [ˈʊnɡəˌmyːtlɪç]
(sung) (uncomfortable)
Lungen [ˈlʊŋən] (lungs) – ungerecht [ˈʊnɡəɾɛçt] (unfair)
EXERCISE 11.3.12 Applying the Rules for [m], [n], and [ŋ]
Speak the following Mund [__ʊ__t] (mouth) mein [__a͡e__] (mine)
words and apply the
Name [ˈ__ɑː__ə] (name) niemand [ˈ__iː__a__t]
pronunciation rules
for [m], [n] and [ŋ]. (nobody)
As an aid we have Hunger [ˈhʊ__ɐ] (hunger) klingen [ˈklɪ__ə__] (to sound)
provided an IPA
krank [kra__k] (sick) blank [bla__k] (bright)
transcription for all
the other sounds Sphinx [sfɪ__k͡s] (sphinx) Hände [ˈhɛ__də] (hands)
not covered in this
section. Ende [ˈɛ__də] (end) Schlange [ˈʃla__ə] (snake)
Wange [ˈva__ə] (cheek) nehmen [ˈ__eː__ə__] (to take)
Dame [ˈdɑː__ə] (lady) Enge [ˈɛ__ə] (narrowness)
lang [la__] (long) Wonne [ˈvɔ__ə] (delight)
unnatürlich [ˈʊ___atyːɐlɪç] angenehm [ˈa__ɡə__eː__]
(unnatural) (pleasant)
kämmen [ˈkɛ__ə__] (to comb) kommen [ˈkɔ__ə__] (to come)

trennen [ˈtrɛ__ə__] (separate) ungleich [ˈʊ__ɡla͡eç]
(unequal)
klingt [klɪ__t] (sounds) Enkel [ˈɛ__kəl] (grandson)
Engel [ɛ__əl] (angel) im Mai [ɪ___a͡e] (in May)
ummauern [ʊ___ɑ͡oəɾ__] unnötig [ˈʊ___øːtɪç]
(to wall in) (unnecessary)
Anker [ˈa__kɐ] (anchor) unklar [ˈʊ__klɑːɾ] (unclear)

anklagen [ˈa__klɑːɡə__] singen [ˈzɪ__ə__] (to sing)
(accuse)
Angel [ˈa__əl] (fishing rod) dringt [drɪ__t] (penetrates)
Angesicht [ˈa__ɡəzɪçt] (face) kämmt [kɛ__t] (combs)
nimmt [__ɪ__t] (takes) am Morgen [a___ɔrɡə__]
(in the morning)
sanft [za__ft] (gentle) in Not [ɪ___oːt] (in distress)

um [ʊ__] (about, around) nichts [__ɪçt͡s] (nothing)
mich [__ɪç] (me) Finger [ˈfɪ__ɐ] (finger)
in [ɪ__] (in) Anfang [ˈa__fa__] (beginning)
Unglück [ˈʊ__ɡlʏk] (accident) anmutig [ˈa___uːtɪç]
(gracefully)
■ ■ CH A P T ER 12
LATERAL AND TRILLS
The lateral [l] is called “lateral” because of the unique tongue position that allows the
sound to escape from the sides of the tongue. Although the same IPA symbol, [l], is used
in many different languages to represent a sound similar to the l-sound used in German,
its quality can vary. For the English speaker l can be a particularly tricky diction problem.
In many American areas l is pronounced darker in its quality and formed further back
with the middle of the tongue shaped to a cup-like hollow. Sometimes, though uninten-
tional, one hears l pronounced as a [w], as in “melted chocolate” [mɛwtəd t͡ʃɔkələt].
Neither the dark and back l, nor any substitution with [w], should be used in German.
Instead, the singer should strive for a brighter tone quality with a higher and flatter tongue
position and with the tip of the tongue touching the upper front teeth. You will find fur-
ther guidance for the enunciation of [l] in the right-hand column of the table following
this introduction. The IPA transcription of l presents no particular difficulties.
A trill is enunciated by the rapid tapping of the tongue against the alveolar ridge or the
uvula. In German spelling the trills are always represented by the letter r. The pronuncia-
tion of the r-sound varies greatly between regions of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.
Although we will restrict ourselves in this book to the sounds used for lyric diction, it
seems appropriate to give an overview of r-sounds and their vowel like substitute in this
introduction, so that they can be recognized and sorted out accordingly. When singing in
German we use mainly the voiced one-tap trill [ɾ] with a single tongue tap and the
voiced alveolar trill [r] with 2–3 tongue taps. In spoken dialogue (but never in sing-
ing) the voiced uvular trill [ʀ] may substitute for the 2- to 3-tap alveolar trill [r]. In art
song and in spoken dialogue, r following a long vowel is often substituted by a vowel like
sound, called vocalic-R [ɐ], similar to an r-colored schwa in English, but slightly darker
in color. The decision when to substitute a single tongue-tap r [ɾ] with the vocalic r [ɐ] has
to take into consideration the following factors: clarity of understanding related to the
■ 181
tempo of the music and rhythm of the declamation, the emotional intention associated
with the word and its context, and, last but not least, the singer’s taste. Some German sing-
ers favor the one-tap trill [ɾ], where others prefer the substitute vocalic r [ɐ]. Because the
vocalic r substitutes for an r-sound and has no other function, we have decided to discuss
it in this section with the r-sounds even though it is in essence a vowel and not a consonant.
The unvoiced uvular fricative [ʁ], should never be used in German lyric dic-
tion. The English speaker should also be careful to avoid the use of the alveolar ap-
proximant [ɹ] as in red, and the r-colored schwa [ə˞ ] as in father, which are not
sounds of the German language.
You will find descriptions of the sounds and help with enunciation problems in the
Enunciation column and guidelines for the IPA transcription in the Pronunciation column.
Lateral and Trills ■ 183
■ ■ 12.1 ALVEOLAR LATERAL [l]
[l] ■ l, ll = [l]
l Pronounce [l] in all spellings of
the letter l.
fühlen [ˈfyːlən], Leben [ˈleːbən],
Saal [zɑːl]
ll There is no difference in the
pronunciation of single l and
double ll. Pronounce [l] in all
spellings of ll
Alveolar Lateral [l]
• in one element:
Halle [ˈhalə], Schall [ʃal] Form the voiced alveolar lateral [l] similar to
the clear and light l, initial in English words
such as late and love. The tongue should rest
in a higher and more frontal place.
The tip of the tongue touches the alveolus
Attention: When two and requires the sound to travel laterally
consecutive l’s belong to two (sideways) around the tip of the tongue.
separate elements then ll is The sound is initiated by the vibrating
prolonged [l͡l]. (See also section vocal folds.
on Consonant Length in
Chapter 8):
gefühl/los [ɡəˈfyːl͡loːs]
Öl/lampe [ˈøːl͡ˌlampə]
zahl/lose [ˈt͡sɑːlˌ͡loːzə]
viel/liebchen [fiːlˈ͡liːpçən]
except: vielleicht [fiˈla͡eçt]
Attention: The English speaker has to
strongly resist any natural tendency for
downward cupping in the center of the
tongue.
Enunciation Exercise: Compare the
following words and concentrate on the
contrasting tongue position. Notice how
the tongue moves up and forward when
you articulate the German l.
English: German:
hell hell [hɛl] (bright)
leap lieb [liːp] (kind)
belt bellt [bɛlt] (barks)
fell Fell [fɛl] (fur)
fleck Fleck [flɛk] (stain)
In cases where two consecutive l’s belong
to two separate elements and for that
reason have to be pronounced prolonged
[l͡l], a breath impulse may be applied to
the second l for better clarity and to stress
the beginning of the new element:
zahl/los [ˈt͡sɑːl͡loːs]
Exercises for [l]

EXERCISE 12.1.1 Initial, Medial, and Final [l]
Practice speaking these word groups, both in the proposed sequence and in reverse
order (for example, Liebe-Diele-Ziel and Ziel-Diele-Liebe). Compare the following
words with [l] in initial, medial, and final position. Notice that the quality of [l]
remains the same whether the word is spelled with a single or a double consonant.
Liebe [ˈliːbə](love) – Diele [ˈdiːlə](floorboard) – Ziel [t͡siːl](target)

Licht [lɪçt] (light) – mild [mɪlt] (mild) – still [ʃtɪl](quiet)
Leben [ˈleːbən](life) – Elend [ˈeːlɛnt](miserable) – Seel’ [zeːl] (soul)
Lerche [ˈlɛrçə](lark) – Feld [fɛlt] (field) – hell [hɛl] (bright)
laben [ˈlɑːbən](to refresh) – zahlen [ˈt͡sɑːlən](to pay) – Tal [tɑːl](valley)
lachen [ˈlaxən](to laugh) – bald [balt](soon) – Hall [hal](echo)
Lohn [loːn] (wage) – holen [ˈhoːlən](to get) – hohl [hoːl] (hollow)
locken [ˈlɔkən](to lure) – Gold [ɡɔlt](gold) – voll [fɔl] (full)
Lupe [ˈluːpə] (magnifying – Buhle [ˈbuːlə](paramour) – Stuhl [ʃtuːl](chair)
glass)
EXERCISE 12.1.2 [bl], [pl], [ɡl], [kl], [fl], [ʃl] Combinations

Practice the consonant Blüte [ˈblyːtə](blossom)
combinations [bl], [pl], [ɡl], [kl],
[fl], [ʃl]. Avoid the insertion of an bleich [bla͡eç] (pale)
involuntary shadow schwa [ᵊ] in
Platz [plat͡s] (place)
between the two consonants by
moving swiftly from the initial plump [plʊmp] (clumsy)
consonant to the following [l].
Glut [ɡluːt](glow)
glänzen [ˈɡlɛnt͡sən](to shine)
Klage [ˈklɑːɡə](lament)
klein [kla͡en] (little)
Flut [fluːt] (flood)
fliessen [ˈfliːsən](to flow)
Schlummer [ˈʃlʊmɐ](slumber)
schlau [ʃlɑ͡o](clever)
EXERCISE 12.1.3 Prolonged [l͡l]
Practice the prolonged [l͡͡l] in Schnelllauf [ˈʃnɛl͡lɑ͡of](sprint)

compound words and word
sequences. Do not allow any schnell laufen [ʃnɛl ͡ˈlɑ͡ofən](to run fast)
separation between a word ending
on l and the following word
hell leuchtend [hɛl ͡ˈlɔ͡øçtənt](brightly shining)
starting with l, but connect them hell lodernd [hɛl ͡ˈloːdərnt](bright flaming)
together.
Übel leiden [ˈyːbəl ͡ˈla͡edən](suffering evil)
voll Liebe [fɔl ͡ˈliːbə](full of love)
voll Lust [fɔl͡ lʊst](full of joy)
voll Leid [fɔl͡ la͡et](full of sorrow)
EXERCISE 12.1.4 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [l]

Say the following words and apply blau [b__ɑ͡o](blue)
the pronunciation rules for [l]. As
an aid we have provided an IPA heller [ˈhɛ__ɐ](brighter)
transcription for all the other
sounds not covered in this section. lau [__ɑ͡o](lukewarm)
Wahl [vɑː__](choice)
Wall [va__](rampart)
gefühllos [ɡəˈfyː___oːs](insensitive)
helllichter [ˈhɛ___ɪçtɐ](very bright)
hell lachen [hɛ__ˈ__axən](laughing brightly)
Galle [ˈɡa__ə](gall)
gelb [ɡɛ__p](yellow)
■ ■ 12.2 ALVEOLAR TRILLS [r] AND [ɾ] , VOCALIC-R [ɐ] , AND

UVULAR TRILL [R]
[r] ■ r initial = [r]

■ r medial after consonant = [r]
■ r medial before consonant = [r]
r As a practical rule in lyric diction
pronounce 2- to 3-tap trilled [r] in
spellings of the letter r
• in initial position:
Räder [ˈrɛːdɐ], Ruh [ruː]
• medial, after a consonant: Alveolar Trills [r] and [ɾ]
grollen [ˈɡrɔlən], frei [fra͡e]
Form the voiced alveolar 2- to 3-tap
except after a vowel plus an h in one
trill [r] like the initial r in grammatically
element where the h has the only
stressed words in the British
function of lengthening the vowel
pronunciation:
sound:
rise up, righteousness, realm
führen [ˈfyːɾən], Bahre [ˈbɑːɾə]
The sides of the tongue touch the
• medial, before a consonant: upper molars. The tip of the tongue
Werke [ˈvɛrkə], Sturm [ʃtʊrm] taps against the alveolus and the airflow
Garten [ˈɡartən], Gärten [ˈɡɛrtən] causes the tongue to trill. The vocal
rr There is no difference in the folds vibrate. See anatomical
pronunciation of single r and double rr. illustration above.
Pronounce 2- to 3-tap trilled [r] in all The number of tongue taps depends
spellings of rr largely on the emotional intention
• in one element: associated with the word and its context:
irre [ˈɪrə], herr/lich [ˈhɛrlɪç] For example in the phrase, Der Donner
rollt [deɐ ˈdɔnɐ rɔlt] (The thunder roars),
Attention: When two consecutive r’s,
the emotional content begs for an r with
belong to two separate elements then the
more repetitions of tongue taps than, for
first r is pronounced as one-tap trill [ɾ] (or
example in the phrase, Mein Wagen rollet
vocalic [ɐ]) and the second as alveolar
langsam [ma͡en ˈvɑːɡən ˈrɔlət ˈlaŋzɑːm]
trill [r]; thus [ɾ͡r] or [ɐr].
(My carriage rolls slowly). However,
Ver/räter [fɛɾˈ͡rɛːtɐ] or [fɛɐˈrɛːtɐ] extensive rolling of the r-sound as in
zer/rinnts [t͡sɛɾˈ͡rɪnt͡s] or [t͡sɛɐˈrɪnt͡s] Italian and Spanish should be avoided in
Winter/reise [ˈvɪntəɾ͡ra͡ezə] German. In general, r should receive no
or [ˈvɪntɐra͡ezə] 1 more than two to three tongue taps:
Werke [ˈvɛrkə], grollen [ˈɡrɔlən]
Enunciation Exercises for Alveolar Trills:

If you have difficulties in producing the
trill, try the following exercises. Only
diligent practice will make a difference.
1. Try to say the name Ed in very rapid
repetitions, gradually allowing your
tongue to replace the d with the single
tongue tap r [ɾ]. Then slowly add taps
and extend the duration of the r to a 2- to
3-tongue-tap r [r]. Extend the r until the
airflow causes the tongue to trill:
Ed-ed-de-de-de-re-re-re-rre-rrre-rrrr
[ɛd-ɛd-ɛ-dɛ-dɛ-rɛ-rɛ-rɛ-r͡rɛ-rr͡rɛ-rr͡rr]
2. Try to say the word drei [dra͡e]

(three) by repeating the d, first slowly
then more rapidly. Gradually letting the
airflow take over and creating a
multiple tongue tap [r]. The r-sound is
to be formed without slipping into the
American burred r-sound, [ɹ]:
d-d-d-dei, d-d-d-r-rei, d-r-r-rrrei, drei
[d-d-d-da͡e, d-d-d-ɾ-ɾa͡e, d-ɾ-r-r͡ra͡e, dra͡e]
3. Place your tongue lightly behind the

alveolar ridge as if you wanted to say the
plosive [t]. Build up air pressure behind
the tongue. Eventually the air pressure
separates the tip of the tongue from the
alvelolar ridge. As soon the pressure
lessens the tongue springs back to the
gum ridge and the process repeats itself
resulting in a tongue flutter, [r].
t-r-r-r-r-r-r-r [tr͡r]
4. Say the alveolar fricative [ʃ]. Then
keep saying [ʃ] as you slowly move the
tip of the tongue closer to the alveolus
until the airflow catches the tongue and
causes the tongue to trill.
Tip: Make sure that when you move
your tongue closer to the alveolus that
it moves forward as if you would say d,
and not up. If it moves up you will end
up with the lateral [l].
[ɾ] ■ r final, after long vowel = [ɾ]

■ intervocalic r = [ɾ]
■ r after vowel + h = [ɾ]
r Pronounce one-tap trill (single tongue Form the voiced alveolar one-tap trill
tap) [ɾ] in all spellings of the letter r [ɾ] like the intervocalic “flipped” r in
where the rules for 2- to 3-tap trill [r] do words spoken in British pronunciation:
not apply and in the following arise, spirit, very
circumstances
The soft palate (velum) closes off the
• final in a word or prefix, after a long nasal cavity. The sides of the tongue
vowel: touch the upper molars. The tip of the
Tür [tyːɾ], Meer [meːɾ], klar [klɑːɾ], tongue taps once against the alveolus
herkommen [ˈheːɾkɔmən] while the vocal folds vibrate.
• in intervocalic position (between
two vowels):
verloren [fɛɐˈloːɾən], zieren [ˈ t͡siːɾən]
• after a vowel plus h in one element
(final to an element or intervocalic),
where the h has the only function of
lengthening the vowel-sound:
Ohr [oːɾ], Ohren [ˈoːɾən],
führen [ˈfyːɾən], Bahre [ˈbɑːɾə],
ehr/würdig [ˈeːɾˌvʏrdɪç]
[ɐ] ■ r final, after long vowel = [ɐ]

■ unstressed -er endings = [ɐ]
r In post vocalic position (r after a vowel) Form the vocalic r substitute [ɐ] like
the vocalic r [ɐ] may substitute for the the schwa [ə], but slightly darker;
one-tap trill [ɾ]. similar to the unstressed final -er in the
You may pronounce [ɐ] in spellings of r British pronunciation of father.
• final to a word or prefix, after a (Compare with the vowel chart in
long vowel: Chapter 3.)
Tür [tyːɐ]
herkommen [ˈheːɐˌkɔmən] Attention: When using the vocalic-R,
[ɐ], it is very important that the sound
except after a [ɑː] where it is always be articulated as short as possible to
pronounced [ɾ]: avoid creating the impression of a
klar [klɑːɾ], Schar [ʃɑːɾ] sustained second vowel. The vocalic-R,
Attention: The vocalic-R, [ɐ] is not [ɐ], should be an off-glide at the very
used in intervocalic position. end of the main vowel.
verloren [fɛɐˈloːɾən], zieren [ˈt͡siːɾən]
You may pronounce [ɐ] in spellings of r Note: In large halls and whenever
in the following: clarity of understanding is a problem
• article: we recommend that you use one-tap
der [deːɐ] (the) trill [ɾ] and not [ɐ]. Especially in opera
pronouns: and the works of Richard Wagner, the
mir [miːɐ] (me, mine) vocalic-R [ɐ] should seldom be used.
dir [diːɐ] (you, yours)
er [eːɐ] (he)
ihr [iːɐ] (her, hers, you)
wir [viːɐ] (we)
wer [veːɐ] (who)
• prepositions:
für [fyːɐ] (for)
vor [foːɐ] (before)
• prefixes:
er- [ɛɐ]
ver- [fɛɐ]
zer- [t͡sɛɐ]
-er We recommend that you pronounce -er
as [ɐ]
• unstressed word endings (in
simple and compound words):
über [ˈyːbɐ], lieber [ˈliːbɐ],
hundert [ˈhʊndɐt], mildert [ˈmɪldɐt],
Untergang [ˈʊntɐɡaŋ],
Übergang [ˈyːbɐɡaŋ]
Attention: -er in unstressed word endings is Note: In singing, where syllabic vowels
always represented by one IPA symbol [ɐ] need to be extended with the musical
or [əɾ], but never as [əɐ]. notation, final -er should be sustained
as [əɾ]. If the singer desires to use a
The prefix er-, ver-, zer- are pronounced
vocalic-R final -er, it may be sustained
with [ɛɐ] unlike -er in unstressed endings:
as [(ɛ)ɐ] or [(œ)ɐ]. (For a detailed
Wunder [ˈvʊndɐ]
discussion on schwa and vocalic-R in
but Erquicken [ɛɐˈkvɪkən]
singing, see Chapter 18 on the
verlieren [fɛɐˈliːɾən]
companion website.)
zerschlagen [t͡sɛɐˈʃlɑːɡən]
Final -er in mono-syllabic words is
syllabic, thus [eːɐ]:
er [eːɐ], quer [k͡veːɐ], der [deːɐ]
[ʀ] ■ optional in spoken dialogue

(never in singing)
r In spoken dialogue one occasionally
hears German speakers using the voiced
uvular trill [ʀ]. The uvular trill should
never be used in singing.
Although permissable in speech,
uvular-R is not particuarly well
understood in singing. Instead we Uvular Trill [ʀ]
recommend the use of the voiced 2- to
3-tap trill [r] and the one-tap trill [ɾ]. To form the voiced uvular trill [ʀ] begin
with the velar fricative [x]. Then add
voicing and slowly move the back of the
tongue closer to the uvula until they
touch and the airflow causes the uvula to
vibrate.
The soft palate (velum) closes off the
nasal cavity. The sides of the tongue touch
the upper molars, and the back of the
tongue is close to the uvula. The airflow
causes the uvula to trill against the back
of the tongue. The vocal folds vibrate.
Exercises for [r], [ɾ], and [ɐ]

EXERCISE 12.2.1 Initial and Medial [r]
Practice speaking the following word-group with the 2- to 3-tap trill [r] in initial
and medial prevocalic and postvocalic positions.
Riese [ˈriːzə] (giant) – Brise [ˈbriːzə] (breeze) – ziert [t͡siːrt] (decorates)
Ritter [ˈrɪtɐ] (knight) – Schritt [ʃrɪt] (step) – klirrt [klɪrt] (rattle)
Regen [ˈreːɡən] (rain) – Frevel [ˈfreːfəl] (sacrilege) – Pferd [p͡feːrt] (horse)
Retter [ˈrɛtɐ] (savior) – Schreck [ʃrɛk] (fright) – scherzen [ˈʃɛrt͡sən] (to joke)
Rasen [ˈrɑːzən] (lawn) – Kragen [ˈkrɑːɡən] (collar) – Bart [bɑːrt] (beard)
Rast [rast] (rest) – Krapfen [ˈkrap͡fən] (donut) – Karpfe [ˈkarp͡fə] (carp)
rot [roːt] (red) – Brot [broːt] (bread) – bohrt [boːrt] (drills)
Rost [rɔst] (rust) – Frost [frɔst] (frost) – Dorf [dɔrf] (village)
Ruhe [ˈruːə] (rest) – Bruder [ˈbruːdɐ] (brother) – Geburt [ɡəˈbuːrt] (birth)
rund [rʊnt] (round) – Grund [ɡrʊnt] (ground) – Bursche [ˈbʊrʃə] (lad)
EXERCISE 12.2.2 Intervocalic and Final [ɾ]

In the following zieren [ˈt͡siːɾən] (to decorate) – Stier [ʃtiːɾ] (bull)
words practice the
one-tap trill [ɾ] in Beere [ˈbeːɾə] (berry) – Meer [meːɾ] (sea)
intervocalic and
Haare [ˈhɑːɾə] (hair) – war [vɑːɾ] (was)
final position.
Ohren [ˈoːɾən] (ears) – Tor [toːɾ] (gate)
Spuren [ˈʃpuːɾən] (traces) – Uhr [uːɾ] (clock)
EXERCISE 12.2.3 Medial [r] and [ɾ]

Compare the ziert [t͡siːrt] (he decorates) – zieren [ˈt͡siːɾən] (to decorate)
medial 2- to 3-tap
trill [r] with the Herd [heːrt] (hearth) – Ehre [ˈeːɾə] (honor)
one-tap trill [ɾ].
Bart [bɑːrt] (beard) – Bahre [ˈbɑːɾə] (bier)
bohrt [boːrt] (he drills) – bohren [ˈboːɾən] (to drill)
Kurt [kʊrt] (proper name) – kurieren [kuˈɾiːɾən] (to cure)
EXERCISE 12.2.4 Final [ɾ] or [ɐ]

Practice the following wir [viːɾ] – [viːɐ] (we)
words, saying them
twice; once using the Tier [tiːɾ] – [tiːɐ] (animal)
one-tap trill [ɾ] and
her [heːɾ] – [heːɐ] (here)
once using the vocalic
r-substitute [ɐ]. –
mehr [meːɾ] [meːɐ] (more)
Tor [toːɾ] – [toːɐ] (gate)
Moor [moːɾ] – [moːɐ] (moor)
Kur [kuːɾ] – [kuːɐ] (cure)
nur [nuːɾ] – [nuːɐ] (only)
Flur [fluːɾ] – [fluːɐ] (entry way)
EXERCISE 12.2.5 Final [əɾ] or [ɐ]

Practice the following lieber [ˈliːbəɾ] – [ˈliːbɐ] (dear)
words with final
unstressed -er, saying Leder [ˈleːdəɾ] – [ˈleːdɐ] (leather)
them twice; once
aber [ˈɑːbəɾ] – [ˈɑːbɐ] (but)
speaking [əɾ] and once
speaking [ɐ]. –
oder [ˈoːdəɾ] [ˈoːdɐ] (or)
Remember that the [ɐ]
substitutes for the final unter [ˈʊntəɾ] – [ˈʊntɐ] (under)
unstressed
combination [əɾ]. schöner [ˈʃøːnəɾ] – [ˈʃøːnɐ] (nicer)
über [ˈyːbəɾ] – [ˈyːbɐ] (over)
Trauer [ˈtrɑ͡oəɾ] – [ˈtrɑ͡oɐ] (sadness)
teuer [ˈtɔ͡øəɾ] – [ˈtɔ͡øɐ] (expensive)
EXERCISE 12.2.6 [ɐ] and [ə]

