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Fif th Ed ition Fif th Ed ition
Power of Logic
This fifth edition of The Power of Logic offers an introduction to
informal logic, traditional categorical logic, and modern symbolic
The
The
logic. The authors’ direct and accessible writing style, along with
a wealth of engaging examples and challenging exercises, makes
this an ideal text for today’s logic classes.
Howard-Snyder
Howard-Snyder
Wasserman
Brief Contents
Preface xv
Glossary/Index 629
vii
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Contents
Preface xv
viii
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Contents ix
x Contents
Composition 171
Division 173
■ Summary of Definitions 174
Exercise 4.2 174
4.3 Fallacies Involving Unwarranted Assumptions 177
Begging the Question ( Petitio Principii ) 177
False Dilemma 180
Appeal to Unreliable Authority (Ad Verecundiam Fallacy) 182
False Cause Fallacy 183
Complex Question 186
■ Summary of Definitions 188
Exercise 4.3 189
Notes 195
Contents xi
xii Contents
Contents xiii
xiv Contents
Preface
C ritical thinking skills are some of the most prized commodities in today’s
knowledge-based economy, and the study of logic is one of the best ways to de-
velop these skills. With its emphasis on presenting, understanding, and evaluat-
ing arguments, logic has the power to make us quicker, clearer, and more cre-
ative thinkers. It can help us to articulate and support our own views, and to
analyze the views of others.
In short, there are many benefits to the study of logic. But there are also
potential obstacles. Logic can be intimidating. It can be frustrating. It can even
be boring.
The Power of Logic is written with the hopes of removing these kinds of
obstacles. The book features a simple and direct writing style that helps makes
even the most technical matters approachable. It features a wealth of helpful tips
and on-line resources to combat common frustrations. And it includes hundreds
of examples and exercises that give readers the opportunity to apply their critical
thinking skills to interesting arguments from philosophy, politics, and religion.
Our hope is that these features help to make logic accessible and interesting, and
that they enable you to put the power of logic to work in your own life.
New Features
We have made many improvements in light of critical reviews and our class-
room experience with previous editions. We have also made some very specific
improvements as follows:
■ The book has been heavily rewritten, with a focus on eliminating excess
verbiage, repetitive passages, and outdated material.
■ There are dozens of new definition boxes, which emphasize key concepts
and important distinctions.
■ There are over a dozen new summary boxes, including summaries of the
abbreviated truth-table method and the finite universe method. These
boxes contain simple, clear descriptions for quick reference and study.
■ Chapter 2, Identifying Arguments, provides a clearer explanation of how
to reconstruct an argument.
■ Chapter 3, Logic and Language, expands the discussion of propositions,
sentences, and truth.
■ Chapter 4, Informal Fallacies, now emphasizes how sound or cogent argu-
ments can resemble fallacies and explains how to avoid identifying them
as fallacies. It also includes a new discussion of some purported fallacies
xv
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xvi Preface
such as the “Intentional fallacy” and the “is-ought fallacy” that are some-
times invoked to avoid a more substantive discussion.
■ Chapter 9, Predicate Logic, contains a revised definition of a WFF for the
language of predicate logic. Section 9.3 includes five new sets of exercises,
which allows students to master the quantifier rules one at a time.
■ Chapter 10, Induction, has been reorganized and refocused. It includes a
new discussion of arguments from authority, and a greater emphasis on
the connection between probability and inductive logic.
Enduring Features
We have retained many of the features that have made The Power of Logic suc-
cessful in the past.
■ Early chapters focus on relatively informal methods. More technical
material is introduced gradually, with symbolic logic receiving thorough
treatment in Chapters 7 to 9.
■ The writing is concise and lively throughout the text. The chapter on truth
tables includes a discussion of the material conditional and its relation to
the English “if-then” and emphasizes abbreviated truth tables.
■ The system of natural deduction for statement logic is entirely standard,
consisting of 8 implicational rules, 10 equivalence rules, conditional
proof, and reductio ad absurdum.
■ The chapter on inductive logic includes standard material on statistical
syllogisms, induction by enumeration, arguments from authority, Mill’s
methods, scientific reasoning, and arguments from analogy. It also
includes an accessible introduction to the probability calculus.
■ The exercises on arguments from analogy require students to evaluate a
stated criticism of each argument, which makes the exercises relatively
easy to grade.
