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 Application Exercise
Skill-Building Activity
Summary
Important Terms
Review Questions
Websites to Explore
References

Chapter Theories of Stress and Coping

6
Historical Perspective
Constructs of Theories of Stress and Coping
Applications of the Theories of Stress and Coping
Limitations of the Theories of Stress and Coping
Application Exercise
Skill-Building Activity
Summary
Important Terms
Review Questions
Websites to Explore
References

Chapter Social Cognitive Theory

7
Historical Perspective
Underpinnings of Social Cognitive Theory
Constructs of Social Cognitive Theory
Applications of Social Cognitive Theory
Limitations of Social Cognitive Theory

8
 Application Exercise
Skill-Building Activity
Summary
Important Terms
Review Questions
Websites to Explore
References
Social Marketing
Chapter
8
Historical Perspective
Differences Between Commercial Marketing and Social
Marketing
Approach and Constructs of Social Marketing
Applications of Social Marketing
Limitations of Social Marketing
Application Exercise
Skill-Building Activity
Summary
Important Terms
Review Questions
Websites to Explore
References

Chapter Diffusion of Innovations

9
Historical Perspective
Constructs of the Diffusion of Innovations Theory
Applications of the Diffusion of Innovations Theory

9
 Limitations of the Diffusion of Innovations Theory
Application Exercise
Skill-Building Activity
Summary
Important Terms
Review Questions
Websites to Explore
References

Chapter Freire’s Model of Adult Education

10
Historical Perspective
Approach of Freire’s Model
Constructs of Freire’s Model
Applications of Freire’s Model in Health Education
Limitations of Freire’s Model
Application Exercise
Skill-Building Activity
Summary
Important Terms
Review Questions
Websites to Explore
References

Chapter Newer Theories in Health Education and Health

11 Promotion
Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction
Emotional Intelligence Theory
Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills Model

10
 Self-Determination Theory
Construct of Self-Esteem
Community Coalition Action Theory
Theory of Gender and Power
Multi-Theory Model (MTM) for Health Behavior Change
Application Exercise
Skill-Building Activity
Summary
Important Terms
Review Questions
Websites to Explore
References

Glossary

Index

11
FROM THE AUTHOR
I have great pleasure in presenting this third edition of Theoretical
Foundations of Health Education and Health Promotion to my readers. I
have been really pleased with its success over the years. In 2015, Amazon
ranked it #14 in sales in health books under education and teaching. The
reviews mentioned on Amazon’s website, and those that I have received
from students nationally, from colleagues all over the world, from
international collaborators, and from reviewers of this book, have all been
largely positive and constructive. Based on this feedback I have made
several changes to this Third Edition. I hope my readers, who include
undergraduate students, graduate students, practitioners, and researchers,
will continue to give this edition the same love, admiration, and support as
previous editions of this book. This book should be a required reading by
all students, practitioners, and researchers in the disciplines of public
health and education as it presents all of the relevant health education and
health promotion theories in a simple, practical, easy-to-apply format.

12
PREFACE
Theoretical Foundations of Health Education and Health Promotion,
Third Edition provides an accessible, uniform approach to understanding
the theories commonly used in health education and health promotion.
Each theory is described in a consistent and uniform manner and discussed
in simple language with an emphasis on practical applications. The book is
designed for use in a quarter- or semester-long course. The information
presented here is in consonance with the core competencies for health
education specialists described by the National Commission for Health
Education Credentialing (NCHEC) and provides a useful review for those
preparing to take the certification examination both at the CHES and
MCHES levels. The book is also useful for those preparing for the
Certified in Public Health (CPH) exam administered by the National Board
of Public Health Examiners (NBPHE).