Compare the vocalic dieser [ˈdiːzɐ] (this) – diese [ˈdiːzə] (this)
r-substitute [ɐ] with the
schwa [ə] and notice über [ˈyːbɐ] (over) – übe [ˈyːbə] (practice)
the slightly darker
lieber [ˈliːbɐ] (dear) – Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love)
quality of [ɐ] in words
ending on -er –
Winter [ˈvɪntɐ] (winter) Winde [ˈvɪndə] (winds)
compared with the
slightly brighter quality linder [ˈlɪndɐ] (gentler) – Linde [ˈlɪndə] (lyme tree)
of [ə] in words ending
on -e. Kinder [ˈkɪndɐ] (children) – Kinde[ˈkɪndə] (child)
Rinder [ˈrɪndɐ] (cattle) – Rinde [ˈrɪndə] (bark)
Lieder [ˈliːdɐ] (songs) – Liede [ˈliːdə] (song)

leider [ˈla͡edɐ] – Leide [ˈla͡edə] (sorrow)
(unfortunately)
Becher [ˈbɛçɐ] (cup) – Bäche [ˈbɛçə] (brooks)
heller [ˈhɛlɐ] (brighter) – Helle [ˈhɛlə] (brightness)
EXERCISE 12.2.7 Prolonged [ɾ͡r] or [ɐr]

Compare and practice Vorrede [ˈfoːɾ͡reːdə] – [ˈfoːɐreːdə] (opening words)
the following words
and word sequences Vorrecht [ˈfoːɾ͡rɛçt] – [ˈfoːɐrɛçt] (privilege)
with the prolonged rr,
Vorrat [ˈfoːɾ͡rɑːt] – [ˈfoːɐrɑːt] (supply)
saying the word twice;
once with [ɾ͡r] and once –
Verräter [fɛɾ͡ˈrɛːtɐ] [fɛɐˈrɛːtɐ] (traitor)
with [ɐr].
Verreisen [fɛɾ͡ˈra͡ezən] – [fɛɐˈra͡ezən] (to go away)
herrücken [ˈheːɾ͡rʏkən] – [ˈheːɐrʏkən] (to draw near)
herrichten [ˈheːɾ͡rɪçtən] – [ˈheːɐrɪçtən] (to get ready)
Heerrufer [ˈheːɾ͡ruːfəɾ] – [ˈheːɐruːfɐ] (Herald)
zerrinnen [t͡sɛɾ͡ˈrɪnən] – [t͡sɛɐˈrɪnən] (melt away)
wer reitet [veːɾ ͡ˈra͡etət] – [veːɐ ˈra͡etət] (who is riding)
der Riese [deɾ ͡ˈriːzə] – [deɐ ˈriːzə] (the giant)
Überraschung [yːbəɾ͡ˈraʃʊŋ] – [yːbɐˈraʃʊŋ] (surprise)
EXERCISE 12.2.8 Applying the Pronunciation Rules for [r], [ɾ], and [ɐ]
Say the following Rast [__ast] (rest) Rinde [ˈ__ɪndə] (bark)
words and apply the
pronunciation rules for grün [ɡ__yːn] (green) Kirche [ˈkɪ__çə] (church)
[r], [ɾ] and [ɐ]. Use the
Herz [hɛ__t͡s] (heart) Schritt [ʃ__ɪt] (step)
vocalic r-substitute [ɐ]
when ever applicable. Herr [hɛ__] (Mr.) zieren [ˈt͡siː__ən] (decorate)
As an aid we have
provided an IPA erregen [ɛ_ˈ_eːɡən] (arouse) für [fyː__] (for)
transcription for all the Bahre [ˈbɑː__ə] (bier) Räuber [ˈ__ɔ͡øb__] (robber)
other sounds not
covered in this section. Schar [ʃɑː__] (crowd) trösten [ˈt__øːstən] (to comfort)
Tür [tyː__] (door) Ruhe [ˈ__uːə] (rest)

ihr [iː__] (you) vier [fiː__] (four)
Übergang [ˈyːb__ɡaŋ] der Rabe [de__ ˈ__ɑːbə]
(transition) (the raven)
über [ˈyːb__] (over) bar [bɑː__] (cash)
dröhnen [ˈd__øːnən] hier [hiː__] (here)
(to thunder)
Ohren [ˈoː__ən] (ears) Herde [ˈheː__də] (flock)
dir [diː__] (you) Krone [ˈk__oːnə] (crown)
zerfliessen [t͡sɛ__ˈfliːsən] der Ritter [de__ ˈ__ɪt__]
(to melt away) (the knight)
Furcht [fʊ__çt] (fear) führen [ˈfyː__ən] (guide)
mildert [ˈmɪld__t] (mitigate) Räder [ˈ__ɛːd__] (wheels)
war [vɑː__] (was) gurren [ˈɡʊ__ən] (to coo)
zart [t͡sɑː__t] (tender) fröhlich [ˈf__øːlɪç] (happy)
der Regen [de__ ˈ__eːɡən] verlieren [fɛ__ˈliː__ən] (to lose)
(the rain)
irr [ɪ__] (crazy) trennen [ˈt__ɛnən]
(to separate)
lieber [ˈliːb__] (dear) klar [klɑː__] (clear)
Reise [ˈ__a͡ezə] (journey) nur [nuː__] (only)
Tier [tiː__] (animal) hundert [ˈhʊndə__t]
(hundred)
gar [ɡɑː__] (utterly) tragen [ˈt__ɑːɡən] (to carry)
Vorrang [ˈfoː___aŋ] (priority) dürr [dʏ__] (dry)
der Richter [de__ ˈ__ɪçtə__] Unterricht [ˈʊnt___ɪçt]
(the judge) (lessons)
■ ■ CH A P T ER 13
AFFRICATES
An affricate, also called affricative or combination consonant, is a sound that com-

bines a plosive consonant with a fricative consonant into one single speech unit. What
makes the combination sound different from two consecutive consonants? The major
difference is in the way the ear perceives the sound: the shift from one sound into the next
is so swift and smooth that it is perceived as a single sound. Technically, that means that
the air pressure that builds up for the plosive consonant is released directly into a fricative
consonant. As a result of that, the plosive is not aspirated as usual, but the airburst that
comes from the rapid release causes the sound of the following fricative.
As an English speaker you are familiar with the affricates [k͡s] as in the x of pixy, [t͡s] as
in the final sound of bats, [t͡ʃ] as in the initial sound in chose, and its voiced cognate [d͡ʃ] as
the initial sound in juice or gin.
German uses six combination consonants:
1. The affricate [p͡s] as in Psyche [ˈp͡syːçe], resulting from the combination of the bila-
bial plosive [p] and the alveolar fricative [s]
2. the affricate [p͡f] as in pflücken [ˈp͡flʏkən], resulting from combination of the bila-
bial plosive [p] and the bilabial fricative [f]
3. the affricate [t͡s] as in Zucker [ˈt͡sʊkɐ] resulting from the combination of the alveolar
plosive [t] and the alveolar fricative [s]
4. the affricate [t͡ʃ] as in Deutsch [dɔ͡øt͡ʃ], resulting from the combination of the alveo-
lar plosive [t] and the pre-palatal fricative [ʃ]
5. the affricate [k͡s] as in Nixe [ˈnɪk͡sə], resulting from the combination of the velar
plosive [k] and the alveolar fricative [s]
6. the affricate [k͡v] as in Quelle [ˈk͡vɛlə], resulting from the combination of the velar
plosive [k] and the voiced labiodental fricative [v]
Affricates can be represented in spelling by one, two or more letters.
■ 197
The following table gives you an easy overview of all the affricates used in the German
language and the combination of sounds from which they are composed.
Plosive: Fricative: Affricate: Spelling: Examples:

>V@ >Sਗ਼V @ ps Psyche >ਥSਗ਼V\৸oH@, Liebste >ਥOL৸Sਗ਼VW̸@
>S@
>I@ >Sਗ਼I@ pf pflücken >ਥSਗ਼IOौN̸Q@, Wipfel >ਥYԌSਗ਼I̸O@
>V@ >Wਗ਼V@ z Zucker >ਥWਗ਼VࡱNĻ@, tanzen >ਥWDQWਗ਼V̸Q@
>W@
>ߑ@ >Wਗ਼ߑ@ tsch rutschen >ਥUࡱWਗ਼ߑ̸Q@, Deutsch >Gɬ¡Wਗ਼ਗ਼ ߑ@
>V@ >Nਗ਼V@ x, chs Nixe >ਥQԌNਗ਼V̸@, Sachs >]DNਗ਼Vਗ਼ @
>N@
>Y@ >Nਗ਼Y@ qu Quelle >ਥNਗ਼Y͑O̸@, bequem >E̸ਥNਗ਼YH৸P@
■ ■ 13.1 AFFRICATES [p͡ s ] , [p͡ f ] , [t͡ s ] , [t͡ ʃ ] , [k͡ s ] , AND [k͡ v ]
[p͡s] ■ ps in one element = [p͡s]

ps Pronounce [p͡s] in all spellings of Form the affricate [p͡s] by the
the letter combination ps energetic and seamless succession of
• in one element: the voiceless bilabial plosive [p]
Psyche [ˈp͡syçe], Psalm [p͡salm] followed by the voiceless alveolar
fricative [s].
bs Pronounce [p͡s] in all spellings of Note: Even though the sound is
the letter combination bs represented by the combination of
• in one element: two symbols it sounds as a single
selbst [zɛlp͡st] combined sound that begins on the
plosive [p] and releases on the
• in the junction of a word stem fricative [s].
that ends with b followed by
an ending with an s (often 2nd Do not allow the sound to be divided
pers. sing verbal ending, -st): by aspiration:
lieb/st [liːp͡st], treib/st [tra͡ep͡st] Psalm [p͡salm] not [pʰsalm]
Lieb/ster [ˈliːp͡stɐ]
Attention: When the prefix ab- is Attention: Where p and s are parts of
followed by an element starting two separate elements, allow p to be
with s both, sounds are pronounced softly aspirated, [pʰ].
as separate phonemes [p] and [z] or Ab/sicht [ˈapʰzɪçt]
[ʃ]: Ab/sicht [ˈapzɪçt], ab/springen ab/springen [ˈapʰˌʃprɪŋən]
[ˈapˌʃprɪŋən]
Affricates ■ 199
[p͡f] ■ pf in one element = [p͡f]

pf Pronounce [p͡f] in all spellings of Form the affricate [p͡f] by the
the letter combination pf energetic and seamless succession of
• in one element: the voiceless bilabial plosive [p]
Pforte [ˈp͡fɔrtə], followed by the voiceless labiodental
pflücken [ˈp͡flʏkən], fricative [f].
klopfen [ˈklɔp͡fən],
Note: Even though [p͡f] is represented
Wipfel [ˈvɪp͡fəl]
by the combination of two symbols it
should sound as a single combined
sound that begins on the plosive [p]
and releases on the fricative [f].
Attention: Do not allow the affricate
[p͡f] to be divided by aspiration of the
p:
klopfen [ˈklɔp͡fən] not [ˈklɔp͡ʰfən].
Tip: A seamless shift from p to f can
be accomplished best when the place
of articulation for p and f are
maintained as closely together as
possible.
Enunciation Exercises:
1. Imitate the sound you can hear
when you let the air out of a
tire: pffffff . . .
2. Say the word topflight first
slowly than gradually faster and
faster. Strive to connect the two
elements as closely as possible with
an energetic pf. Then abruptly stop
after the f and you end up with the
German word Topf [tɔp͡f] (pot):
[tɔpfla͡ɪt.tɔpfla͡ɪt.tɔpfla͡ɪ.tɔpfla͡ɪ.tɔp͡f]
Attention: When the prefix ab- is Attention: Where [p] and [f] are
followed by an element starting portions of two separate elements,
with f, both, [p] and [f] are allow p to be aspirated, [pʰ].
pronounced as individual sounds: Ab/fahrt [ˈapʰfɑːrt], Ab/flug
Ab/fahrt [ˈapfɑːrt], Ab/flug [ˈapʰfluːk]
[ˈapfluːk]
[t͡s] ■ z, zz = [t͡s]
■ tz in one element = [t͡s]
z Pronounce [t͡s] in all spellings of Form the affricate [t͡s] by the
the letter z energetic and seamless succession of
Zucker [ˈt͡sʊkɐ], Kreuz [krɔ͡øt͡s], the voiceless alveolar plosive [t]
tanzen [ˈtant͡sən] followed by the voiceless alveolar
zz There is no difference in the fricative [s].
German pronunciation of single z Note: Even though [t͡s] is represented
and double zz, which only occurs by the combination of two symbols it
in some words of Italian origin. should never sound as two separate
Pronounce [t͡s] in all spellings of sounds, but as a single combined
the double consonant zz: sound that begins on the plosive [t]
Intermezzo [ɪntəɾˈmɛt͡so] and releases on the fricative [s].
tz Pronounce [t͡s] in all spellings of
the letter combinantion tz
• in one element:
Platz [plat͡s], Katze [ˈkat͡sə],
letzte [ˈlɛt͡stə]
Attention: When tz comprises a Attention: When tz appears as part of
portion of two elements, then the t two elements the t should be
is prolonged [tt͡s]. prolonged [t͡t] but never sounded
ent/zücken [ɛntˈ͡tsʏkən], twice.
ent/zünden [ɛntˈ͡tsʏndən],
Tip: To prolong t in combinations of
ent/zwei [ɛntˈ͡tsva͡e]
tz as in [tt͡s] implode (without sound)
ti In words of Latin origin with the the first plosive and extend the
ending -tion or -tient the stoppage until you release on the
combination ti is pronounced as affricate [t͡s]:
[t͡s] followed by the non-syllabic ent/zücken [ɛntˈ͡tsʏkən]
[i ̯]. Pronounce [t͡si ̯] in the
combination -ti- in words ending
on -tion and -tient:
Nation [naˈt͡si ̯oːn], Aktion
[akˈt͡si ̯oːn],
Ration [raˈt͡si ̯oːn], Patient [pat͡si ̯ɛnt]
Affricates ■ 201
c Pronounce [t͡s] in spellings of the

letter c
• medial in words of Latin and
Greek origin:
Cocytus [koˈt͡syːtʊs]
• initial in the following words
of foreign origin:
Cymbal [ˈt͡sʏmbal], Cypern
[ˈt͡syːpərn], Caesar [ˈt͡sɛːzɑːɾ],
Ceres [ˈt͡seːɾɛs]
t’s Pronounce [t͡s] in all contractions
t’s:
bist’s [bɪst͡s], ist’s [ɪst͡s]
[t͡ʃ] ■ tsch in one element = [t͡ʃ]

tsch Pronounce [t͡ʃ] in all combinations Form the affricate [t͡ʃ] as in the final
of tsch consonant combination tch of the
• in one element: English word watch. The voiceless
rutschen [ˈrʊt͡ʃən], Deutsch alveolar plosive [t] is immediately
[dɔ͡øt͡ʃ] released in the voiceless pre-palatal
fricative [ʃ].
Note: Even though [t͡ʃ] is represented
should never sound as two separate
sounds, but as a single combined sound
that begins on the plosive [t] and
releases on the fricative [ʃ].
The t should not be aspirated in the
affricate [t͡ʃ].
Attention: When the letter Attention: When tsch appears as a
combination tsch is divided portion of two separate elements, the
between two elements (t/sch) it is t is slightly aspirated [tʰ].
not pronounced as the affricate Reit/schule [ˈra͡etʰˌʃuːlə]
[t͡ʃ], but as two individual sounds ent/schuldigen [ɛntʰˈʃʊldɪɡən]
[t] and [ʃ]:
Tip: To smoothly move from [t] to [ʃ]
Reit/schule [ˈra͡etˌʃuːlə]
over the border of two elements do
ent/schuldigen [ɛntˈʃʊldɪɡən]
not stop the airflow and move your
tongue swiftly from one sound to the
next, but with less intensity than you
would for the affricate [t͡ʃ].
Affricates ■ 203
[k͡s] ■ x = [k͡s]
■ chs in one element = [k͡s]
x Pronounce [k͡s] in all spellings of Form the affricate [k͡s] like the x in
the letter x: the English word text. The voiceless
Hexe [ˈhɛk͡sə], Nixe [ˈnɪk͡sə], velar plosive [k] is immediately
Sphinx [sfɪŋk͡s] released in the voiceless alveolar
Note: Although spelled as one fricative [s].
symbol, x, it functions as a double Note: Even though [k͡s] is represented
consonant. Therefore the preceding by the combination of two symbols it
vowel will be short and open. should never sound as two separate
chs Pronounce [k͡s] in the letter sounds, but as a single combined
combination chs in one element: sound that begins on the plosive [k]
Achse [ˈak͡sə] (axis) and releases on the fricative [s].
Deichsel [ˈda͡ek͡səl] (shaft)
Drechsler [ˈdrɛk͡slɐ] (turner)
Fuchs [fʊk͡s] (fox)
Wachs [vak͡s] (wax)
wachsen [ˈvak͡sən] (to grow)
wächst [vɛk͡st] (grow)
Wechsel [ˈvɛk͡səl] (change)
Hans Sachs [zak͡s] (character
from Wagner’s Die Meistersinger
von Nürnberg)
Attention: When ch and s are parts
of two elements they are
pronounced separately according to
the applicaple rules.
nach/sehen [ˈnɑːxˌzeːən] (prefix +
verb inf.)
wach/st [vaxst] (verb stem + ending)
Bach/s [baxs] (stem + genitive
suffix, -s)
höch/ste [ˈhøːçstə] (stem + superlative
suffix)
gs Pronounce [k͡s] in the junction of a
word stemm that ends with g
followed by a word ending with an s
(often 2nd pers. sing verbal ending,
-st):
wag/st [vɑːk͡st], flieg/st [fliːk͡st]
[k͡v] ■ qu = [k͡v]
qu The letter q appears only in the Form the affricate [k͡v] by the
combination qu. energetic and seamless succession of
Pronounce [k͡v] in all spellings of the voiceless velar plosive [k]
the combination qu: followed by the voiced labiodental
Qual [k͡vɑːl], Quelle [ˈk͡vɛlə], fricative [v].
erquicken [ɛɐˈk͡vɪkən], bequem
Note: Even though [k͡v] is represented
[bəˈk͡veːm]
should never sound as two separate
sounds, but as a single combined
sound that begins on the plosive [k]
and releases on the fricative [v].
Attention: Be careful to not aspirate
the [k] when a part of the affricate
[k͡v], and never release the affricate on
[w] in lieu of [v] as it is done in
English; Queen [kwin]. Thus say
Quelle [ˈk͡vɛlə] not [ˈkwɛlə] or [ˈkʰvɛlə]
Affricates ■ 205
Exercises for [p͡s], [p͡f], [t͡s], [t͡ʃ], [k͡s], and [k͡v]

EXERCISE 13.1.1 Initial and Final [p͡s]
Practice the affricate [p͡s] Psalm [p͡salm] (psalm) – Schnaps [ʃnap͡s] (liquor)
in initial and final position. –
Move swiftly from the
Psalter [ˈp͡saltɐ] (psalter) Raps [rap͡s] (rapeseed)
plosive to the fricative and Psyche [ˈp͡syːçe] (psyche) – trübst [tryːp͡st] (dim)
do not divide the affricate
with an involuntary schwa. – Opst [oːp͡st] (fruit)
seudonym [ˌp͡sɔ͡ødoˈnyːm]
P
This is best accomplished
(pseudonym)
by keeping the places of
articulation as closely
together as possible.
EXERCISE 13.1.2 Initial and Medial [p͡f]
Practice the affricate [p͡f] Pfiff [p͡fɪf ] (whistle tone) – Wipfel [ˈvɪp͡fəl] (treetop)
in initial and medial –
position.
Pfeffer [ˈp͡fɛfɐ] (pepper) Schnepfe [ˈʃnɛp͡fə] (snipe)
Pfand [p͡fant] (pledge) – tapfer [ˈtap͡fɐ] (brave)
Pforte [ˈp͡fɔrtə] (gate) – klopfen [ˈklɔp͡fən] (to knock)
Pfund [p͡fʊnt] (pound) – Schnupfen [ˈʃnʊp͡fən]
(head cold)
Pfütze [ˈp͡fʏt͡sə] (puddle) – hüpfen [ˈhʏp͡fən] (to bounce)
Pförtner [ˈp͡fœrtnɐ] – Töpfer [ˈtœp͡fɐ] (potter)
(gatekeeper)
EXERCISE 13.1.3 Initial and Final [t͡s]
Practice the affricate [t͡s] Zimmer [ˈt͡sɪmɐ] (room) – Ritze [ˈrɪt͡sə] (crack)
in initial and final –
position.
Zelt [t͡sɛlt] (tent) Netz [ˈnɛt͡s] (net)
zapfen [ˈt͡sap͡fən] (to tap) – Platz [plat͡s] (place)
Zorn [t͡sɔrn] (anger) – Trotz [trɔt͡s] (defiance)
Zucker [ˈt͡sʊkɐ] (sugar) – Putz [pʊt͡s] (plaster)
Zeit [t͡sa͡et] (time) – Reiz [ra͡et͡s] (appeal)
zeugen [ˈt͡sɔ͡øɡən] (to testify) – Kreuz [krɔ͡øt͡s] (cross)
Zauber [ˈt͡sɑ͡obɐ] (magic) – Kauz [kɑ͡ot͡s] (old codger)
EXERCISE 13.1.4 Initial [z] and [t͡s]
In the following word siegen [ˈziːɡən] (to win) – Ziegen [ˈt͡siːɡən] (goats)
pairs compare the
voiced dental fricative sinnen [ˈzɪnən] (to – Zinnen [ˈt͡sɪnən]
[z] (s in prevocalic meditate) (battlements)
position) with the
sehen [ˈzeːən] (to see) – Zehen [ˈt͡seːən] (toes)
affricate [t͡s] (spelled
with the letter z). –
sagen [ˈzɑːɡən] (to say) zagen [ˈt͡sɑːɡən] (hesitate)
sollen [ˈzɔlən] (should) – zollen [ˈt͡sɔlən] (to pay
tribute)
EXERCISE 13.1.5 Initial, Medial, and Final [t͡ʃ]
Practice the affricate Tschechisch [ˈt͡ʃɛçɪʃ] (Czech)

[t͡ʃ] in initial, medial
and final position. fletschen [ˈflɛt͡ʃən] (to bare)
rutschen [ˈrʊt͡ʃən] (to slip)
Deutsch [dɔ͡øt͡ʃ] (German)
EXERCISE 13.1.6 Medial and Final [k͡s]
Practice the affricate Nixe [ˈnɪk͡sə] (mermaid)

[k͡s] in medial and final
position. Hexe [ˈhɛk͡sə] (witch)
Achse [ˈak͡sə] (axis)
EXERCISE 13.1.7 Initial and Medial [k͡v]
Practice the affricate quälen [ˈk͡vɛːlən] (to torment)

[k͡v] in initial and
medial position. Quelle [ˈk͡vɛlə] (well)
Qual [k͡vɑːl] (torment)
Qualm [k͡valm] (smoke)
erquicken [ɛɐˈk͡vɪkən] (to refresh)
bequem [bəˈk͡veːm] (comfortable)
Affricates ■ 207
EXERCISE 13.1.8 Applying the Rules for [p͡s], [p͡f], [t͡s], [t͡ʃ], [k͡s], [k͡v]
Say the following Psalter [ˈ___altɐ] (psalter) Nation [naˈ___i ̯oːn] (nation)
words and apply
the Pronunciation
Pflaume [ˈ___lɑ͡omə] (plum) lutschen [ˈlʊ___ən] (to suck)
rules for [p͡s], [p͡f], Zelt [___ɛlt] (tent) Topf [tɔ___] (pot)
[t͡s], [t͡ʃ], [k͡s], [k͡v]. entzücken [ɛn__ˈ__ʏkən] Zweifel [ˈ___va͡efəl] (doubts)
There are also some
(delight)
words included
with ts and chs entsagen [ɛn__ˈ__ɑːɡən] Schatz [ʃa___] (treasure)
combinations that (renounce)
require the
pronunciation of Fuchs [fʊ___] (fox) Station [ʃtaˈ___i ̯oːn] (station)
[t], [x], [z] and [ʃ].
wachsam [ˈva___ɑːm] (alert) fletschen [ˈflɛ___ən] (to bare)
Deutsch [dɔ͡ø___] (German) Nixe [ˈnɪ___ə] (mermaid)
Sphinx [sfɪŋ___] (sphynx) Qualle [ˈ___alə] (jellyfish)
entscheiden [ɛn__ˈ__a͡edən] Intermezzo [ɪntəɾˈmɛ___o]
(to decide) (intermezzo)
Kreuz [krɔ͡ø___] (cross) Psyche [ˈ___yːçe] (psyche)

quälen [ˈ___ɛːlən] (to pflügen [ˈ___lyːɡən] (to plow)
torment)
stopfen [ˈʃtɔ___ən] (to stuff) entzwei [ɛn__ˈ___va͡e] (in two)
Hitze [ˈhɪ___ə] (heat) Dachs [da___] (badger)
erquicken [ɛɐˈ___ɪkən] (to bequem [bəˈ___eːm]
refresh) (comfortable)
Apfel [ˈa___əl] (apple) Schnaps [ʃna___] (liquor)

Raps [ra___] (rape) Pfeil [__a͡el] (arrow)
■
4
ADVANCED DICTION
PROBLEMS
■ ■ CH A P T ER 14
EXCEPTIONS, VAGARIES, AND