As in previous editions, various paths through this book are possible, de-
pending on the time available, the needs of the students, and the interests of the
instructor. Here are three possibilities:
■ A course emphasizing traditional and informal logic, covering Chapters 1
to 6 and 10: Basic Concepts, Identifying Arguments, Logic and Language,
Informal Fallacies, Categorical Logic: Statements, Categorical Logic:
Syllogisms, and Inductive Logic
■ A course giving roughly equal emphasis to informal and symbolic logic,
covering Chapters 1 to 4, 7, and 8: Basic Concepts, Identifying Argu-
ments, Logic and Language, Informal Fallacies, Statement Logic: Truth
Tables, and Statement Logic: Proofs
■ A course emphasizing symbolic methods, covering Chapters 1 and 2, 7 to
9, and 10.4: Basic Concepts, Identifying Arguments, Statement Logic:
Truth Tables, Statement Logic: Proofs, Predicate Logic, and Probability
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Preface xvii
Supplements
An Online Learning Center accompanies this text at www.mhhe.com/
howardsnyder5e. For instructors the site includes an updated solutions manual,
a test bank, computerized test bank, and a complete chapter on modal logic
for those who wish to cover this material. For students, the site offers learning
objectives, and chapter summaries.
The site also provides accessibility to an online Logic Tutor, allowing stu-
dents to do the vast majority of the book’s exercises online with feedback. This
includes creating Venn diagrams, truth tables, and proofs. Additionally, instruc-
tors can build proof, truth, and symbolization questions of their own that can
also be graded by the Logic Tutor.
Acknowledgments
Many people have helped improve this text throughout the years. Our greatest
debt is to C. Stephen Layman, who authored the first three editions of The Power
of Logic and is responsible for many of its best features. We also thank Allison
Rona, Anne L. Bezuidenhout, Benjamin Schaeffer, Bernard F. Keating, Charles
R. Carr, Charles Seymour, Cynthia B. Bryson, Darian C. De Bolt, Eric Kraemer,
Eric Saidel, George A. Spangler, Greg Oakes, Gulten Ilhan, James K. Derden, Jr.,
Jason Turner, Jeffrey Roland, Jen Mills, John Casey, Jon-David Hague, Jordan J.
Lindberg, Joseph Le Fevre, Keith W. Krasemann, Ken Akiba, Ken King, Maria
Cimitile, Mark Storey, Martin Frické, Michael F. Wagner, Michael Rooney,
Mitchell Gabhart, Nancy Slonneger Hancock, Neal Hogan, Ned Markosian,
Nils Rauhut, Otávio Bueno, Patricia A. Ross, Paul Draper, Paul M. Jurczak,
Peter Dlugos, Phil Schneider, Phillip Goggans, Rachel Hollenberg, Richard
McClelland, Rico Vitz, Robert Boyd Skipper, Ron Jackson, Sander Lee, Sandra
Johanson, Ted Sider, Terence Cuneo, Tom Downing, Ty Barnes, William J. Doulan,
and Xinmin Zhu.
For the fifth edition, we thank our project team at McGraw-Hill Higher
Education: Jessica Cannavo, Sponsoring Editor; Robin Reed, Developmental
Editor; Angela FitzPatrick, Marketing Campaign Coordinator; Jane Mohr, Lead
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xviii Preface
Project Manager; and Margarite Reynolds, Design Coordinator. We are also very
grateful to the following reviewers for their time, effort, and expertise:
INFERENCE RULES FOR STATEMENT LOGIC Conditional Proof (CP) Reductio ad Absurdum (RAA)
Premises To prove a negation: ⬃p To prove a statement
Implicational Rules p Assume (for CP) that is not a negation: p
. Premises Premises
Modus Ponens (MP) Modus Tollens (MT) .
p→q p→q . p Assume (for RAA) ⬃p Assume (for RAA)
p ,q . .
q
∴q ∴ ,p . .
p → q CP
. .
Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) Simplification (Simp) (q • ⬃q) (q • ⬃q)
p∨q p∨q p•q p•q ⬃p RAA p RAA
,p ,q ∴p ∴q
∴q ∴p
MHID: 0078038197 / Author: Howard-Snyder / Color: 1-color Black / Endsheets to print: Front 2, 3
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C HA P TE R 1
Basic Concepts
To get a better grasp of what logic is, then, we need to understand the key con-
cepts involved in this definition: argument, conclusion, premise, and support.
This chapter will give you an initial understanding of these basic concepts.
An argument is a set of statements where some of the statements are
intended to support another. The conclusion is the claim to be supported. The
premises are the statements offered in support. In some arguments, the conclu-
sion is adequately supported by the premises; in other cases it is not. But a set of
1
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1. Every logic book contains at least one silly example. The Power of Logic is
a logic book. So, The Power of Logic contains at least one silly example.
The word “so” indicates that the conclusion of this argument is “The Power of
Logic contains at least one silly example.” The argument has two premises—
“Every logic book contains at least one silly example” and “The Power of Logic is
a logic book.” Of course, many arguments deal with very serious matters. Here
are two examples:
As with argument (1), the sentences that precede the word “so” in arguments
(2) and (3) are the premises and the sentence that follows the word “so” is the
conclusion.