NEW TO THIS EDITION:

I would first like to mention that my coauthor from previous editions, Dr.
John Romas, has retired, and I am the sole author of this book. In this
revision, on the suggestion of the students and reviewers, I have added:

• NEW! Chapter 11 is a new chapter that addresses some of the newer

theories in health education and health promotion. These include:
- The integrative model of behavioral prediction (IM)
- Emotional intelligence theory
- The information-motivation-behavioral skills (IMB) model
- Self-determination theory (SDT)
- The construct of self-esteem
- The community coalition action theory (CCAT), and
- The theory of gender and power
• NEW! The multi-theory model (MTM) for health behavior change is
a new model that I hope readers will find useful and stimulating
enough to test in their research or practice.
• Diverse examples and activities have been added to each theory to

13
 make this edition more attractive not only to health education
specialists but also to public health professionals, nursing educators,
dietitians, nutrition educators, health coaches, lay health volunteers,
and all health care professionals involved with health education and
health promotion.
• NEW UPDATES include:
- Addition of the 2015 Health Education Specialist Practice
Analysis (HESPA) study in Chapter 1
- Inclusion of SHAPE America in Chapter 1
- Inclusion of Delta Omega in Chapter 1
- Addition of the social ecological model in Chapter 2
- Expansion of CDCynergy in Chapter 2
- Expansion of intervention mapping in Chapter 2
- Addition of a diagram on the transtheoretical model in Chapter 4
- Elaboration of social network and social support theory in Chapter
6
- Simplification of Chapter 7
- Addition of current information on social marketing in Chapter 8,
and
- Addition of diagrams and tables in Chapter 9
- Also added are newer interventions, newer references, and updated
websites in all chapters.

FEATURES AND BENEFITS:

Each chapter offers several learning tools to aid readers in understanding
and learning to apply theory-based behavior change interventions:

• Key concepts and chapter objectives begin each chapter and help
readers focus their attention and retain important information.
• Chapter summaries conclude each chapter and provide an
opportunity for readers to prepare for exams and master key
concepts effectively by reinforcing important topics and important
terms. Important terms and their definitions are also provided in the
glossary at the end of the book.
• Boxed quotations highlight the theorists or important aspects of the
theory and provide a direct flavor of the actual theory.
• Each chapter begins with a discussion of the historical genesis and
constitutive constructs of the theory. This foundation is followed

14
 by a clear delineation of the constructs of the theory, which helps
readers understand the process by which the theory is reified and
used in health education and health promotion. This process of
simplification of constructs helps the health education and health
promotion student to apply these constructs in designing programs.
• Application Exercises in each chapter present a case study that
urges readers to apply concepts discussed in the chapter and to
retrieve additional applications from the literature.
• Each discussion of theory is accompanied by a practical Skill-
Building Activity in the context of planning and evaluation along
with a set of application questions. This activity will assist readers in
mastering the application of the theory to community, school,
worksite, or patient care settings.
• Up-to-date examples of applications from current literature are
included throughout the text and serve as ideas for designing
interventions and resources for initiating a literature review.
• Each chapter includes a Websites to Explore section that
encourages readers to participate in specific interactive activities to
enhance their learning on the topic.

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES:
• A set of updated PowerPoint slides for each chapter that instructors
can use for classroom lectures.
• Instructors also have access to updated TestBank questions for each
chapter.

15
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We want to thank all of the reviewers who read through this text and
provided invaluable advice:

Elizabeth Ash, MA, Morehead State University;

David Brown, EdD, MA, MCHES, Jackson State University;
Kirk Dearden, DrPH, MPH, Boston University School of Public Health;
Carl Fertman, PhD, CHES, University of Pittsburgh;
Deborah A. Fortune, PhD, CHES, North Central Carolina University;
Pamela Y. Frasier, MSPH, PhD, Radford University;
Jewel Goodman Shepherd, PhD, MPA, CHES, Old Dominion University;
Wendelyn Inman, PhD, Tennessee State University;
Jerome Kotecki, PhD, Ball State University;
Janet Ludwig, PhD, Hawthorn University;
Karen Lyke, MS, CCN, DSc, DANLA, Hawthorn University, Maryland
University of Integrative Health;
Brandi S. Niemeier, PhD, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater;
Elizabeth Reifsnider, PhD, RN, WHNP-BC, PHCNS-BC, FAAN, College
of Nursing and Health Innovation, Arizona State University;
Dr. Jacqueline E. Sharpe, Old Dominion University;
Brad Welch, MEd, CHES, University of New Orleans;
Joshua H. West, PhD, MPH, Brigham Young University;
Julie Zaruba Fountaine, MS, College of St. Scholastica.