PROBLEM WORDS
When writing about the diction and uses of the vocabulary of a language, it is not suffi-
cient to set down the rules no matter how carefully they might be codified. It is ever more
true as the world becomes smaller that foreign words and expressions enter other lan-
guages. In each language, it is necessary to know how these words are handled. It has oc-
curred to us that, even though nearly all of the rules and/or exceptions addressed in this
section have been discussed elsewhere, it might be worthwhile to corral them in one
place. Of course, there is no possibility of covering all of the exceptions and problem
words, but we will try to do more than skim the surface.
■ ■ 14.1 VOWEL LENGTH EXCEPTIONS
Rule Exception
a
[a] The letter a is generally
pronounced long and
open [ɑː]
• before a single • except in the following prefixes where a
consonant letter: is pronounced short [a]:
Knabe [ˈknɑːbə] (boy) ab- [ˈap] – abweisen [ˈapva͡ezən]
fragen [ˈfrɑːɡən] (to (to reject)
ask) an- [ˈan] – aneignen [ˈanǀa͡eknən]
(to appropriate)
■ 211
212 ■ A DVA N C E D D IC T ION P ROB L E M S
• except in unstressed monosyllabic

words where a is pronounced short [a]:
ab [ap] (adv. off)
am [am] (prep. at the)
an [an] (prep. at)
man [man] (pron. one)
das [das] (pron. the)
was [vas] (pron. what)
• except in the following words and

names where a is pronounced short [a]:
Atlas [ˈatlas] (atlas)
Cymbal [ˈt͡sʏmbal] (cymbal)
Karneval [ˈkarneval] (carneval)
Satan [ˈzɑːtan] (satan)
Wolfram [ˈvɔlfram] (name)
Sarastro [saˈɾastro] (name)
Tamino [taˈmiːno] (name)
Pamina [paˈmiːna] (name)
[ɑː] The letter a is generally
pronounced short and
closed [a]
• before two or more • except before ch in the following
consonant letters: few words where a is pronounced
Halt [halt] (stop) long [ɑː]:
Ratte [ˈratə] (rat) Schmach [ʃmɑːx] (shame)
Sprache [ˈʃprɑːxə] (language)
gemach [ɡəˈmɑːx] (leasure)
brach [brɑːx] (broke)
stach [ʃtɑːx] (pricked)
nach [nɑːx] (prep. after)
• except before r followed by a consonant

in the following words where a is
pronounced long [ɑː]:
Bart [bɑːrt] (beard)
Art [ɑːrt] (art)
artig [ˈɑːrtɪç] (good)
Arzt [ɑːrt͡st] (physician)
zart [t͡sɑːrt] (tender)
Exceptions, Vagaries, and Problem Words ■ 213
• except in the following words where a is

pronounced long [ɑː]:
Jagd [ʝɑːkt] (hunt)
Magd [mɑːkt] (maid)
atmen [ˈɑːtmən] (to breathe)
Abraham [ˈɑːbraham] (biblical name)
Bratsche [ˈbrɑːt͡ʃə] (viola)
ä
[ɛː] The letter ä is generally
open [ɛ]
• before two or more • except in the following words where ä
consonant letters in before two or more consonants is
the same element: pronounced long and open [ɛː]:
Hände [ˈhɛndə] Gebärde [ɡəˈbɛːrdə] (gesture)
(hands) gemächlich [ɡəˈmɛːçlɪç] (leisurely)
Blätter [ˈblɛtəɾ] Gemälde [ɡəˈmɛːldə] (painting)
(leaves) Gespräch [ɡəˈʃprɛːç] (conversation)
Bächlein [ˈbɛçla͡en] nächst [nɛːçst] (next)
(brooklet) Rätsel [ˈrɛːt͡səl] (riddle)
zärtlich [ˈt͡sɛːrtlɪç] (tenderly)
e
[ɛ] The letter e is generally
pronounced long and
closed [eː]
• before a single • except in the following words where e
consonant letter: before a single consonant is pronounced
Leben [ˈleːbən] (life) short and open [ɛ]:
wer [veːɐ] (who) es [ɛs] (it)
des [dɛs] (of)
weg [vɛk] (away)
gen [ɡɛn] (toward)
• except in the following prefixes:

er- [ɛɐ] – erleben [ɛɐˈleːbən] (to experience)
ver- [fɛɐ] – verzagen [fɛɐˈt͡sɑːɡən]
(to despare)
zer- [t͡sɛɐ] – zerbrechen [t͡sɛɐˈbrɛçən]
(to break)
[eː] The letter e is generally

open [ɛ]
• before two or more • except in the following words where e
consonant letters in before two or more consonants is
the same element: pronounced long and closed [eː]:
hell [hɛl] (bright) Erde [ˈeːrdə] (earth)
Herz [hɛrt͡s] (heart) Beschwerde [bəˈʃveːrdə] (complaint)
erst [eːrst] (first)
Herd [heːrt] (hearth)
Herde [ˈheːrdə] (herd)
Krebs [kreːp͡s] (cancer)
Pferd [p͡feːrt] (horse)
Schwert [ʃveːrt] (sword)
stets [ʃteːt͡s] (always)
werden [ˈveːrdən] (to become)
Wert [veːrt] (worth)
Erz [eːrt͡s] (metal)
but: Erz- [ˈɛrt͡s] (prefix arch-)
Erzbischof [ˈɛrt͡sˌbɪʃɔf] (archbishop)
Geste (gesture) [ˈɡeːstə] or [ˈɡɛstə].
Although the classically correct
pronunciation is short and open [ˈɡɛstə],
most German speakers today pronounce
it long and closed [ˈɡeːstə] to distinguish it
from Gäste (guests).
[eː] The unstressed letter e is
generally pronounced as
schwa [ə]
• in unstressed final • except in the following word were final e
position: is stressed and pronounced as long and
Blume [ˈbluːmə] (flower) closed [eː]:
Ende [ˈɛndə] (end) ade [aˈdeː] (goodbye)
[e] • except in names of Greek origin were final
e is pronounced as short and closed[e]:
Chloë [ˈkloːe] (girls name)
Ariadne [aˈɾi ̯adne] (girls name)
Aloe [ˈɑːloe] (aloe)
i
[ɪ] The letter i is generally
pronounced long and
closed [iː]
• before a single • except in the following words where i
consonant letter: before a single consonant is pronounced
mir [miːɐ] (to me) short and open [ɪ]:
wider [ˈviːdɐ] (against) April [aˈprɪl] (april)
bin [bɪn] (to be, 1st p. sing.)
bis [bɪs] (until)
hin [hɪn] (down)
im [ɪm] (in the)
in [ɪn] (in)
mit [mɪt] (with)
Nachtigal [ˈnaxtɪɡal] (nightingale)
• except in some words of Greek origin
that end with unstressed -ik, where i
before a single consonant is pronounced
short and open [ɪ]:
Chronik [ˈkroːnɪk] (chronicle)
Lyrik [ˈlyːɾɪk] (poetry)
Tragik [ˈtrɑːɡɪk] (tragedy)
Epik [ˈeːpɪk] (epic)
but: Politik [poliˈtiːk] (politics)
Kritik [kriˈtiːk] (criticism)
Musik [muˈziːk] (music)
Mathematik [matemaˈtiːk]
(mathematic)
• except in the following suffixes where i
short and open [ɪ]:
-in [ɪn] – Freundin [ˈfrɔ͡øndɪn]
(girlfriend)
-ig [ɪç] – wonnig [ˈvɔnɪç] (delightful)
-nis [nɪs] – Bildnis [ˈbɪltnɪs] (portrait)
[iː] The letter i is generally

open [ɪ]
• before two or more • except in the following words where i
consonant letters: before multiple consonants is pronounced
bitten [ˈbɪtən] (to beg) long and closed [iː]: Nische [ˈniːʃə]
mild [mɪlt] (mild) (niche)
Fisch [fɪʃ] (fish)
• except in the following proper names
• in the suffix -in: that also end in -in where i is
-in [ɪn] – Freundin pronounced long and closed [iː]:
[ˈfrɔ͡øndɪn] (girlfriend) Berlin [bɛrˈliːn] (Berlin)
Valentin [ˈvɑːlentiːn] (name)
Konstantin [ˈkɔnstantiːn] (name)
o
[ɔ] The letter o is generally
pronounced long and
closed [oː]
• before a single • except in words of Greek origin ending
consonant letter: with unstressed -or and -os where o is
Tor [toːɐ] (gate) pronounced short and open [ɔ]:
loben [ˈloːbən] (praise) Doktor [ˈdɔktɔɾ] (doctor)
Marmor [ˈmarmɔɾ] (marble)
Lotos [ˈloːtɔs] (lotus flower)
Kosmos [ˈkɔsmɔs] (cosmos)
Kronos [ˈkroːnɔs] (mythological name)
• except in the following monosyllabic words

where o is pronounced short and open [ɔ]:
ob [ɔp] (conj. if)
von [fɔn] (prep. of )
vom [fɔm] (prep. from)
[o:] The letter o is generally

open [ɔ]
• before two or more • except in the following words where o

consonant letters: before st is pronounced long and closed [oː]:
voll [fɔl] (full) Kloster [ˈkloːstəɾ] (monastery)
Wonne [ˈvɔnə] Ostern [ˈoːstərn] (Easter)
(delight) prost [proːst] (cheers)
Knospe [ˈknɔspə] (bud) Trost [troːst] (consolation)
• except in derivations of hoch (high)

where o before ch is pronounced long and
closed [oː]:
hoch [hoːx] (high)
Hochland [ˈhoːxlant] (highland)
but: Hochzeit [ˈhɔxt͡sa͡et] (marriage)
• except in the following words where o

before two or more consonants is
pronounced long and closed [oː]:
Mond [moːnt] (moon)
Montag [ˈmoːntɑːk] (Monday)
Obst [oːp͡st] (fruit)
Philosoph [filoˈzoːf] (philosopher)
Vogt [foːkt] (sheriff)
ö
[øː] The umlaut ö is generally
open [œ]
• before two or more • except in the following words where ö
consonant letters: before st is pronounced long and closed
Götter [ˈɡœtɐ] (gods) [øː]:
können [ˈkœnən] (to trösten [ˈtrøːstən] (to console)
be able) rösten [ˈrøːstən] (to roast)
Töchter [ˈtœçtɐ]
• except in derivations of hoch (high)
(daughters)
where ö before ch is pronounced long and
closed [øː]:
höchst [høːçst] (highest)

höchster [ˈhøːçstɐ] (highest)
höchstens [ˈhøːçstəns] (at most)
u
[ʊ] The letter u is generally
pronounced long and
closed [uː]
• before a single • except in the following prefixes where u
consonant letter: is pronounced short and open [ʊ]:
Blume [ˈbluːmə] um- [ʊm] – umsonst [ʊmˈzɔnst] (in vain)
(flower) un- [ʊn] – Unglück [ˈʊnɡlʏk] (misfortune)
tun [tuːn] (to do)
• except in words of Latin origin that end

on -us or -um where u is pronounced
short and open [ʊ]:
Jesus [ˈʝeːzʊs], Jesum [ˈʝeːzʊm] ( Jesus)
Agnus [ˈaɡnʊs], Agnum [ˈaɡnʊm]
(Lat. lamb)
• except in the following words where u
short and open [ʊ]:
purpur [ˈpʊrpʊɾ] (purple)
Rum [rʊm] (rum)
um [ʊm] (prep. around)
zum [t͡sʊm] (to the)
[uː] The letter u is generally

open [ʊ]
• before two or more • except in the following words where u
consonant letters: before ch is pronounced long and closed
gesund [ɡəˈzʊnt] [uː]:
(healthy) Buch [buːx] (book)
Mutter [ˈmʊtɐ] Buche [ˈbuːxə] (beech tree)
(mother) Fluch [fluːx] (curse)
fluchen [ˈfluːxən] (to curse)
Kuchen [ˈkuːxən] (cake)
ruchlos [ˈruːxloːs] (nefarious)
suchen [ˈzuːxən] (to search)
Tuch [tuːx] (cloth)
Wucherer [ˈvuːxəɾɐ] (profiteer)
wuchern [[ˈvuːxərn] (proliferate)
• except in the following words where u

before st is pronounced long and closed
[uː]:
husten [ˈhuːstən] (to cough)
pusten [ˈpuːstən] (to blow)
Schuster [ˈʃuːstɐ] (shoemaker)
• except in the following word:

Geburt [ɡəˈbuːrt] (birth)
ü
[yː] The letter ü is generally
open [ʏ]
• before two or more • except in the following words where ü
consonant letters: before ch is pronounced long and closed
küssen [ˈkʏsən] (to [yː]:
kiss) Bücher [ˈbyːçɐ] (books)
flüstern [ˈflʏstərn] (to Tücher [ˈtyːçɐ] (towels)
whisper)
• except in the following words where ü
Küche [ˈkʏçə] (kitchen)
before st is pronounced long and closed
[yː]:
düster [ˈdyːstɐ] (gloomy)
Nüster [ˈnyːstɐ] (nostril)
wüst [vyːst] (desolate)
Wüste [ˈvyːstə] (desert)
y
[y] The letter y is generally
open [ʏ]
• before two or more • except in the following word where the
consonants in words letter y before two consonants is
of foreign origin: pronounced short and closed [y]:
Nymphe [ˈnʏmfə] Zypresse [ˈt͡syˈprɛsə] (cypress)
(nymph)
Myrte [ˈmʏrtə] (myrtle)
■ ■ 14.2 FINAL -ie IN WORDS OF NON-GERMANIC ORIGIN
-ie Medial -ie- and final -ie in monosyllabic words of Germanic origin are stressed
and always pronounced as long and closed [iː] as in Liebe [liːbə] and sie [ziː]. The pronun-
ciation of final -ie in words of non-Germanic origin, however, depends on the origin of
the word and the word stress.
■■ [iː] Final -ie is usually stressed and pronounced as a long closed [iː] in words of
Greek origin:
Melodie [meloˈdiː].
■■ [i ̯ə] In other words ending on -ie, usually of Latin origin, which are stressed on
the penultimate (second to last) syllable, the final unstressed -ie is pronounced [i ̯ə]:
Arie [ˈɑːɾi ̯ə].
[iː] Final Sressed -ie [i ̯ə] Final Unstressed -ie
Alchemie [alçeˈmiː] Arie [ˈɑːɾi ̯ə]

Demokratie [demokraˈtiː] Bestie [ˈbɛsti ̯ə]
Elegie [eleˈɡiː] Dahlie [ˈdɑːli ̯ə]
Galerie [ɡaleˈriː] Familie [faˈmiːli ̯ə]
Genie [ʒeˈniː] Fuchsie [ˈfʊk͡si ̯ə]
Harmonie [harmoˈniː] Gardenie [ɡarˈdeːni ̯ə]
Melancholie [melaŋkoˈliː] Glorie [ˈɡloːɾi ̯ə]
Melodie [meloˈdiː] Grazie [ˈɡrɑːt͡si ̯ə]
Partie [parˈtiː] Historie [hisˈtoːɾi ̯ə]
Phantasie [fantaˈziː] Hostie [ˈhɔsti ̯ə]
Philosophie [filozoˈfiː] Kamelie [kaˈmeːli ̯ə]
Poesie [poeˈziː] Komödie [kɔˈmøːdi ̯ə]
Regie [reˈʒiː] Lilie [ˈliːli ̯ə]
Symphonie [zʏmfoˈniː] Linie [ˈliːni ̯ə]
Theorie [teǀoˈɾiː] Pinie [ˈpiːni ̯ə]
Theologie [teǀoloˈɡiː] Tragödie [traˈɡøːdi ̯ə]
■■ In the plural of words with a stressed final -ie, an n is added and the final -ien is
pronounced [ˈiːən]:
Elegien [eleˈɡiːən]
Melodien [meloˈdiːən]
etc.
■■ Where the -ie is unstressed the plural final -ien is pronounced [i ̯ən]:
Arien [ˈaːɾi ̯ən]
Gardenien [ɡarˈdeːni ̯ən]
etc.
■ ■ 14.3 ESZETT (ß) AND VOWEL LENGTH
ß The letter ß is used in no language other than German. Its name, Eszett [ˈɛst͡sɛt], comes
from the old spelling of the combination sz (Es and Zett), which you seldom find spelled out
in this way anymore, except in old printed scores; i.e., drauszen instead of draußen. Despite its
name and history, ß is a single letter that follows exact rules. For example, Buße, pronounced
[ˈbuːsə] and spelled with ß, means penance, while Busse, pronounced [ˈbʊsə] and spelled with
ss, means busses. Nevertheless, when the keyboard does not have a key for ß, ss can be substi-
tuted because the context usually suffices to avoid confusion. You will notice that many scores
printed in the United States always use ss in place of ß. Esszet is also not used in the German-
speaking regions of Switzerland. No matter how it is spelled, ß, ss, or sz, it is always pronounced
[s]. The spelling rules changed in 1997. Use the following table to compare the rules.
Pre 1997 (Old Rule) Post 1997 (New Rule)

ß occurs: ß occurs:
• In the final position of a word or • Only after a long vowel in any
element: position. (Short vowel is followed by
groß [ɡroːs] ss):
Kuß [kʊs] groß [ɡroːs]
Groß/mutter [ˈɡroːsmʊtəɾ] but Kuss [kʊs]
Schloß/park [ˈʃlɔspark] Groß/mutter [ˈɡroːsmʊtəɾ]
but Schloss/park [ˈʃlɔspark]
• Before a consonant:
größte [ˈɡrøːstə], küßte [ˈkʏstə] größte [ˈɡrøːstə] but küsste [ˈkʏstə]
• Intervocalically only after a long
vowel:
größer [ˈɡrøːsɐ] größer [ˈɡrøːsɐ]
In the above table you notice that both the old and the new rule tell us about the length
of vowel preceding the Eszett. The new rule, especially, makes it very simple to determine
the length of the preceding vowel. Unfortunately, most scores you will encounter were
published before 1997, and even if a score is published after 1997, there is no guarantee
that the publisher is using the new rules. If you encounter an ß in a score, you may there-
fore not necessarily assume that the preceding vowel is long, nor when you see ss, that it
is short. However you can safely trust, that if ß appears intervocalically, and only then,
the preceding vowel must be long, since this coincides with both the old and the new
rule. In all other circumstances when you encounter ß or ss (including intervocalic ss), it
is recommended that you consult a pronouncing dictionary,1 for the preceding vowel can
be long or short. There is no capital ß. Therefore, when using all capitals in a title, the ß is
replaced by SS. Also, Richard Strauss is not spelled with an Eszett, though the other
Straußes are: Johann Strauß, Oskar Strauß.
■ ■ 14.4 VOWEL LENGTH PRECEDING x
x Although the consonant x is spelled as a single letter, it actually functions as a

double consonant and is pronounced as the affricate [k͡s]. Therefore a vowel preceding
x is pronounced short.
Hexe [ˈhɛk͡sə] (witch)

Lexikon [ˈlɛk͡sikɔn] (lexicon)
Mexico [ˈmɛk͡siko] (Mexico)
Max [mak͡s] (boys name)
Nixe [ˈnɪk͡sə] (mermaid)
■ ■ 14.5 PREFIXES dar-, her-, hin-, vor-
The glottal separation [ǀ] is applied before any initial vowel. It is also applied before the
initial vowel of an element following a prefix:
ur/alt [ˈuːɐǀalt] • except when the prefixes dar-, her-,

un/angenehm [ˈʊn|anɡəneːm] hin-, vor- are followed by another
prefix in which case the glottal
separation is forbidden:
herein [hɛˈɾa͡en]
hinauf [hɪˈnɑ͡of]
darüber [daˈɾyːbəɾ]
voran [foˈɾan]
■ ■ 14.6 CONSONANT PLUS l, n, OR r
Polysyllabic words with a word stem ending on -el, -en, or -er often lose the unstressed e,
pronounced as schwa [ə], in inflected forms:
edel → ed(e)ler → edler

über → üb(e)rig → übrig
winseln → wins(e)le → winsle
The elimination of the schwa may affect how we perceive the pronunciation of the
preceding sounds. Following basic pronunciation rules the stressed vowels in edler,
Wagner, übrig and winsle would be pronounced short because the vowel is followed by
two consonants and the plosives (b, d, g), and the fricative s would become unvoiced be-
cause they are no longer followed by a vowel but by a consonant instead. However, in in-
flected words where a schwa has been eliminated from the word stem, exceptions to the
general rules do apply.
A vowel is generally short:

• before two or • except when the vowel is followed by a consonant
more consonant plus l, n, or r in inflected words where a schwa, [ə],
letters in the has been eliminated from the word stem:
same element: edler [ˈeːdlɐ]
Wagner [ˈvɑːɡnɐ]
übrig [ˈyːbrɪç]
The plosive consonants b, d, g, and the fricative s are usually unvoiced:

• when followed • except before l, n, or r in inflected words where a
by another schwa, [ə], has been eliminated from the word stem:
consonant: edler [ˈeːdlɐ]
Wagner [ˈvɑːɡnɐ]
übrig [ˈyːbrɪç]
winsle [ˈvɪnzlə]
Beware, not every b, d, g, or s is voiced when followed by an l, n, or r. There are words

that look like the exceptions above but are different. For example, lets look at the word
Rose [ˈroːzə](rose). Here the feminine ending -e may be replaced with the diminutive
ending -lein in order to form the diminutive, Röslein. On first glance it looks like a schwa
had been eliminated and the s, which is followed by l, would maintain its voiced quality
(see exception above). However the schwa, which was replaced with the diminutive
ending, is not part of the word stem, which is simply Ros. The s is final in the word stem
and therefore unvoiced according to the rule. Thus, the diminutive of Rose [ˈroːzə] is pro-
nounced Röslein [ˈrøːsla͡en]. The phonological difference between Röslein (little rose) and
Rösslein (little horse) is in the vowel quality and length, [røːsla͡en] versus [ˈrœsla͡en]. Also
the final e of Liebe [ˈliːbə] is not part of the word stem, Lieb. Therefore the b will become
unvoiced when followed by -ling in Liebling [ˈliːplɪŋ].
■ ■ 14.7 ENDING -ig
-ig Although the ending -ig follows clear rules with very few exceptions, it is
often misspronounced. In the combination ig the vowel i is always
pronounced short and open [ɪ] even when followed by a single consonant.
The g is governed by the following rules and can be pronounced as [ç] and
[ɡ] or as an exception as [k].
The ending -ig is pronounced [ɪç]

• at the end of a word or
element
König [ˈkøːnɪç] (king)
König/tum [ˈkøːnɪçtuːm]
(kingship)
wonnig [ˈvɔnɪç] (delightful)
• before a consonant in the
same element
Königs [ˈkøːnɪçs] (king)
Königs/sohn [ˈkøːnɪçszoːn]
(king)
wonnigste [ˈvɔnɪçstə] (most
delightful)
The ending -ig is pronounced
[ɪɡ]
• before a vowel
Könige [ˈkøːnɪɡə] (kings)
Königin [ˈkøːnɪɡɪn] (queen)
wonnige [ˈvɔnɪɡə] (delightful)
[ɪk] • except -ig before the suffix -lich
where -ig is pronounced [ɪk]:
königlich [ˈkøːnɪklɪç] (royal)
wonniglich [ˈvɔnɪklɪç] (blissful)
• except the compound word
König/reich [ˈkøːnɪkra͡eç]
(kingdom)
■ ■ 14.8 CONSONANT COMBINATION ch
ch After the back vowels vowels a, o, u, and au, the letter combination ch is
pronounced [x]; in all other circumstances (after frontvowels and
consonants) ch is pronounced [ç]:
Bach [bax] (brook)
Tochter [ˈtɔxtəɾ] (daughter)
Buch [buːx] (book)
Bauch [bɑ͡ox] (belly)
Licht [lɪçt] (light)
Pech [pɛç] (bad luck)
Bächlein [ˈbɛçla͡en] (brooklet)
Töchter [ˈtœçtɐ] (daughters)
Bücher [ˈbyːçɐ] (books)
Bäuchlein [ˈbɔ͡øçla͡en] (tummy)
fürchten [ˈfʏrçtən] (to fear)
[k] • except in the following
words (of Greek origin),
where medial ch is
pronounced [k]:
Orchester [ɔrˈkɛstɐ]
(orchestra)
Melancholie [melaŋkoˈliː]
(melancholy)
ch- In words of foreign origin, ch may also occur at the beginning of a word and
the pronunciation varies according to origin of the word.
[k] • Initial in most words of Greek origin,
ch is pronounced [k]:
Charakter [kaˈɾaktɐ] (character)
Chloë [ˈkloːe] (girls name)
Chloris [klɔˈɾis] (girl’s name)
Cholera [ˈkoːləɾa] (cholera)
Chor [koːɐ] (choir)
Choral [koˈɾɑːl] (hymn)
Christ [krɪst] (Christ)
Christian [ˈkrɪsti ̯an] (boy’s name)
Christoph [ˈkrɪstɔf] (boy’s name)
Chronik [ˈkroːnɪk] (chronicle)
Chronos [ˈkroːnɔs] (ancient Greek name)
[ç] • Initial in some nouns and names of

Greek origin, ch is pronounces [ç]:
Chrysanthemum [çryˈzantəmʊm]
(chrysanthemum)
Chrysothemis [çryˈzoːtemɪs] (ancient
Greek name)
Charon [ˈçɑːɾɔn] (ancient Greek name)
Chirurg [[çiˈɾʊrk] (surgeon)
[ç] • Initial in words of Hebrew and other

foreign origin, ch is pronounces [ç]:
Cherub [ˈçeːɾʊp] (cherub)
China [ˈçiːna] (China)
[ʃ] • Initial in words of French origin, ch

retains[ᶘ]:
Champignon [ˈʃɑ̃pɪnjõ] (mushroom)
Chance [ˈʃɑ̃sə] (chance)
Chanson [ˈʃɑ̃sõ] (song)
Charmeur [ʃarˈmøːɐ] (charmer)
Chauffeur [ʃɔˈføːɐ] (chauffeur)
Chauvinist [ʃoviˈnɪst] (chauvinist)
Chef [ʃɛf] (boss)
chs When the letters ch and s appear as chs, they are usually parts of separate
elements and are pronounced according to the applicable rules for each
sound as [çs], [çz], [xs], [xz]:
nachsehen [ˈnɑːxzeːən] (prefix + verb)
wächst [vɛçst] (verb stem + ending)
Bachs [baxs] (stem + genitive suffix)
höchste [ˈhøːçstə] (stem + superl. suffix)
[k͡s] • except when the letters

-chs- appear together in
one element, in which case
the combination is
pronounced as the
affricate [k͡s]:
Achse [ˈak͡sə] (axis)
Achsel [ˈak͡səl] (armpit)
Büchse [ˈbʏk͡sə] (tin)
Dachs [dak͡s] (badger)
Deichsel [ˈda͡ek͡səl] (shaft)
Gewächs [ɡəˈvɛk͡s] (plant)

