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Communication
Communication
Skills
Skills
HANDBOOK
HANDBOOK fOurtH
fOurtH eDitiON
eDitiON
Jane
Jane summers
summers | Brett
| Brett smitH
smitH
Communication
Skills
HANDBOOK
FOURTH EDITION
Communication
Skills
HANDBOOK FOURTH EDITION
Printed in China by
Shenzhen Donnelley Printing Co., Ltd.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
P R E FAC E x i
OBJECTIVESxii
A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S xiii
AC K N O W L E D G E M E N T S x i v
2 R eferencing 19
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Unethical behaviour 21
2.2.1 Plagiarism 21
2.2.2 Collusion 23
2.3 Referencing — general information 24
2.3.1 When to provide a reference 24
2.3.2 Referencing — a helpful hint 25
2.4 Methods of referencing 25
2.5 The Harvard AGPS system 26
2.6 In-text references 26
2.6.1 Format 26
2.6.2 When to include page numbers 27
2.6.3 Footnotes 27
2.6.4 Short quotations 27
2.6.5 Long quotations 27
2.6.6 Single author 28
2.6.7 Two or more authors 28
2.6.8 Two or more works in one citation 29
2.6.9 Newspapers 29
2.6.10 Personal communications 30
2.6.11 Anonymous works 30
2.6.12 Publication date unavailable 30
2.6.13 Sponsoring organisation 30
2.6.14 Unpublished works 31
2.6.15 Citations for sources other than the original 31
2.6.16 Tables and figures either extracted or taken whole 32
2.7 LOR entries for paper-based sources — specific rules and examples 32
2.7.1 LOR — book citation 33
2.7.2 LOR — article or chapter in an edited book 33
2.7.3 LOR — lecture notes/study notes 33
2.7.4 LOR — books of readings 34
2.7.5 LOR — indirect quotation 34
2.7.6 LOR — article in journal 34
2.7.7 LOR — sponsoring organisation 34
2.7.8 LOR — multiple publications by the same author 35
2.7.9 LOR — conference paper, working paper series and thesis 35
2.7.10 LOR — article in newspaper or magazine 35
2.7.11 LOR — unpublished works 36
2.8 Electronic referencing method 36
2.8.1 Electronic referencing — general information 36
2.8.2 In-text references — electronic sources 37
2.8.3 LOR — electronic sources, general 37
2.9 LOR entries for electronic sources — specific rules and examples 37
2.9.1 CD-ROM — book/electronic books 37
2.9.2 Electronic journal articles 38
2.9.3 Internet sites (author and date available) 38
2.9.4 Internet sites (author and date not available) 38
2.9.5 Newspaper articles 38
2.9.6 Discussion group messages/Weblogs/Wikis and podcasts 39
2.9.7 Personal email message 39
2.10 Films, videos, television and on-line images 39
2.11 Legislation and legal authorities 40
2.12 Summary 40
2.13 Example of the Harvard AGPS referencing system 41
2.14 List of references 42
3 R eport writing 43
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Report structure 45
vi CONTENTS
3.2.1 Assignment cover sheet 45
3.2.2 Letter of transmittal 45
3.2.3 Title page 47
3.2.4 Executive summary 47
3.2.5 Table of contents 49
3.2.6 Introduction 49
3.2.7 Body 50
3.2.8 Conclusions 51
3.2.9 Recommendations 51
3.2.10 Bibliography or LOR 51
3.2.11 Glossary 52
3.2.12 Appendices 52
3.3 Summary 52
4 T he case study 53
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Preparing a case analysis 56
4.3 The structure of the case analysis report 58
4.3.1 Introduction or case background 59
4.3.2 Body of the analysis 60
4.3.3 Formulation of alternatives or possible
solutions62
4.3.4 Recommendations or choice of solutions 64
4.3.5 Implementation plan 64
4.4 Strategic analysis tools 66
4.4.1 The SWOT analysis 66
4.4.2 Situation analysis 67
4.5 Summary 67
4.6 List of references 68
5 E ssay writing 69
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Selecting the topic 71
5.3 Analysing the topic 71
5.4 Planning 72
5.5 Research 72
5.6 Writing the essay 73
5.7 Style 74
5.8 Sample essay 74
5.9 Summary 78
5.10 Some variations on the formal essay structure 78
CONTENTS vii
6 O ral presentations 79