16
SPECIAL APPRECIATION
A special appreciation is extended to graduate students at the Jackson State
University, University of Cincinnati, and Walden University who have
used this book and provided excellent suggestions.
Finally, I am thankful to Dr. Paul Branscum of the University of
Oklahoma and Dr. Adam Knowlden of the University of Alabama for
reviewing Chapter 11 of this book and providing valuable feedback.

17
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
HEALTH EDUCATION,
HEALTH PROMOTION, AND
THEORY

KEY CONCEPTS

• behavior
• certified health education specialist (CHES)
• certified in public health (CPH)
• code of ethics
• community-related concepts
• concepts related to antecedents of behavior
• dietitian
• health
• health behavior
• health coach
• health education
• health literacy
• health promotion
• master certified health education specialist (MCHES)
• nursing educator

18
 • theory

AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER YOU SHOULD BE ABLE

TO

• Define health, health behavior, health education, and health promotion

• Identify the limitations of the traditional definition of health
• Differentiate between health education and health promotion
• Define concepts related to antecedents of behavior
• Delineate community-related concepts
• List the responsibilities of certified health education specialists
• Explain the role of theory in health education and health promotion
• Name different types of theories and provide examples
• Identify 10 national health education organizations

HEALTH, BEHAVIOR, AND HEALTH BEHAVIOR

Health is an age-old concept. In Old English the idea appeared as haelen
(“to heal”), and in Middle English as helthe, meaning to be sound in body,
mind, and spirit. The classic Greek definition of medicine was to “prolong
life and prevent disease,” or in other words to keep people healthy (Cook,
2004). Similarly, medicine in ancient India was called Ayurveda, or the
science of life or health. By the 17th century, most medical textbooks
commonly used the word restoration. By the end of the 19th century, the
word health was considered colloquial and was replaced with the word
hygiene, which was considered more scientific (Cook, 2004).
After the Second World War, the word health resurfaced with the
formation of the World Health Organization (WHO), a global entity.
Around the same time, the Hygienic Laboratory in the United States was
renamed the National Institutes of Health. In 1948, WHO defined health in
its constitution as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-
being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 1974, p.
29). This definition of health has received a lot of criticism over the years
for a number of reasons.
First, the use of the word state is misleading. Health is dynamic and
changes from time to time. For example, a person may be healthy in the
morning and then develop a headache in the afternoon and thus not be in
the “state” of health. Second, the dimensions mentioned in the definition
are inadequate to capture the variations in health. One such dimension is

19
the spiritual dimension (Perrin & McDermott, 1997). Bensley (1991) has
identified six perspectives related to the spiritual dimension of health: (1)
sense of fulfillment, (2) values and beliefs of community and self, (3)
wholeness in life, (4) well-being, (5) God or a controlling power, and (6)
human–spiritual interaction. None of these concepts are included in
WHO’s definition. Another dimension that is not mentioned is the political
dimension. Do the rich get sick more often, or do the poor? Who controls
greater resources to health? Do the rich or the poor have a greater burden
of mortality? All these and many other questions pertaining to the politics
of health must be explicitly mentioned in the definition for it to be
meaningfully complete.
Third, the word well-being is very subjective. A definition must be
more objective, and subjectivity should be minimized. Fourth, the way in
which health is defined makes it very difficult to measure. McDowell and
Newell (1987) pointed out that “just as language molds the way we
think[,] our health measurements influence (and are influenced by) the
way we define and think about health” (p. 14); in other words, health and
measurement are inextricably linked. Fifth, WHO’s definition of health
presents an idealistic or utopian view. It would be impossible to find
anyone who embodies all the attributes presented in the definition. Thus
the definition of health lacks practical applications.
Sixth, in the WHO definition health is presented as an end product,
whereas most people perceive health as a means of achieving something
that they value more highly. For example, people want to be healthy so
that they can raise their families. Finally, the WHO definition of health is
written from an individualistic perspective in which health is defined for
one person. It lacks a community orientation, which is much needed for
something as complex as health. These limitations of the WHO definition
are summarized in Table 1-1.