Lachs [lak͡s] (salmon)
Luchs [lʊk͡s] (lynx)
Ochse [ˈɔk͡sə] (ox)
Sachs [zak͡s] (Name: Hans
Sachs)
Sachsen [ˈzak͡sən] (Saxony)
sechs [zɛk͡s] (six)
wachsen [ˈvak͡sən] (to grow)
wächst [vɛk͡st] (it grows)
wechseln [ˈvɛk͡səln] (change)
Weichsel [ˈva͡ek͡səl] (vistula)
■ ■ 14.9 DIMINUTIVE ENDING -chen
In German the diminutive is used far more often than in English, and in modern language
some words are only used in the diminutive, like Mädchen. Although there are other di-
minutive endings like -lein, -ling, and -erl, the one most commonly used is -chen. The di-
minutive ending -chen is attached to nouns to modify the meaning of the word: Kind,
meaning “child,” becomes Kindchen, meaning “small child.” The suffix -chen is always
pronounced [çən]: Entchen [ˈɛntçən] (duckling), Wörtchen [ˈvœrtçən] (small word),
Häuschen [ˈhɔ͡øsçən] (small house).
However, with little experience in the language it can be difficult to differentiate words
with the diminutive ending -chen from other words that also end in -chen but have no di-
minutive ending attached to them and are pronounced differently, like lachen [ˈlaxən] (to
laugh). These are mostly verbs and nouns with a root ending on -ch, which is pronounced
according to the rules as [ç] or [x], followed by the ending -en: riechen [ˈriːçən] (to
smell), wachen [ˈvaxən] (to wake), Drachen [ˈdraxən] (dragon).
The matter is further complicated in words with a root ending on -s followed by the
diminutive ending -chen, like Mäuschen [ˈmɔ͡øsçən] (little mouse), which are easlily con-
fused with other words that also end in -schen, like waschen [ˈvaʃən] (to wash) but are
pronounced differently. These words are mostly verbs or plural nouns with a root ending
on -sch, which is pronounced as [ʃ] followed by the plural ending -en: fischen [ˈfɪʃən] (to
fish), Menschen [ˈmɛnʃən] (humans).
Perfect examples of such confusion are the following words:
naschen [ˈnaʃən] (to nibble) – das Näs/chen [ˈnɛːsçən] (little nose)

haschen [ˈhaʃən] (to catch) – das Häs/chen [ˈhɛːsçən] (little bunny)
löschen [ˈlœʃən] (to extinguish) – das Lös/chen [ˈløːsçən] (lottery ticket)

die Taschen [ˈtaʃən] (bags) – das Täss/chen [ˈtɛsçən] (the little cup)
In these situations it is most helpful to know the following:

■ Diminutives are always nouns, spelled with an initial capital letter.
■ Diminutives are always neuter with das as their singular article.
■ Diminutives usually add an umlaut to the stressed vowel: Maus – Mäuschen
■ Nouns that end on -chen but are not diminutives are:
Drachen [draxən] (dragon)
Nachen [ˈnaxən] (barque), only singular noun on chen
Rachen [ˈraxən] (throat)
Sachen [ˈzaxən] (things)
Sprachen [ˈʃprɑːxən] (Languages)
Attention: Often confusing is the fact that there are also a few nouns made from
verb infinitives that end on -chen or -schen but are also not diminutives:
das Kochen[ˈkɔxən] (the cooking) das Wachen [ˈvaxən] (the waking)

das Lachen [ˈlaxən] (the laugh) das Haschen [ˈhaʃən] (the catch)
das Pochen [ˈpɔxən] (the das Naschen [ˈnaʃən] (the nibbling)
knokinhg)
With the above identifiers in mind, .it should be possible to differentiate verbs and
nouns that end on -chen or -schen from actual diminutives. Once the function and
meaning of the words and elements is determined, the correct pronunciation can be
applied.
■ ■ 14.10 FOREIGN-ORIGIN WORDS
j In words of German origin the letter j is pronounced as the voiced palatal

fricative [ʝ] as in jagen [ˈʝɑːɡən]. However, in words of French origin j is
often pronounced as the voiced prepalatal fricative [ʒ].
[ʒ] The letter j is pronounced
as [ʝ]
• in words of German • except before a vowel in words of
origin: foreign, mostly of French, origin
Jahr [ˈʝɑːɾ] (year) Jackett [ʒaˈkɛt] (jacket)
jagen [ˈʝɑːɡən] (to hunt) Jalousie [ʒaluˈziː] (Venetian blinds)
etc. Journal [ʒʊrˈnɑːl] (journal)
Journalist [ʒʊrnaˈlɪs] (journalist)
Jury [ʒyˈɾiː] (jury)
[ʝ] But the following word is pronounced
with a [ʝ]:
Jacke [ˈʝakə] (coat)
g In words of German origin the letter g is pronounced as the voiced velar
plosive [ɡ] as in gehen [ˈɡeːən]. However, in foreign words, mostly of
French origin, g is often pronounced as the voiced prepalatal fricative [ʒ].
[ʒ] The letter g is pronounced
as [ɡ]
• in words of German • except before a vowel in words of
origin: foreign, mostly of French, origin
Garten [ˈɡartən] (garden) where g is pronounced as [ʒ]:
Wagen [ˈvɑːɡən] arrangieren [arɑ̃ˈʒiːɾən] (to arrange)
(carriage) Genie [ʒeˈniː] (genius)
etc. genieren [ʒeˈniːɾən] (disturb, bother)
ungeniert [ˈʊnʒeniːrt] (unbothered)
Loge [ˈloːʒə] (theater box)
logieren [loˈʒiːɾən] (to lodge)
Orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒə] (orange)
Regie [reˈʒiː] (direction)
[ɡ] • But the following words are pronounced
with a [ɡ]:
Elegie [eleˈɡiː] (elegy)
genial [ɡeˈni ̯ɑːl] (ingenious)
Genien [ˈɡeːni ̯ən] (guardian spirits)
Loge [ˈloːɡə] (Wagner, Ring)
■ ■ 14.11 NO RHYME OR REASON
o The stressed prefix vor- is pronounced closed o, long when stressed

[ˈfoːɾ] and often short when unstressed [foɾ].
vorziehen [ˈfoːɾt͡siːən] • except in the following words
vorangehen[foˈɾanɡeːən] where vor- retains a long
vowel even when unstressed,
as [foːɾ]:
vorab [foːˈɾap](in advance)
vorbei [foːɾˈba͡e](over)
vordem [foːɾˈdeːm](before)
vorher [foːɾˈheːɾ](before)
vorhin [foːɾˈhɪn](just now)
vorüber [foːˈɾyːbɐ](past)
vorweg [foːɾˈvɛk](beforehand)
• except in the following words
where the prefixe vor- is
pronounced with a short
open vowel as [fɔr]:
Vorteil [ˈfɔrta͡el] (advantage)
vordere [ˈfɔrdəɾə] (front)
vorderhand [ˈfɔrdəɾhant]
(presently)
u The stressed prefix ur- is usually pronounced with a long and closed u,
[ˈuːɾ]:
[ʊ] uralt [ˈuːɾǀalt] • except in the following words

Urlaub [ˈuːɾlɑ͡op] where prefixes ur- is
pronounced with a short
open vowel [ʊr]:
Urteil [ˈʊrta͡el] (verdict)
urteilen [ˈʊrta͡elən] (to judge)
i The medial letter combination -ie- is pronounced long and closed [iː],
as in Liebe [ˈliːbə] (love): However, derivations of the number vier do
not follow the general rule:
[I] vier [fiːɾ] (four) • But:
Viertel [ˈfɪrtəl] (quarter)
vierzehn [ˈfɪrt͡seːn] (fourteen)
vierzig [ˈfɪrt͡sɪç] (forty)
The spelling of names and their pronunciation does not always conform
to the general spelling and pronunciation rules.
• The German pronunciation of names ending with o is short and
closed [o]. Notice that the German closed o is slightly more closed
than the Italian [o], although the IPA uses the same symbol:
Benno [ˈbɛno]
Brentano [brɛnˈtɑːno]
Bruno [ˈbruːno]
Sarastro [saˈɾastro]
Tamino [taˈmiːno]
• The accusative and genitive (possessive) endings for nouns
(particularly names) that end with a, such as Pamina, are -en [ən] and
-ens [əns], respectively. Thus in act I of Die Zauberflöte Tamino sings,
“Paminen retten . . .” [paˈmiːnən ˈrɛtən] (to rescue Pamina...). In act II
Tamino asks, “Was hör ich? Paminens Stimme?” [vas høːɾ ǀɪç
paˈmiːnəns ˈʃtɪmə] (What do I hear? Pamina’s voice?), upon which
the Geharnischten respond, “Ja, ja, das is Paminens Stimme.” [ʝɑː ʝɑː
das ǀɪst paˈmiːnəns ˈʃtɪmə] (Yes, yes that is Pamina’s voice).
Music Ex. 14.11.1: W. A. Mozart, Die Zauberflöte
Music Ex. 14.11.2: W. A. Mozart, Die Zauberflöte

■ ■ CH A P T ER 15
SOUNDS FROM FOREIGN

LOANWORDS
The words genre, hamburger, and piano, to name just a few, are in common use in t oday’s
English language, but they were originally adopted as loanwords from French, German,
and Italian. Most languages use loanwords, and German is no exception.
Words have been borrowed from donor languages based on their cultural influ-
ence in fields such as trade, fashon, art, and science. It is no coincidence that many
terms used in philosophy and science are loanwords from Greek and Latin, the lan-
guages spoken by scholars, while the influence in architecture, arts, and fashion as well
gastronomy is found more in loanwords from Italian and French. More recently
English terminology has also made its way into German with technological terms like
Computer and E-Mail.
Many loanwords have been fully incorporated into the German language, and
their spelling and pronunciation have been Germanized. Most of these words are pro-
nounced according to the pronunciation rules, which have already been covered ear-
lier in this book. Other, more recent loanwords, which were less fully adopted, have
kept their original spelling and pronunciation. These words often contain sounds
that do not normally occur in German. We will discuss these sounds in the following
sections.
Among the loanwords that keep some of their original pronunciation are words
from the French, which was for centuries the language of the royals and nobility at
European courts, as well as the international language of diplomacy. The correct pro-
nunciation, or lack thereof, sheds light on a person’s social standing, upbringing, and
education.
■ 233
■ ■ 15.1 FRENCH NASALIZED VOWELS [ɛ̃] , [ɑ̃ ] , [õ] , [œ̃ ]
All the vowels that we have covered in Chapters 4, 5, and 6 are oral vowels. In oral vowels
the soft palate is lifted and closes off the passage to the nasal cavity, thus directing the air-
flow through the oral cavity only, minimizing nasal resonance. Nasal resonance, on the
other hand, is achieved by lowering the soft palate and allowing the airflow and sound to
pass not only through the mouth but also through the nose. A vowel is perceived as nasal-
ized if a significant portion of the airflow and sound passes through the nasal cavity, thus
magnifying nasal resonance.
You have learned about nasal consonants in Chapter 11, where you familiarized your-
self with the sounds of [m], [n], and [ŋ]. In this section you will learn about the nasalized
vowels [ɑ̃], [ɛ̃], [õ], and [œ̃ ], which are formed just like the regular vowels of the same
quality, but with added nasal resonance.
[ɑ̃] ■ an, en in French loanwords
an Pronounce [ɑ̃] in the combination an To form [ɑ̃], form the vowel [ɑ]
of the following French loanwords only: and add nasalization.
arrangieren [arɑ̃ˈʒiːɾən] (arrange) Enunciation Exercise: Start with
revanchieren [rəvɑ̃ˈʃiːɾən] (revenge) the nasal consonant [ŋ]. Then,
without closing the passage to the
Chance [ˈʃɑ̃sə] (chance)
nasal cavity, slowly lower your
Chanson [ʃɑ̃ˈsõ] (song) tongue into an [ɑ̃] position,
Orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒə] (orange fruit) allowing the airflow to pass
through mouth and nose.
orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒ] (orange color)
Alternate back and forth between
Attention: Avoid the the following the two sounds: [ŋɑ̃ŋɑ̃ŋɑ̃]
mispronunciation that is often heard even
Note: The German word for
from German natives: Orange [oˈɾaŋʒə]
orange, the fruit, is Apfelsine
arrangieren [araŋˈʒiːɾən]
[ap͡fəlˈziːnə] and the color is
en Pronounce [ɑ̃] in the combination en goldgelb [ˈɡɔltɡɛlp]. However, in
of the following French loanwords only: common usage in today's German
engagieren [ɑ̃ɡaˈʒiːɾən] (engage) the word Orange is usually used
for both the fruit and the color.
engagement [ˈɑ̃ɡaʒmɑ̃] (engage)
Paravent [ˈpaɾavɑ̃] (partition)
Gendarme [ʒɑ̃ˈdarm] (police officer)
But usually Germanized: [ʒanˈdarm]
Sounds from Foreign Loanwords ■ 235
[ɛ̃] ■ in, ein in French loanwords

in Pronounce [ɛ̃] in the combination in of To form [ɛ̃], form the vowel [ɛ]
the following French loanwords only: and add nasalization.
Chagrin [ʃaˈɡrɛ̃] (grief) Enunciation Exercise: Start with
Cousin [kuˈzɛ̃] (cousin) the nasal consonant [ŋ]. Then,
Note: The German word for Cousin without closing the passage to the
is Vetter [ˈfɛtɐ] nasal cavity, slowly move the arch
of the tongue forward into an [ɛ̃]
ein Pronounce [ɛ̃] in the combination ein position, thus allowing the airflow
of the following French loanword only: to pass through mouth and nose.
Teint [tɛ̃] (complexion) Alternate back and forth between
the two sounds: [ŋɛ̃ŋɛ̃ŋɛ̃]
[õ] ■ on in French loanwords only

on Pronounce [õ] in the combination on To form [õ] assume the position
of the following French loanwords only: of closed [o] and add nasalization.
Bouillon [buˈʝõ] (broth) Enunciation Exercise: Start with
But also Germanized: [bʊlˈʝõ] the nasal consonant [ŋ]. Then
round your lips, and, without
Bronze [ˈbrõsə] (bronze)
closing the passage to the nasal
Saison [sɛˈzõ] (season) cavity, slowly lower your tongue
Chanson [ʃɑ̃ˈsõ] (song) into an [õ] position, thus allowing
the airflow to pass through mouth
Jargon [ʒarˈɡõ] (jargon)
and nose. Alternate back and forth
Attention: Avoid the following between the two sounds:
mispronunciation that is often heard [ŋõŋõŋõ]
even from German natives: Bouillon
[bʊlˈʝɔŋ], Jargon [ʒarˈɡɔŋ].
[œ̃ ] ■ um in French loanwords only

um Pronounce [œ̃ ] in the combination um To form [œ̃ ] assume the position
of the following French loanword only: of open [œ] and add nasalization.
Parfum [parˈfœ̃ ] (parfume)
Enunciation Exercise: Start with the
nasal consonant [ŋ]. Then round
your lips, and slowly move the arch
of the tongue forward into an [œ̃ ]
position, thus allowing the airflow to
pass through mouth and nose.
Alternate back and forth between
the two sounds: [ŋœ̃ ŋœ̃ ŋœ̃ ]
Nasal vowels exist in German only in a few loanwords from French. In French spell-
ing, nasalization of a vowel usually applies if the vowel is followed by n or m in the same
syllable. Because the number of French loanwords with nasalized sounds is fairly small,
they can be easily memorized.
■ ■ 15.2 FRENCH SEMI VOWEL GLIDES [w] , [ɥ]
A few loanwords have sounds that are otherwise non-existent in words of Germanic
origin. Semi vowel glides are sounds that have the quality of a vowel and the function
of a consonant. Semi vowel glides do not constitute a syllable, and they are only sounded
in passing between two sounds. The semi vowel glides [w] and [ɥ] are used in French
loanwords only.
[w] ■ oi in some French
loanwords
oi Pronounce [wa] in Form the semivowel glide [w] like w in the
spellings of the letter English word we.
combination oi in some
The lips are rounded similarly to closed [uː]
French loanwords only:
but slightly more protruded creating slight
Toilette [twaˈlɛtə] (toilet)
friction between the lips. The back of the
tongue is arched toward the soft palate. The
soft palate is raised and closes the passage
to the nasal cavity.
[ɥ] ■ u in some French

loanwords
u Pronounce [ɥ] in spellings Form the semivowel glide [ɥ] like the
of the letter u in some u-Umlut, ü in the German word Süden
French loanwords only. [ˈzyːdən], but much shorter and only in
Nuance [ˈnɥɑ̃sə] passing before the following vowel.
(nuance)
The tongue is in the position of closed [i]
and the lips are rounded like closed [u],
thus achieving the quality of [y]. The sound
is very short before moving swiftly to the
subsequent vowel.
■ ■ Ch a p t er 16
German L atin
Latin was the language of the church and scholars, and the language used for teaching in
schools for hundreds of years. Local pronunciations of Latin developed throughout the
Holy Roman Empire, which expanded from the Mediterranean Sea to the North Sea. It
covered a large area of Europe, which now includes northern Italy, Switzerland, Germany,
Austria, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Belgium, the Netherlands, and parts of France.
Therefore there is more than one correct way to pronounce Latin in singing. For works by
German-speaking composers it is the German manner, called German Latin. For Italian
composers it is Italian Latin and for French composers French Latin. None of these local-
ized pronunciations is classical Latin. Since the second half of the twentieth century there
has been an effort to present music in a historically correct manner. This has led to the use
of early instruments and correct ensemble composition and also to a renewed interest in
authentic language usage. Until that time performances in the United States of German
works were usually done in Italian Latin. Even today some choral professionals find it too
difficult to prepare the chorus in German Latin and slide back into Italian Latin for expe-
diency. (For convenience we provide a complete IPA transcription of the Mass text.) We
don’t have a Latin tradition in our schools, and if we wish to be historically correct we
have to develop some guidelines for deciding which pronunciation to use. Here are some
useful considerations:
■ If the composer is from a German-speaking region (today Germany, Austria, and

Switzerland) and the performers for whom the work was composed spoke
German, then use German Latin.
■ The biggest clue we have for making this decision is the following: there is one
major difference between the syllabic division of words used in German Latin and
those used in Italian Latin. It can be seen in the division of the s and the c in such
■ 237
238 ■ ADVAN C E D D I C TI ON PROB L EMS
words as descendit. In Italian Latin sc is one sound, [ʃ]. In German Latin it is pro-
nounced as two sounds, [s t͡s], and when the word in which these sounds appear is
divided on the page, they can be separated. That is to say, in Italian Latin it is likely
to be written de-scendit [dɛ-ˈʃɛndɪt] because there would be no way to separate the
s from the c. But in German Latin it is divided thus: des-cendit [dɛs-ˈ t͡sɛndɪt].
When this division has been chosen, you may assume the composer expected the
pronunciation to be [dɛsˈt͡sɛndɪt] in the German manner. Of course, this method
requires examination of the autograph scores of all the works in question. Many
published editions, including German ones, use the wrong divisions.
Consider these five composers: J. S. Bach, Joseph Haydn, W. A. Mozart, Franz

Schubert, and Ludwig van Beethoven. Bach in the autograph of the B Minor Mass often
did not make a separation at all and simply wrote over the bar line, but, when forced to,
because of a new line or new page, he made the separation sus-cipe in the Gloria, and as-
cendit, des-cendit in the Credo. Haydn in the autograph of his Schöpfungsmesse separates
sus-cipe in the Gloria as well as both, as-cendit and des-cendit in the Credo. With Mozart
there is not any doubt. He almost always makes the German separations. However,
Mozart’s Exultate Jubilate was composed for the Italian castrato, Rauzzini and may be
sung in Italian Latin. Schubert follows the German tradition because of his childhood
schooling in the Wiener Hof- und Sängerknaben—always as-cendit and des-cendit.
Beethoven is much less clear. In the autographs of the masses there is no separation at all.
But in a copy that he personally corrected, he uses the separation in sus-cipe and des-cendit.
The following example shows the separations in “Suscepit Israel” from Bach’s Maginficat
with the word divisions as printed in most published editions and on the ossia staff with
the divisions as the composer had intended them. No matter how published editions
divide, it is pronounced [sʊsˈt͡seːpɪt] and never [sʊˈʃeːpɪt] or [suˈʃɛpit] as in Italian Latin.
Music Ex. 16.1.1: J. S. Bach, Magnificat

German L atin ■ 239
Vera U. G. Scherr confirms this information in her book Aufführungspraxis

Vokalmusik Handbuch der lateinischen Aussprache (Bärenreiter, 1991). She also comes
to the conclusion that German works should be sung in German Latin. German
composers had the Latin in their ears that they had learned in school, which was, of
course, German Latin. Whether it was, or would have been, a great issue for most
of these composers to have their works sung in the Latin of their schooling is a
moot question. It probably would not have occurred to them that there was an alter-
native to the Latin that they knew. They would probably have been very glad to have
the music sound beautiful and have been very puzzled by [ˈ t͡ʃeːli] for coeli and [ˈsuːʃipe]
for suscipe.
For the correct German Latin pronunciation, we have to know about word stress and
we have to be able to recognize so-called “open” and “closed” syllables (not to be confused
with open and closed vowels). An open syllable is one that ends on a vowel. A closed syl-
lable is one that ends on a consonant. For example, the word be/ne/dic/tus is composed
by two open syllables (be/ne) followed by two closed syllables (dic/tus).
In Latin the end syllable is never stressed. In words of two syllables the word stress is
on the first syllable, pa/ter [ˈpɑːteɾ]. In words of more than two syllable,s the stress is
either on the penultimate (second to last), re/sur/rex/it [resʊˈɾɛksɪt], or the antepenulti-
mate (third to last) syllable, vir/gi/ne [ˈvɪrɡɪne].
Vowels
The following general rules apply to vowels in German Latin (based on Vera U. G.
Scherr):
■ Vowels are short, open [ɪ], [ɛ], [ɔ], [ʊ] in all closed syllables, stressed or
unstressed, re/su/rex/it [resʊˈɾɛk͡sɪt].
■ Vowels are long, closed [iː], [eː], [oː], [uː] in stressed open syllables, ve/rum
[ˈveːɾʊm].
■ Vowels are short, closed [i], [e], [o], [u] in unstressed, open syllables, be/ne/
dic/tus [beneˈdɪktʊs]
■ Further, in singing, short closed vowels [i], [e], [o], [u] in unstressed open
syllables tend to open in quality toward [ɪ], [ɛ], [ɔ], [ʊ] if they occur in a syllable
after the word stress. For the purpose of this book, which is primarily for the use of
singers, we will therefore transcribe these vowels as short and open [ɪ], [ɛ], [ɔ],
[ʊ], vir/gi/ne [ˈvɪrɡɪne].
■ Final vowels in multysyllabic words are short and closed [i], [e], [o], [u], di/e
[ˈdiːe].
■ Vowels are short and open [ɪ], [ɛ], [ɔ], [ʊ] in unstressed open syllables before r,
miserere [mɪsɛˈɾeːɾe].
■ The glottal separation is employed in German Latin (but never in Italian Latin) for
initial vowels, confiteor unum [kɔnˈfiːteɔɾ ˈǀuːnʊm].
The following IPA chart will show the detailed pronunciation rules for each vowel
sound and how the pronunciaton differs from Italian Latin.1
German Latin Italian Latin

a
[ɑː] Pronounce [ɑː] in spellings of the letter a
• in stressed, open syllables:
pa/ter [ˈpɑːtɛɾ], pa/cem [ˈpɑːt͡sɛm]
[a] Pronounce [a] in spellings of the letter a Pronounce [a] in all spellings
• in unstressed, open syllables: of the letter a:
sa/lu/tem [saˈluːtɛm] pa/ter [ˈpater], pa/cem
[ˈpat͡ʃem], an/ge/li
• in all closed syllables:
[ˈand͡ʒeli]
sank/tus [ˈsaŋktʊs], e/ti/am [ˈeːt͡siam]
except in the following monosyllabic
words:
hac [hɑːk], quas [k͡vɑːs], sal [sɑːl]
But the following go by the rule:

ap [ap], ad [at], fac [fak], lac [lak],
quam [k͡vam]
• final in multisyllabic words:
ter/ra [ˈtɛra]
e
[eː] Pronounce [eː] in spellings of the letter e
ve/nit [ˈveːnɪt], Je/su [ˈi ̯eːsu]
[e] Pronounce [e] in spellings of the letter e Pronounce [e] in spellings of