6.1 Overview 81
6.2 Oral presentations at university 81
6.3 Preparing the presentation 82
6.3.1 Presentation venue 83
6.3.2 Structure of the presentation 83
6.3.3 Introduction and conclusion 83
6.3.4 Body of the presentation 84
6.3.5 Visual aids 84
6.3.6 Audience handouts 85
6.3.7 Practising the presentation 85
6.3.8 Planning for contingencies 86
6.3.9 Just before the presentation 86
6.3.10 Equipment 86
6.3.11 Anxiety 86
6.4 Delivering the presentation 87
6.4.1 Delivery speed 87
6.4.2 Gestures 87
6.4.3 Audience rapport 87
6.4.4 Reading the speech 87
6.4.5 Stance during the speech 88
6.4.6 Humour 88
6.4.7 Nervousness 88
6.4.8 Annoying habits 88
6.4.9 Presenting in teams 88
6.5 Handling questions from the audience 89
6.6 Presentation software 89
6.6.1 Preplanning 89
6.6.2 How will the presentation be used? 90
6.6.3 Creating the presentation 90
6.6.4 Rehearsing the presentation 95
6.6.5 Delivering the presentation 95
6.6.6 Using presentation software: summary 96
6.7 On-line presentations and meetings 96
6.7.1 Presenting over the web 97
6.7.2 Web meetings 97
6.8 Summary 98
6.9 Alternatives to oral presentations for distance education students 99
viii CONTENTS
7.2.1 When to start studying 103
7.2.2 Revision 103
7.3 Pre-examination planning 104
7.3.1 Perusal time 105
7.3.2 After the examination begins 105
7.4 Content and style of questions 107
7.4.1 Subject matter limited 107
7.4.2 Scope limited 107
7.4.3 Combined subject and scope limited 107
7.4.4 Multiple-choice questions 107
7.4.5 Short-answer questions 108
7.4.6 Point-by-point questions 108
7.4.7 Essay-style questions 108
7.4.8 Hybrid questions 109
7.4.9 Case studies 109
7.4.10 Other types of questions 109
7.5 Answering exam questions — what to do and what to avoid doing 109
7.6 Summary 110
CONTENTS ix
8.4.5 Bring the interview to a conclusion 127
8.4.6 Dos and don‘ts 127
8.4.7 Psychometric testing 127
8.5 What do I do after the interview? 128
8.6 Summary 129
8.7 List of references 129
R esources 131
Key instructions 133
List of references 134
INDEX135
L I S T O F TA B L E S
TABLE 1.1 Quick reference to the Style manual 12
TABLE 3.1 A guide to the length of an executive summary 48
TABLE 4.1 Example of problem identification process 61
TABLE 4.2 Evaluating alternative actions 63
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1 Some common writing errors and hints 6
FIGURE 3.1 Example of a letter of transmittal 46
FIGURE 3.2 Example of an assignment title page 48
FIGURE 3.3 Sample table of contents 50
FIGURE 4.1 An example of a list of main points 59
FIGURE 4.2 Example of problem analysis process 62
FIGURE 4.3 List of alternative actions 63
FIGURE 4.4 Recommendations65
FIGURE 4.5 Implementation65
FIGURE 4.6 SWOT analysis 66
FIGURE 4.7 The situation analysis 67
x CONTENTS
Preface
The primary objective of this handbook is to provide guidelines for students who are
tasked with preparing and presenting written and oral material for assessment. The
content in the handbook is aimed mainly at students undertaking university study.
However, non-tertiary authors and presenters may also find the information useful.
Techniques for addressing the issues most commonly encountered by students are
offered. Generally accepted standards and expectations for preparation and presenta-
tion of assessable work at university level are also discussed. Readers should note
that there will be minor variations between the guidelines presented here and specific
requirements for particular courses of study. Students are therefore strongly advised
also to consult their individual instructors for information relating to presentation and
other requirements for assessment in their courses. The handbook also covers tech-
niques and tips to assist students to prepare for and sit examinations, and offers guide-
lines for graduates and others to help in their quest for employment.