The original WHO definition has been modified in subsequent

20
discussions at the world level. In November 1986, the first International
Conference on Health Promotion was held in Ottawa, Canada (WHO,
1986). At that conference the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion was
drafted. In the charter, health was defined more broadly:

Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-

being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
—World Health Organization (1974, p. 29)

[H]ealth has been considered less as an abstract state and more as a

means to an end which can be expressed in functional terms as a
resource which permits people to lead an individually, socially, and
economically productive life. Health is a resource for everyday life,
not the object of living. It is a positive concept emphasizing social
and personal resources as well as physical capabilities (WHO, 1986,
p. 1).

A more contemporary definition describes health as “a means to

achieve desirable goals in life while maintaining a multidimensional
(physical, mental, social, political, economic, and spiritual) equilibrium
that is operationalized for individuals, as well as for communities.” This
definition is more inclusive.
Another important basic concept is behavior. Merriam-Webster’s
Dictionary defines behavior as “anything that an organism does involving
action and response to stimulation.” The key word is “action.” A behavior
is any overt action, conscious or unconscious, with a measurable
frequency, intensity, and duration. “Frequency” refers to how many times
the behavior occurs in a given time period. For example, we may classify
someone as being active who participates in some sort of physical activity
5 days a week. “Intensity” refers to how intensely or how hard the
behavior is performed. For example, we may say that a behavior is mildly
intense, moderately intense, or vigorous depending on the effect it has on
the heart rate or the number of calories burned. “Duration” refers to the
amount of time spent on each session. For example, physical activity may
last for 20 minutes on any given day.
Any behavior is influenced by factors at five levels. The first level
pertains to individual factors. For example, a person’s attitude helps
determine his or her behavior. A person who is partaking in physical
activity may believe that physical activity is refreshing. The second level
pertains to interpersonal factors. For example, the person may be
exercising because his or her spouse requested it. The third level pertains

21
to institutional or organizational factors. For example, there may be a
policy at the workplace that requires every person to work out for an hour,
and that may be the reason the person is performing the physical activity.
The fourth level pertains to community factors. For example, if the only
available parking is 10 minutes away from where the person lives or
works, this may be the main reason the person is physically active. The
final level in determining behavior is the role of public policy factors. For
example, laws and policies requiring the use of seat belts while driving
may make a person perform that particular behavior.

A behavior is any overt action, conscious or unconscious, with a

measurable frequency, intensity, and duration.

Now let us focus our attention on defining health behavior. The World
Health Organization (1998, p. 8) defines health behavior as “any activity
undertaken by an individual regardless of actual or perceived health status,
for the purpose of promoting, protecting or maintaining health, whether or
not such behavior is objectively effective toward that end.” David
Gochman (1982, p. 167; 1997, p. 3) defines health behavior as “those
personal attributes such as beliefs, expectations, motives, values,
perceptions, and other cognitive elements; personality characteristics,
including affective and emotional states and traits; and behavioral patterns,
actions, and habits that relate to health maintenance, to health restoration,
and to health improvement.” Three key foci of health behavior are clear in
these definitions: maintenance of health, restoration of health, and
improvement of health.
These foci correspond to the three levels of prevention: namely,
primary prevention, secondary prevention, and tertiary prevention
(Modeste & Tamayose, 2004; Pickett & Hanlon, 1998). Primary
prevention refers to preventive actions taken prior to the onset of a disease
or injury with the intention of removing the possibility of its ever
occurring. Secondary prevention refers to actions that block the
progression of an injury or disease at its incipient stage. Tertiary
prevention refers to actions taken after the onset of disease or injury with
the intention of assisting the individual with the disease or disability. The
actions for primary, secondary, and tertiary level care are taken at
individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and public policy
levels. Hence health behavior can be defined as all actions with a
potentially measurable frequency, intensity, and duration performed at the
individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, or public policy level
for primary, secondary, or tertiary prevention.