(4) is true because it describes things as they are. (5) is false because it describes
things as other than they are. Truth and falsehood are the two possible truth
values. So, we can say that a statement is a declarative sentence that has a truth
value. The truth value of (4) is true while the truth value of (5) is false, but
(4) and (5) are both statements. Is (6) a statement? Yes. No one may know its
truth value, but (6) is either true or false, and hence it is a statement.
No. (7) is a command, which could be obeyed or disobeyed. But it makes no sense
to say that a command is true or false, so it is not a statement. (8) is a question,
which could be answered or unanswered. But a question cannot be true or false,
so it is not a statement. Finally, (9) is a proposal, which could be accepted or
rejected. But a proposal cannot be true or false, so it also fails to be a statement.
We have said that an argument is a set of statements, where some of the
statements (the premises) are intended to support another (the conclusion).1
We must now distinguish two ways the premises can be intended to support the
conclusion, and hence two different kinds of arguments. A deductive argument
is one in which the premises are intended to guarantee the conclusion. An
inductive argument is one in which the premises are intended to make the
conclusion probable, without guaranteeing it. The following two examples illus-
trate this distinction:
10. All philosophers like logic. Ned is a philosopher. So, Ned likes logic.
11. Most philosophers like logic. Ned is a philosopher. So, Ned likes logic.
The premises of argument (10) are intended to support the conclusion in this
sense: It is guaranteed that, if they are true, then the conclusion is true as well.
(10) is an example of a deductive argument. The premises of argument (11) do
not support the conclusion in this same sense. Even if Ned is a philosopher and
even if the majority of philosophers enjoy logic, it is not guaranteed that Ned
enjoys logic; he might be among the minority who do not care for logic at all.
The premises of (11) support the conclusion in a different sense, however: It is
probable that if they are true, then the conclusion is true as well. (11) is an
example of an inductive argument.
Language: French
LOUIS VEUILLOT
CINQUIÈME ÉDITION
PARIS
PALMÉ, ÉDITEUR DES BOLLANDISTES
RUE DE GRENELLE-SAINT-GERMAIN, 25
1866
Droits de traduction et de reproduction réservés
PARIS
IMPRIMERIE BALITOUT, QUESTROY ET Cie,
7, rue Baillif et rue de Valois, 18.
L’ILLUSION LIBÉRALE
Le Libéral avait repris haleine. Dès qu’il eut repris haleine, il reprit
son discours, et l’on vit bien que ce qu’il venait d’entendre n’avait fait
aucune impression sur lui, si même il l’avait entendu. Il ajouta force
paroles à celles qu’il avait déjà dites en grande abondance ; rien de
nouveau. Ce fut un mélange plus épais d’arguments historiques
contre l’histoire, d’arguments bibliques contre la Bible, d’arguments
patristiques contre l’histoire, contre la Bible, contre les Pères et
contre le sens commun. Il témoigna le même dédain, je devrais dire
la même aversion pour les bulles des Souverains-Pontifes, se perdit
dans les mêmes emphases et les mêmes vaticinations. Il allégua
encore le monde nouveau, l’humanité émancipée, l’Église endormie
et prête à se réveiller pour rajeunir ses symboles. Le passé mort,
l’avenir radieux, la liberté, l’amour, la démocratie, l’humanité, étaient
mêlés là-dedans comme les faux brillants que les dames répandent
aujourd’hui sur leurs fausses chevelures. Tout cela ne parut pas plus
clair ni plus vrai que la première fois. Il s’en aperçut, nous dit que
nous nous séparions du monde et de l’Église vivante qui sauraient
bien aussi se séparer de nous, nous maudit presque, et enfin nous
laissa consternés de sa folie.
Chacun en exprima du chagrin et produisit quelques raisons
contre tant d’extravagances. Pour moi, j’eus assurément regret,
comme les autres, de voir un si galant homme empêtré dans une si
grande erreur. Mais puisqu’enfin il y était, je ne fus pas fâché d’en
avoir eu le spectacle et la leçon.
Jusqu’alors je n’avais vu le catholique libéral que mêlé d’ancien
catholique intégral, c’est-à-dire « intolérant ». Je n’avais entendu que
la thèse officielle, laquelle n’est jamais entière, et prend toujours une
physionomie personnelle que le parti peut désavouer. Cet
enthousiaste venait de me donner la gnose en même temps que la
thèse extérieure. Je possédais désormais le catholique libéral à
fond ; je savais par cœur ses sophismes, ses illusions, ses
entêtements, sa tactique. Hélas ! et rien de tout cela ne m’était
nouveau. Le catholique libéral n’est ni catholique ni libéral. Je veux
dire par là, sans douter encore de sa sincérité, qu’il n’a pas plus la
notion vraie de la liberté que la notion vraie de l’Église. Catholique
libéral tant qu’il voudra ! Il porte un caractère plus connu, et tous ses
traits font également reconnaître un personnage trop ancien et trop
fréquent dans l’histoire de l’Église : SECTAIRE, voilà son vrai nom.
V