The Commonwealth Government’s Style manual (2002, now in its sixth edition) has
long been regarded as the standard work of reference for all authors, editors and
printers in Australia. Therefore, to assist students in navigating the Style manual for
more detailed guidance on preparing and presenting written reports and assignments,
a quick reference guide is included in Chapter 1.
The internet and social media are now tightly interwoven into modern communication
and, as such, play a key role in education, business and recruitment. Therefore, specific
information relating to the usage of ePortfolios, Wikis and Weblogs for assessment; the
role of Turnitin and Wikipedia; and techniques for determining the quality of on-line
sources has been included. Techniques for using social media effectively in the job
application process are also discussed.
This handbook has received overwhelming endorsement from both students and staff
since its inception in 1995. Amendments and improvements are constantly being made
to ensure that it remains current while maintaining its brevity and relevance. To this
end, we are always grateful for feedback from students or academic staff.
Jane Summers
Brett Smith
March 2014
P R E FA C E xi
Objectives
The objectives of this handbook are:
■■ to provide students with guidelines that are consistent across their university
studies and to outline the minimum requirements for formal presentation of
written and verbal assignments
■■ to assist university staff to apply a consistent approach to the assessment of
formally presented written and verbal material by students, irrespective of
university, department, course or level of study
■■ to reinforce among students the view that communication skills are an integral
component of their studies and essential to their careers, rather than optional
skills isolated from their chosen disciplines.
Explanation of symbols
The following symbols are used throughout this book to highlight features that have
proved particularly useful for students.
Hints
! hint
xii OBJECTIVES
About the authors
Dr Jane Summers is an associate professor of marketing in the School of Management
and Enterprise at the University of Southern Queensland. She has spent many years
both as a marketing practitioner and as an academic. Her teaching and research inter-
ests are in the areas of consumer behaviour, sports marketing and digital pedagogy.
Brett Smith has been a practitioner in business systems and technology for more than
two and a half decades, during which time he has relied heavily on well-developed
communication skills to formulate and communicate business systems solutions. His
career has spanned both the corporate and academic sectors and he holds three
degrees in business and technology related areas. Brett currently provides business
systems consulting services to the corporate sector through his company, BisVision
Australia.
xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
guidelines
for assessment
chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Assignment preparation guidelines
1.3 Writing guidelines
1.4 Presentation guidelines
1.5 Thesis writing
1.6 Making the most of the library
1.7 Summary
1 Guidelines for assessment
1.1 Introduction
When preparing and presenting written material, a number of key areas will, if tackled
conscientiously, help to make the process easier and increase the chances of achieving
a satisfactory mark. The following points are universally accepted as applying to all
formal written work, including assignments, reports, case studies, essays, reflections,
reviews, blogs, books and journal articles.
Writing for assessment or review is a means of communicating ideas and/or demon-
strating analytical skills in a structured way. Generally, all written assessment tasks
have a purpose and it is important to ensure that you carefully read the instructions to
clarify that purpose.
It is important to continue to recheck the direction and focus of your work during
the preparation and writing stages. Most courses will have very detailed assessment
requirements, which may include marking guides or hints to help identify the correct
focus or important points.
4 C O M M U N I C AT I O N S K I L L S H A N D B O O K
have the luxury of non-verbal cues and the ability to ask questions (which would be
the case in a conversation) to assist them to interpret your meaning.
Slang — to be avoided
‘The experiment was a dud.’ Not everyone knows what a ‘dud’ is.
‘Sales went through the roof.’ Not a very professional or informative way to say that sales
increased rapidly.
‘Toyota is a very successful company.’ Not very useful to a discussion and probably an
irrelevant statement.
Grammar/style — common errors
‘It was done so as to prove the final result.’ The ‘so as’ is not needed in this sentence. Avoid
unnecessary words.
‘It was obvious that . . .’ If it is obvious, you should not have to say it.
‘As said before, the company was . . .’ If it has been said before, do not repeat it; alternatively,
think of another way of re-emphasising the point.
Be aware of commonly misused homonyms that will not be detected by your spell checker
as they are real words, just with different meanings. These are words that sound the same
but have different meanings, such as weather and whether. Here are some examples of
commonly misused homonyms.
Where and wear
Where = is a question. For example, Where is everyone?