22
 Some health behaviors have positive attributes, such as promoting
physical activity or eating five or more servings of fruits and vegetables.
Other health behaviors focus on extinguishing negative attributes, such as
smoking or binge drinking. These behaviors can be categorized as risk
behaviors and protective behaviors. The World Health Organization (1998,
p. 18) defines risk behaviors as “specific forms of behavior which are
proven to be associated with increased susceptibility to a specific disease
or ill-health.” For example, indiscriminate sexual behavior is a risk
behavior for sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS.
Protective behaviors aim to protect a person from developing ill health or a
specific disease. For example, a person may be immunized against tetanus
and thus prevent the disease. Green and Kreuter (2005) divided protective
behaviors into two categories: health-directed and health-related behaviors.
Health-directed behaviors are actions a person consciously pursues for
health improvement or health protection, such as seeking an immunization,
getting a physical examination, eating a low-fat food, or using a condom.
Health-related behaviors are actions performed for reasons other than
health but that have health effects. An example is an individual who is
trying to lose weight in order to improve his or her appearance.

HEALTH EDUCATION AND HEALTH

PROMOTION
Health education professionals facilitate modification of health behaviors.
Health education has been defined in several ways. Downie, Fyfe, and
Tannahill (1990) defined it as “[c]ommunication activity aimed at
enhancing positive health and preventing or diminishing ill-health in
individuals and groups through influencing the beliefs, attitudes and
behavior of those with power and of the community at large” (p. 28). The
2000 Joint Committee on Health Education and Promotion Terminology
(Gold & Miner, 2002, p. 3) defined health education as “any combination
of planned learning experiences based on sound theories that provide
individuals, groups, and communities the opportunity to acquire
information and the skills needed to make quality health decisions.” The
World Health Organization (1998, p. 4) defined health education as
“compris[ing] consciously constructed opportunities for learning involving
some form of communication designed to improve health literacy,
including improving knowledge, and developing life skills which are
conducive to individual and community health.” Green and Kreuter (2005,
p. G-4) defined health education as “any planned combination of learning

23
experiences designed to predispose, enable, and reinforce voluntary
behavior conducive to health in individuals, groups or communities.”
From these definitions some things are clear. First, health education is a
systematic, planned application, which qualifies it as a science. Second,
the delivery of health education involves a set of techniques rather than
just one, such as preparing health education informational brochures,
pamphlets, and videos; delivering lectures; facilitating role plays or
simulations; analyzing case studies; participating and reflecting in group
discussions; reading; and interacting in computer-assisted training. In the
past, health education encompassed a wider range of functions, including
community mobilization, networking, and advocacy, which are now
embodied in the term health promotion. Third, the primary purpose of
health education is to influence antecedents of behavior so that healthy
behaviors develop in a voluntary fashion (without any coercion). The
common antecedents of behavior are awareness, information, knowledge,
skills, beliefs, attitudes, and values. Finally, health education is performed
at several levels. It can be done one-on-one, such as in a counseling
session; it can be done with a group of people, such as through a group
discussion; it can be done at an organizational level, such as through an
employee wellness fair; or it can be done at the community level, such as
through a multiple-channel, multiple-approach campaign.

Healthy People 2020 reflects assessments of major risks to health

and wellness, changing public health priorities, and emerging
issues related to our nation’s health preparedness and prevention.
—U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2009)

Since the publication of Healthy People: The Surgeon General’s Report

on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention (U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services [USDHHS], 1979), the term health promotion has
gained popularity and continues to gain strength. This term has been used
in the Objectives for the Nation (USDHHS, 1980), Healthy People 2000
(USDHHS, 1990), Healthy People 2010 (USDHHS, 2000), and Healthy
People 2020 (USDHHS, 2009) reports. Table 1-2 summarizes the 38
focus areas in Healthy People 2020, which underscore the importance of
health promotion.