• in unstressed open syllables before the letter e
the word stress: • in all unstressed syllables:
se/cun/dum [seˈkʊndʊm] de/pre/ca/ti/o/nem
de/pre/ca/ti/o/nem [deprekat͡siˈoːnɛm] [deprekat͡siˈonem]
sa/lu/tem [saˈlutem]
vir/gi/ne [ˈvird͡ʒine]
vir/gi/ne [ˈvɪrɡɪne]
• in stressed syllables of
some words, which are
identical in modern
Italian:
stel/la [ˈstel͡la], cre/do
[ˈkredo], ver/us [ˈveɾus],
ce/na [ˈ t͡ʃena]
[ɛ] Pronounce [ɛ] in spellings of the letter e Pronounce [ɛ] in spellings of
• in all closed syllables: the letter e
dex/te/ram [ˈdɛk͡stɛɾam] • in most stressed syllables:
sa/lu/tem [saˈluːtɛm] dex/te/ram [ˈdɛk͡steɾam]
spem [spɛm] mis/e/re/re [mizeˈɾɛɾe]
spem [spɛm]
words:
pes [peːs], res [reːs], spes [speːs], ver
[veːɾ], spem [speːm],
rem [reːm]
• in unstressed open syllables after the

word stress:
an/ge/li [ˈɑːŋɡɛli]
except before another vowel, in which

case it is pronounced [e]:
con/fi/te/or [kɔnˈfiːteɔɾ]
lu/ce/at [ˈluːt͡seat]
etc.
• in unstressed open syllables

before r:
mis/e/re/re [mɪsɛˈɾeːɾe]
• in et and all forms of the verb esse:
et [ɛt]
es/se [ˈɛse], es [ɛs], est [ɛst],
e/rat [ˈɛɾat], e/rant [ˈɛɾant],
e/runt [ˈɛɾʊnt]
Note: Schwa [ə] is never used in Latin.
i
[iː] Pronounce [iː] in spellings of the letter i
fi/li/us [ˈfiːliʊs]
[i] Pronounce [i] in spellings of the letter i Pronounce [i] in all spellings
• in unstressed open syllables before of the letter i:
the word stress: fi/li/us [ˈfiliʊs], Chris/te
re/mis/si/o/nem [remɪsiˈoːnɛm] [ˈkriste],
con/glo/ri/fi/ca/tur [kɔnɡlɔɾifiˈkɑːtuɾ] no/bis [ˈnɔbis]
de/i [ˈdeːi], mi/hi [ˈmiːhi]
[ɪ] Pronounce [ɪ] in spellings of the letter i The open [ɪ] does not exist in
• in all closed syllables: Italian Latin.
Chris/te [ˈkrɪste], no/bis [ˈnoːbɪs], id [ɪt]

word:
his [hiːs]

word stress:
spi/ri/tum [ˈspiːɾɪtʊm]
do/mi/nus [ˈdɔmɪnʊs]

case it is pronounced [i]:
fi/li/us [ˈfiːliʊs]
Glo/ri/a [ˈɡloːɾia]
etc.
o
[oː] Pronounce [oː] in spellings of the letter o
no/bis [ˈnoːbɪs], glo/ria [ˈɡloːɾia],
po/su/it [ˈpoːsuɪt]
except in a few words with stress on

the antepenultimate open syllable:
do/mi/nus [ˈdɔmɪnʊs]
ho/mi/nes [ˈhɔmɪnɛs] o/cu/los[ˈɔkʊlɔs]
o/ri/ens [ˈɔɾiɛns]
po/pu/lus [ˈpɔpʊlʊs]
[o] Pronounce [o] in spellings of the letter o Pronounce [o] in spellings of
• in unstressed open syllables before the letter o
the word stress: • in all unstressed syllables:
pro/phe/tas [proˈfeːtas] con/fi/te/or [konˈfiteoɾ], ve/
ro [ˈveɾo],
pro/phe/tas [proˈfetas],
ve/ro [ˈveːɾo], de/o [ˈdeːo]
• in stressed syllables of
some words, which are
identical in modern
Italian:
non [non], a/cri/mo/ni/a
[akriˈmonia]
[ɔ] Pronounce [ɔ] in spellings of the letter o Pronounce [ɔ] in spellings of

• in all closed syllables: the letter o
mor/tu/os [ˈmɔrtuɔs] • in most stressed syllables:
con/fi/te/or [kɔnˈfiːteɔɾ] mor/tu/os [ˈmɔrtuos]
quod [k͡vɔt], non [nɔn] do/mi/nus [ˈdɔminus]
nos [nɔs]
words:
flos [floːs], nos [noːs], quos [k͡voːs],
os [oːs], vos [voːs], hoc [hoːc], sol [soːl]

word stress:
om/ni/po/tens [ɔmˈniːpɔtɛns]
• in unstressed open syllables before r:
o/ri/en/te [ɔɾiˈɛnte]
u
[uː] Pronounce [uː] in spellings of the letter u
u/num [ˈuːnʊm], lu/mi/ne [ˈluːmɪne],
for/tu/na [fɔrˈtuːna], tu [tuː]
[u] Pronounce [u] in spellings of the letter u Pronounce [u] in all spellings
• in unstressed open syllables before of the letter u:
the word stress: For/tu/na [fɔrˈtuna], spi/ri/
u/ni/ge/ni/te [uniˈɡeːnɪte] tu [ˈspiɾitu], fi/li/um
[ˈfilium], sae/cu/la [sɛkula],
re/sur/rex/it [resuˈɾɛk͡sit]
spi/ri/tu [ˈspiːɾɪtu], sta/tu [ˈstɑːtu]
[ʊ] Pronounce [ʊ] in spellings of the letter u The open [ʊ] does not exist in
• in all closed syllables: Italian Latin.
vo/lun/ta/tis [volʊnˈtɑːtɪs]
sus/ci/pe [ˈsʊst͡sipe]
fi/li/um [ˈfiːliʊm], cum [kʊm]

word:
cur [kuːɾ]
except in the ending -ur, which is
always pronounced closed [u].
glo/ri/fi/ca/tur [ɡlɔɾifiˈkɑːtuɾ]
etc.

word stress:
sae/cu/la [ˈ sɛːkʊla]

case it is pronounced [u]:
po/su/it [ˈpoːsuɪt]
mor/tu/os [ˈmɔrtuɔs]
etc.
• in unstressed open syllables

before r:
e/su/ri/en/tem [esʊɾiˈɛntɛm]
ae/æ
[ɛː] Pronounce [ɛː] in spellings of the the
double letter æ or letter combination ae in
one syllable
sae/cu/la [ˈsɛːcʊla]

cae/li [t͡søːli] (heavens)
[ɛ] Pronounce [ɛ] in spellings of the the Pronounce [ɛ] in all spellings
double letter æ or letter combination ae in of the letter combination ae or
one syllable the double letter æ:
• in unstressed syllables: Sae/cu/la [ˈsɛcula], sae/cu/
sae/cu/lo/rum [sɛkuˈloːɾʊm] lo/rum [sɛkuˈloɾum], ter/rae
[ˈtɛrɛ]
ter/rae [ˈtɛrɛ]
an/cil/lae [anˈ t͡sɪlɛ]
su/ae [ˈsuːɛ]
oe/œ
[øː] Pronounce [øː] in spellings of the double Mixed vowels do not exist in
letter œ or the letter combination oe in Italian Latin.
one element
coe/li [ˈ t͡søːli], Phoe/bus [ˈføːbʊs]
proe/li/um [ˈprøːliʊm]
[ø] Pronounce [øː] in spellings of the double
letter œ or the letter combination oe in
one element
• in unstressed open syllables before
the word stress:
coe/les/tis [t͡søˈlɛstɪs]
except in the following word which is

pronouncd open [œ]:
poe/ni/te/bat [pœniˈteːbat]

Gol/goe [ˈɡɔlɡø]
pen/tas/ti/choe [pɛnˈtastiçø]
[œ] Pronounce [œ] in spellings of the double

letter œ or the letter combination oe in
one element
• in unstressed open syllables before r:
Choe/ri/lus [kœˈɾiːlʊs]
[ɛ] Pronounce [ɛ] in all spellings
of the double letter œ or the
letter combination oe in one
element:
coe/li [ˈ t͡ʃɛli], proe/li/um
[ˈprɛlium]
y
[yː] Pronounce [yː] in spellings of the letter y Mixed vowels do not exist in
• in stressed, open syllables: Italian Latin. The letter y is
ky /ri/e [ˈkyːɾie] always pronounced [i].
[y] Pronounce [y] in spellings of the letter y

• in unstressed open syllables before
the word stress:
Cy/tha/ri/zat [t͡syˈtɑːɾit͡sat]
Hy/pe/ri/on [hypeˈɾiːɔn]
[ʏ] Pronounce [ʏ] in spellings of the letter y
• in all closed syllables:
hym/nus [ˈhʏmnʊs]
word stress:
Ze/phy/rus [ˈ t͡seːfʏɾʊs]
[i] Pronounce [i] in all spellings
of the letter y:
ky /ri/e [ˈkiɾie], Ze /phy/rus
[ˈd͡zefiɾus]
ai
(aj)
[a͡i] Pronounce [a͡i] in spellings of the letter Pronounce [a͡i] in spellings
combination ai and its alternative spelling of the letter combination ai
aj: and its alternative spelling aj:
• in the same syllable • in the same syllable

mai/or [ˈma͡iɔɾ], ai/us [ˈa͡iʊs], mai/or [ˈma͡ioɾ], ai/us
maj/or [ˈma͡iɔɾ], aj/us [ˈa͡iʊs], mai/e/ [ˈa͡ius],
sta/tis [ma͡ieˈstɑːtɪs] maj/or [ˈma͡ioɾ], aj/us
[ˈa͡ius],
mai/e/sta/tis [ma͡ieˈstatis]
au
[ɑ͡o] Pronounce [ɑ͡o] in all spellings of the
letter combination au
• in the same syllable
Lau/da/mus [lɑ͡oˈdɑːmʊs]
[a͡u] [a͡u] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [a͡u] in all
spellings of the letter
combination au in the same
syllable:
Lau/da/mus [la͡uˈdamus]
ei
(ej)
[ɛ͡i] Pronounce [ɛ͡i] in all spellings of the
letter combination ei and its alternative
spelling ej:
e/lei/son [eˈlɛ͡isɔn]
ei/a [ɛ͡ia], ej/a [ɛ͡ia]
[e͡i] [e͡i] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [e͡i] in all spellings
of the letter combination ei
and its alternative spelling ej:
e/lei/son [eˈle͡ison]
ei/a [e͡ia], ej/a [e͡ia]
eu
[ɔ͡ø] Pronounce [ɔ͡ø] in all spellings of the
letter combination eu
A/treus [ˈɑːtrɔ͡øs], The/seus [ˈteːsɔ͡øs]
[e͡u] [e͡u] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [e͡u] in all
combination eu in the same
syllable:
A/treus [ˈatre͡us], The/seus
[ˈteze͡us]
ui
(uj)
[ʊ͡i] Pronounce [ʊ͡i] in spellings of the
letter combination ui and its alternative
spelling uj:
cui [kʊ͡i],
cui/us [ˈkʊ͡iʊs], cuj/us [ˈkʊ͡iʊs]
except when ui is preceeded by q, in

which case qui is pronounced as [k͡vi].
qui [k͡vi].
[u͡i] [u͡i] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [u͡i] in all
combination ui and its
alternative spelling uj:
cui [ku͡i]
cui/us [ˈku͡ius], cuj/us
[ˈku͡ius]
■ ■ Consonants
As a general rule double consonants are not doubled in German Latin. The following IPA
chart will show the detailed pronunciation rules for each consonant sound in alphabetical
order and how the pronunciaton differs from Italian Latin.2
German Latin Italian Latin

b
[b] Pronounce [b] in spellings of the Pronounce [b] in all spellings of
letter b the letter b:
• initial to a word baptisma [bapˈtizma],
baptisma [bapˈtɪsma] Sabaoth [ˈsɑːbaɔt]
ab [ab], sub [sub]
obdurat [ɔbˈduːɾat]
Sabaoth [ˈsɑːbaɔt]
• medial before a voiced consonant
obdurat [ɔbˈduːɾat]
[p] Pronounce [p] in spellings of the
letter b
• medial before a voiceless
consonant:
consubstantialem
[kɔnsʊpstant͡siˈɑːlɛm]
• final in a word:
ab [ap], sub [sʊp]
c, cc
[k] Pronounce [k] in spellings of the Pronounce [k] in spellings of the
letters c and cc letters c and cc
• before a, o, u, au: • before a, o, u:
deprecationem [deprekat͡siˈoːnɛm], deprecationem
conglorificatur [kɔnɡlɔɾifiˈkɑːtuɾ], [deprekat͡siˈonem],
cum [kʊm], peccata [pɛˈkɑːta] conglorificatur
[konɡloɾifiˈkatuɾ],
cum [kum], peccata [peˈkata]
• before consonants: • before consonants:
credo [ˈkreːdo], facta [ˈfakta] credo [ˈkredo], facta [ˈfakta]
ecclesiam [ɛˈkleːsɪam] ecclesiam [eˈkleziam]
• at the end of a word: • at the end of a word:
nunc [nʊŋk] nunc [nuŋk]
[t͡s] Pronounce [t͡s] in spellings of the letter c

• before i, e, y, ae, oe, eu:
benedicimus [beneˈdiːt͡sɪmʊs],
pace [ˈpɑːt͡se], excelsis [ɛk͡sˈt͡sɛlsɪs],
coelestis [t͡søˈlɛstɪs]
Pronounce [kt͡s] in spellings of the
letter cc
• before i, e, y, ae, oe, eu:
ecce [ˈɛkt͡se]
[t͡ʃ] [t͡ʃ] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [t͡ʃ] in spellings of the
letters c and cc
• before i, e, y, ae, oe:
benedicimus [benedit͡ʃimus],
pace [ˈpat͡ʃe], excelsis
[ɛk͡sˈt͡ʃɛlsis],
coelestis [t͡ʃɛˈlɛstis]
ecce [ˈɛt͡ʃe]
ch
[k] Pronounce [k] in spellings of the letter Pronounce [k] without
combination ch aspiration in all spellings of the
• initial to a word: letter combination ch:
Christe [ˈkrɪste], chorus [ˈkoːɾʊs], Christe [ˈkriste], chorus [ˈkɔɾus]
Michael [ˈmikael]
eucharistia [eukaɾisˈtia]
pulcher [ˈpulkeɾ]
[ç] Pronounce [ç] in spellings of the letter The velar fricatives [ç] and [x] do
combination ch not exist in Italian Latin. The
• medial after i, e, y, ae, oe, eu: letter combination ch is always
Michael [ˈmɪçaɛl] pronounced [k].
eucharistia [ɔ͡øçaɾɪsˈtiːa]
• medial after a consonant:
pulcher [ˈpʊlçɛɾ]
[x] Pronounce [x] in spellings of the letter
combination ch
• medial after a, o, u, au:
monachis [moˈnɑːxɪs]
cch
[x] Pronounce [x] in spellings of the Pronounce [k] without
letter combination cch: aspiration in all spellings of the
Bacchus [ˈbaxʊs], bracchio [ˈbraxio] letter combination cch:
Bacchus [ˈbakus], bracchio
Note: As an alternative pronunciation,
[ˈbrakio]
[k] is an acceptable variation in
spellings of the letter combination cch:
Bacchus [ˈbakʊs], bracchio [ˈbrakio]
d
[d] Pronounce [d] in spellings of the letter d Pronounce [d] in all spellings of
• initial to a word the letter d:
domine [ˈdɔmɪne], deus [ˈdeːʊs] domine [ˈdɔmine],
adoramus [adoˈɾamus],
adventus [adˈventus]
laudamus [lɑ͡oˈdɑːmʊs], adoramus
ad [ad], illud [ˈilud], quod
[adɔˈɾɑːmʊs]
[kwɔd]
• medial before a voiced consonant
adventus [adˈvɛntʊs]
[t] Pronounce [t] in spellings of the letter d
• final in a word:
ad [at], illud [ˈɪlʊt], quod [k͡vɔt]
f
[f] Pronounce [f] in all spellings of the Pronounce [f] in all spellings of
letter f: the letter f:
filius [ˈfiːliʊs], filius [ˈfilius]
glorificamus [ɡlɔɾifiˈkɑːmʊs] glorificamus [ɡloɾifiˈkamus]
g
[ɡ] Pronounce [ɡ] in all spellings of the Pronounce [ɡ] in spellings of the
letter g: letter g:
gloria [ɡloːɾia], virgine [vɪrɡɪne], • before a, o, u:
agnus [ˈaɡnʊs] gaudium [ˈɡa͡udium], ergo
[ˈɛrɡo], lingua [ˈliŋɡua]
• before consonants:
gloria [ɡloːɾia], agnus [ˈaɡnus]
[dʒ] [dʒ] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [dʒ] in spellings of
the letter g:
• before i, e, y, ae, oe:
virgine [ˈvirdʒine],
genitum [ˈdʒɛnitum]
Aegyptus [ɛˈdʒiptus]
[ ɲ] [ɲ] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [ ɲ] in all spellings of
the letter combination gn:
agnus [ˈaɲus], regni [ˈreɲi]
h
[h] Pronounce [h] in all spellings of the The letter h is always silent in
letter h: Italian Latin:
homines [ˈhɔmɪnɛs], homo [ˈhoːmo], homines [ˈɔmines], homo
hosanna [hoˈsana] [ˈomo], hosanna [oˈzan͡na]
except in the combinations ch, ph,

rh, th:
chorus [ˈkɔɾʊs], pulcher [ˈpʊlçɛɾ],
prophetas [proˈfeːtas], Rhea [ˈreːa],
catholicam [kaˈtoːlɪkam]
j
[i ̯] The letter j is an alternative spelling for The letter j is an alternative
non-syllabic i. spelling for non-syllabic i.
Pronounce [i ̯] in spellings of the letter j: Pronounce [i ̯] in spellings of the
• initial to a word or syllable: letter j:
judicare [i ̯udiˈkɑːɾe], Julius [ˈi ̯uːlɪʊs], • initial to a word or syllable:
al/le/lu/ja [aleˈluːi ̯a] judicare [i ̯udiˈkaɾe], Julius
[ˈi ̯ulius], al/le/lu/ja [aleˈlui ̯a]
In all other circumstances j is the off- In all other circumstances j is the

glide of a diphthong: off-glide of a diphthong:
maj/or [ˈma͡iɔɾ], ej/a [ɛ͡ia], cuj/us maj/or [ˈma͡ioɾ], ej/a [e͡ia],
[ˈkʊ͡iʊs] cuj/us [ˈku͡ius]
l, ll
[l] Pronounce [l] in all spellings of the Pronounce [l] in all spellings of
letter l and ll: the letter l:
laudamus [lɑ͡oˈdɑːmʊs], solus laudamus [lauˈdamus], solus
[ˈsoːlʊs], tollis [ˈtɔlɪs] [ˈsolus]
Pronounce [l͡l] in spellings of the

double letter ll:
tollis [ˈtɔl͡lis]
m
[m] Pronounce [m] in all spellings of the Pronounce [m] in all spellings of
letter m: the letter m:
miserere [mɪsɛˈɾeːɾe], miserere [mizeˈɾɛɾe],
dominus [ˈdɔmɪnʊs], tuam [ˈtuːam] dominus [ˈdɔminus], tuam
[ˈtuam]
n
[n] Pronounce [n] in spellings of the letter Pronounce [n] in spellings of the
n and nn letter n
• when not followed by [ɡ] or [k] • when not followed by [ɡ] or
(g, c, q or x) in the same element: [k] (g, c, q or x) in the same
nos [nɔs], unam [ˈuːnam], in [ɪn], element:
hosanna [hoˈsana] nos [nɔs], unam [ˈuːnam], in
[ɪn]
• in the prefixes in- and con- even
when followed by [ɡ] or [k]: • in the prefixes in- and con-
conglorificatur [kɔnɡlɔɾifiˈkɑːtuɾ] even when followed by [ɡ]
incarnatus [ɪnkarˈnɑːtʊs], or [k]:
inquietus [ɪnk͡viˈeːtʊs] conglorificatur
[konɡlɔɾifiˈkatuɾ]
incarnatus [inkarˈnatus],
inquietus [inkuiˈɛtus]
Pronounce [n͡n] in spellings of
the double letter nn:
hosanna [oˈzan͡na]
[ŋ] Pronounce [ŋ] in spellings of the Pronounce [ŋ] in spellings of the

letter n: letter n:
• before [ɡ] or [k] (g, c, q or x) in • before [ɡ] or [k] (g, c, q or
the same element: x) in the same element:
angelus [ˈaŋɡɛlʊs], sanctus [ˈsaŋktʊs], lingua [ˈliŋɡua], sanctus
tanquam [ˈtaŋk͡vam], pinxi [ˈpɪŋk͡si] [ˈsaŋktus],
tanquam [ˈtaŋkuam], pinxi
[ˈpiŋk͡si]
Note: The letter n before [dʒ]

(g followed by i, e, y, ae, oe)is
pronounced as [n]: angelus
[ˈandʒelus]
p
[p] Pronounce [p] in all spellings of the Pronounce [p] in all spellings of
letter p: the letter p:
pleni [ˈpleːni], spiritum [ˈspiːɾɪtʊm], pleni [ˈpleni], spiritum
apostolicam [apɔsˈtoːlɪkam] [ˈspiɾitum],
apostolicam [aposˈtɔlikam]
ph
[f] Pronounce [f] in all spellings of the Pronounce [f] in all spellings of
letter combination ph: the letter combination ph:
prophetas [proˈfeːtas] prophetas [proˈfɛtas]
Zephyrus [ˈt͡seːfʏɾʊs] Zephyrus [ˈd͡zɛfiɾus]
qu
[k͡v] Pronounce [k͡v] in all spellings of the
letter combination qu:
qui [k͡vi], quem [k͡vɛm],
quoniam [ˈk͡voːnɪam],
filioque [filiˈoːk͡ve], equus [ˈeːk͡vʊs]
[kw] [kw] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [kw] in all spellings
of the letter combination qu:
qui [kwi], quem [kwɛm],
quoniam [ˈkwɔniam],
filioque [filiˈɔkwe]
Note: In Italian Latin when qu is
followed by a syllable beginning
with u, quu is pronounced [ku.u]:
equus [ˈeːku.us]
r, rr
[r] Pronounce the 2- to 3-tongue-tap trill Pronounce the 2- to 3-tongue-tap
[r] in spellings of the letter r: trill [r] in spellings of the letter r:
• in initial position: • in initial position:
resurrexit [resʊˈrɛk͡sɪt] resurrexit [rezuˈrɛk͡sit]
• medial before or after a • medial before or after a
consonant: consonant:
Patri [ˈpɑːtri], tertiam [ˈtɛrt͡siam] Patri [ˈpatri], tertiam [ˈtɛrt͡siam]
Pronounce the 2- to 3-tongue-tap trill Pronounce the 2- to 3-tongue-tap
[r] in spellings of the double letter rr: trill [r] in spellings of the double
resurrectionem [resʊrɛkt͡siˈoːnɛm] letter rr:
terrae [ˈtɛrɛ] resurrectionem
[rezurekt͡siˈɔnem]
terrae [ˈtɛrɛ]
[ɾ] Pronounce the one-tap trill [ɾ] in Pronounce the one-tap trill [ɾ] in
spellings of the letter r: spellings of the letter r:
• in intervocalic position: • in intervocalic position:
vero [ˈveːɾo] vero [ˈveɾo]
• final in a word: • final in a word:
per [pɛɾ] per [peɾ]
rh
[r] Pronounce [r] in all spellings of the Pronounce [r] in all spellings of
letter combination rh: the letter combination rh:
Rhea [ˈreːa] Rhea [ˈrea]
s, ss
[s] Pronounce [s] in all spellings of the Pronounce [s] in spellings of the
letters s and ss: letter s:
sanctus [ˈsaŋktʊs], hosanna [hoˈsana], • in initial and final position
remissionem [remɪsiˈoːnɛm] sanctus [ˈsaŋktus]
• before a voiceless consonant
est [ɛst]
Pronounce [s͡s] in all spellings of
the double letter ss:
remissionem [remis͡siˈɔnem]
[z] [z] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [z] in spellings of the
letters s
• in intervocalic position:
hosanna [oˈzan͡na]

eleison [eˈlɛison]
• before a voiced consonant:

baptisma [bapˈtizma]
miserere [mizeˈɾɛɾe]
sc
[sk] Pronounce [sk] in all spellings of the Pronounce [sk] in all spellings of
letter combination sc: the letter combination sc:
• before back vowels a, o, u, au: • before back vowels a, o, u, au:
scutella [skuˈtɛla] scutella [skuˈtɛl͡la]
• before a consonant: • before a consonant:
scripturas [skrɪpˈtuːɾas] scripturas [skripˈtuɾas]
Note: sch is also pronounced[sk]: Note: sch is also pronounced [sk]:
schola [ˈskoːla], Ischariot [iˈskɑːɾiɔt] schola [ˈskɔla], Ischariot
[iˈskaɾiot]
[st͡s] Pronounce [st͡s] in all spellings of the

letter combination sc:
• before front vowels i, e, and ae:
suscipe [ˈsʊst͡sɪpe]
ascendit [asˈt͡sɛndɪt]
descendit [desˈt͡sɛndɪt]
[ʃ] [ʃ] does not exist in German Latin. Pronounce [ʃ] in spellings of the
letter combination sc:
• before i, e, y, ae:
suscipe [ˈsuʃipe]
ascendit [aˈʃɛndit]
descendit [deˈʃɛndit]
t
[t] Pronounce [t] in all spellings of the Pronounce [t] in all spellings of
letter t: the letter t:
terrae [ˈtɛrɛ], voluntatis [volʊnˈtɑːtɪs], terrae [ˈtɛrɛ], voluntatis
et [ɛt] [volunˈtatis], et [ɛt]
ti
[t͡si] Pronounce [t͡si] in all spellings of the Pronounce [t͡si] in all spellings of
letter combination ti: the letter combination ti:
• before a vowel (but not before • before a vowel (but not before
consonant): consonant):
gratias [ˈɡrɑːt͡sias], gratias [ˈɡrat͡sias],
deprecationem [deprekat͡siˈoːnɛm], deprecationem [deprekat͡siˈɔnem],
etiam [ˈet͡siam] etiam [ˈɛt͡siam]
But: tibi [tibi],
But: tibi [tiːbi], voluntatis [volunˈtatis]
voluntatis [volʊnˈtɑːtɪs]
v
[v] Pronounce [v] in spellings of the Pronounce [v] in spellings of the
letter v: letter v:
voluntatis [volʊnˈtɑːtɪs], vivos [ˈviːvɔs] voluntatis [volunˈtatis], vivos
[ˈvivos]
Note the following combinations:
• su followed by a vowel is Note the following combinations:
pronounced [sv]: • su followed by a vowel is
suavis [ˈsvɑːvɪs] pronounced [sw]:
suavis [ˈswavis]
• ngu is pronounced [ŋɡv]:
lingua [ˈlɪŋɡva] • ngu is pronounced [ŋɡw]:
lingua [ˈliŋɡwa]
x
[k͡s] Pronounce [k͡s] in all spellings of the Pronounce [k͡s] in spellings of
letter x: the letter x:
dexteram [ˈdɛk͡stɛɾam] • before or after a consonant:
pax [pak͡s], rex [rɛk͡s] dexteram [ˈdɛk͡steɾam]
exalto [ɛk͡sˈalto]
• at the end of a word:
pax [pak͡s], rex [rɛk͡s]
[ɡ͡z] Pronounce [ɡ͡z] in spellings of
the letter x:
• in intervocalic position:
exalto [eɡ͡zˈalto]
z
[t͡s] Pronounce [t͡s] in all spellings of the Pronounce [d͡z] in all spellings of
letter z: the letter z:
Zephyrus [ˈt͡seːfʏɾʊs] Zephyrus [ˈd͡zɛfiɾus]
Cytharizat [t͡syˈtɑːɾit͡sat] Cytharizat [t͡siˈtaɾid͡zat]
■ ■ The Ordinary of the Mass in German Latin
Kyrie
Kyrie eleison
[ˈkyːɾie ǀeˈlɛ͡isɔn]
(Have mercy Lord)
Christe eleison
[ˈkrɪste ǀeˈlɛ͡isɔn]
(Christ have mercy)
Gloria
Gloria in excelsis Deo,

[ˈɡloːɾia ǀɪn ǀɛk͡s ˈ t͡sɛlsɪs ˈdeːo]
(Glory to God in the highest)
et in terra pax hominibus bonae voluntatis.