Wear = a reference to clothing. For example, What will I wear today?
Whether, weather and wether
Whether = An introduction to a question. For example, I will leave this here for you whether
you decide to use it or not. Does anyone know whether Phil rode his bike to work today?
Weather = the atmospheric conditions. For example, I wonder what the weather will be like
in Sydney next week?
Wether = A neutered male sheep. For example, How many wethers are you planning to sell
this year?
Lose and loose
Lose = a verb meaning to lose. For example, The Broncos didn’t lose today’s game but they lost
the game yesterday.
Loose = can be a verb, an adjective or an adverb. For example:
A verb — Don’t loose the dog from its chain. The activists are loosing the monkeys from
the lab.
An adjective — He prefers to wear loose clothing when exercising. That screw is loose.
An adverb — The rancher turned the horses loose.
Note: The two words have different pronunciations. The ‘s’ in ‘lose’ has the sound /z/. The ‘s’ in
‘loose’ has the sound /s/.
(continued)
In a conversation or oral presentation, points that are unclear can be clarified immedi-
ately. In written work, this is not possible. The reader must interpret your meaning
and conclusions as you have presented them, without the benefit of explanation or
clarification from you, the writer. Therefore, you must choose your words carefully and
provide the reader with a logical progression of thoughts and evidence that leads to
the conclusion. To this end, the following points should be considered.
■■ Ensure the work is completed at least one day before the due date (preferably
longer) to allow time for proofreading. It is often useful to give the work to
someone not involved with the subject to read. If that person understands it and
agrees with your conclusion, it is likely that you have produced a well-structured
piece of writing. If this option is not possible, many writers find it valuable to
read their written work aloud (make sure no one else is around!). This helps
you determine what you have really written (not what you meant to say or
assume you have written) and helps to establish the natural punctuation breaks
and emphases (see figure 1.1 for more hints and examples of common errors in
punctuation and grammar).
■■ Checking spelling has been made much easier by wordprocessing software.
You should use the spellcheck function before submitting the assignment,
but be careful; this will not pick up words that have been misused
6 C O M M U N I C AT I O N S K I L L S H A N D B O O K
(as shown in figure 1.1). Words often confused by students include its and
it’s; affect and effect; compliment and complement; alternate and alternative.
There are many guides to English usage that can help. If you are not using a
computerised spellchecker, a dictionary must be used to ensure no errors in
spelling have occurred. Also try the grammar checker to help you with common
errors such as passive voice and poorly structured sentences.
■■ Care must be taken to ensure that all work is free of spelling, grammatical and
punctuation errors. It is inexcusable for any assessable written work to have any
of these.
■■ Slang and conversational English should be avoided (see figure 1.1).
■■ Be sparing in the use of adjectives and adverbs, which are often essentially value
judgements (things like enormous growth, excessive praise, massive debt and so
forth).
■■ Many style guides recommend not using contractions (e.g. don’t, can’t, haven’t)
in formal writing. This recommendation applies to assignment submissions too.
■■ Some contractions and abbreviations do have a place in academic written work.
For example, in reference citations you may use contractions such as eds (for
editors), edn (edition) and nos (numbers), and abbreviations such as vol. (for
volume), pers. comm. (personal communication), ver. (version), rev. (revised),
n.d. (no date). Be careful to distinguish between contractions, which include the
last letter of the word and so do not take a full stop, and abbreviations, which
end with a full stop to denote omitted letters at the end of the word. Established
abbreviations such as ‘US’ (used only as an adjective) and ‘ASEAN’ do not require
full stops.
■■ Use italics for emphasis very sparingly (as a rule of thumb, no more than once or
twice per page). Overuse of italics reduces their impact.
■■ Use single quotation marks for all direct quotations except for quotes within
quotes, for which double quotation marks should be used.
■■ Capital letters are used for the first letter in every sentence, the pronoun I
and the initial letter of all proper names (i.e. the names of people, places,
organisations, book titles and so on). Initial capitals should be used for a full
or specific title, but lower case should be used otherwise. For example, ‘The
University of Southern Queensland was one of many universities visited by Prime
Minister Howard. It has been rare for prime ministers in recent years to visit
regional centres . . .’ As a rule of thumb, if in doubt, use lower case. Also avoid
using all capitals in headings; a mix of upper- and lower-case letters is easier
to read.