24
 Green and Kreuter (2005, p. G-4) defined health promotion as “any
planned combination of educational, political, regulatory and
organizational supports for actions and conditions of living conducive to
the health of individuals, groups or communities.” The 2000 Joint
Committee on Health Education and Promotion Terminology (Gold &
Miner, 2002, p. 4) defined health promotion as “any planned combination
of educational, political, environmental, regulatory, or organizational
mechanisms that support actions and conditions of living conducive to the
health of individuals, groups, and communities.” The Ottawa Charter for
Health Promotion (WHO, 1986, p. 1) defined health promotion as “the
process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their
health.” The Ottawa Charter identified five key action strategies for health
promotion:

• Build healthy public policy.

• Create physical and social environments supportive of individual
change.
• Strengthen community action.

25
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
hän kinasteli usein merellä isänsä kanssa, Eveliinaa hän karttoi ja
lopuksi hän lähti merille eikä antanut vuosikausiin tietoja itsestään.

Silloin levisi kumma huhu saaristoon. Pari kaupungin pyssymiestä

oli Skytteskärissä löytänyt miehenruumiin. He olivat etsineet
tuulensuojaa kaatuneen kuusen juurakon takaa ja pystyttäneet
siihen telttansa. Koira oli vainunnut jotain maasta ja alkanut murista
ja kaivaa. Sieltä oli ilmestynyt vanttera miehenruumis, jolla oli jalassa
pitkävartiset saappaat ja musta kiharainen tukka.

Vennström kuuli huhun ensi kertaa kaupungin kalarannassa.

Hänen mielestään ihmiset katsoivat häntä oudon tutkivasti
puhuessaan asiasta. Joka puolella hän kuuli arveltavan ettei se
voinut olla kenenkään muun kuin Löf-vainajan ruumis. Sinä päivänä
hän myi kalat polkuhintaan ja lähti kotimatkalle ennen muita.

Merellä hän hengitti taas helpommin. Oliko kaikki tullut ilmi?

Epäilivätkö ihmiset häntä? Hän oli jo alkanut unohtaa — ei, joka
kerta kun hän näki venehylyn, oli hän muistanut kaikki. Kumma ettei
hän ollut saanut sitä puiksi hakatuksi, vaikka oli monta kertaa
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kummitus. Huomenna hän sen hakkaa. Ja tänään, suoraa päätä,
hän laskee Skytteskäriin Ei ei käy, joku voi tuntea veneen! Mutta ensi
yönä.

Illalla hän lähettää rengin ja pojan hakemaan tiilikuormaa

Skoglannista. Ilma on siihen sopiva meri melkein tyyni ja on kuuvalo.
Voi sattua ette pitkään aikaan tule niin sopivaa ilmaa, jonkatähden
on
paras tehdä se tiilimatka nyt.
 Kun muut ovat nukkuneet lähtee hän Aspön takarannalta pienellä
ruuhella majakkasaareen. Ovatko he jo kuljettaneet ruumiin pois?
Nyt putosi tähti majakan kohdalla ja se tuntuu hänestä niin
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Aivan Skytteskärin rannassa kolahtaa airo hänen kädestään. Häntä
harmittaa, kun älyää että se oli vain koskeloperhe, joka oli nukkunut
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pelkäisi jonkun heräävän.

Ruumis on vanhalla paikallaan. Se helpottaa mieltä. Mutta koko

ajan tunkiessaan sitä säkkiin, vilkasee hän vähäväliä majakkaan,
jonka silmä vilkkuu puiden välitse. Se rävähyttää niin ilkeästi siellä
ulkonokassa että hänen tekee mieli käydä sammuttamassa se siksi
aikaa kun on toimittanut asiansa. Onhan hänellä avain.

Vihdoin on hän taakkoineen ruuhessa. Kivi ja köysi ovat valmiina.

Mutta viime hetkessä tulee hän ajatelleeksi että merikin antaa
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upottaa ruumiin ilman säkkiä, sitoen suuren kivenlohkareen toiseen
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köysi katkeekin ja ruumis ajautuu maihin, ei kukaan voi päätellä
muuta kuin että hän on hukkunut.

