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Full Download PDF of (Ebook PDF) Research Methods in Psychology: Investigating Human Behavior 3rd Edition All Chapter
Full Download PDF of (Ebook PDF) Research Methods in Psychology: Investigating Human Behavior 3rd Edition All Chapter
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Brief Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
• PART I RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS
• Chapter 1 Uncommon Sense and the Scientific Method
• Chapter 2 The Research Process
• Chapter 3 Literature Review in Research
• Chapter 4 Ethics in Behavioral Research
• Chapter 5 Conceptualization and Measurement
• Chapter 6 Samples and Generalizations
• PART II RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Chapter 7 Considering Correlation: Are You a Maximizer or a
Satisficer?
• Chapter 8 In Search of Causality: True Experiments
• Chapter 9 Experimental Design and Hypothesis Testing
• Chapter 10 Complex Research Designs
• Chapter 11 Quasi-Experimental and Nonexperimental Designs
• Chapter 12 Small-N and Single-Subject Designs
• Chapter 13 Survey Research
• Chapter 14 Qualitative Methods
• PART III RESEARCH PRODUCTS
• Chapter 15 Quantitative Data Analysis
• Chapter 16 Essentials of APA Report Writing
Appendix A: Summaries of Frequently Cited Research Articles
Appendix B: Questions to Ask About a Research Article
Appendix C: How to Read a Research Article
Appendix D: Proportions of Area Under Standard Normal Curve
Appendix E: Critical Values for t Distribution
Appendix F: Critical Values of F
Appendix G: Critical Values of Chi-Square
Appendix H: Critical Values of the Correlation Coefficient
Appendix I: Table of Random Numbers
Glossary
References
Index
8
Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
• PART I RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS
• Chapter 1 Uncommon Sense and the Scientific Method
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
Biases in Thinking
Intuition
Curiosity and Imagination
The Power of Observation
The Scientific Method
What Is a Scientific Question?
From Theory to Testable Hypothesis
Variables as the Language of Research
Sampling and Populations
Evaluating Evidence and Theory
Reliability and Validity
STAT CORNER: “A Pledge to the Scientific Method”
Psychological Research in the Public Square
Pervasiveness of Psychological Myths
Science Versus Pseudoscience
Recognizing Pseudoscience
Why Pseudoscience?
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Combating Confirmation
Bias
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
• Chapter 2 The Research Process
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
Can Money Buy You Happiness?
Research Approach
Research Strategies
Research Toolbox
9
Randomized “True” Experiment
Quasi-Experiments
Correlational Research
Sampling and Survey Design
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Building Psychological
Knowledge With Survey Research
Performance-Based Measures
Qualitative Research
Literature Review
Evaluating and Critiquing Research
Scientific Skepticism
Peer Review
Reliability of Measurements
Validity and Generalizability
Multicultural Analysis
STAT CORNER: Sample Size Matters
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
• Chapter 3 Literature Review in Research
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
The Brain on Marijuana
Literature Review in Research
What Is a Literature Review?
What Is Scientific Literature?
Why Literature Review?
Risk of Bias
Framework for Literature Review
Selecting a Topic
Formulating a Research Question
Searching the Literature
Identifying Pivotal Articles
Optimal Research Design
Drawing Conclusions From Evidence
Advanced Literature Reviews
Systematic Reviews
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Can Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analysis Help Solve the Replication Crisis in
Psychology?
10
Meta-Analysis
STAT CORNER: p Value and Effect Size
Critique
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
• Chapter 4 Ethics in Behavioral Research
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
Historical Background
Ethical Principles
Achieving Valid Results
Maintaining Professional Integrity
STAT CORNER: Scientific Misconduct in Psychology: Is
Replication the Answer?
Protecting Research Participants
Encouraging Appropriate Application
The Institutional Review Board
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Some Social Scientists Are
Tired of Asking for Permission
Final Rule
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 5 Conceptualization and Measurement
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
What Is Happiness?
Theoretical Constructs
Methods of Measurement
Operationalizing and Measuring Constructs
Advantages of Multiple Measures
Levels of Measurement
Nominal Level of Measurement
The Special Case of Dichotomies
Ordinal Level of Measurement
Interval Level of Measurement
Ratio Level of Measurement
11
Comparison of Levels of Measurement
Why Measurement Level Matters
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: The Rule of Measurement
The Special Case of Psychometrics
Test Standardization
Normal Curve
Evaluating Measures
Measurement Reliability
Stability Over Time
Internal Consistency
Increasing Reliability
STAT CORNER: Correlation and Measurement Reliability
The Logic of Measurement Validity
Face Validity
Content Validity
Criterion Validity
Construct Validity
Latent Variable Models
Culture and Measurement
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 6 Samples and Generalizations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
Testing before Learning
Sample Planning
The Purpose of Sampling
Define Sample Components and the Population
Evaluate Generalizability
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Does Marriage Increase
Well-Being?