[ǀɛt ɪn ˈtɛra pak͡s hɔˈmiːnɪbʊs ˈboːnɛ volʊnˈtɑːtɪs]
(and peace on earth to men of good will.)
Laudamus te, benedicimus te,

[lɑ͡oˈdɑːmʊs te beneˈdiːt͡sɪmʊs te]
(We praise Thee, we bless Thee,)
adoramus Te, glorificamus Te.

[ǀadoˈɾɑːmʊs te ɡloɾifiˈkɑːmʊs te]
(we adore Thee, we glorify Thee.)
Gratias agimus tibi propter magnam gloriam tuam,

[ˈɡrɑːt͡sias ˈǀɑːɡɪmʊs ˈtiːbiː ˈprɔpteɾ ˈmaɡnam ˈɡloːɾiam ˈtuːam]
(We thank Thee for Thy great glory)
Domine Deus, rex coelestis, Pater omnipotens,

[ˈdɔmɪne ˈdeːʊs rɛk͡s t͡søˈlɛstɪs ˈpɑːtɛɾ ǀɔmˈniːpɔtɛns]
(Lord God, King of Heaven, God, Father Omnipotent,)
Domine Filii unigenite, Jesu Christe.

[ˈdɔmɪne ˈfiːlii ǀuniˈɡeːnɪte ˈi ̯eːsu ˈkrɪste]
(Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son.)
Domine Deus, Agnus dei, Filius Patris,

[ˈdɔmɪne ˈdeːʊs ˈǀaɡnʊs ˈdeːi ˈfiːliʊs ˈpɑːtrɪs]
(Lord God, Lamb of God, Son of the Father,)
Qui tollis peccata mundi,

[k͡vi ˈtɔlɪs pɛˈkɑːta ˈmʊndi]
(You, who takes away the sins of the world,)
miserere nobis.
[misɛˈɾeːɾe ˈnoːbɪs]
(have pity upon us.)
Suscipe deprecationem nostram

[ˈsʊst͡sipe deprekat͡siˈoːnɛm ˈnɔstram]
(receive our prayer,)
Qui sedes ad dexteram Patris,

[k͡vi ˈseːdɛs ǀat ˈdɛk͡stɛɾam ˈpɑːtrɪs]
(Thou who sittest at the right hand of the Father,)
miserere nobis.
(have pity upon us.)
Quoniam tu solus sanctus, tu solus Dominus,

[ˈk͡voːnɪam tu ˈsoːlʊs ˈsaŋktʊs tu ˈsoːlʊs ˈdɔmɪnʊs]
(For Thou alone art holy, Thou alone art the Lord,)
tu solus Altissimus, Jesu Christe.

[tu ˈsoːlʊs alˈtɪsɪmʊs ˈjeːsu ˈkrɪste]
(Thou art most high, Jesus Christ.)
Cum Sancto Spiritu,

[kʊm ˈsaŋkto ˈspiːɾɪtu]
(With the Holy Spirit,)
in gloria Dei Patris.

[ɪn ˈɡloːɾia ˈdeːi ˈpɑːtrɪs]
(in the glory of God the Father.)
Amen
[ˈɑːmɛn]
(Amen)
Credo
Credo in unum Deum;

[ˈkreːdo ǀɪn ˈǀuːnʊm ˈdeːʊm]
(I believe in one God;)
Patrem omnipotentem,
[ˈpɑːtrɛm ǀɔmnipoˈtɛntɛm]
(Father Almighty,)
factorem coeli et terrae

[fakˈtoːɾɛm ˈt͡søːli ǀɛt ˈtɛrɛ]
(who made heaven and earth,)
visibilium omnium et invisibiliʊm

[visiˈbiːliʊm ˈǀɔmniʊm ǀɛt ǀɪnvisiˈbiːliʊm]
(all things visible and invisible.)
Credo in unum Dominum, Jesum Christum,

[ˈkreːdo ǀɪn ˈǀuːnʊm ˈdɔmɪnʊm ˈjeːsʊm ˈkrɪstʊm]
(I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ,)
filium Dei unigenitum.

[ˈfiːliʊm deːi ǀuniˈɡeːnɪtʊm]
(only begotten Son of God.)
Et ex Patre natum ante omnia saecula,

[ɛt ǀˈɛks ˈpɑːtre ˈnɑːtʊm ǀˈante ǀˈɔmnia ˈsɛːcʊla]
(And born of the Father before all worlds;)
Deum de Deo, lumen de lumine,

[ˈdeːʊm de ˈdeːo ˈluːmɛn de ˈluːmɪne]
(God of God, light of light,)
Deum verum de Deo vero,

[ˈdeːʊm ˈveːɾʊm de ˈdeːo ˈveːɾo]
(True God of true God,)
Genitum non factum,

[ˈɡeːnɪtʊm nɔn ˈfaktʊm]
(begotten not made,)
consubstantialem Patri,
[kɔnsʊpstant͡siˈɑːlɛm ˈpɑːtri]
(being one with the Father,)
per quem omnia facta sunt.

[pɛr k͡vɛm ǀˈɔmnia ˈfakta sʊnt]
(by whom all things were made.)
Qui propter nos homines,

[k͡vi ˈprɔptɛɾ nɔs ˈhɔmɪnɛs]
(Who for man,)
et propter nostram salutem

[ǀɛt ˈprɔptɛɾ ˈnɔstram saˈluːtɛm]
(and for our salvation)
descendit de coelis.
[dɛsˈt͡sɛndɪt de ˈt͡søːlɪs]
(descended from heaven.)
Et incarnatus est de spiritu sancto,

[ǀɛt ɪnkarˈnɑːtʊs ǀɛst de ˈspiːɾɪtu ˈsaŋkto]
(And was made flesh by the Holy Spirit,)
ex Maria virgine: Et homo factus est.

[ǀɛk͡s maˈɾiːa ˈvɪrɡɪne |ɛt ˈhoːmo ˈfaktʊs ǀɛst]
(through the Virgin Mary: And was made man.)
Crucifixus etiam pro nobis

[krut͡siˈfɪk͡sʊs ˈǀeːt͡siam pro ˈnoːbɪs]
(He was crucified for us)
sub Pontio Pilato passus, et sepultus est.

[supˈpɔnt͡sio piˈlɑːto ˈpasʊs ǀɛt seˈpʊltʊs ǀɛst]
under Pontius Pilate he suffered, and was buried.
Et resurrexit tertia die

[ǀɛt resʊˈɾɛk͡sɪt ˈtɛrt͡sia ˈdiːe]
And arose on the third day
secundum Scripturas.
[seˈkʊndʊm skrɪpˈtuːɾas]
(according to the Scriptures.)
Et ascendit in coelum,
[ǀɛt ǀasˈt͡sɛndɪt ǀɪn ˈt͡søːlʊm]
(And ascended into heaven)
sedet ad dexteram Patris.

[ˈseːdɛt ǀat ˈdɛk͡stɛram ˈpɑːtrɪs]
(and sitteth on the right hand of God.)
Et iterum venturus est cum gloria

[ǀɛt ˈǀiːtɛɾʊm vɛnˈtuːɾʊs ǀɛst kʊm ˈɡloːɾia]
(And He shall come again in glory)
judicare vivos et mortuos,

[i ̯udiˈkɑːɾe ˈviːvɔs ǀɛt ˈmɔrtuɔs]
(to judge the living and dead)
cuius regni non erit finis.

[ˈkʊ͡iʊs ˈreɡni nɔn ˈǀɛɾɪt ˈfiːnɪs]
(for his kingdom shall have no end.)
Credo in Spiritum Sanctum,

[ˈkreːdo ǀɪn ˈspiːɾɪtʊm ˈsaŋktʊm]
(I believe in the Holy Ghost,)
Dominum et vivificantem,
[ˈdɔmɪnʊm ǀɛt vivifiˈkantɛm]
(Lord and giver of life,)
qui ex Patre Filioque procedit,

[k͡vi ǀɛk͡s ˈpɑːtre filiˈoːk͡ve proˈt͡seːdɪt]
(who proceeds from Father and Son,)
qui cum Patre et Filio simul

[k͡vi kʊm ˈpɑːtre ǀɛt ˈfiːlio ˈsɪmʊl]
(Who, with the Father and Son together)
adoratur et conglorificatur;
[ǀadɔɾˈɑːtuɾ ǀɛt kɔnɡlɔɾifiˈkɑːtuɾ]
(is worshipped and glorified;)
qui locutus est per prophetas.

[k͡vi loˈkuːtʊs ǀɛst pɛɾ proˈfeːtas]
(as was spoken by the prophets.)
Credo in unam sanctam catholicam

[ˈkreːdo ǀɪn ˈǀuːnam ˈsaŋktam kaˈtoːlɪkam]
(I believe in one holy catholic)
et apostolicam ecclesiam.
[ǀɛt ǀapɔsˈtoːlɪkam ǀɛkˈleːsiam]
(and apostolic Church.)
Confiteor unum baptisma

[kɔnˈfiːteɔɾ ˈǀuːnʊm bapˈtɪsma]
(I confess one baptism,)
in remissionem peccatorum.
[ǀɪn remɪsiˈoːnɛm pekaˈtoːɾʊm]
(in remission of sins.)
Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum

[ǀɛt ǀɛk͡sˈpɛkto resʊrɛkt͡siˈoːnɛm mɔrtuˈoːɾʊm]
(And I await resurrection of the dead)
et vitam venturi saeculi.

[ǀɛt ˈviːtam vɛnˈtuːɾi ˈsɛːkʊli]
(and life in the world to come.)
Sanctus
Sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth,

[ˈsaŋktʊs ˈdɔmɪnʊs ˈdeːʊs ˈsɑːbaɔt]
(Holy Lord God of Hosts)
pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua.

[ˈpleːni sʊnt ˈt͡søːli ǀɛt ˈtɛra ˈɡloːɾia ˈtuːa]
(Heaven and earth are full of Thy glory.)
Hosanna in excelsis.
[hoˈsana ǀɪn ǀɛk͡sˈt͡sɛlsɪs]
(Hosanna in the highest.)
Benedictus
Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini.

[beneˈdɪktʊs k͡vi ˈveːnɪt ǀɪn ˈnoːmɪne ˈdɔmɪni]
(Blessed is he, who comes in the name of the Lord.)
Hosanna in excelsis.
[hoˈsana ǀɪn ǀɛk͡sˈt͡sɛlsɪs]
(Hosanna in the highest.)
Agnus Dei
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi,

[ˈaɡnʊs ˈdeːi k͡vi ˈtɔlɪs pɛˈkɑːta ˈmʊndi]
(Lamb of God, who taketh away the sins of the world)
miserere nobis.
(have mercy on us.)
Agnus Dei,
[ˈaɡnʊs ˈdeːi]
(Lamb of God,)
Dona nobis pacem

[ˈdoːna ˈnoːbɪs ˈpɑːt͡sɛm]
(Give us peace.)
■ ■ An Excerpt from CARL ORFF’S Carmina Burana in

German Latin
O Fortuna
O Fortuna
[ˈǀoː fɔrˈtuːna]
(O Fortune,)
velud* luna
[veːlʊt ˈluːna]
(like the moon)
statu variabilis,
[ˈstɑːtu vaɾiˈɑːbɪlɪs]
(you are changeable,)
* Some scores use the spelling velut, but the original is velud. The pronunciation is the same.
semper crescis
[sɛmpɛɾ ˈkrɛst͡sɪs]
(ever waxing)
aut decrescis;
[ˈǀɑ͡ot deˈkrɛst͡sɪs]
(and waning;)
vita detestabilis
[ˈviːta detɛsˈtɑːbɪlɪs]
(hateful life)
nunc obdurat
[nʊŋk ɔbˈduːɾat]
(first oppresses)
et tunc curat
[ǀɛt tʊŋk ˈkuːɾat]
(and then soothes)
ludo mentis aciem,

[ˈluːdo ˈmɛntɪs ˈǀat͡siɛm]
(as fancy takes it;)
egestatem, potestatem
[eɡeˈstɑːtɛm poteˈstɑːtɛm]
(poverty and power)
dissolvit ut glaciem.
[diˈsɔlvɪt ʊt ˈɡlɑːt͡siɛm]
(it melts like ice.)
Sors immanis et inanis,

[sɔrs iˈmɑːnɪs ɛt iˈnɑːnɪs]
(Fortune, monstrous and vain,)
rota tu volubilis,
[ˈroːta tu voˈluːbɪlɪs]
(Thou art a spinning wheel,)
status malus, vana salus

[ˈstɑːtʊs ˈmɑːlʊs ˈvɑːna ˈsɑːlʊs]
(you are evil, health is uncertain)
semper dissolubilis,
[ˈsɛmpɛɾ disoˈluːbɪlɪs]
(always worsening,)
obumbrata et velata
[ǀɔb|ʊmˈbrɑːta ǀɛt veˈlɑːta]
(shaded and veiled)
michi quoque niteris;

[ˈmɪçi ˈk͡voːk͡ve ˈniːtɛɾɪs]
(you threaten me;)
nunc per ludum dorsum nudum

[nʊŋk pɛɾ ˈluːdʊm ˈdɔrsʊm ˈnuːdʊm]
(now through the sport, I bring)
fer tui sceleris.

[fɛr ˈtuːi ˈst͡seːlɛɾɪs]
(from your crimes.)
Sors salutis et virtutis

[sɔrs saˈluːtɪs ǀɛt vɪrˈtuːtɪs]
(Good health and good luck)
michi nunc contraria,

[ˈmɪçi nʊŋk kɔnˈtrɑːɾia]
(have turned away from me,)
est affectus et defectus

[ǀɛst ǀaˈfɛktʊs ǀɛt deˈfɛktʊs]
(my wishes and failings)
semper in angaria.
[ˈsɛmpɛɾ ǀɪn aŋˈɡɑːɾia]
(remain at her whim.)
Hac in hora sine mora

[hɑːk ǀɪn ˈhoːɾa ˈsiːne ˈmoːɾa]
(So now without delay)
corda pulsum tangite;

[ˈkɔrda ˈpʊlsʊm ˈtaŋɡɪte]
(touch the pulsing strings;)
quod per sortem sternit fortem,

[k͡vɔt pɛɾ ˈsɔrtɛm ˈstɛrnɪt ˈfɔrtɛm]
(For, because fate vanquishes the strong man,)
mecum omnes plangite!

[ˈmeːkʊm ˈǀɔmnɛs ˈplaŋɡɪte]
(all come and lament with me!)
APPENDIX
■ ■ Alphabetical Index of German Spellings
Spelling Example IPA Page

a a • before single Knabe [ˈknɑːbə] [ɑː] 52
consonant
• before ß followed by Straße [ˈʃtrɑːsə] [ɑː] 52
vowel
• before consonant Wagner [ˈvɑːɡnəɾ] [ɑː] 52
plus l, n, or r
• before two or more Halt [halt] [a] 53
consonants
• in the prefixes: ab-, dabei [daˈba͡e] [a] 54
an-, da-
• in some unstressed ab [ap], was [vas], etc. [a] 54
monosyllabic words
aa • in one element Saal [zɑːl] [ɑː] 52
ah • in one element Jahr [ʝɑːɾ] [ɑː] 53
ai • in one element Mai [ma͡e] [a͡e] 97
an • in a few French loan orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒ] [ɑ̃] 234
words
au • in one element Traum [trɑ͡om] [ɑ͡o] 98
ay • in one element Bayreuth [ba͡eˈɾɔ͡øt] [a͡e] 97
■ 269
270 ■ A P P E N D IX
ä (ae) ä • before single spät [ʃpɛːt] [ɛː] 45

consonant
• before cons. plus Mädchen [ˈmɛːtçən] [ɛː] 45
-chen or -lein Näglein [ˈnɛːɡla͡en]
• before ß followed by Späße [ˈʃpɛːsə] [ɛː] 45
vowel
• in a few words before Gespräch [ɡəˈʃprɛːç] [ɛː] 45
two or more cons.
• before two or more Blätter [ˈblɛtəɾ] [ɛ] 43
consonants
äh • in one element wählen [ˈvɛːlən] [ɛː] 45
äu • in one element Säule [ˈzɔ͡ølə] [ɔ͡ø] 99
b b • initial to a word or Burg [bʊrk] [b] 148
element ver/borgen [fɛɐˈbɔrɡən]
• medial before a Leben [ˈleːbən] [b] 148
vowel
• medial before a selbst [zɛlpst] [p] 146
consonant
• preceding l, n, or r übrig [[ˈyːbrɪç] [b] 148
• final Lob [ˈloːp] [p] 147
• final in a word stem Lieb/chen [ˈliːpçən] [p] 147
followed by a
consonant
bb • in one element Ebbe [ˈɛbə] [b] 148
bs • in one element selbst [zɛlp͡st] [p͡s] 198
c c • medial in words of Cocytus [koˈt͡syːtʊs] [t͡s] 201
Latin orig.
• Initial in a few words Cymbal [ˈ t͡sʏmbal] [t͡s] 201
ch • after consonants fürchten [ˈfʏrçtən] [ç] 131
• after front vowels (all Licht [lɪçt] [ç] 131
vowels except a, o, u, Bächlein [ˈbɛçla͡en]
au)
• initial in words of Cherub [ˈçeːɾʊp] [ç] 131
foreign orig.
• diminutive ending Lieb/chen [ˈliːpçən] [ç] 131
-chen
Appendix ■ 271
• after back vowels (a, Buch [buːx] [x] 133

o, u, au)
• initial in words of Chanson [ʃɑ̃ˈsõ] [ʃ] 125
French orig.
• in words of Greek Chor [koːɐ] [k] 161
origin
ck • in one element glücklich [ˈɡlʏklɪç] [k] 160
chs • in one element Fuchs [fʊk͡s] [k͡s] 203
d d • initial in a word or Dach [dax] [d] 155
element ver/drängen [fɛɐˈdrɛŋən]
• medial before a re/den [ˈreːdən] [d] 155
vowel
• medial before a Widmung [ˈvɪtmʊŋ] [t] 153
consonant
• preceding l, n, or r goldne [ˈɡɔldnə] [d] 155
• final in a word Lied [liːt] [t] 153
• final in a word stem, Bild/nis [ˈbɪltnɪs] [t] 153
followed by a
consonant
dd • in one element Widder [ˈvɪdɐ] [d] 155
dt • in one element Stadt [ʃtat] [t] 154
e e • before single Leben [ˈleːbən] [eː] 41
consonant
• before consonant regnen [ˈreːɡnən] [eː] 41
plus l, n, or r
• in some word lebendig [leˈbɛndɪç] [e] 42
derivations
• unstressed in foreign Chloe [ˈkloːe] [e] 42
words
• before two or more Herz [hɛrt͡s] [ɛ] 43
consonants
• before x Hexe [ˈhɛk͡sə] [ɛ] 43
• in some des [dɛs], es [ɛs], etc. [ɛ] 43
monosyllabic words
• in prefixes: ent-, er-, verzagen [vɛɾˈt͡sɑːɡən] [ɛ] 44
ver-, zer-
• in unstressed final Blume [ˈbluːmə] [ə] 46

position
• unstressed prefixes bedenken [bəˈdɛŋkən] [ə] 46
be-, ge- gefallen [ɡəˈfalən]
• in unstressed endings blühten [ˈblyːtən] [ə] 46
ee • in one element Meer [meːɾ] [eː] 41
eh • in one element Weh [veː] [eː] 42
ei • in one element mein [ma͡en] [a͡e] 97
ein • in a few French loan Teint [tɛ̃] [ɛ̃] 235
words
en • in a few French loan Engagieren [ɑ̃ɡaˈʒiːɾən] [ɑ̃] 234
words
eu • in one element Freude [ˈfrɔ͡ødə] [ɔ͡ø] 99
ey • in one element Freyburg [ˈfra͡ebʊrk] [a͡e] 97
f f • in all positions Ofen [ˈoːfən] [f] 115
ff • in one element offen [ˈɔfən] [f] 115
g g • initial in a word or Garten [ˈɡartən] [ɡ] 163
element
• medial before a Regen [ˈreːɡən] [ɡ] 163
vowel
• medial before a trägt [trɛːkt] [k] 161
consonant
• preceding l, n, or r Wagner [ˈvɑːɡnɐ] [ɡ] 163
• final in a word Weg [veːk] [k] 161
• final in a word stem reg/los [ˈreːkloːs] [k] 162
followed by a
consonant
• in -ig endings König [ˈkøːnɪç] [ç] 132
• in -ig endings before ängstigt [ˈɛŋstɪçt] [ç] 132
a cons.
• in -ig endings before Könige [ˈkøːnɪɡə] [ɡ] 164
a vowel
• in words of French Orange [oˈɾɑ̃ʒə] [ʒ] 126
origin
gg • in one element Egge [ˈɛɡə] [ɡ] 163
Appendix ■ 273
h h • initial in words or Haus [hɑ͡os] [h] 138

elements Rat/haus [ˈrɑːthɑ͡os]
• other than above Stroh [ʃtroː] silent 138
i i • before single wir [viːɾ] [iː] 34
consonant
• unstressed in foreign Bariton [ˈbɑːɾitɔn] [i] 35
words
• before two or more Licht [lɪçt] [ɪ] 37
consonants
• before x Nixe [ˈnɪk͡sə] [ɪ] 37
• in some in [ɪn], im [ɪm], etc. [ɪ] 37
monosyllabic words
• suffixes: -in, ig, -nis Freundin [ˈfrɔ͡øndɪn] [ɪ] 37
• unstressed in final -ik Chronik [ˈkroːnɪk] [ɪ] 37
ie • medial Lied [liːt] [iː] 34
• before cons. plus Liebchen [ˈliːpçən] [iː] 35
-chen or -lein Wieglein [ˈviːkla͡en]
• final in monosyllabic wie [viː] [iː] 35
words
• final, stressed Melodie [meloˈdiː] [iː] 35
• final, unstressed Arie [ˈɑːɾi ̯ə] [i ̯ə] 36
-ien • final, unstressed Arien [ˈɑːɾi ̯ən] [i ̯ən] 36
ih • in same element ihr [iːɾ] [iː] 35
ieh • in same element fliehen [fliːn] [iː] 35
in • in a few French loan cousin [kuˈzɛ̃] [ɛ̃] 235
words
-ion • final Passion [paˈsi ̯oːn] [i ̯oːn] 36
j j • almost always Jahr [ʝɑːɾ] [ʝ] 130
• in words of French Jury [ʒyˈɾi] [ʒ] 126
origin
k k • in all spellings König [ˈkøːɪç] [k] 160
kk • in one element Akkord [aˈkɔrt] [k] 160
l l • in all spellings Leben [ˈleːbən] [l] 183
ll • in one element Halle [ˈhalə] [l] 183
m m • in all spellings Morgen [ˈmɔrɡən] [m] 170

mm • in one element Sommer [ˈzɔmɐ] [m] 170
n n • in all spellings Nacht [naxt] [n] 171
(except ng, nk)
• preceding k in one Funken [ˈfʊŋkən] [ŋ] 173
element
ng • ng in one element Finger [fɪŋɐ] [ŋ] 173
nn • in one element Wonne [ˈvɔnə] [n] 171
o o • at the end of a word so [zoː] [oː] 60
• before single Tor [toːɾ] [oː] 60
consonant
• before ß followed by stoßen [ˈʃtoːsən] [oː] 60
vowel
• unstressed in some wohin [voˈhɪn] [o] 61
words
• unstressed in foreign Melodie [meloˈdiː] [o] 61
words
• before two or more Knospe [ˈknɔspə] [ɔ] 62
consonants
• final -or and -os Marmor [ˈmarmɔɾ] [ɔ] 63
Lotos [ˈloːtɔs]
• in some ob [ɔp], von [fɔn], etc. [ɔ] 63
monosyllabic words
oe • see under ö
oo • in one element Moos [moːs] [oː] 60
oh • in one element Sohn [zoːn] [oː] 61
oi • in some French toilette [twaˈlɛtə] [wa] 236
loanwords
on • in a few French loan jargon [ʒarˈɡõ] [õ] 235
words
ö (oe) ö • before single schön [ʃøːn] [øː] 76
(oe) consonant
• before cons. plus Tönchen [ˈtøːnçən] [øː] 76
-chen or -lein Röslein [ˈrøːsla͡en]
• before ß followed by größer [ˈɡrøːsəɾ] [øː] 76
vowel
Appendix ■ 275
• before two or more Töchter [ˈtœçtəɾ] [œ] 78

consonants
öh • in one element Söhne [ˈzøːnə] [øː] 77
eu • in French loan words Deserteur [dezɛrˈtøːɾ] [øː] 77
p p • in all spellings Platz [plat͡s] [p] 146
pf • in one element Pforte [ˈp͡fɔrtə] [p͡f] 199
ph • in one element Ophelia [oˈfeːli ̯a] [f] 115
pp • in all spellings Treppe [ˈtrɛpə] [p] 146
ps • in one element Psalm [p͡salm] [p͡s] 198
q qu • in all spellings Quelle [ˈk͡vɛlə] [k͡v] 204
r r • initial Räder [ˈrɛːdɐ] [r] 187
• medial, after grollen [ˈɡrɔlən] [r] 187
a consonant
• medial, before a Gärten [ˈɡɛrtən] [r] 187
consonant
• final after a long Meer [meːɾ] [ɾ] 189
vowel
• intervocalic verloren [fɛɐˈloːɾən] [ɾ] 189
• after a vowel plus h Ohren [ˈoːɾən] [ɾ] 189
• final to a word or Tür [tyːɐ] [ɐ] 190
prefix, after a long
vowel (except
after a)
-er • in unstressed word lieber [ˈliːbɐ] [ɐ] 190
endings
rr • in one element irre [ˈɪrə] [r] 187
s s • medial before a Last [last] [s] 120
consonant
• final in a word Eis [a͡es] [s] 120
or element Häus/chen [ˈhɔ͡øsçən]
• in prevocalic Nase [ˈnɑːzə] [z] 121
position
• preceding l, n, or r unsre [ˈʊnzrə] [z] 121
sch • in one element schön [ʃøːn] [ʃ] 124

sp- • initial to a word or spät [ʃpɛːt] [ʃp] 125
element Aus/sprache
[ˈɑ͡osʃprɑːxə]
ss • in one element Wasser [ˈvasɐ] [s] 120
st- • initial to a word or Straße [ˈʃtrɑːsə] [ʃt] 124
element ge/stochen [ɡəˈʃtɔxən]
ß ß • always groß [ɡroːs] [s] 120
t t • in all spellings Tat [tɑːt] [t] 153
th • in one element Theater [teˈɑːtɐ] [t] 154
ti • in words of Latin Nation [naˈt͡si ̯oːn] [t͡s] 200
origin
tt • in one element retten [ˈrɛtən] [t] 154
tsch • in one element Deutsch [dɔ͡øt͡ʃ] [t͡ʃ] 202
t’s • in contractions ist’s [ɪst͡s] [t͡s] 201
tz • in one element Platz [plat͡s] [t͡s] 200
u u • at the end of a word du [duː], zu [t͡suː] [uː] 67
• before single Blume [ˈbluːmə] [uː] 67
consonant
• before ß followed by Buße [ˈbuːsə] [uː] 67
vowel
• unstressed in some zu/sammen [t͡suˈzamən] [u] 68
words
• unstressed in foreign Musik [muˈziːk] [u] 68
words
• before two or more Mund [mʊnt] [ʊ] 68
consonants
• Prefixes: um- [ʊm], Umweg [ˈʊmveːk] [ʊ] 69
un- [ʊn] Ungeduld [ˈʊnɡədʊlt]
• final -us [ʊs], and Jesus [ˈʝeːzʊs] [ʊ] 69