Sinä yönä nukkui Vennström sikeästi kuin olisi saanut raskaan

päivätyön loppuun. Ja seuraavana päivänä hakkasi hän venehylyn
puiksi.

Pian alettiin puhua että ruumis olikin kadonnut Skytteskäristä.

Hamberg ja Skoglannin Löf olivat käyneet asiaa peräämässä ja
tavanneet ainoastaan kuopan maassa. Joku arveli että pyssymiesten
juttu ruumiista oli ollut perätön, mutta Hamberg ja hänen kanssaan
monet puistivat päätään ja väittivät että nähtävästi se, jota asia
lähinnä koski, oli pitänyt varansa ja ennättänyt ennen muita. Jäljet
olivat kadonneet, mutta yhä yleisemmin alettiin Vennströmiä pitää
murhaajana. Tiedettiin että naapurukset olivat eläneet huonossa
sovussa.

Todistuksia ei ollut. Mutta minne Vennström tulikin, siellä puhuivat

ihmisten silmät mykkää kieltään. Ja hän ymmärsi. Hän ei kulkenut
enää kutomatalkoissa ja harvoin hänet nähtiin häissä tai
hautajaisissa. Hän pysyi ulkona saarellaan, oli mieluiten merellä tai
lintuluodoilla, kun joku poikkesi Aspöhön. Anna-Mari kertoi usein
tavanneensa hänet kävelemässä pitkin rantoja puhelemassa
itsekseen.

Niin kuluivat vuodet. Vennström kutistui kokoon pieneksi

ukonkäppyräksi, jolla oli omituinen tapa vilkaista syrjästä
puhuessaan ihmisten kanssa ja sitten taas katsoa poispäin.
Kalastajapaikkansa ja pelastuslippunsa oli hän luovuttanut toiselle
pojalleen. Hän kutoi verkkoja, kalasteli koukuilla ja eleli leskeksi
jäätyään pienessä mökissä Vähän-Aspön itälahdessa. Vennström oli
käynyt kuuroksi; jos hänelle puhui, vilkasi hän vain syrjästä ja näytti
välinpitämättömältä. Hamberg väitti kuitenkin että hän tekeytyi
kuurommaksi kuin oli. Ja ettei hän erehtynyt selveni Bergin Kallen
hautajaisissa.

Vennström oli nimittäin vastoin tapaansa saapunut niihin

hautajaisiin ja istui kamarissa missä vanhempi polvi joi puolikupposia
Kallen muistoksi. Siinä vainaata kaipaillessa mainittiin Elben
haaksirikko, josta Kallen keuhkotauti oli alkuisin ja Anselm Löfin
hämärä kohtalo. Nuoremmat kyselivät tarkemmin asiaa, vanhemmat
kertoivat puoliääneen, sillä Vennströmhän, joka istui nurkassa, oli
kuuro eikä siis tiennyt että hänestä puhuttiin. Äkkiä kuului parkaus:
»Niin, minä se tapoin Löfin!» Vennström seisoi keskellä lattiaa,
tuijottaen miehiä suoraan kasvoihin. Mutta kun hän aikoi jatkaa,
jäykistyi hän äkkiä ja alkoi vavista ja seuraavana hetkenä hän oli
kadonnut.

Ikkunasta nähtiin hänen hurjaa vauhtia soutavan Aspötä kohti.

Huoneeseen tuli hiljaisuus ja kuin salaisesta sopimuksesta alettiin
puhua muista asioista. Oli kuin ei kukaan olisi kuullut ukon
tunnustusta.

Mutta Vennström ei senjälkeen liikkunut mihinkään Aspöstä. Hän

ei puhutellut muita kuin omaisiaan. Jos vieras kohtasi hänet jäällä
koukkuja syöttämässä, vilkasi hän tätä nopeasti syrjästä ja katseli
sitten suurta ulappaa tahi Skytteskäriä sen laidassa.
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