Assess the Diversity of the Population
Consider a Census
Sampling Methods
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling Methods
Sampling Distributions
Sampling Error
Sample Size Considerations
12
STAT CORNER: vagaries of Sampling
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• PART II RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Chapter 7 Considering Correlation: Are You a Maximizer or a
Satisficer?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
Testing before Learning
Are You a Maximizer or a Satisficer?
Correlational Research
Conceptual Model
Reliability and Validity
Classes of Evidence
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Correlational Studies of the
Psychological Effects of Facebook
Correlation, Confounds, and Control Variables
Nature of Association
Moderators and Mediators
Third Variable Effects
Decision-Making Strategies in a College Student Sample:
Maximizer or Satisficer?
Rules of Psychological Writing
Writing an Empirical Paper
Report Organization and Structure
A Brief Research Report
STAT CORNER: Storytelling With Numbers and Graphs
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
• Chapter 8 In Search of Causality: True Experiments
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
Testing before Learning
Mental Calisthenics for the Brain?
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Do Cognitive Enhancers
Work?
Three Prongs of Causation
Research and Theory
13
Single-Factor Experiment
Selecting Research Participants
Randomly Assigning Research Participants
Theater of Independent Variables
Simple and Direct Manipulations
Covert and Indirect Manipulations
Treatment Manipulations
Staged Manipulations
Measurement and Control
Dependent Variables
Controlling Confounds
STAT CORNER: Statistical Significance
Validity in Experiments
Internal Validity
External Validity
Replication Validity
Can Causality Be Established?
Mistakes in Reasoning About Causality
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 9 Experimental Design and Hypothesis Testing
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
Testing before Learning
Does Exercise Make You Smarter?
Basic Experimental Designs
Posttest-Only Design
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Are Placebos Ethical?
Pretest–Posttest Deign
Multiple Pretests and Posttests
Two Options in Assigning Participants
Independent-Groups Design
Matched-Pairs Design
Repeated-Measures Design
Selecting Between- or Within-Subjects Allocation
Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
Type I and II Errors
Criticism and Controversy
Reproducibility and Replication
14
STAT CORNER: Is Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
the Blame for Replication Crisis?
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 10 Complex Research Designs
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
Multifactorial Designs
Notations and Terms
Theory and Experimentation
Design Questions
Within-Subjects Experiment
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Interactional Effects: The
Beauty of Multifactorial Designs
A 2 × 2 Within-Subjects Design
The 2 × 2 Logic
Between-Subjects Experiment
A 2 × 3 Between-Subjects Design
STAT CORNER: analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 11 Quasi-Experimental and Nonexperimental Designs
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
The Good and the Bad of Media Multitasking
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Subject Variables as Quasi-Independent Variables
Natural Treatments as Quasi-Independent Variables
Nonequivalent-Control-Group Designs
Matching
Before-and-After Designs
Time-Series Designs
Before-and-After Designs With Multiple Groups
Quasi-Experiments of Media Multitasking
Media Multitasking Hypothesis of Distractibility
15
Media Multitasking and Well-Being
Quasi-Experiments of 9/11 Memories
Ex Post Facto Variables and Comparison Groups
Correlational Effects
STAT CORNER: Correlational Effects and Quasi-
Experiments
Interactional Effects
Quasi-Experimental Design Features
Quasi-Experimental Research of Culture and Cognition
Constructivist Theories of Culture
Experimental Tasks and Stimuli
Developmental Studies
Cross-Sectional Design
Longitudinal Design
Design Challenges
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Marshmallow Test: A
Classic Quasi-Experimental Study in Developmental
Psychology
A Developmental Study of Brain Maturation
Nonexperimental Research
Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 12 Small-N and Single-Subject Designs
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
Foundations of Small-N Designs
Repeated Measurement
Baseline Phase
Treatment Phase
Graphing
Measuring Targets of Intervention
Types of Small-N and Single-Subject Designs
Basic Design (A–B)
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: A Teenager Suffering Severe
Anxiety
Withdrawal Designs
Multiple-Baseline Designs
16
Multiple-Treatment Designs
Analyzing Small-N and Single-Subject Designs
Visual Analysis
Interpreting Visual Patterns
Problems of Interpretation
STAT CORNER: Statistical Analysis
Internal Validity
Generalizability
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 13 Survey Research
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
How Happy Are You?
Considering Surveys
Writing Survey Questions
Avoid Confusing Phrasing
Minimize the Risk of Bias
Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Agreement
Disagreeable
Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating
Combining Questions in Indexes and Scales
Designing Questionnaires
Build on Existing Instruments
Refine and Test Questions
Add Interpretive Questions
Maintain Consistent Focus
Order the Questions
Make the Questionnaire Attractive
Consider Translation
Organizing Surveys
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Should Spouses Be Best
Friends?
Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys
Group-Administered Surveys
Telephone Surveys
In-Person Interviews
Electronic Surveys
17
A Comparison of Survey Designs
Analyzing Surveys
STAT CORNER: Show and Tell
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 14 Qualitative Methods
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
Fundamentals of Qualitative Research
Methods for Collecting Qualitative Data
Qualitative Interviewing
Selecting Interviewees
Asking Questions and Recording Answers
Developing Rapport
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Why Does Moving to
Opportunity Help Poor Children?