-um [ʊm] Jesum [ˈʝeːzʊm]
• in some French nuance [ˈnɥɑ̃sə] [ɥ] 236
loanwords
ue • see under ü
Appendix ■ 277
uh • in one element Uhr [uːɾ] [uː] 68

um • in a few French loan parfum [parˈfœ̃ ] [œ̃ ] 235
words
ü (ue) ü • before single Süden [ˈzyːdən] [yː] 85
(ue) consonant
• before cons. plus Blümchen [ˈblyːmçən] [yː] 85
-chen or -lein Krüglein [ˈkryːkla͡en]
• before ß followed by Grüße [ˈɡryːsə] [yː] 85
vowel
• before consonant übrig [ˈyːbrɪç] [yː] 85
plus l, n, or r
• before two or more küssen [ˈkʏsən] [ʏ] 87
consonants
• suffix -tüm- volkstümlich [yː] 85
[ˈfɔlkstyːmlɪç]
üh • in one element Frühling [ˈfryːlɪŋ] [yː] 85
v v • final naiv [naˈiːf] [f] 115
• initial and medial in Vogel [ˈfoːɡəl] [f] 115
German words davon [daˈfɔn]
• initial in Latin origin Violen [vi ̯ˈoːlən] [v] 116
words
w w • in all positions Wasser [ˈvasɐ] [v] 116
x x • in all spellings Hexe [ˈhɛk͡sə] [k͡s] 203

y y • final in common Mary [ˈmaɾi] [i] 36
names
• stressed, before Elysium [eˈlyːziʊm] [yː] 86
single cons.
• unstressed Zephyr [ˈt͡seːfyɾ] [y] 86
• before two or more Myrte [ˈmʏrtə] [ʏ] 88
consonants
z z • in all spellings Zucker [ˈt͡sʊkɐ] [t͡s] 200
zz • in one element Intermezzo [ɪntəɾˈmɛt͡so] [t͡s] 200
■ ■ list of Difficult Words, Names, and Exceptions
A Buch [buːx]
Aaron [ˈɑːɾɔn] Buche [ˈbuːxə]
Abraham [ˈɑːbraham] Bücher [ˈbyːçəɾ] or [ˈbyːçɐ]
Achse [ˈak͡sə] Büchse [ˈbʏk͡sə]
Achsel [ˈak͡səl]
Adam [ˈɑːdam] C
Ade [aˈdeː] Cäsar [ˈt͡sɛːzaɾ]
Adelaide [adelaˈiːdə] Cecilie [t͡seˈt͡siːli ̯ə]
Adele [aˈdeːlə] Cerberus [ˈt͡sɛrbeɾʊs]
Aeschylus [ˈɛʃʏlʊs] Ceres [ˈt͡seːɾɛs]
Agamemnon [aɡaˈmɛmnɔn] Chagrin [ʃaˈɡrɛ̃]
Agathe [aˈɡɑːtə] Chamisso [ʃaˈmiso]
Agnum [ˈaɡnʊm] Champagner [ʃamˈpani ̯əɾ] or [ʃamˈpani ̯ɐ]
Agnus [ˈaɡnʊs] Champignon [ˈʃɑ̃pɪni ̯õ]
Alberich [ˈalbəɾɪç] Chance [ˈʃɑ̃sə]
Alchemie [alçeˈmiː] Chanson [ʃɑ̃ˈsõ]
Alciden [alˈt͡siːdən] Chaos [ˈkɑːɔs]
Aloe [ˈɑːloe] Charakter [kaˈɾaktəɾ] or [kaˈɾaktɐ]
Amethyst [ameˈtʏst] Charmeur [ʃarˈmøːɾ] or [ʃarˈmøːɐ]
Amor [ˈaːmɔɾ] Charon [ˈçɑːrɔn]
Anacreon, Anakreon [aˈnɑːkreɔn] Charybdis [çaˈɾʏpdɪs]
Äolsharfe [ˈɛːǀɔlsharfə] Chauffeur [ʃɔˈføːɾ] or [ʃɔˈføːɐ]
April [aˈprɪl] Chauvinist [ʃoviˈnɪst]
Archibald [ˈarçɪbalt] Chef [ʃɛf]
Ariadne [aˈɾi ̯adne] Chemie [çeˈmiː]
Arie [ˈɑːɾi ̯ə] Chemiker [ˈçeːmɪkəɾ] or [çeːmɪkɐ]
Arien [ˈɑːɾi ̯ən] Cherub [ˈçeːɾʊp]
arrangieren [aɾɑ̃ˈʒiːɾən] Chimära [çiˈmɛːɾa]
Art [ɑːrt] China [ˈçiːna]
artig [ˈɑːrtɪç] Chirurg [çiˈɾʊrk]
Arzt [ɑːrt͡st] Chloë [ˈkloːe]
Atlas [ˈatlas] Chloris [klɔˈɾis]
atmen [ˈɑːtmən] Cholera [ˈkoːləɾa]
Atreus [ˈɑːtrɔ͡øs] Chor [koːɾ] or [koːɐ]
Atys [ˈɑːtɪs] Choral [koˈɾɑːl]
Christ [krɪst]
B Christian [ˈkrɪsti ̯an]
Bart [bɑːrt] Christoph [ˈkrɪstɔf]
beenden [bəǀˈɛndən] Chronik [ˈkroːnɪk]
Benno [ˈbɛno] Chronos [ˈkroːnɔs]
Berlin [bɛrˈliːn] Chrysanthemum [çryˈzantəmʊm]
Beschwerde [bəˈʃveːrdə] Chrysothemis [çryˈzoːtemɪs]
Bestie [ˈbɛsti ̯ə] chthonisch [ˈçtoːnɪʃ]
Bethlehem [ˈbeːtlehɛm] Circe [ˈt͡sɪrt͡se]
brach [brɑːx] cis (C#) [t͡sɪs]
Bratsche [brɑːt͡ʃə] Citrus [ˈt͡siːtrʊs]
Brentano [brɛnˈtɑːno] Cocytus [koˈt͡syːtʊs]
Bronze [ˈbrõsə] Coeli [ˈt͡søːli]
Bruno [ˈbruːno] Courage [kuɾɑːʒə]
Appendix ■ 279
Cousin [kuˈzɛ̃] Franc [frɑ̃]

Csárdas [ˈt͡ʃardaʃ] Frevel [ˈfreːfəl]
Csárdasfürstin [ˈt͡ʃardasˌfʏrstɪn] Fuchs [fʊk͡s]
Cupido [kuˈpiːdo] Fuchsie [ˈfʊk͡si ̯ə]
Cymbal [ˈt͡sʏmbal]
Cypern [ˈt͡syːpəɾn] G
Czar [t͡sɑːɾ] Galerie [ɡaleˈɾiː]
Czerny [ˈt͡ʃɛrni] Ganges (river) [ˈɡaŋəs]
Ganymed [ɡanyˈmeːt]
D Garage [ɡaˈɾɑːʒə]
Dachs [dak͡s] Gardenie [ɡarˈdeːni ̯ə]
Dahlie [ˈdɑːli ̯ə] Gardenien [ɡarˈdeːni ̯ən]
Danaë [ˈdɑːnae] Gebärde [ɡəˈbɛːrdə]
Danaër [ˈdɑːnaəɾ] Geburt [ɡəˈbuːrt]
Daphne [ˈdafne] gemach [ɡəˈmɑːx]
darüber [daˈɾyːbəɾ] or [daˈɾyːbɐ] gemächlich [ɡəˈmɛːçlɪç]
Deichsel [ˈda͡ek͡səl] Gemälde [ɡəˈmɛːldə]
Demokratie [demokraˈtiː] gen [ɡɛn]
dennoch [ˈdɛnɔx] Gen [ɡeːn]
Dionysos [ˈdi ̯oːnyzɔs] Gendarme [ʒanˈdarm] or [ʒɑ̃ˈdarm]
Dithyrambe [dityˈɾambə] genial [ɡeˈni ̯ɑːl]
Doktor [ˈdɔktɔɾ] Genie [ʒeˈniː]
Duisburg [ˈdyːsbʊrk] Genien [ˈɡeːni ̯ən]
düster [ˈdyːstəɾ] or [ˈdyːstɐ] genieren [ʒeˈniːɾən]
Georgine [ɡeǀɔrˈɡiːnə]
E Gespräch [ɡəˈʃprɛːç]
edel [ˈeːdəl], edler [ˈeːdləɾ, ˈeːdlɐ] Geste (gesture) [ˈɡeːstə] or [ˈɡɛstə]
Efeu [ˈeːfɔ͡ø] Gewächs [ɡəˈvɛk͡s]
Elegie [eleˈɡiː], Elegien [eleˈɡiːən] gib [ɡiːp] imperative
elend [ˈeːlɛnt] Glorie [ˈɡloːɾi ̯ə]
Elysium [eˈlyːziʊm] Goethe [ˈɡøːtə]
empor [ɛmˈpoːɾ] or [ɛmˈpoːɐ] Grazie [ˈɡrɑːt͡si ̯ə]
engagieren [ɑ̃ɡaˈʒiːɾən] Grenadier [ɡrenaˈdiːɾ] or [ɡrenaˈdiːɐ]
englisch [ˈɛŋlɪʃ] Gretchen [ˈɡreːtçən]
ennuyieren [ɑ̃nyˈʝiːɾən] Gretel [ˈɡreːtəl]
Epik [ˈeːpɪk]
erbost [ɛɾˈboːst] H
Erde [ˈeːrdə] Hades [ˈhɑːdɛs]
Eros [ˈeːɾɔs] Hänsel [ˈhɛnzəl]
erst [eːrst] Harmonie [harmoˈniː]
Erz [eːrt͡s] (metal) Helios [ˈheːli ̯ɔs]
Erzbischof [ˈɛrt͡sˌbɪʃɔf] Herd [heːrt]
Erzengel [ˈɛrt͡sˌɛŋəl] Herde [ˈheːrdə]
Eumeniden [ɔ͡ømeˈniːdən] herein [hɛˈɾa͡en]
Herrufer [ˈheːɾ͡ruːfəɾ] or [ˈheːɾ͡ruːfɐ]
F hinauf [hɪˈnɑ͡of]
Familie [faˈmiːli ̯ə] Historie [hisˈtoːɾi ̯ə]
Fidelio [fiˈdeːlio] hoch [hoːx]
Flotow [ˈfloːto] Hochland [ˈhoːxlant]
Fluch [ˈfluːx] höchst [høːçst]
fluchen [ˈfluːxən] höchstens [ˈhøːçstəns]
höchster [ˈhøːçstəɾ] or [ˈhøːçstɐ] Linie [ˈliːni ̯ə]

Hochzeit [ˈhɔxt͡sa͡et] Loge (theater) [ˈloːʒə]
Hostie [ˈhɔsti ̯ə] Loge (Wagner, Ring) [ˈloːɡə]
husten [ˈhuːstən] logieren [loˈʒiːɾən]
Hyäne [hyˈɛːnə] Lohengrin [ˈloːənɡriːn]
Lotos [ˈloːtɔs]
I Luchs [lʊk͡s]
Idomeneo [idomeˈneːo] Lynceus [ˈlʏŋkɔ͡øs]
Ikaros [ˈiːkaɾɔs] Lyrik [ˈlyːɾɪk] (poetry)
Ilia [ˈiːlia]
M
J Magd [mɑːkt]
Jacke [ˈʝakə] Magie [maˈɡiː]
Jackett [ʒaˈkɛt] Maria [maˈɾiːa]
Jagd [ʝɑːkt] Marien [maˈɾiːən]
Jalousie [ʒaluˈziː] Marmor [ˈmarmɔɾ]
Jargon [ʒarˈɡõ] Mathematik [matemaˈtiːk]
Jasmin [ʝasˈmiːn] Matthäus [maˈtɛːʊs]
Jesus [ˈʝeːzʊs], Jesum [ˈʝeːzʊm] Melancholie [melaŋkoˈliː]
jetzo [ˈʝɛt͡so] Melodie [meloˈdiː]
Jochanaan [ʝoˈxɑːnaǀan] Melodien [meloˈdiːən]
Journal [ʒʊrˈnɑːl] Mignon [miˈnʝõ]
Journalist [ʒʊrnaˈlɪst] minniglich [ˈmɪnɪklɪç]
juchhe [jʊxˈheː] Monostatos [moˈnɔstatɔs]
Jury [ʒyˈɾiː] Mond [moːnt]
Montag [ˈmoːntɑːk]
K Musik [muˈziːk]
Kadmus [ˈkatmʊs] Mycenä [myˈkeːnɛ]
Kamelie [kaˈmeːli ̯ə] Myrte [ˈmʏrtə]
Karneval [ˈkarneval]
Karo [ˈkɑːɾo] N
Kloster [ˈkloːstəɾ] or [ˈkloːstɐ] nach [nɑːx]
Kocytus [koˈt͡syːtʊs] nächst [nɛːçst]
Komödie [kɔˈmøːdi ̯ə] Nachtigal [ˈnaxtɪɡal]
königlich [ˈkøːnɪklɪç] (royal) Naxos [ˈnak͡sɔs]
Königreich [ˈkøːnɪkra͡eç] Neapel [neˈɑːpəl]
Konstantin [ˈkɔnstantiːn] Nero [ˈneːɾo]
Kosmos [ˈkɔsmɔs] Nibelungen [ˈniːbəlʊŋən]
Krebs [kreːp͡s] Nische [ˈniːʃə]
Kritik [kriˈtiːk] Nuance [ˈnɥɑ̃sə]
Kronos [ˈkroːnɔs] Nürnberg [ˈnʏrnbɛrk]
Kuchen [ˈkuːxən] Nüster [ˈnyːstɐ]
Kurwenal [ˈkʊrvənal]
kyrie [ˈkyːɾi ̯e] O
Obst [oːp͡st]
L Ochs [ɔks]
Lachs [lak͡s] Ochse [ˈɔk͡sə]
Laura [ˈlɑ͡oɾa] Orange [oˈrɑ̃ʒə]
Levkoje [lɛfˈkoːʝə] Orchester [ɔrˈkɛstəɾ] or [ɔrˈkɛstɐ]
Lieschen [ˈliːsçən] Orpheus [ˈɔrfɔ͡øs]
Likör [liˈkœɾ] Ostern [ˈoːstərn]
Lilie [ˈliːli ̯ə]
Appendix ■ 281
P Sieglinde [ziːkˈlɪndə]
Pamina [paˈmiːna] Skythe [ˈskyːtə]
Paravent [ˈpaɾavɑ̃] sooft [soːˈǀɔft]
Parfum [parˈfœ̃ ] Sprache [ˈʃprɑːxə]
Parsifal [ˈparzifal] sprächen [ˈʃpɾɛːçən]
Partie [parˈtiː] stach [ʃtɑːx] past participle
Passagiere [pasaˈʒiːɾə] Städte [ʃtɛːtə]
Pferd [p͡feːrt] stets [ʃteːt͡s]
Phantasie [fantaˈziː] Stil [stiːl] or [ʃtiːl]
Philosoph [filoˈzoːf] suchen [ˈzuːxən]
Philosophie [filosoˈfiː] Symphonie [zʏmfoˈniː]
Phöbus [ˈføːbʊs] Szene [ˈst͡seːnə]
Pierrot [pi ̯ɛˈɾoː]
Pinie [ˈpiːni ̯ə] T
Pizarro [piˈt͡saro] Taille [ˈtalʝə]
Poesie [poeˈziː] Tailleur [taˈi ̯øːɾ]
Politik [poliˈtiːk] Tamino [taˈmiːno]
Prometheus [proˈmeːtɔ͡øs] Tantalus [ˈtantalʊs]
prost [proːst] Tauris [ˈta͡oɾɪs]
purpur [ˈpʊrpʊɾ] Teint [tɛ̃]
pusten [ˈpuːstən] Theologie [teǀoloˈɡiː]
Pythia [ˈpyːti ̯a] Theorie [teǀoˈɾiː]
Toilette [twaˈlɛtə]
R Tragödie [traˈɡøːdi ̯ə]
Rätsel [rɛːt͡səl] Trɑgik [ˈtrɑːɡɪk]
Refrain [rəˈfrɛ̃] Troja [ˈtɾoːʝa]
Regie [reˈʒiː] Trost [troːst]
Regisseur [reʒiˈsøːɾ] trösten [ˈtrøːstən]
Resede [reˈzeːdə] Tschako [ˈt͡ʃako]
revanchieren [rəvɑ̃ˈʃiːɾən] Tuch [tuːx]
Rezensent [ret͡sɛnˈzɛnt] Tücher [ˈtyːçɐ]
Rhein [ra͡en]
Rhythmus [ˈɾytmʊs] U
Rienzi [riˈɛnt͡si] übrig [ˈyːbrɪç]
rösten [ˈrøːstən] Ulysses [ʊˈlʏsəs]
ruchlos [ˈruːxloːs] ungeniert [ˈʊnʒeniːrt]
Rum [rʊm] Urteil [ˈʊrta͡el]
urteilen [ˈʊrta͡elən]
S
Sachs [zak͡s] V
Sachsen [ˈzak͡sən] Valentin [ˈvɑːlentiːn]
säen [ˈzɛːən] vielleicht [fiˈla͡eçt]
Saison [sɛˈzõ] Viertel [ˈfɪrtəl]
Salome [ˈzɑːlome] vierzehn [ˈfɪrt͡seːn]
Sarastro [saˈɾastro] vierzig [ˈfɪrt͡sɪç]
Satan [ˈzɑːtan] Viola [ˈvi ̯oːla]
Schmach [ˈʃmɑːx] Violen [ˈvi ̯oːlən]
Schuster [ˈʃuːstəɾ] or [ˈʃuːstɐ] Vogt [foːkt]
Schwert [ʃveːrt] voran [foˈɾan]
sechs [zɛk͡s] vordere [ˈfɔrdəɾə]
Siegfried [ˈziːkfriːt] Vorderhand [ˈfɔrdəɾhant] or [ˈfɔrdɐhant]
vorderste [ˈfɔrdəɾstə] wüst [vyːst]