■■ Formal work should be written in the third person, using plural pronouns
(e.g. use they instead of he or she). This will ensure that all work is perceived
as objective (not a personal, unsubstantiated view) and nonsexist. Occasional
use of I and we is acceptable when describing what you actually did but not
to present your own value judgements (as in I feel . . . or I consider . . .) unless
it is specifically required in the assessment instructions. Assessment tasks such
as reflections will often require a personal view as will some discussion forum
and peer assessment tasks. In report writing and case study analysis particularly,
Linguistic discrimination can take various forms that may marginalise or exclude par-
ticular segments of the population — whether unwittingly or not. Stereotypical descrip-
tion of any group of people or a member of an identifiable group is probably the most
insidious . . . When referring to an individual, that person’s sex, religion, nationality,
racial group, age or physical or mental characteristics should only be mentioned if this
information is pertinent to the discussion. (2002, p. 55)
Writers should always pay particular attention to context — all writing has a context —
and should be guided by discretion, tact and sensitivity in making the necessary deci-
sions on appropriate language. Furthermore, they:
should always bear in mind the diversity within their audiences, and ensure that refer-
ences to and about particular people or social groups are couched in inclusive terms.
(2002, p. 55)
Read the Style manual (2002, pp. 55–62) for further guidance.
example Only a few hundred people attended the game, in spite of the 800 flyers
distributed to people in the area.
Numbers that begin a sentence should be expressed in words; this also applies to
years.
If using two series of numbers in a passage, one series should be expressed as words
and the other as numbers to avoid confusion.
8 C O M M U N I C AT I O N S K I L L S H A N D B O O K
example Twelve students scored 16 marks, and thirty students scored 24 marks.
(cioè più del credibile; segnata di nero in mezzo alle corna; il resto
era latte).
Festo scrive res minimi pretii, cum dicimus non hettæ te facio: e noi,
Non ti stimo un ette [63].
Non si doveano unire due infiniti, eppure abbiamo in Livio (iv. 47)
jussit sibi dare bibere; che è il nostro dar bere, dar mangiare.
Tutto ciò ne fa argomentare che, fra i patrizj latini prevalendo
elementi etruschi e greci, di questi si nutrisse la loro lingua, mentre
gli oschi e sabini dominavano nella rustica, adoperata dai plebei, la
quale noi crediamo sia la stessa che oggi parliamo, colle
modificazioni portate da trenta secoli e da tante vicende.
Oltre i comici, che al vulgo mettono in bocca modi affatto insueti agli
scrittori colti, troviamo direttamente indicata la lingua plebea e
rustica, che doveva essere più analitica, alle desinenze supplendo
colle preposizioni, cogli ausiliarj alle inflessioni de’ verbi; e
determinava meglio le relazioni mediante gli articoli.
Plauto discerne la lingua nobilis dalla plebeja: la prima dicevasi
anche urbana o classica, cioè propria delle prime classi; l’altra
rustica o vernacola dal nome de’ servi domestici (vernæ), e anche
da Vegezio pedestris, da Sidonio usualis, quotidiana da Quintiliano, il
quale muove lamento che «interi teatri e il pieno circo s’odano
spesso gridare voci anzi barbare che romane», e avverte che in
buona lingua non dee dirsi due, tre, cinque, quattordice [64], e geme
che ormai il parlare sia mutato del tutto [65].
Cicerone scriveva a Peto (lib. ix, ep. 21): Veruntamen quid tibi ego in
epistolis videor? Nonne plebejo sermone agere tecum?.. Epistolas
vero quotidianis verbis tenere solemus. Marziale ricorda certe
parole da contado, risibili a delicato lettore,
§ 8º
Della pronunzia.
In un’altra sta:
§ 9º
La traduzione della Bibbia.
§ 10º
La lingua latina si sfascia. Età del ferro.
§ 11º
Differenze del latino dall’italiano.
propter e per
magis e plus
jubere e mandare
utinam e sic
coram e in præsentia
sumo e prehendo
cogitare e pensare
nequeo e non possum
cras e de mane
vespere e sero
cogitare e pensare
intelligere e capere.