Participant Observation
Entering the Field
Managing Relationships
Taking Notes
Managing the Personal Dimensions
Systematic Observation
Focus Groups
Qualitative Data Analysis
Documentation
Conceptualizing, Coding, and Categorizing
Examining Relationships and Displaying Data
Authenticating Conclusions
STAT CORNER: Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data
Analysis
Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• PART III RESEARCH PRODUCTS
• Chapter 15 Quantitative Data Analysis
18
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
TESTING BEFORE LEARNING
Does Needing Help = Getting Help?
Statistical Approach
The Level of Measurement Matters
RESEARCH IN THE NEWS: Counting Effects of the
“Mommy Brain”
Univariate Distributions
Frequency Distributions
Graphing
Beware of Deceptive Graphs
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Mode
Median
Mean
Median Versus Mean
Measures of Variation
Inferential Statistics
Hypothesis Testing
The Dilemma of Type I and Type II Errors
t Test
Analysis of Variance
Chi-Square
Correlation
STAT CORNER: Multiple Regression
The Ethics of Statistics
How Not to Lie With Statistics
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
• Chapter 16 Essentials of APA Report Writing
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: FAST FACTS
APA Format
Report Organization in APA Format
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Method
19
Results
Discussion
References
Literature Review
Poster Presentation
Sample Paper
Conclusion
Key Terms
Activity Questions
Review Questions
Ethics in Action
Appendix A: Summaries of Frequently Cited Research Articles
Appendix B: Questions to Ask About a Research Article
Appendix C: How to Read a Research Article
Appendix D: Proportions of Area Under Standard Normal Curve
Appendix E: Critical Values for t Distribution
Appendix F: Critical Values of F
Appendix G: Critical Values of Chi-Square
Appendix H: Critical Values of the Correlation Coefficient
Appendix I: Table of Random Numbers
Glossary
References
Index
20
Preface
For us (and we hope for you), the scientific method is not a proverbial ball
and chain, shackling creativity, but a set of tools to broaden and build
thinking about the world and ourselves. We place research methodology
21
within a broad and rich cultural context of the “public square.” To this end,
our approach is unique in casting the scientific method widely, in aligning
it not only with rigorous testing of ideas but also with the generation of
new ideas, spawned by imagination and curiosity. Thus, our aspiration for
writing this book is to imbue in you a sense of excitement about
psychological research. Far from drudgery, research, as we frame it
throughout the text, provides the best method for investigating questions
that matter to all of us. So in this text, you will learn both to design and to
critique research as you explore a diverse array of case examples of how to
investigate lively, timeless topics such as happiness and altruism, facial
expression of emotion, 9/11 memories, and brain plasticity training.
22
techniques. First, each chapter is designed for experiential, hands-on, roll-
up-the-sleeves studies that can be customized for both in-class exercises
and course projects. Studies are presented from multiple perspectives and
can easily be adapted for role-playing exercises with students acting as
researchers, participants, or consumers of science. The text is illustrated
with examples of study stimuli, such as faces and eyes, to bring to life the
actual experimental tasks. In addition, we include questionnaires and
measurement scales that you can take to provide a fuller understanding of
the research experience.
Second, we use the findings of cognitive science to guide our text in a way
that is most conducive to learning, understanding, and appreciation. We
contextualize informational content. For example, statistical reasoning is
woven into the text and tied to specific research examples that are chosen
to illuminate how the results of any scientific study are probabilistic in
nature, a matter of calculating odds via mathematical formulas, which are
presented in Chapter 15. Similarly, we emphasize a narrative approach that
likens psychological theory to storytelling that can be used in study design
and data interpretation. In a nutshell, then, we have used the science of
psychology as a guide for writing the text and for accomplishing our
teaching and learning goals.
We divided the book into three sections. In the first section, “Research
Fundamentals,” we begin in Chapter 1 with a simple experiment that can
easily be done in class, taken from the pioneering work of Kahneman and
Tversky (e.g., Kahneman & Tversky, 1973; Kahneman & Tversky, 1996).
23
This famous experiment offers an apt illustration of the kind of natural
biases in our thinking that make the scientific method so indispensable for
both building knowledge and dispelling myths. In Chapter 2, we use the
metaphor of a “research toolbox” to highlight the diverse methods and
techniques available to study a topic and to test a hypothesis. Here we
focus on a set of studies by Dunn, Aknin, and Norton (2008) aimed to
address the age-old question, can money buy you happiness? As we will
learn, Dunn and colleagues designed three different studies: randomized
experiment, quasi-experiment, and national survey, all of which provided
converging support of the hypothesis that prosocial spending promotes
happiness. Giving makes you happy! In Chapter 3, we focus on literature
review, in general, and meta-analysis, in particular, as yet another
important technique from the research toolbox.
24
demonstrate how maximizer/satisficer test scores can be used for
descriptive statistics: What is the average score for the class? What is the
range of scores?
25
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