Vorderteil [fɔrdəɾtael] or [ˈfɔrdɐtael] Wüste [ˈvyːstə]
vorn [fɔrn]
vornüber [fɔrnˈǀyːbəɾ] or [fɔrnˈǀyːbɐ]
X
Vorteil [ˈfɔrta͡el]
Xeres [ˈçeːrɛs]
Xerxes [ˈk͡sɛrk͡sɛs]
W
Xylophon [k͡syloˈfoːn]
Wachs [vak͡s]
wachsen [ˈvak͡sən]
wächst [vɛk͡st] Z
Wagner [ˈvɑːɡnəɾ] or [ˈvɑːɡnɐ] zart [t͡sɑːrt]
wechseln [ˈvɛk͡səln] zärtlich [ˈt͡sɛːrtlɪç]
weg [vɛk] Zephyr [ˈt͡seːfyɾ]
Weichsel [ˈva͡ek͡səl] Zerbinetta [d͡zɛrbiˈnɛta]
werden [ˈveːrdən] Zeta [ˈzɛta]
Wert [veːrt] Zeus [t͡sɔ͡øs]
winsle [ˈvɪnzlə] Zion [ˈt͡siːɔn]
Wolfram [ˈvɔlfram] Zitrone [t͡sɪˈtroːnə]
wonniglich [ˈvɔnɪklɪç] Zsupán [ˈʒupɑːn]
Wozzeck [ˈvɔt͡sɛk] Zyklop [t͡syˈkloːp]
Wucherer [ˈvuːxəɾəɾ] or [ˈvuːxəɾɐ] Zypern [ˈt͡syːpərn]
wuchern [ˈvuːxərn] Zypresse [t͡syˈprɛsə]
Glossary
Affricate: A sound that combines a plosive consonant with a fricative consonant into one single speech unit,
e.g., [t͡ʃ], [p͡f ], [k͡s], etc.
Allophone: Speech sounds that can be used interchangeably without alteration of the meaning of a word. In
German the final letter of the word vier (four) can be pronounced as [ɾ] or [ɐ]. The meaning of the word
does not change as a result of the variation in pronunciation, i.e., vier [fiːɾ] versus [fiːɐ]. Thus, [ɾ] and [ɐ]
are allophones.
Alveolar consonant: A consonant that has a point of articulation at the dental ridge.
Approximant: A consonant in which the articulators come close to each other but not close enough to create
air turbulence, e.g., [l].
Aspiration: The audible sound of breath that accompanies certain speech sounds. In German [pʰ], [tʰ], and
[kʰ] are aspirated, meaning that the presence of airflow is audible after the plosive consonant. In IPA,
aspiration is notated as superscript h, [ʰ], but the reader is expected to aspirate unvoiced plosive conso-
nants even if this fine nuance is not always notated in the IPA transcription.
Back vowel: A vowel in which the highest point of the tongue is in the back, e.g., [ʊ], [ɔ].
Balanced onset: The soft onset that occurs when the flow of the breath begins simultaneously with the
gentle closure of the glottis. There is neither additional sound of friction nor audible plosion before the
phonation of the vowel.
Bilabial consonant: A consonant that has a point of articulation between the lips.
Breathy onset: An onset that occurs when breath flows through the glottis before the vocal folds come to full
closure for phonation. The resulting sound is that of friction.
Bright vowel: A vowel with a strong presence of high over tones, e.g., [i], [y].
Central vowel: A vowel with a tongue placement halfway between front and back vowels, e.g., [ə], [ɐ].
Closed vowel: A vowel with a closed mouth position. This can be achieved by a higher tongue, e.g., [i], [e],
or rounded lips, e.g., [o], [u]. For example, a vowel can be more or less closed in comparison to the pre-
ceding vowel [u] is more closed than [ʊ].
Compound word: A word that is comprised of two or more words. German is notorious for long compound
words.
Conjugation: The inflection of verbs. Conjugation is the grammatical alteration of verbs to express person,
number, tense, and mood. Weak (regular) verbs are conjugated by attaching endings to the unaltered
word stem. Strong (irregular) verbs are conjugated by altering the stressed vowel in the word stem in
addition to attaching endings.
Consonant shift: An alteration of particular consonants that distinguishes language groups from each other.
The German language underwent two major consonant shifts the First Consonant Shift, also called the
First Germanic Consonant Shift or Grimm’s Law (ca. 500 bce), and the Second Consonant Shift, also
called the High German Consonant Shift (ca. 500–600 ce)
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284 ■ g los s a ry
Consonant: A speech sound where the articulators interfere with the airflow. Consonants are further divided
in groups according to manner and place of articulation as well as voicing, e.g., the voiceless prepalatal
fricative [ʃ].
Continuant: A consonant that can be sustained, e.g., the fricative [f] or nasal [m].
Dark vowel: A vowel with a strong presence of low overtones, e.g., [ɑ], [ɔ], [ʊ]
Declension: The inflection of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Declension is the grammatical alteration of
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives to express number, case, and gender.
Dental consonant: Consonant that has a point of articulations at the teeth, e.g., [t], [d].
Devoicing: The unvoiced pronunciation of a normally voiced consonant.
Diacritical mark: A symbol that is used to notate alterations and fine nuances in pronunciation of speech
sounds, e.g., vowel length, aspiration, and word stress. In German orthography the umlaut ( ¨ ) is used to
alter the pronunciation of vowels, e.g., u [uː] and o [oː] to ü [yː] and ö [ø]. In IPA [ː] is used to indicate the
decay at the end of a long vowel, e.g., [ɑː].
Diphthong: Compared to a monophthong, which keeps its pure tone quality for the entire duration of
the sound, a diphthong changes its quality from one sound to another during its phonation, e.g., [a͡e],
[ɑ͡o], [ɔ͡ø].
Ending: A short element (one to three letters) that is attached at the end of a word to express person, number,
tense, mood case, and/or gender.
Firm onset: A strong glottal attack.
Fricative: A consonant sound produced by the articulators obstructing the airflow in such a way that it cre-
ates audible friction, e.g., [ʃ], [f].
Front vowel: Vowels with a frontal tongue position, e.g., [iː], [eː].
Glottal attack: A firm onset that occurs when air pressure builds up behind the closed vocal folds and is re-
leased with a plosive “pop” or “click” as the phonation of the vowel begins.
Glottal separation: The separation between the vocal folds before they are approximated to phonate, [ǀ].
Glottal stop: A plosive sound with an articulation point at the glottis, [ʔ].
Glottal (point of articulation): Sounds that have a point of articulation at the glottis (space between the
vocal folds) are called glottal consonants. In German the only glottal consonant sounds are the glottal
stop or glottal separation [ǀ] and the glottal fricative [h].
High German: The German language as it has been spoken since the second Consonant Shift in the higher
elevations south of Aachen and Frankfurt am Oder. High German (Hochdeutsch) is used throughout
modern Germany.
Indo-European languages (also called Proto Indo-European languages or Indo-Germanic languages):
A language that originated in Asia Minor believed to be the root of most European and some Asian lan-
guages.
Inflection: The grammatical alteration of words to express person, number, tense, mood case, and gender. The
inflection of verbs is called conjugation, and the inflection of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives is called
declension. (Inflection can also refer to the rising and falling of the pitch in the expressive speaking voice.)
International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: A system for transcribing the sounds of language. In IPA, each
sound is represented with a single symbol. IPA transcription enables the pronunciation of words in lan-
guages that the reader does not speak.
Labiodental consonant: Consonant with a point of articulation between the lower lip and the upper front
teeth, e.g., [f], [v].
Lateral consonant: Consonant articulated by allowing air to escape at the side of the tongue, e.g., [l].
Lip vowel: A vowel with lip rounding.
Loanwords: Words adopted from foreign languages.
Long vowel: Vowel pronounced with decay in intensity at the end.
Mixed vowel: A vowel sound formed by using the tongue position of a tongue vowel and the lip rounding of
a lip vowel. For example, the mixed vowel [ø:] is pronounced with the tongue position of [eː] and the lip
rounding of [oː].
Monophthong: A pure vowel sound that keeps its quality unchanged for the entire duration.
Glossary ■ 285
Monosyllabic: Containing one syllable; a word that consists of one single syllable is called a monosyl-
labic word.
Nasal consonant: A consonant sound resonating in the nose with the rest of the vocal tract closed,
e.g., [n], [ŋ].
Non-syllabic vowel: A vowel that does not constitute a syllable, e.g., [i ̯].
Open vowel: A vowel with an open mouth position. This can be achieved by a lower tongue, e.g., [ɪ],[ɛ], or
less rounded lips, e.g., [ɔ], [ʊ], or no lip rounding at all [a]. For example, a vowel can be more or less open
in comparison to another vowel [ʊ] is more open than [uː].
Palatal consonant: A consonant with a point of articulation at the hard palate, e.g., [ç], [ ʝ].
Phoneme: The smallest linguistic unit or speech sound that distinguishes the meaning of one word from
another. Minimal pairs (words that differ in one phoneme only) are used to demonstrate that two phones
(speech sounds) constitute two separate phonemes, e.g., viel [fiːl] (many) versus vier [fiːɾ] (four). Thus,
[l] and [ɾ] are two separate phonemes.
Plosive consonant: A consonant in which the airflow is stopped and released with plosion, e.g., [p], [b], Also
called stop or stop-plosive.
Prefix: An element that precedes and alters the meaning of the attached word stem.
Prepalatal consonant: A consonant with a point of articulation in front of the palate, e.g., [ʒ], [ʃ].
Resonance tract: The vocal tract above the glottis, including pharynx, mouth, and nasal cavity.
Rounded vowel: A vowel requiring the rounding of the lips.
Schwa: Refers to the mid-central neutral vowel sound, which is always unstressed in German. It is repre-
sented in German spelling by e and in IPA by [ə].
Short vowel: A vowel that has no decay and is interrupted by the following consonant.
Soft onset: See Balanced onset.
Stop consonant: See Plosive consonant.
Stop-plosive consonant: See Plosive consonant.
Strong verb: Verb that follows an irregular conjugational pattern. In German, verbs that in conjugation alter
the stressed vowel in the word stem are called stark (strong).
Suffix: An element that follows and alters the meaning of the preceding word stem.
Syllabic vowels: Referring to vowel sounds that constitute a syllable; opposite of non-syllabic vowels, which
do not constitute a syllable.
Tongue vowel: A vowel formed by tongue position and without lip rounding, e.g., [iː], [ɛ]
Tonic accent: A stress pattern based on greater emphasis or higher pitch on stressed syllables. Tonic stress is
found in Germanic languages like English and German.
Trill (consonant): A consonant sound that results from the tapping of the tongue against the alveolar ridge
or the vibration of the uvula, e.g., [r], [ʀ].
Umlaut: An altered mixed vowel. In German orthography, the umlaut ( ¨ ) is used to alter the pronunciation
of vowels, e.g., u [uː] and o [oː] to ü [yː] and ö [øː].
Unrounded vowel: A vowel that has no lip rounding, e.g., [iː], [ɪ], [e], [ɛ].
Unvoiced consonant: A consonant sound created by the airflow and the articulators but without phonation
of the vocal folds, e.g., [s], [p].
Uvular consonant: A consonant with a point of articulation at the uvula, e.g., [ʀ].
Velar consonant: A consonant with a point of articulation at the velum, e.g., [k], [ɡ].
Vocal tract: The cavity in which sound produced at the sound source (vocal folds) is further manipulated.
The vocal tract ranges from the vocal folds to the lips and includes the laryngeal cavity, the pharynx, the
oral cavity, and the nasal cavity.
Vocalic-R: The sound, represented by the IPA symbol [ɐ], that does not include the single or multiple
tongue tap.
Voiceless: See Unvoiced.
Vowel: Sound of speech formed in the vocal tract unobstructed by articulators.
Weak verb: Verb that follows a regular conjugation pattern. Verbs that keep the unaltered stressed vowel in
the word stem are called schwach (weak).
286 ■ g los s a ry
Word element: A word is built from word components called elements. The basic word element is the word
stem or root stem. Other elements are prefixes, suffixes, and inflectional (grammatical) endings, which
are attached to the word stem and further define the meaning and grammatical function of the word.
Word stem: The basic element of a word to which other word elements (affixes) can be attached. The word
stem is often also called the root stem.
Word stress: The emphasis or accentuation of one syllable over another. As in English, stress in German is
tonic, meaning that in spoken language the pitch of the voice rises slightly on stressed syllables.
Notes
Chapter 1 Introduction
1. Vocalized R, [ɐ], although phonetically a vowel, is only used as an alternative pronunciation for final r
(Chapter 12).
2. Nasal vowels are only used in a few French loanwords (Chapter 15).
3. Although the glottal separation, [ǀ], is phonetically a plosive consonant, it functions merely as a clear
separation of an initial vowel from the preceeding word.
4. Semi vowel glides are only used in a few French loanwords (Chapter 15).
Chapter 2 Word Structure

1. Müller / Schubert.
2. Eichendorff / Schumann (Liederkreis Op. 39, No. 2).
3. Heine (Buch der Lieder) / Schumann (Dichterliebe Op. 48, No. 7).
4. Eichendorff / Schumann (Liederkreis Op. 39, No. 12).
5. Goethe (Faust) / Schubert, Liszt, Wagner (Der König in Thule).
Chapter 4 Monophthongs I: Tongue Vowels

1. The letter combination ae can substitute for ä when the symbols for the umlaut do not exist on the keyboard.
Chapter 8 Introduction to Consonants

1. The combination ck becomes k-k when the word is divided, as you will find quite often in song texts.
2. According to the new Duden, the rule forbidding a consonant to appear more than twice is no longer
valid. Formerly such compound words as Bettuch (Bett + Tuch) lost one of the consonants when combined,
unless there was a fourth consonant as in the word: fetttriefend. The new rule includes all three consonants
in all cases; thus, Betttuch. Publishers are hesitant to change their existing editions; nevertheless, some
publishers are starting to conform to the new rules in new editions.
Chapter 10 Plosives
1. Duden is the authoritative reference for proper German.
Chapter 12 Lateral and Trills

1. Notice that in Winter/reise the ending -er- is represented by a single IPA symbol, [ɐ].
Chapter 14 Exceptions, Vagaries, and Problem Words

1. Siebs Deutsche Aussprache or the Duden Aussprachewörterbuch are the standard., The Duden Deutsche
Rechtschreibung (22nd edition) lists words spelled with the new and the old rule. One may therefore also
use this source for determining the length of the vowel preceding ß or ss in printed music.
■ 287
288 ■ Not e s
Chapter 16 German Latin

1. Italian Latin is included in this text only to show the difference to German Latin. It is not a complete
outline of all the rules and sounds that apply to Italian Latin.
Bibliography
Adams, David. Handbook of Diction for Singers. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Aderhold, Egon, and Edith Wolf. Sprecherzieherisches Übungsbuch. 16th ed. Berlin: Henschel Verlag, 2013.
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INDEX
ach-Laut, 114, 131, 134 Carmina Burana in German Latin, 264–267

adjectives, 13 central vowels, 27–28, 30
declension of, 17, 19–20 ch combination, 123, 131, 160, 227–229, 250
stress in words and, 21 chart of vowel pronunciation, 27–28
word endings of, 11, 46 -chen diminutive ending, 227–228
affricates, 9–10, 197–207 and pronunciation, 35, 45, 76, 85, 124,
articulation of, 109 131, 227
pronunciation of, 198–204 closed syllables, 239–246
affricative consonants, 197–207 closed vowels, 27–29
lateral, 183–186 cognates, 113, 145
nasal, 169, 171–172 combination consonants, 197
alveolar approximant, 182 compound words, 11, 20, 123, 190–191
alveolar articulation, 108–109 and consonants, 112, 161
plosives, 145, 153–159 and glottal separations, 32, 140
alveolar fricatives, 113, 120–123 and plosives, 147, 153, 160
alveolar lateral consonants, 183–186 and stress in words, 21–22
alveolar nasal consonants, 169, 171–172 and vowel pronunciation, 35, 59, 68
alveolar plosives, 145, 153–159 conjugation of verbs, 17–19
alveolar trills, 110, 181, 187–191 consonant shifts in the German language, 3–4, 6
enunciation exercises for, 188 consonants, 9, 27, 107–112
articulation, 10, 31, 108–111 affricates, 197–207
of fricatives, 113, 131 articulation, manner of, 108–111
places of, consonants, 107–108 articulation, places of, 107–108
of plosive consonants, 145–152 ch combination, 227–229
aspiration, 7, 145–146 compound words, 112, 161
softening of, 147, 153, 160 double, 7, 111–112, 249
fricatives, 113–144
Bach, J. S., 238 in German Latin, 249–257
back vowels, 27–28, 131 lateral, 181–186
balanced onset of vowels, 31, 140 length of, 111–112
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 238 nasals, 169–180
bilabial articulation, 107, 109 plosives, 145–167
plosives, 145–152 trills, 181–182
bilabial consonants, nasal, 169–170 voicing of, 107, 109, 113, 223
bilabial plosives, 145–152
breathy onset of vowels, 31, 140 dar-, her-, hin-, vor-, 14–15, 31, 44, 141, 222
bright vowels, 27–29, 51 dark vowels, 27–29
■ 291
292 ■ INDE X
declension glottal separation, 140–144

of nouns and adjectives, 17, 19–20 labiodental, 115–119
of pronouns, 19 plosives, 197
dental articulation, 108–109 pre-palatal, 124–133
devoicing, 146–167 velar, 133–137
alveolar plosives, 153–159 front vowels, 27
bilabial plosives, 146–152
velar plosives, 160–167 glides, 10
diacritical marks, 7, 75–76 glottal articulation, 108–109
dictionaries of Germany pronunciation, 7 glottal attack, 31, 140
diminutive ending -chen, 227–228 glottal fricatives, 113, 138–139
and pronunciation, 35, 45, 76, 85, 124, 131, glottal separation, 111, 114, 140–144
141, 227 and German Latin, 239
diphthongal off-glides, 33–35, 59 and prefixes dar-, her-, hin-, vor-, 222
diphthongs, 8, 76, 95–104 of vowels, 30–32
double consonants, 7, 111–112 glottal stops, 30. See also glottal separation
in German Latin, 249 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 5–6
Duden, Konrad, 5 grammatical endings, 11, 17–20
Greek-origin words
eszett and vowel length, 221 pronunciation of, 46, 60, 63, 115, 161, 201,
exceptions to usual rules, 211–231 214–216, 220, 225, 226
ch combination, 227–229 stress in words and, 22–23, 34–35, 38
dar-, her-, hin-, vor- prefixes, 222 Grimm, Jacob, 4
diminutive ending -chen, 227–228 Grimm’s law, 4
eszett and vowel length, 221 Gutenberg, Johannes, 5
final -ie pronunciation, 220
foreign-origin words, 229 Haydn, Joseph, 238
-ig endings, 224 High German, origins of, 4–5
l, n, or r added to consonants, 222–223 history of German language, 3–6
listing of, 262–266 chronology of, 6
no rhyme or reason, 230–231
vowel length, 211–219 ich-Laut, 114, 131
x, vowel length preceding, 222 -ig ending, 224
pronunciation of, 37, 132, 162
final -ie pronunciation, 220 inflection, 11
stress in words and, 22, 36 inflective endings, 11, 17
firm onset of vowels, 31 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 5–10
First Consonant Shift, 4 aspiration and, 145–146
foreign loanwords, 233–236 Carmina Burana in German Latin, 264–267
and French nasalized vowels, 234–236 consonants and, 109–112
and French semi vowel glides, 236 German vs. Italian Latin, 239–257
foreign-origin words, 229. See also specific glottal separation and, 30–32, 140
foreign languages the Ordinary of the Mass, 258–264
French loanwords, 233 stress in words and, 20
nasalized vowels, 234–236 vowel length and, 29
semi vowel glides, 236 irregular stress prefixes, 16
French-origin words, pronunciation of, 37, 77, 99,
126, 131, 226, 229 labiodental articulation, 107, 109
fricative articulation, 108–109, 113, 131 labiodental fricatives, 110, 113–119
fricative consonants, 9, 113–144 lateral articulation, 108–109
alveolar, 120–123 lateral consonants, 181–186
glottal, 138–139 alveolar, 183–186
Inde x ■ 293
lateral sounds, 9 plosives, 9, 145–167

Latin, German, 237–267 alveolar articulation, 153–159
Carl Orff ’s Carmina Burana in, 264–267 aspiration, 145–146
consonants in, 249–257 bilabial, 146–152
and Italian Latin, compared, 237–238, compound words, 147, 153, 160–161
239–257 devoicing, 146–167
the Ordinary of the Mass, 258–264 and fricative consonants, 197
schwa in, 242 stop-plosives, 32, 108, 145
vowels in, 239–248 velar, 160–167
lip vowels, 27–28, 33, 59–73 voiced and unvoiced, 145–146
long vowels, 27, 29–30, 181 plural nouns, 12–13
Luther, Martin, 5–6 Pokorny, Julius, 4
prefixes, 11, 13–16
manner of articulation, 108–111 dar-, her-, hin-, vor-, 31, 44, 141, 222
mixed vowels, 27–28, 33, 75–94 stressed, 14–16, 21–22
pronunciation exercises for, 80–84, 89–94 unstressed, 13–16, 22
monophthongs, 7–8 pre-palatal articulation, 108–109
lip vowels, 59–73 pre-palatal fricatives, 110, 113, 124–133
mixed vowels, 75–94 exercises, 134–137
tongue vowels, 33–55 in French-origin words, 229
monosyllabic, 13 problem words, 211–231. See also exceptions to
Mozart, W. A., 20, 231, 238 usual rules
pronouns
nasal articulation, 10, 108–109 conjugation of verbs and, 18
nasal consonants, 9, 169–180 declension of, 19
alveolar, 171–172
bilabial, 170 R-colored schwa, 181–182
velar, 173–180 resonance tracts, 107
nasal vowels, 8 rounded vowels, 27–28
French nasalized vowels, 234–236
neutral vowels, 28, 30 Scherr, Vera U. G., 239
and unstressed vowels, 59 Schubert, Franz, 238
nouns schwa, 222–223
declension of, 17, 19–20 and declension, 19
plural, 12–13 in English pronunciation, 30, 46
and stressed prefixes, 16 and German Latin, 242
suffixes of, 124, 131, 227–228, 231 and lip vowels, 57
and pronunciation rules, 46, 148, 155, 161–162,
one-tap trills, 181–182, 190–191 170, 173
alveolar, 102 R-colored, 181–182
pronunciation of, 187–189, 255 and tongue vowels, 33–34
open syllables, 239–246 and verb endings, 18
open vowels, 27–28 Second Consonant Shift, 4
oral vowels, 234 semi vowel glides, 236
Ordinary of the Mass in German Latin, 258–264 semi vowel sounds, 10
Orff, Carl, 264 short vowels, 27, 29–30
sibilant sounds, 120
palatal articulation, 108–109, 131 Siebs, Theodor, 5–6
palatal fricatives, 7, 110, 113–114, 131 soft onset of vowels, 31
phonemes, 6–7 softening of aspiration, 147, 153, 160
places of articulation, 107–108 sounds of the German language, 7–10
plosive articulation, 31, 108–109 spellings, listing of, 253–262
294 ■ INDE X
stop-plosives, 32, 108, 145 vocalic-R, 30, 181–182, 190–191

stops, 108–109, 145 pronunciation exercises on, 193–194
stress in words, 7, 10–11, 20–23 voiced consonants, 107, 109, 113, 223
final -ie and, 22, 36, 220 voiced plosives, 145–146
stressed prefixes, 14–16, 21–22, 230–231 voiceless consonants, 107
strong verbs, 12, 18–19 voicing of consonants, 107
suffixes, 11, 16–17, 228, 231 vowel length, 14, 29–30
and pronunciation rules, 124, 161–162, 215, 224 eszett and, 221
and stress in words, 21–22 exceptions to usual, 211–219
See also diminutive ending -chen x, preceding, 222
syllables, 11, 239–246 vowels, 27–32, 131
stressed, 20–21 chart of pronunciation, 27–28
symbols for sounds of the German language, 7–10 compound words, 35, 61, 68
diphthongs, 8, 76, 95–104
tongue vowels, 27–28, 33–55 in German Latin, 239–248
trill articulation, 109 glottal separation of, 30–32
trill consonants, 181–182 lip vowels, 27–28, 33, 59–73
trills, 9, 181–182 mixed vowels, 27–28, 33,
alveolar, 110, 187–191 75–94
uvular, 110, 191 neutral, 30
onset of, 30–31, 140
unrounded vowels, 27 oral, 234
unstressed prefixes, 13–16, 22 tongue vowels, 27–28, 33–55
unstressed syllables. See stress in words
unstressed vowels, 59 Wagner, Richard, 5, 190
unvoiced consonants, 107, 109, 113, 223 weak verbs, 12, 18
unvoiced plosives, 145–146 word elements, 11
unvoiced uvular fricatives, 182 word stems, 11–13
uvular articulation, 108–109, 131 stress in words, 21–22
uvular trills, 110, 181, 191 word stress. See stress in words
word structure, 11–22
vagaries, 211–231. See also exceptions to usual rules compound words, 20
velar articulation, 108–109 grammatical endings, 17–20
velar fricatives, 110, 113, 133–137 prefixes, 13–16
ach-Laut, 114, 131, 134 stress in words and, 20–23
velar nasals, 169, 173–180 suffixes, 16–17
velar plosives, 145, 160–167 word stems, 12–13
verbs, 12
conjugation of, 17–19 x, vowel length preceding, 222

The Singer's Guide To German Diction by Valentin Lanzrein

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The Singer's Guide To German Diction by Valentin Lanzrein

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The Singer’s Guide

About the Companion Website  xv

A Brief History of the German Language: Where It Came From  3

International Phonetic Alphabet  6

2.1. Word Stem  12

2.4. Grammatical Endings  17

2.5. Compound Words  20

2.6. Word Stress  20

■ ■ PART II: VOWELS

Neutral Vowels—Schwa and Vocalic-R  30

Vowel Onset—Glottal Separation  30

4. Monophthongs I: Tongue Vowels  33

4.1. Long and Closed [iː], Non-Syllabic [i ̯], Short and

4.3. Long and Open [ɑː], Short and Closed [a]  52

5. Monophthongs II: Lip Vowels  59

5.1. Long and Closed [oː], Short and Open [ɔ]  60

5.2. Long and Closed [uː], Short and Open [ʊ]  67

6. Monophthongs III: Mixed Vowels  75

6.1. Long and Closed [øː], Short and Open [œ]  76

6.2. Long and Closed [yː], Short and Open [ʏ]  85

7.1. Diphthongs [a͡e], [ɑ͡o], and [ɔ͡ø]  97

■ ■ PART III: CONSONANTS

8. Introduction to Consonants  107

Places of Articulation  107

Manner of Articulation  108

Consonant Length  111

9.1. Labiodental Fricative [f] and [v]  115

9.2. Alveolar Fricative [s] and [z]  120

9.3. Pre-Palatal Fricative [ʃ] and [ʒ]  124

9.5. Glottal Fricative [h]  138

9.6. Glottal Separation [ǀ]  140

10. Plosives  145

10.1. Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b]  146

10.2. Alveolar Plosives [t] and [d]  153

10.3. Velar Plosives [k] and [ɡ]  160

11. Nasals  169

11.1. Bilabial Nasal [m]  170

11.2. Alveolar Nasal [n]  171

11.3. Velar Nasal [ŋ]  173

12. Lateral and Trills  181

12.1. Alveolar Lateral [l]  183

12.2. Alveolar Trills [r] and [ɾ], Vocalic-R [ɐ], and

13. Affricates  197

■ ■ PART IV: ADVANCED DICTION PROBLEMS

14. Exceptions, Vagaries, and Problem Words  211

14.1. Vowel Length Exceptions  211

14.2. Final -ie in Words of Non-Germanic Origin  220

14.3. Eszett (ß) and Vowel Length  221

14.4. Vowel Length Preceding x  222

14.5. Prefixes dar-, her-, hin-, vor-  222

14.6. Consonant plus l, n, or r  222

14.7. Ending -ig  224

14.8. Consonant Combination ch  225

14.9. Diminutive Ending -chen  227

14.10. Foreign-Origin Words  229

14.11. No Rhyme or Reason  230

15. Sounds from Foreign Loanwords  233

15.1. French Nasalized Vowels [ɛ̃], [ɑ̃], [õ], [œ̃ ]  234

15.2. French Semi Vowel Glides [w], [ɥ]  236

16. German Latin  237

The Ordinary of the Mass in German Latin  258

An Excerpt from Carl Orff ’s Carmina Burana in German Latin  264

Alphabetical Index of German Spellings  269

About the Companion Website xv

A Brief History of the German Language: Where It Came From 3

International Phonetic Alphabet 6

2.1. Word Stem 12

2.4. Grammatical Endings 17

2.5. Compound Words 20

2.6. Word Stress 20

Neutral Vowels—Schwa and Vocalic-R 30

Vowel Onset—Glottal Separation 30

4. Monophthongs I: Tongue Vowels 33

4.3. Long and Open [ɑː], Short and Closed [a] 52

5. Monophthongs II: Lip Vowels 59

5.1. Long and Closed [oː], Short and Open [ɔ] 60

5.2. Long and Closed [uː], Short and Open [ʊ] 67

6. Monophthongs III: Mixed Vowels 75

6.1. Long and Closed [øː], Short and Open [œ] 76

6.2. Long and Closed [yː], Short and Open [ʏ] 85

7.1. Diphthongs [a͡e], [ɑ͡o], and [ɔ͡ø] 97

8. Introduction to Consonants 107

Places of Articulation 107

Manner of Articulation 108

Consonant Length 111

9.1. Labiodental Fricative [f] and [v] 115

9.2. Alveolar Fricative [s] and [z] 120

9.3. Pre-Palatal Fricative [ʃ] and [ʒ] 124

9.5. Glottal Fricative [h] 138

9.6. Glottal Separation [ǀ] 140

10. Plosives 145

10.1. Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b] 146

10.2. Alveolar Plosives [t] and [d] 153

10.3. Velar Plosives [k] and [ɡ] 160

11. Nasals 169

11.1. Bilabial Nasal [m] 170

11.2. Alveolar Nasal [n] 171

11.3. Velar Nasal [ŋ] 173

12. Lateral and Trills 181

12.1. Alveolar Lateral [l] 183

13. Affricates 197

14. Exceptions, Vagaries, and Problem Words 211

14.1. Vowel Length Exceptions 211

14.2. Final -ie in Words of Non-Germanic Origin 220

14.3. Eszett (ß) and Vowel Length 221

14.4. Vowel Length Preceding x 222

14.5. Prefixes dar-, her-, hin-, vor- 222

14.6. Consonant plus l, n, or r 222

14.7. Ending -ig 224

14.8. Consonant Combination ch 225

14.9. Diminutive Ending -chen 227

14.10. Foreign-Origin Words 229

14.11. No Rhyme or Reason 230

15. Sounds from Foreign Loanwords 233

15.1. French Nasalized Vowels [ɛ̃], [ɑ̃], [õ], [œ̃ ] 234

15.2. French Semi Vowel Glides [w], [ɥ] 236

16. German Latin 237

The Ordinary of the Mass in German Latin 258

An Excerpt from Carl Orff ’s Carmina Burana in German Latin 264

Alphabetical Index of German Spellings 269

List of Difficult Words, Names, and Exceptions 278

Schnitt [ʃnt] (cut) Viertel [ˈfrtəl] (quarter)

■ ■ 4.2 LONG AND CLOSED [eː] , LONG AND OPEN [Ɛː] ,